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Encyclop^d i Britannic a.
S T R
Strength of STRENGTH of materials, in mechanics, is a fub-
i at^ria V3 of fo much importance, that in a nation fo emi-
! nent as this for invention and ingenuity in all fpecies
Importance of mamifa&ures, and in particular fo diftinguifhed for
of the fub- jts improvements in machinery of every kind, it is fome-
what fingular that no writer has treated it in the detail
which its importance and difficulty demands. The man
of fcience who vifits our great manufactures is delighted
with the ingenuity which he obferves in every part, the in¬
numerable inventions which come even from individual arti-
fans, and the determined purpofe of improvement and re¬
finement which he fees in every worklhop. Every cotton
\ mill appears an academy of mechanical fcience ; and mecha¬
nical invention is fpreading from thefe fountains over the
whole kingdom : But the philofopher is mortified to fee
this ardent fpirit fo cramped by ignorance of principle, and
many of thefe original and brilliant thoughts obfcured and
clogged with needlefs and even hurtful additions, and a com¬
plication of machinery which checks improvement even by
its appearance of ingenuity. There is nothing in which
this want of fcientific education, this ignorance of principle,
is fo frequently obferved as in the injudicious proportion of
the parts of machines and other mechanical ftru&ures; pro¬
portions and forms of parts in which the ftrength and pofi-
tion are nowife regulated by the (trains to which they are
expofed, and where repeated failures have been the only
leffons.
It cannot be otherwife. We have no means of inltruc-
tion, except two very fhort and abftrafted treaties of the
late Mr Emerfon on the Itrength of materials. We do not
recoiled a performance in our language from which our ar-
tifis can get information. Treatifes written exprefsly on
different branches of mechanical arts are totally filent on
this, which is the bafis and only principle of their perform¬
ances. Who would imagine that Price’s British Car-
penter, the work of the firfi; reputation in this country,
and of which the foie aim is to teach the carpenter to eredt
folid and durable ftrudures, does not contain one propofi-
tion or one reafon by which one form of a thing- can be
drown to be ttronger or weaker than another ? We doubt
ver7 m«ch if one carpenter in an hundred can give a reafon
to convince his own mind that a joiff is ftronger when laid
on its edge than when laid on its broad fide. We fpeak in
this firong manner in hopes of exciting fome man of fcience
^s to publifli a fyftem of inftru&ion on this fubjed. The li¬
mits o( our Work will not admit of a detail : but we think
it neceffary to point out the leading principles, and to give
the traces of that fyHematic connedlion by which all the
knowledge already poffeffed of this fubjed may be brought
together and properly arranged. This we (hall now attempt
m as brie( a manner as we are able.
Strength of
materials The ftrength of materials arifes immediately or ultimate-
” 7 ,f!°m coheBan of the P"5 of Wks. Our esamiua.
•ohefiM. Voi. XVIII, Part I.
V
"x.
S T R
tion of this property of tangible matter has as yet been very Strength
partial and imperfed, and by no means enables us to apply Matena^
mathematical calculations with precilion and fticcefs. The v ”
various modifications of cohefion, in its different appear¬
ances of perfed foftnefs, plafticity, dudility, elafticity, hard-
nefs, have a mighty influence on the ftrength of bodies, but
are hardly fufceptible of meafurement. Their texture alfo,
whether uniform like glafs and dudile metals, cryftallized or
granulated like other metals and freeftone, or fibrous like
timber, is a circumftance no lef* important; yet even here,
although we derive fome advantage from remarking to which
of thefe forms of aggregation a fubftance belongs, the aid is ^
but fmall. All we can do in this want of general principles Experi-
is to make experiments on every clafs of bodies. Accord-ments ^
ingly philofophers have endeavoured to inftmd the public
in this particular. The Royal Society of London at its
very firft inftitution made many experiments at their meet¬
ings, as may be icen in the firft regifters of the Society f. f See
Several individuals have added their experiments. The moft
numerous colledion in detail is by Mufchenbroek, profeffor
natural philofophy at Leyden. Part of it was publifhed by Mathem*.
himfelf in his Effais de Phyfique, in 2 vols qto ; but the fulltlc.d ColUe*
colledion is to be found in his Syftem of Natural Philofo-*,sw*
phy, publifhed after his death by Lulofs, in 3 vols 4to. This
was tranflated from the Low Dutch into French by Sigaud
de la Fond, and publifhed at Paris in 1760, and is a prodigious
colledion of phyfical knowledge of all kinds, and may al-
moft fuffice for a library of natural philofophy. But this
colledion of experiments on the cohefion of bodies is not of
that value which one expeds. We prefume that they were
carefully made and faithfully narrated ; but they were made
on fuch fmall fpecimens that the unavoidable natural inequa¬
lities of growth or texture produced irregularities in the rc«
fults which bore too great a proportion to the whole quan¬
tities obferved. We may make the fame remark on the ex¬
periments of Couplet, Pitot, De la Hire, Du Hamel, and
others of the French academy. In fhort, if we except the
experiments of Buffon on the ftrength of timber, made at
the public expence on a large fcale, there is nothing to be
met with from which we can obtain abfolute meafures which
may be employed with confidence ; and there is nothing in
the Englifh language except a Ample lift by Emerfon, which
is merely a fet of affirmations, without any narration of cir-
cumftances, to enable us to judge of the validity of ills epo-
clufions; but the charader of Mr Emerfon, as a man of
knowledge and of integrity, gives even to thefe affertions a
confiderable value.
But to make ufe of any experiments, there muft be employed Rendered
fome general principle by which we can generalize their re- by
fults. They will otherwife be only narrations of detached ®eiiera^zaa
fads. We muft have fome notion of that intermedium, by 1
the intervention of which an external force applied to one
part of a lever, joift, or pillar, occafionsa (train on a diftaut
part. This can be nothing hut the cohelion between the
A parts.
Strength of
Materials.
5
Stiength
tidiued.
6
Caufes
known on¬
ly from
their ef¬
fects.
All bodies
cl aide.
S T R r «
parts. It is this connecting force which is brought into
a&ion, or, as we more fiiortly exp refs it, excited. This ac¬
tion is modified in every part by the laws of mechanics. It
is this action which is what we call the firength of that part,
and its effeCt is the {train on the adjoining parts ; and thus
it is the fame force, differently viewed, that constitutes both
the {train and the ftrength. When we confider it in the
light of a refiftance to fracture, we call it jlrength.
We call every thing a force which we obferve to be ever
accompanied by a change of motion ; or, more ftrictly
fpeaking, we infer the prefence and agency of a force where¬
ver we obferve the ftate of things in refpeCt of motion dif¬
ferent from what we know to be the refult of the aCtion of
all the forces which we know to a6t on the body. Thus
when we obferve a rope prevent a body from falling, we in¬
fer a moving force inherent in the rope with as much confi¬
dence as when we obferve it drag the body along the ground.
The immediate aftion of this force is undoubtedly exerted
between the immediately adjoining parts of the rope. The
immediate effeCl is the keeping the particles of the rope to¬
gether. They ought to feparate by any external force
drawing the ends of the rope contrarywife; and we aferibe
their not doing fo to a mechanical force really oppofing this
external force. When defired to give it a name, we name
it from what we conceive to be its effett, and therefore its
charafteriiiic, and we call it cohesion. This is merely a
name for the fadf; but it is the fame thing in all our deno¬
minations. We know nothing of the caufes but in the ef¬
fects ; and our name for the caufe is in faft the name of the
effe£t, which is cohesion. We mean nothing elfe by gra¬
vitation or magnetifm. What do we mean when we fay
that Newton underftood thoroughly/the nature of gravita¬
tion, of the force of gravitation; or that Franklin underftood
the nature of the eledtric force? Nothing but this: Newton
confidered with patient fagacity the general fads of gravi¬
tation, and has deferibed and claffed them with the utmoft
precifion. In like manner, we fhall underhand the nature
of cohefion when we have difeovered with equal generality
the laws of cohefion, or general fa£ts which are obferved in
the appearances, and when we have deferibed and claffed
them with equal accuracy.
Let us therefore attend to the more fimple and obvious
phenomena of cohefion, and mark with care every circum-
flance of refemblance by which they may be claffed. Let
us receive thefe as the laws of coheffon, charaderiftic of its
fuppofed caufe, the force of cohefion. We cannot pretend
to enter on this va!l refearch. The modifications are in¬
numerable ; and it would require the penetration of more
than Newton to deted the circumflance of fimilarity amidfl
millions of diferrminating circumftances. Yet this is the on¬
ly way of difeovering which are the primary fads charac-
teriftic of the force, and which are the modifications. The
lludy is immenfe, hut is by no means defperate; and we en¬
tertain great hopes that it will ere long be fuccefsfully pro-
fecuted : but, in our particular predicament, we mull con¬
tent ourfelves with feleding fuch general laws as ieem to
give us the moft immediate information of the circumftances
that muft be attended to by the mechanician in his conftruc-
tions, that he may unite ftrength with fimplicity, economy,
and energy.
i/?,Then, it is a matter of fad that all bodies are in a cer¬
tain degree perfedly elaftic ; that is, when their form or
bulk is changed by certain moderate comtoreffions or diftrac-
tions, it requires the continuance of the changing force to
continue the body in this new Rate ; and when the force is
removed, the body recovers its original form. We limit the
affertion to certain moderate changes : For inftance, take a
lead wire of ijth of inch in diameter and ten feet
1 S T R
long ; fix one end firmly to the ceiling, and let the wire Strertgtk ef
hang perpendicular; affix to the lower end an index like the ^a'er‘ah.
hand of a watch ; on fome ftand immediately below let there 1 -1
be a circle divided into degrees, with its centre correfpond-
ing to the lower point of the wire : now turn this index
twice round, and thus twift the wire. When the index is
let go, it will turn backwards again, by the wire’s untwift-
ing itfelf, and make almoft four revolutions before it flops;
after which it twifts and untwiils many times, the index go¬
ing backwards and forwards round the circle, diminilhing
however its arch ot twift each time, till at laft it fettles pre-
cifely in its original pofition. This may be repeated for ever.
Now, in this motion, every part of the wire partakes equal¬
ly of the twift. The particles are ftretched, require force
to keep them in their ftate of extenfion, and recover com¬
pletely their original relative pofitions. Thefe are all the
charafters of what the mechanician calls perfed elafticity,
This is a quality quite familiar in many cafes ; as in glafs,
tempered Reel, &c. but was thought incompetent to lead,
which is generally confidered as having little or no elafticity.
But we make the affertion in the moil general terms, with
the limitation to moderate derangement of form. We have
made the fame experiment on a thread of pipe-clay, made
by forcing foft clay through the fmall hole of a fyringe by
means of a ferew ; and we found it more elaftic than the
lead wire : for a thread of -ig-th of an inch diameter and 7
feet long allowed the index to make two turns, and yet com¬
pletely recovered its firft pofition.
2d/y, But if we turn the index of the lead wire four times
round, and let it go again, it untwifts again in the fame
manner, but it makes little more than four turns back
again ; and after many ofcillations it finally flops in a pofi¬
tion aimoft two revolutions removed from its original po/i-
tion. It has now acquired a new arrangement of paits, and
this new arrangement is permanent like the former; and, g !
what is of particular moment, it is perfe&ly elaflic. This What is
change is familiarly known by the denomination of a set.nie3ntby
The wire is laid to have taken a set. When we attend3A**
minutely to the procedure of nature in this phenomenon, we
find that the particles have as it were Aid on each other,
flill cohering, and have taken a new pofition, in which their
connedling forces are in equilibrio : and in this change of
relative fituation, it appears that the connefh’ng forces which
maintained the particles in their firit fituations were not in
equilibrio in fome oofition intermediate between that of the
firft and that of the iaft form. The force required for
changing this firft form augmented with the change, but
only to a certain degree ; and during this procefs the con-
nefting forces always tended to the recovery or this firft
form. But after the change of mutual pofition has paffed
a certain magnitude, the union has been partly deftroyed,
and the particles have been brought into new fituations ;
fuch, that the forces which now conneft each with its
neighbour tend, not to the recovery of the firft arrange¬
ment, but to pufh them farther from it, into a new fitua¬
tion, to which they now verge, and require force to prevent
them from acquiring. The wire is now in fail again per¬
fectly elaftic ; that is, the forces which now conned the
particles with their new neighbours augment to a certain
degree as the derangement from this new pofition augments.
This is not reafoning from any theory. It is narrating
fails, on which a theory is to be founded. What we have
been juft now faying is evidently a defeription of that fen- ^
fible form of tangible matter which we call duBilhy. It has Duililitf
every gradation of variety, from the foftnefs of butter to the
firmnefs of gold.. All thefe bodies have fome elafticity ;
but we fay they are not perfeilly elaftic, becaufe they do
not completely recover their original form when it has been
1 greatly
TO
Vifcidity
IT
Ohferved
in all ho-
S T R [ 3
itrengfh of greatly deranged. The whole gradation may fee moft du
Materials, obferved in a piece of glafs or hard failing wax. In
ordinary form glafs is perhaps the mod completely elaf-
tic body that we know, and may be bent till juft ready to
fnap, and yet completely recovers its firft form, and takes
no Yet whatever ; but when heated to fuch a degree as juft
to be vifible in the dark, it lofes its brittlenels, and becomes
fo tough that it cannot be broken by any blow; but it is
no longer elaftic, takes any fet, and keeps it. When more
heated, it becomes as plaftic as clay : but in this ftate is re-
markably diftinguilhed from clay by a quality which we may
call viscidity, which is fomething'like dafticity, of wliich.
clay and other bodies purely plaftic exhibit no appearance.
This is the joint operation of ftrong edhefion and foftnefs.
When a rod of perfectly foft gla£ is fuddenly ftretched a
little, it does not at once take the fhape which it acquires
after feme little time. It is owing to this, that in taking
the impreflion of a feal, if we takeoff the feal while the wax
is yet very hot, the fharpnefs of the impreffion is deftroyed
immediately. Each part drawing its neighbour, and each
part yielding, the prominent parts are pulled down and
bjunted, and the fharp hollows are pulled upwards and alio
blunted. The feal muff be kept on till all has become not
only ftiff but hard.
This vifeidity is to be obferved in all plaftic bodies wdiich
are homogeneous. It is not obferved in clay, becauie it is
^kXc bo*8 not homogent'ol,s> but confifts of hard particles of the ar-
Lts.C gillaceous earth flicking together by their attraction for
water. Something like it might be made of finely pow¬
dered glafs and a clammy fluid fuch as turpentine. Vifei¬
dity has all degrees of foftnefs till it degenerates to ropy
fluidity like that of olive oil. Perhaps fomething of it may
be found even in the moft perfeft fluid that we are acquaint¬
ed with, as we obferved in the experiments for aicertaining
fpecific gravity.
There is in a late volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions a narration of experiments, by which it appears that
the thread of the fpider is an exception to our firft general
law, and that it is perfeClly duftile. It is there afferted,
that a long thread of goffamer, furnifhed with an index,
takes any petition whatever ; and that though the index be
turned round any number of times (even many hundreds),
it has no tendency to recover its firft form. The thread
takes completely any fet whatever. We have not had an
■opportunity of repeating this experiment, but we have di.
flinCtly obferved a phenomenon totally inconfiftent with it.
If a fibre of goffamer about an inch long be held by the
end horizontally, it bends downward in a curve like a (len¬
der flip of whalebone or a hair. If totally devoid of elafti-
city, and perfectly indifferent to any fet, it would hang
down perpendicularly without any curvature.
When duCtility and elafticity are combined in different
proportions, an immenfe variety of fenfcble modes of aggre¬
gation may be produced. Some degree of both are pro¬
bably to be obferved in all bodies of complex conftitution ;
that is, which confift of particles made up of many different
kinds of atoms. Such a conftitution of a body muft afford
many fituations permanent, but eafily deranged.
In all thele changes of difpofition which take place among
the particles of a duCtile body, the particles are at fuch
diftance that they ftill cohere. The body may be ftretched
a little ; and on removing the extending force, the body
{brinks into its firll form. It alfo refills moderate com-
preffions; and when the comprefling force is removed, the
body fwells out again. Now the cerpufcular Jail here is,
that the particles are aCled on by attractions and repulfions,
which balance each other when no external force is aCting
on the body, and which augment as the particles are made,
1
S T R
by any ext cm til eaufe, to recede from this fituntlon of nwtu- Strength of
al inactivity ; for fince force is requifite to produce either
the dilatation or the compreffion, and to maintain it, we lz
are obliged, by the conftitution of ogr minds, to infer that Particles
it is oppofed by a force accompanying or inherent in every adtad on
particle of dilatable or compreflible matter ; and as this
neceffity of employing force to produce a change indicate|J.epUgjunf,
the agency of thefefoorpufcidar forces, and marks their kind,
according es the tendencies of the particles appear to bo
toward each other in dilatation, er from each other in com¬
preffion ; fo it alfo meafures the degrees of their intenfity.
Should it require three times the force to produce a double
compreffion, we muft reckon the mutual repulfions triple
when the compreffion is doubled ; and fo in other inftances.
We fee from all this that the phenomena of gohefion indicate
feme relation between the inteniity of the force of cohefion j,
and the diftance between the centres of the particles. Tq The great
diicover this relation is the great problem in corpufcular Prcbleini11'
mechanifm, as it was in the Newtonian invefligation of ^ niefharifni"
force of gravitation. Could we diicover this law of aftion ‘
between the corpufcles with the fame certainty and diftimft-
nefs, we might with equal confidence fay what will be the
refult of any poution which we give to the particles of
bodies ; but this is beyond our hopes. The law of gra¬
vitation is fo fimple that the difeovery or detedtion of it
amid the variety of eeleftial phenomena required but one ftep ;
and in its owm nature its poffible combinations ftdl do not
greatly exceed the powers of human refearch. One is al-
moft difpofed to fay that the Supreme Being has exhibited
it to our reafoning powers as fufficient to employ with fuc-
cefs our utmoft efforts, but not fo abftrufe as to difeourage
us from the noble attempt. It feems to be otherwife with
refpedl to cohefion. Mathematics informs us, that if it de¬
viates fenfibly from the law of gravitation, the fimpieft com-
binations will make the joint action of feveral particles an al-
moll impenetrable myftery. We muft therefoie content our-
felves, for a long while to come, with a careful obfervation
of the fimpieft cafes that we can propole, and with the dif¬
eovery of fecondary laws of a£tion, in which many parti¬
cles combine their influence. In pufuance of this plan, we
obferve,
3^/y, That whatever is the fituation of the particles of a Particles
body with refpedl to each other, when in a quiefeent ftate, ^eP£ m
they are kept in thefe fituations by the balance of oppofite
forces. rJ'his cannot be refufed, nor can we form to our-j3a]ance
felves any other notion of the ftate of the particles of a of forces*
body. Whether we fuppofe the ultimate particles to be of
certain magnitudes and lhapes, touching each other in fingle
points of cohefion ; or whether we (with Bolcovich) con-
fider them as at a dillance from each other, and adling on
each other by attradlions and repulfions —we mull acknow¬
ledge, in the firft place, that the centres of the particles
(by whofe mutual diftances we muft eftimate the dillance of
the particles) may and do vary their diftances from each
other. What elle can we fay when we oblerve a body in-
creafe in length, in breadth, and in thicknefs, by heating it,
or when we fee it diminilh in all thefe dimerifions by an ex¬
ternal compreffion ? A particle, therefore, fit-uated in the
midft of many others, and remaining in that lituation, muft
be conceived as maintained in it by the mutual balancing of
all the forces which connedt it with its neighbours. It is llluftra-
like a ball kept in its place by the oppofite adlion of two °f
fprings. This illullration merits a more particular applica-^
Suppofe a number of balls ranged on the table in the[
tion.
angles of equilateral triangles, and that each ball is connedled
with the fix which lie around it by means of an elaftic
wire curled like a cork-icrew ; fuppofe fuch another ftratum
of balls above this, and parallel to it, and fo placed that
A Z each
16
33y txam-
P’-c*
S T R [ 4 1
Strength of eneh ball of the upper rtratum is perpendicularly over the diftance A B
^Materials. centJe 0f equilateral triangle below, and let thefe be
v " ■ -' connected with the balls of the . under ftratum by limilar
fpiral wires. Let there be a third and a fourth, and any
number of fnch ftrata, all connedled in the fame manner.
It is plain that this may extend to any fize and fill any
fpace. —Now let this aflemblage of balls be firmly contem¬
plated by the imagination, and be fuppofed to (brink con¬
tinually in all its demenfions, till the balls, and their diftances
from each other, and the connecting wires, all vanifh from
the fight as difcrete individual objeCts. All this is very con¬
ceivable. It will now appear like a folid body, having
length, breadth, and thicknefs; it may be comprefled, and
will again refume its dimenfions ; it may be ftretched, and
wall again (brink ; it will move away when (truck ; in (hort,
it will not differ in its fenfible appearance from a folid elaftic
body. Now when this body is in a (fate of compreffion,
for inftance, it is evident that any one of the balls is at reft, in
confequence of the mutual balancing of the aCtions of all
the fpiral wires which connedt it with thofe around it. It
will greatly conduce to the full under (landing of all that fol¬
lows to recur to this illuftration. The analogy or refem-
blance between the effeCts of this conditutioirof things and
the effeCts of the corpufcular forces is very great; and
wherever it obtains, we may fafely draw conclufions from
what we know would be the condition of the balls in par¬
ticular circumftances to what will be the condition of a body
of common tangible matter. We (hall juft give one in-
(truCtive example, and then have done with this hypotheti¬
cal body. We can fuppofe it of a long (hape, refting on one
point; we can fuppofe two weights A, B, fufpended at the
extremities, and the whole in equilibrio. We commonly
exprefs this (late of things by faying that A and B are in
cquilibrio. '1 his is very inaccurate. A is ih faCt in equili¬
brio with the united aCtion of all the fprings which conneCt
the ball to which it is applied with the adjoining balls.
Thefe fprings are brought into aCtion, and each is in equi¬
librio with the joint aCtion of all the reft. Thus through
the whole extent of the hypothetical body, the fprings are
brought into aCtion in a way and in a degree which ma¬
thematics can eafily inveftigate. We need not do this : it is
enough for our purpofe that our imagination readily dif-
covers that fome fpringsare ftretched, otheis are compreffed,
and that a preffure is excited on the middle point of fup-
port, and the fupport exerts a reaCtion which precifely ba¬
lances it; and the other weight is, in like manner, in im¬
mediate equilibrio with the equivalent of the aCtions of all
the fprings which conneCt the laft ball with its neighbours.
Now take the analogical or refembling cafe, an oblong piece
of folid matter, refting on a fulcrum, and loaded with two
weights in equilibrio. For the aCtions of the connecting
fprings fubftitute the corpufcular forces, and the reiult will
refemble that of the hypothefis.
Now as there is fomething that is at lead analogous to
a change of diftance of tire particles, and a concomitant
change of the inteniity of the connecting j forces, we may
exprefs this in the fame way that we are accuftomed to do
in fimilar cafes. Let A and B (fig. i.) reprefent the cen-
ccccLxxxiv.tres of two particles of a coherent elaftic body in their
quiefcent inaftive (late, and let us confider only the mecha¬
nical condition of B. The body may be ftretched. In this
cafe the diftance A B of the particles may become A C. In
this (late there is fomething which makes it neceffary to
employ a force to keep the particles at this diftance.. C has
a tendency towards A, or w.e may fay that A attraCts C.
We may reprefent the magnitude of this tendency of C to¬
wards A, or this attraction of A, by aline Cc perpendicu¬
lar to AC* Again* the body may be compreffed, and tire
Materials.
S T R
may become A D. Something obliges us to Strength of
employ force to continue this compreffion ; and D tends
from A, or A appears to repel I). The intenfity of this
tendency or repulfion may be reprefented by another per¬
pendicular T> d; and, to reprefent the different directions
of thefe tendencies, or the different nature of thefe aCtions,
i7
we may fet D on the oppofite fide of A B. It is in tin’s How Bof.
manner that the Abbe Bolcovich has reprefented the aCtions cov;ch re*
r r , r . , . , , . fm,  f XT-.. ipreftntsths
Plate
of corpufcular forces in his celebrated Theory of Natural
Philofophy. Newton had (aid, that, as the great movements corpufcular
of the folar fyftem were regulated by forces operating at a forces,
diftance and varying with the diftance, fo he ftrongly fuf-
peCted (valde fufpicor') that all the phenomena of cohefion,
with all its modifications in the different fenfible forms of
aggregation, and in the phenomena of chemiftry and phyff-
ology, refulted from the iimilar agency o( forces varying
with the diftance of the particles. The learned Jefuit pur-
fued this thought; and has (hown, that if we fuppofe an
ultimate atom of matter endowed with powers of attraction
and repulfion, varying, both in kind and degree, with the
diftance, and if this force be the fame in every atom, it may
be regulated by fuch a relation to the diftance from the
neighbouring atom, that a collection of fuch atoms may
have all the fenfible appearances of bodies in their different
forms of folids, liquids, and vapours, elaftic or unelaftic, and
endowed with all the properties which we perceive, by whofe
immediate operation the phenomena of motion by impulfe,
and all the phenomena of chemiftry, and of animal and ve¬
getable economy, may be produced. He (hows, that not-
withftanding a perfeCt famenefs, and even a great fimplicity
in this atomical conftitution, there will refult from this union
all that unfpeakable variety of form and property which
diverfify and embellifti the face of nature. We (hall take
another opportunity of giving fuch an account of this cele¬
brated work as it deferves. We mention it only, by the
by, as far as a general notion of it will be of fome (ervice
on the prefent occafion. For this purpofe, we juft obferve
that Bofcovich conceives a particle of any individual fpecies
of matter to confift of an unknown number of particles of
fimpler conftitution ; each of which particles, in their turn,
is compounded of particles (till more (imply conftkuted, and
fo on through an unknown number of orders, till we arrive
at the fimpleft pofiible conftitution of a particle of tangible ■
matter, fufceptible of length, breadth, and thicknefs, and
neceffarily confiding of four atoms of matter. And ha
(hows that the more complex we fuppofe the conftitution of
a particle, the more muft the fenfible qualities of the aggre¬
gate refemble the obferved qualities of tangible bodies. In
particular, he (hows how a particle may be fo conftituted,
that although it aft on one other particle of the fame kind
through a confiderable interval, the interpofition of a third
particle of the fame kind may render it totally, or almoft:
totally, inaftive; and therefore an affemblage of fuch particles
would form fuch a fluid as air. All thefe curious inferences
are made with uncontrovertible evidence; and the greateft
encouragement is thus given to the mathematical philofo*-
pher to hope, that by cautious and patient proceeding in
this way, we may gradually approach to a knowledge ot the
laws of cohefion, that will not (hun a comparifon even with
the Principia of Newton. Na ftep can be made in this
inveftigation, but by obferving with care, and generalizing
with judgment, the phenomena, which are abundantly nur
merous, and much more at our command than thofe of
the great and fenfible motions of bodies. Following this
plan, we obferve, Eve/^b -
It is matter of faft, that every body has forae degree
of comprefiibility and dilatability ; and when the changes of j.ireiiib!e
dimenfiou are fo moderate that the body completely recovers and dila-
its table.
S T R
[ 5 ]
S T R
ef its original dimcnlions on the ceffation of the changing force,
Material*. the extenfions or comprefiions are fenfibly proportional to
— the extending or comprefiing forces ; and therefore the con-
"!Inn ncRtn? hrcu are proportional to the dijlantet of the particlei
;™di'co from their quUfeent, neutral, or inohlive poftm,. fh.s feems
ered by to have been ifirft viewed as a law of nature by the penetra-
)r Hocke, ti e 0f Robert Hooke, one of the moll eminent phi-
lofophers of the laft centut7. He publilhed a cipher, which
he faid contained the theory of fpringinefs and ot the mo¬
tions of bodies by the aftion of fprings. It was this, cct,
inosssttu When explained in his differtation, publilh¬
ed feme years after, it was ut tenfiofic vis. Ihis is precife-
ly the propofition juft now alferted as a general fadt, a law
of nature. This differtation is full of curious obfervations
of faffs in fupport of his aflertion. In his application to
the motion of bodies he gives his'noble difeovery of the ba-
lance-fpring of a watch, which is founded on this law. 1 he
fpring, as it is more and more coiled up, or unwound, by the
motion of the balance, aaS on it with a force proportional
to the diflance of the balance from its quiefeent pofition.
The balance therefore is a&ed on by an accelerating force,
which varies in the fame manner as the force of gravity a&-
ing on a pendulum fwinging in a cycloid. Its vibrations
therefore mull be performed in equal time, whether they are
wide or narrow. In the fame diflertation Hooke mentions
all the fails which John Bernoulli afterwards adduced in fup¬
port of Leibnitz’s whimfical db&rine of the force of bodies
in motion, or the do&rine of the vires viva; a dodlrine which
Hooke might juftly have claimed as his own, had he not feen
ao its futulity.
And con- Experiments made fince the time of Hooke (how that
firmed by this law is ftrictly true in the extent to which we have li¬
the expe- mjted ^ viz. in all the changes of form which will be com-
nments of pjetely UIUj0ne by the elafticity of the body. It is nearly
true to a much greater extent. James Bernoulli, in his dif¬
fertation on the elaftic curve, relates fome experiments of his
own, which feem to deviate confiderably from it; but on
clofe examination they do not. The fineft experiments are
thofe of Coulomb, publilhed in fome late volumes of the me¬
moirs of the Academy of Paris. He fuipended balls by wires,
and obferved their motions of ofcillation, which he found
accurately correfponding with this law.
This we lhall find to be a very important fa& in the doc¬
trine of the ftrength of bodies, and we defire the reader to
make it familiar to his mind. If we apply to this our man¬
ner of exprefling thefe forces by perpendicular ordinates Cr,
X) d (fig. i.), we mull take other fituations E, F, of the
particle B, and draw E e, F/; and we muft have ~D f
— BD : BE, or C r : E r = BC : BE. In fuch a fuppo-
fition Y dX> c e muft be a ftraight line. But we lhall have
abundant evidence by and by that this cannot be ftriftly
true, and that the line Bet which limits the ordinates exr
prefifing the attractive forces becomes concave towards the
line ABE, and that the part B <// is convex towards it.
All that can be fafely concluded from the experiments hi¬
therto made is, that to a certain extent the forces, both at¬
tractive and repullive, are fenjibly proportional to the dilata¬
tions and compreflions. For,.
$tbly, It is univeifally obferved, that when the dilatations
have proceeded a certain length, a lefs addition of force is
fufficient to increafe the dilatation in the fame degree. This
is always obferved when the body has been fo far ftretched
that it takes a fet, and does not completely recover its form.
The like may be generally obferved in compreflions. Moft
probably arifes from the difunion of fome particles, ^whofe Strength of
Lithers.
51
When a
Dody is
much di-
lated, a
fma 1 ad-
dit’on of
force will
increafe its
lilataticn P61^0118 recoiled, that in violently ftretching an elaltic
cord, it becomes fuddenly weaker, or more eafily ftretched.
But thefe phenomena do not pofitively prove a diminution
of the coigufcular force ading on one particle; It more
adion contributed to the whole or fenfible effed. And in
compreflions we may fuppofe fomething of the fame kind;
for when we comprefs a body in one diredion, it common¬
ly bulges out in another; and in cafes of very violent adion
fome particles may be difunited, whofe tranfverfe adion had-
formerly balanced part of the comprefling force. For the
reader will fee on refledion, that fince the compreflion in
one diredion caufes the body to bulge out in the traniverfe
diredion ; and fince this bulging out is in oppofition to the
tranfverfe forces of attradion, it muft employ fome part of
the comprefling force. And the common appearances are
in perfed uniformity with this conception of things. When
we prefs a bit of dryifh clay, it fwells out and cracks tranf-
verfely. When a pillar of wood is overloaded, it fwells out,
and fmall crevices appear in the diredion of the fibres. After
this it will not bear half of the load. This the carpenters
call crippling ; and a knowledge of the circumftances which
modify it is of great importance, and enables us to underftand'
fome very paradoxical appearances, as will be fhown by and by.
This partial difuniting of particles formerly cohering is,
we imagine, the chief reafon why the totality ot the forces
which really oppofe an external ftrain does not increafe in
the proportion of the extenfions and compreflions. But fuf¬
ficient evidence will alfo be given that the forces which would
conned one particle with one other particle do not augment
in the accurate proportion of the change of diftance ; that
in extenfions they increafe more flowly, and in compreflions
more rapidly. _ # m
But there is another caufe of this deviation perhaps equal-Du&ilityf
ly effedual with the former. Moft bodies manifeft fome de-another
gree of dudility. Now what is this ? The fad is, that the
parts have taken a new arrangement, in which they again L
cohere. Therefore, in the paflage to this new arrangement,
the fenfible forces, which are the joint refult of many cor-
pufcular forces, begin to refped this new arrangement in-
ilead of the former. This muft change the Ample law of
corpufcular force, charaderiftic of the particular fpecies of
matter under examination. It does not require much reflec¬
tion to convince us that the pofiible arrangements which the
panicles of a body may acquire, without appearing to change
their nature, muft be more numerous according as the par¬
ticles are of a more complex conftitution ; and it is reafon-
able to fuppofe that the conftitution even of the moft Ample
kind of matter that we are acquainted with is exceedingly
complex. Our microfcopes fhow us animals fo minute, that
a heap of them muft. appear to the naked eye an uniform
mafs with a grain finer than that of the fineft marble or ra¬
zor hone; and yet each of thefe has not only limbs, but bones,
mufcular fibres, blood-veflels, fibres, and a blood confiding,
in all probability, of globules organifed and complex like
our own. The imagination is here loft in wonder; and no¬
thing is left us but to adore inconceivable art and wifdom,
and to exult in the thought that we are the only fpedators
of this beautiful feene who can derive pleafure from the view.
What is trodden under foot with indifference, even by the
half-reafoning elephant, may be made by us the fource of
the pureft and moft unmixed pleafure. But let us proceed
to obferve,
6thlyi 'T hat the forces which conned the particles of t^Thelorces
'gible bodies change by a change of diftance, not only in de-whichcon*
gree, but alfo in kind. The particle B (fig. I.) is attradedned the
by A when in the fituation C or E. It is repelled by it when particles of
at D or F. It is not affeded hy it when in the fituationB. The e
reader is requefted carefully to remark, that this is not an inte- change by-
rencefoundedon the authority of our mathematical figure. The a change
figure is anexpreflion (to afiift the imagination) of fads in
ture. It requires no force to keep the particles of a body in
a - them-
44
JLight al-
ternate'y
attrafted
and repel
led.
S T R C (
8tr*agth of their quiefeent fituations: but if they are feparated by ft retch-
A^ateiiais. body, they endeavour (pardon the lig'urative expref-
n v fion) to come together again. If they are brought nearer
by comprefiion, they endeavour to recede. This endeavour is
, jnanifeited by the neceffity of employing force to maintain
the extenlion or condenfation ; and we reprefent this by the
different polition of our lines. But this is not all: the par¬
ticle B, which is repelled by A when in the fituation F or
D, is neutral when at B, and is attrafted when at C or E,
may be placed at fuch a diftance A G from A greater than
AB that it (hall be again repelled, qt at fuch a diftance AH
that it {ball again be attra&ed; and thefe alterations may be
repeated again and again. This is curious and important,
and requires fomething more than a bare affertion for its
proof.
In the article Optics we mentioned the moll curious and
valuable obfervations oi Sir Ifaac Newton, by which it ap¬
pears that light is thus alternately attracted and repelled by
bodies. The rings of colour which appear between the ob-
jeft glaffes of long telefcopes ftiowed, that in the fmall inter¬
val of -ro'oHh of an inch, there are at lead an hundred fuch
changes obfervable, and that it is highly probable that thefe
alternations extend to a much greater diftance. At one of
thefe diltances the light actually converges towards the fo-
lid matter of the glafs, which we exprefs f-artly, by faying
that it is attracted by it, and that at the next diftance it de¬
clines from the glafs, or is repelled by it. The fame thing-
is more frmply inferred from the phenomena of light paffing
by the edges of knives and other opaque bodies. We refer
the reader to the experiments themfelves, tire detail being
too long for this place; and we requeft the reader to conft-
der them minutely and attentively, and to form diftindt no¬
tions of the inferences drawn from them. And we deftre it
to be remarked, that although Sir Ifaac, in his difeuffion,
always confiders light as a let of corpufcles moving in free
fpace, and obeying the actions of external forces like any
other matter, the particular conclufton in which we are juft
jiow interefted does not at all depend on this notion of the
nature of light. Should we, v/ith Des Cartes or Huy¬
gens, fuppofe light to be the undulation of an elaftic me¬
dium, the conclufton will be the fame. The undulations
at certain diftances are difturbed by forces diredfted towards
the body, and at a greater diftance, the difturbing forces
tend from the body.
But the fame alternations of attraftion and repulfion may
alternanonske obferved between the particles of common matter. If
we take a piece of very flat and well poliflied glafs, fuch as
are made for the horizon glaffes of a good Hadley’s qua¬
drant, and if we wrap round it a fibre of filk as it comes
from the cocoon, taking care that the fibre nowhere crofs
another, and then prefs this pretty hard on fuch another
piece of glafs, it will lift it up and keep it fufpended. The
particles therefore of the one do moft certainly attraft thofe
of the other, and this at a diftance equal to the thicknefs of
the filk fibre. This is nearly the limit; and it fometimes re¬
quires a confiderable preffure to produce the cffe£L The
preffure is effe&ual only by compreffing the filk fibre, and
thus diminifhing the diftance between the glafs plates. This
radhefion cannot be attributed to the preffure of the atmo-
fphere, becaufe there is nothing to binder the air from inli-
nuating itfclf between the plates, fince they are feparated
by the filk. Befxdes, the experiment fucceeds equally well
tinder the receiver of an air-pump. This rtioft valuable ex¬
periment was firft made by Huygens, who reported it to
the Royal Society. It is narrated in the Philofophical
T’ranfa&ions, nu 86.
Here then is an attra&ion afting, like gravity, at a di-
^ance. But take away the filk fibre, and try to make the
The fame
cf attrac¬
tion and
repulfion
obfervable
in the par¬
ticles of
other bo¬
dies, as
glafs.
1 S T R
glaffes touch each other, and we fhall find a very £reat force ^ergd'of
neceffary. By Newton’s experiments it appears, that unlefs ,
the prifmatic colours begin to appear between the glaffes,
they are at leaft of an inch afunder or more. Now we
know that a very confiderable force is neceffary for produ¬
cing thefe colours, and that the more we prels the glaffea
together the more rings of colours appear. It alfo appears
from Newton’s meafures, that the difference of diftance be¬
tween the gkffes where each of thefe colours appear is about
the 89,000th part of an inch. We know farther, that when
we have produced the laft appearance of a greafy or pearly
colour, and then augment the preffure, making it about a thou-
fand pounds on the fquare inch, all colours vaniffi, and the
two pieces of glafs feem to make one tranfparent undiftin-
guifhable mafs. They appear now to have no air between
them, or to be in mathematical contadf. But another fa£t
{hows this conclulion to be premature. The fame circles
of colours appear in the top of a foap bubble ; and as it
grows thinner at top, there appears an unreflefting fpot
in the middle. We have the greateft probability therefore
that the perfeft tranfparency in the middle of the two glaft^s
does not arife from their being in contact, but becaufe the
thicknefs of air between them is too fmall in that place for the
refleftioR of light. Nay, Newton exprefsly found no reflec¬
tion where the thicknefs was |ths or more of the
part of an inch.
All this while the glaffes are ftrongly repelling each other,
for great preffure is neceflary for continuing the appearance
of thole colours, and they vanifh in fuccefion as the preffure
is diminifhed. This vanifhing of the colours is a proof
that the glaffes are moving off from each other, or repel¬
ling each other. But we can put an end to this repulfion by
very ftrong preffure, and at the fame time Aiding the glaffes
on each other. We do not pretend to account for this ef¬
fect of the Aiding morion; but the fail is, that by fo doing,
the glaffes will cohere with very great force, fo that we
{hall break them by any attempt to pull them afunder.
It commonly happens (at leaft it did fo with us), that in this
Hiding compreffion of two fmaoth flat plates of glafs they
fcratch and mutually deftroy each other’s furface. It is
alfo worth remarking, that different kinds of glafs exhibit
different properties in this refpeft. Flint glafs will attraft
even though a filk fibre lies double between them, and they
much more readily cohere by this Aiding preffure.
Here then are two diftances at which the plates of glafi
attract each other ; namely, when the filk fibre is interpofed,
and when they are forced together with this Aiding motion.
And in any intermediate fituation they repel each other. ^5
We fee the fame thing in other folid bodies. Two pieces I^ead ani
of lead made perfe&iy clean, may be made to cohere byiron*
grinding them together in the fame manner. It is in this
way that pretty ornaments of filver are united to iron.
The piece is feraped clean, and a fmall bit of filver like a
fifii fcale is laid on. The die which is to ftrike it into a •
flower or other ornament is then fet on it, and we give it a
fmart blow, which forces the metals into contaft as firm as
if they were foldered together. It fometimes happens that
the die adheres to the coin fo that they cannot be fepara¬
ted : and it is found that this frequently happens, when
the engraving is fuch, that the raifed figure is not complete-
ly furrounded with a fmooth flat ground. The probable Probable
caufc of this is curious. When the coin has a flat furface cau*e
all around, this is produced by the moft prominent part °f ,'i^ji^res
the die. This applies to the metal, and completely confines t0 tbe C(Jin,
the air which filled the hollow of the die. As the preffure
goes on, the metal is fqueezed up into the hollow of the
die ; but there is ftill air compreffed between them, which
cannot efcape by any paffage. It is therefore prodigioufly
condenfed,
STR [71 STR
Jwer.pt>) cfeondenfcd, and exerts an elatiicity proportioned to the
'Materials condenfation. This ferves to feparate the die from the
metai wlien the ftroke is over. The hollow part of the
die has not touched the metal all the while, and we. may-
fay that the impreffion was made by air. If this air
efcape by any engraving reaching through the border, they
cohere infeparably.
We have admitted that the glafs plates are in contaft
when they cohere thus firmly. But we are not certain of
this: for if we take thefe cohering piaffes, and touch
them with water, it quickly infinuates itfelf between them.
Yet they {till cohere, but can now be pretty eafily fepa-
jg rated.
Hepulfion It is owing to this repulfion, exerted through its proper
lie caufe fpfiere, that certain powders fwim on the furface of water,
jf l™116 bo*and are wetted with great difficulty. Certain infefts can
nfnsTnT run about on the furface of water. They have brufhy feet,
find fpe- which occupy a conliderable furface ; and if their fteps are
: fically viewed with a magnifying glafs, the furface of the water
-m ^een ^ePre^ec^ arbund, refembling the footfteps of a
elves. man walking on feather-beds. This is owing to a repul-
fion between the bruih and the water. A common fly
cannot walk in this manner on water. Its feet are wetted,
becaufe they attract the water inftead of repelling it. A
fteel needle, wiped very clean, will lie on the furface of wa¬
ter, making an impreflion as a great bar would make on a
featherbed ; and its weight is lefs than that of the difplaced
water. A dew drop lies on the leaves of plants without
touching them mathematically, as is plain from the extreme
brilliancy of the reflection at the pofterior furface ; nay,
it may be fometimes obferved that the drops of rain lie on
the furface of water, and roll about on it like balls on a
table. Yet all thefe iubftances can be wetted; that is, wa¬
ter can be applied to them at fuch diftances that they at¬
tract it.
What we faid a little ago of water infinuating itfelf be¬
tween the glafs plates without altogether deftroyir.g their
cohefion, (hows that this cohefion is not the fame that obtains
between the particles of one of the plates; that is, the
twm plates are not in the ftate of one continued mafs. It
is highly probable, therefore, that between thefe two ftates
there is an intermediate ftate of repulfton, nay, perhaps many
fuch, alternated with attractive ftates.
A piece of ice is elaftic, for it rebounds and it rings.-
Its particles, therefore, when compreffed, reiile ; and when
ftretched, eontraCt again. The panicles are therefore in the
ftate reprefented by Bin figure 1. aCled on by repulfive
forces, 'if brought nearer ; and by attractive forces, if drawn
further afunder. Ice expands, like all other bodies, by heat.
It abforbs a vaft quantity of fire ; which, by combining its
attractions and repulfions with thofe of the particles of ice,
changes completely the law of aCtion, without making any
fenfible change in the diftance of the particles, and the ice
becomes w^ater. In this new ftate the particles are again in
limits between attractive and repulfive forces ; for water has
been flrown,by the experiments of Canton and Zimmerman,
to be elaftic or compreflible. It again expands by heat. It
again abforbs a prodigious quantity of heat, and becomes
elaftic vapour ; its particles repelling each other at all di¬
ftances yet obferved. The diftance between the particles
of one plate of glafs and thofe of another which lies on it,
and is carried by it, is a diftance of repulfion ; for the force
which fupports the upper piece is afting in oppofition to its
weight. I his diftance is lefs than that at which it would
Jufpend it below it with a filk fibre interpoltd ; for no pnf-
matic colours appear between them when the filk fibre is
interpofed. But the diftance at which glafs attrafts w^ater
id much lefs than tins, for no colours appear when glafs is
wetted with water. This diftance is lefs, and not greater, Strength nf
than the other; for when the glaffes have water interpofed Matena!s”,
between them inftead of air, it is found, that when any par¬
ticular colour appears, the thicknefs of the plate of water is
to that of the plate of air which would produce the fame
colour nearly as 3 to 4. Now, if a piece of glafs be wet¬
ted, and exhibit no colour, and another piece of glafs be fim-
ply laid on it, no colour will appear ; but if they are ftrong-
ly preffed, the colours appear in the fame manner as if the
glaffes had air between. Alfo, when glafs is fimply wetted,
and the film of water is allowed to evaporate, when it is
thus reduced to a proper thinnefs, the colours ftiow them-
felves in great beauty.
Thefe are a few of many thoufand fafts, by which it is Particles
unqueftionably proved that the particles of tangible matter matter
are connefted by forces afting at a diftance, varying with
the diftance, and alternately attraftive and repulfive. If ailing at»
we reprefent thefe forces as we have already done in fig. 1. diftance.
by the ordinates Cc,T)cl, E <?, F/, &c. of a curve, it is
evident that this curve muil crofs the axis at all thofe dt-
ftances where the forces change from attraftive to repul¬
five, and the curve muff have branches alternately above
and below the axis.
All thefe alternations of attraftion and repulfion take
place at fmall and infenfible diftances. At all lenfible diftan¬
ces the particles are influenced by the attraftion of gravita¬
tion ; and therefore this part of the curve muft be a hyper-
a 3
bola whofe equation is er ~. What is the form of
the curve correfponding to the fmalleft diftance of the par¬
ticles ? that is, what is the mutual action between the par¬
ticles juft before their coming into ablolute contaft ? Ana¬
logy fhould lead us to fuppofe it to be repullion : for foli-
dity is the laft and fimpleft form of bodies with which we
are acquainted.—Fluids are more compounded, containing
fire as an effential ingredient. We fhould conclude that
this ultimate repuhion is infuperable, for the hardeft bodies
are the moft elaftic. We are fully entitled to fay, that this
repelling force exceeds all that we have ever yet applied
to overcome it ; nay, there are good reafons for faying
that this ultimate repulfion, by which the particles are kept
from mathematical contaft, is really infuperable in its own
nature, and that it is impoffible to produce mathematical
contaft. -
We fhall juft mention one of thefe, which we confider Mathema-
as unanfwerable. Snppofe two atoms, or ultimate particles tIcal cor-
of matter A and B. Let A be at reft, and B move up to
it with the velocity 2; and let us fuppoie that it comes into
mathematical contaft, and impels it (according to the com- %
mon acceptation of the word). Both move with the velo¬
city 1. This is granted by all to be the final refult of the
collifion. Now the inftant of time in which this commu¬
nication happen? is no part either of the duration of the
fohtary motion of A, nor of the joint motion of A and B %■
It is the reparation or boundary between them. It is at
once the end of the firft, and the beginning of the fecond,
belonging equally to both. A w^as moving with the
velocity 2. The diflinguifhing circumftance therefore of
its mechanical ftate is, that it has a determination (however
incomprehenfible) by which it would move for ever with
the velocity 2, if nothing changed it. This it has during
the whole of its folitary motion, and therefore in the laft
inftant of this motion. In like manner, during the whole
of the joint motion, and therefore in the firft inllant of this
motion, the atom A has a determination by which it would
move for ever with the velocity 1. In one and the fame
inftant, therefore, the atom A has two incompatible deter¬
minations, Whatever notion we can form of this ftate,.
which
S T R [ 8
Strpnpth vvliich we call velocity, as a ’^indlion of condition, the
Materialimpoffibility of conception or the fame abfurdity oc»
^*vw'v rr"1 curs. Nor can it be avoided in any other way than by
faying, that this change ot Vs motion is brought about
by infenfible gradations ; that is, that A and B influence
each other precifely as they would do if a {lender fpring
were interpofed. The reader is delired to look at what we
have faidin the article Physics, § $2.
The two magnets there fpoken of are good reprefen-
tatives of two atoms endowed with mutual powers of re-
pulfion ; and the communication of motion is accompliflied
■in both cafes in precifely the fame manner.
If, therefore, we (hall ever be fo fortunate as to difeover
the law of variation of that force which connefts one atom
of matter with another atom, and which is therefore charac-
teriftic of matter, and the ultimate fource of all its fenfible
qualities, the curve whofe ordinates reprefent the kind and
the intenfity of this atomical force will be fomething like
that {ketched in fig. 2. The firft branch a » B will have
AK (perpendicular to the axis AH) for its affymptote,
and the lail branch /mo will be to all fenfe a hyperbola,
having AO for its aflymptote ; and the ordinates / L, rw M,
.II
&c. will be proportional to AM8’ ^CC' exPre“inS
the univerfal gravitation of matter. It will have many
branches B £ C, D d E, F/G, &c. expreffing attraftions,
and alternate repulfive branches C cD, E <? F, Gg H, &c.
All thefe will be contained within a diftance A H, which
does not exceed a very minute fraftion of an inch.
The lim- The fun pie ft particle which can be a conflituent of
J’left ex* a body having length, breadth, and thicknefs, muft confift
tfde^on ar"<rf four fuch atoms, all of which combine their influence on
iifts of four each atom of another inch particle. It is evident that
atoms. the curve which exprefles the forces that conneA two fuch
particles muft; be totally different from this original curve,
this hylarchic principle. Suppofing the laft known, our
mathematical knowledge is quite able to difeover the firlt;
but when we proceed to compofe a body of particles, each
of which confifts of four fuch particles, we may venture to
fay, that the compound force which connedfs them is al-
moft beyond our fearch, and that the difeovery of the pri¬
mary force from an accurate knowledge of the corpufcular
forces of this particular matter is abfolutely out of our
' power.
All that we can learn is, the poffibility, nay the certain¬
ty. of an innumerable variety of external fenfible forms and
qualities, by which different kinds of matter will be diflin-
guifhed, arifmg from the number, the order of compoiition,
and the arrangement of the fubordinate particles of which
a particle of this or that kind of matter is compofed. All
thefe varieties will take place at thofe fmall and infenfible
diftances which are between A and H, and may produce
•all that variety which we obferve in the tangible or mecha¬
nical forms of bodies, fuch as elafticity, duftility, hardnefs,
foftnefs, fluidity, vapour, and all thofe unfeen motions or
adlions which we obferve in fufion and congelation, eva¬
poration and condenfation, folution and precipitation, cry-
ftallization, vegetable and animal afiimilation and fecre-
tion, &c. See. 8cc. while all bodies muft be, in a certain de¬
gree, elaftic, all muft gravitate, and all mutt be imeompene-
trable.
This general and fatisfa&ory refemblance between the
appearances of tangible matter and the legitimate confe-
quence of this general hypothetical property of an atom of
matter, affords a confiderable probability that fuch is the
origin of all the phenomena. We earneftly recommend to
our readers a careful perufal of Bofcovich’s celebrated trea-
tife. A careful perufal is neceffary for feeing its value; and
1 S T R
nothing will be got by a Imfty look fit it. The reader will of
be particularly pleafed with the facility and evidence with Matenal».
which the ingenious author has deduced all the ordinary ’ ’ J
principles of mechanics, and with the explanation which he
has given of fluidity, and his dedudlion from thence of
the laws of hydroftatics. No part of the treatife is more
valuable than the do&rine of the propagation of preffure
through folid bodies. This, however, is but juft; touched
on in the courfe of the invefiigatiou of the principles of
mechanics. We {hall borrow as much as will fuffice for
our prefent inquiry into the flrength of mateiuals ; and we
truft that our readers are not difpleafed with this general
fketch of the do&rine (if it may be fo called) of the co- 3*
hefion of bodies. It is curious and important in itfelf, The doc-
and is the foundation of all the knowledge we can acquire c0*
of the prefent article. We are forry to fay that it is asa newfub'
yet a new fubject of ftudy; but it is a very promifmg ont, jeA
and we by no means defpair of feeing the whole of chemi-
ilry brought by its means within the pale of mechanical
fcience. The great and diftinguifhing agent in chemiflry
is heat, or fire the caufe of heat; and one of its moft fin-
gular efte&s is the converlion of bodies into elaftic.vapour.
We have the cleareft evidence that this is brought about
by mechanical forces : for it can be oppofed or prevented
by external preffure, a very familiar mechanical force. We
may perhaps find another mechanical force which will pre¬
vent fufion.
Having now made our readers familiar with the mode
of aftion in which cohefion operates in giving ftrength to
folid bodies, we proceed to confider the ftrains to which
this ftrength is oppofed.
A piece of folid matter is expofed to four kinds of
{train, pretty different in the manner of their operation. 33
1. It may be torn afunder, as in the cafe of ropes, ilretch-Strains to I
ers, king-pofts, tye-beams, &c. which _ I
2. It may be crufhed, as in the cafe of pillars, pofts, and^61^^ 18
trufs beams. °^0 e ’ J
3. It may be broken acrofs, as happens to a joift or lever
of any kind.
4. It may be wrenched or twilled, as in the cafe of the
axle of a wheel, the nail of a prefs, &c.
I. It may be pulled asunder.
34
This is the fimpleft; of all ftrains, and the others are in-Matr.er
deed modifications of it. To this the force of cohefion is™3? he
directly oppofed, with very little modification of its adtion
by any particular circumftances.
When a long cylindrical or prifmatic body, fuch as a rod
of wood or metal, or a rope, is drawn by one end, it muft
be refilled at the other, in order to bring its cohefion into
adtion. When it is faftened at one end, we cannot conceive
it any other way than as equally ftretched in all its parts ;
for all our obfervations and experiments on natural bodies
concur in fhowing us that the forces which cqnneft their
particles, in any way whatever, are equal and oppofite. This
is called the third law of motion ; and we admit its univer-
fality, while we affirm that it is purely experimental (fee
Physics). Yet we have met with differtations by perfons
of eminent knowledge, where propofitions are maintained
inconfiftent with this. During the difpute about the com¬
munication of motion, forne of the ableft writers have faid,
that a fpring compreffed or ftretched at the two ends was
gradually lefs and lefs compreffed or ftretched from the ex¬
tremities towards the middle : but the fame writers acknow¬
ledged the univerfal equality of adtion and rea&ion, which
is quite incompatible with this ftate of the fpring. No fuch
inequality of compreffion or dilatation has ever been obfer-
ved;
35
circi tn-
oiifttuc
inn le-
[inring
Licng'.h,
S T R [9
rer.gth oFved ; and a little refleftion will (how it to be impoffible, in
Materials. COHf:ftency with the equality of adion and leaction.
Since all parts are thus equally flretched, it follows, that
the It rain in any tranfverfe fedtion is the fame, as alfo in
every point of that fedion. If therefore the body be fup-
pofed of a homogeneous texture, the cohefion of the parts
is equable ; and lince every part is equally itretctiLd, the
particles are drawn to equal diitances from their quit (cent
politions, and the forces which are thus excited, and now
excited in oppohtion to the {training force, are equal. I his
external force may be increaled by degrees, which will gra¬
dually feparate the part of the body more and more fiom
each other, and the conneding forces increafe with this in-
creafe of diftance, till at laft the cohefion of fome particles
is overcome. This muft be immediately followed by a
rupture, beeaufe the remaining forces are now weaker than
before. .
It is the united force of cohefion, immediately before the
difunion of the lirlt particles, that we call the strength of
the fedion. It may alfo be properly called its absolute
strength, being exerted in the limpleft form, and not mo¬
dified by any relation to other circumftances.
If the external force has not produced any permanent
,Unce t0 be change on the body, and it therefore recovers its former di¬
stended tomenfions when the force is withdrawn, it is plain that this
n every ftrain may be repeated as often as we pleafe, and the body
which with hands it once will always withftand it. It is
evident that this fhould be attended to in all conftrudions,
and that in all our invefligat-ions on this fubjed this fhould
be kept ftridly in view. When we treat a piece of foft
clay in this manner, and with this precaution, the force em¬
ployed muft be very fmall. If we exceed this, we produce
a permanent change. The rod of clay is not indeed torn
afunder ; but it has become fomewhat more {lender: the
number of particles in a crofs fedion is now fmaller; and
therefore, although it will again, in this new form, fuffer, or
ollow an endlefs repetition of a certain {train without any far¬
ther permanent change, this (train is fmaller than the former.
Something of the fame kind happens in all bodies which
receive a sett by the {train to which they are expofed. All
dudile bodies are of this kind. But there are many bodies
which are not dudile. Such bodies break completely when¬
ever they are ftretched beyond the limit of their perfed ela-
fticity. Bodies of a fibrous ftrudure exhibit very great
varieties in their cohefion. In fome the fibres have no la¬
teral cohefion, as in the cafe of a rope. The only way in
which all the fibres can be made to unite their ftrength is,
to twill them together. This caufes them to bind each other
fo fall, that any one of them will break before it can be
drawn out of the bundle. In other fibrous bodies, fuch as
timber, the fibres are held together by fome cement or glu¬
ten. This is feldom as ftrong as the fibre. Accordingly
timber is much eafiep pulled afunder in a diredion tranfverfe
to the fibres. TherC is, however, every poflible variety in
this particular.
In ftretching and breaking fibrous bodies, the vifible
extenfion is frequently very confiderable. This is not fole-
ly the increafing of the diftance of the particles ot the cohe¬
ring fibre : the greateft part chiefly arifes from drawing the
crooked fibre ftraight. In this, too, there is great diverfity ;
audit is accompanied with important differences in their
power of withftanding a {train. In fome woods, fuch as
fir, the fibres on which the ftrength molt depends are very
ftraight. Such woods are commonly very elallic, do not
take a lett, and break abruptly when overltrained : others,
fuch as oak and birch, have their refilling fibres very undu¬
lating and crooked, and ftretch very fenlibly by a {train.
They are very liable to take a let, and they do not break fo
Vol. XVill. Part I.
36
[treat va-
■ktics in
coheiion,
but
3 7
] S T R
fuddenly, but give warning by complainings as the carpenters ^treneth^of
call it ; that is, by giving vifible figns of a derangement of 1 ‘aur‘“
texture. Hard bodies of an uniform glaffy ilruftare, or
granulated like {tones, are elaftic through the whole extent
of their cohefion, and take no fett, but break at once when
overloaded.
Notwithftanding the immenfe variety which nature exhi¬
bits in the ftrufture and cohefion of bodies, there are cer¬
tain general fails of which we may now avail ourfelves with
advantage. In particular.
The abfolute cohefion is proportional to the area ofTheabfa^
the fe&ion. This muft be the cafe where the texture isjytecohe-
perfeitly uniform, as we have reaion to think it is in glafs
and the du&ile metals. The cohefton of each particle ,,.opo,qon.
being alike, the whole cohefion muft be proportional al to the
to their number, that is, to the area of the fedtion. i he arc_a ol the
fame muft be admitted with refpedt to bodies of a granula-
ted texture, where the granulation is regular and uniform. t0 t]ie eK>
The fame muft be admitted of fibrous bodies, if we fuppofe tending
their fibres equally ftrong, equally denfe, and ftmilarly dif- force,
pofed through the whole fe&ion ; and this we muft either
fuppofe, or muft ftate the diverfity, and meafure the cohe¬
fion accordingly.
We may therefore affert, as a general propofition on this
fubjedt, that the abfolute ftrength in any part of a body by
which it refifts being pulled afunder, or the force which
muft be employed to tear it afunder in that part) is propor¬
tional to the area of the fedtion perpendicular to the ex¬
tending force.
Therefore all cylindrical or prifmatical rods are equally
ftrong in every part, and will break alike in any part; and
bodies which have unequal fedtions will always break in the
fiendereft part. The length of the cylinder or prifm has
no effedt on the ftrength ; and the vulgar notion, that it is
eafier to break a very long rope than a Ihort one, is a very
great miftake. Alfo the abfolute ftrengths of bodies
which have fimilar fedtions are proportional to the fquares
of their diameters or homologous Aides of the ledtion.
The weight of the body itfelf may be employed to {train
it and to break it. It is evident, that a rope may be fo
long as to break by its own weight. When the rope is
hanging perpendicularly, although it is equally ftrong in
every part, it will break towards the upper end, becaufe the ,8
drain on any part is the weight of all that is below it. Its .; we
relative strength in any part, or power of withftand-ftrengd1-
ing the {train which is adtually laid on it, is inverfely as the
quantity below that part.
When the rope is ilretched horizontally, as in towing a
fhip, the {train arifing from its weight often bears a very
fenlible proportion to its whole ftrength.
Let AEB (fig. 3.) be any portion of fuch a rope, and
AC, BC be tangents to the curve into which its gravity
bends it. Complete the parallelogram ACBD. It is well
known that the curve is a catcnaria, and that DC is per¬
pendicular to the horizon ; and that DC is to AC as the
weight of the rope AEB to the {train at A.
In order that a fufpended heavy body may be equally
able in every part to carry its own weight, the iedtion in
that part mult be proportional to the folid contents of all
that is below it. Suppofe it a conoidal fpindle, formed by
the revolution of the curve Aae (fig. 4.) round the axis
CE. We muft have AC2: ac2 = AEB fob : a E £ fob
This condition requires the logarithmic curve for A a e, oi
which C c is the axis.
Thefe are the chief general rules which can be fafely de¬
duced from our cleareft notions of the coheiion of bodies.
In order to make any pradtical ufe of them, it is proper to
have fome meafures of the cohefion of fuch bodies as are
com-
S T R
S T R
r jo ]
ci'xuniftan-
ses.
Sf"engih of commonly employed in our mechanics, and other druilures
M iteiiais. ■yyjig'i'g they are expoied to this kind ot ftrain. iheie
muft he deduced folely from experiment. Therefore they
The c: he- muft be confide red as no more than general values, or _as
fion of me- the averages of many particular trials. L he irregularities
talsde,endsare very great, becaufe none of the fubftances are conftant
on various tlcxt.ure an(j hrmneis. Metals differ by a thoufand
circumftances unknown to us, according to their purity, to
the heat with which they were melted, to the moulds in
which they were call, and the treatment they have after¬
wards received, by forginsj, wire-drawing, tempering, &c.
It is a very curious and inexplicable fa£t, that by forging
a metal, or by frequently drawing it through a fmooth
hole in a fteel plate, its cohefion is greatly increaied. This
operation undoubtedly deranges the natural fituation of the
particles. They are fqueezed clofer together in one direc¬
tion ; but it is not in the diretdion in which they reiift the
frafture. In this dbedUon they are rather feparated to a
greater diftance. The general denlity, however, is augment¬
ed in all of them except lead, which grows rather rarer by
wire-drawing : but its eohefion may be more than tripled
by this operation. Gold, filver, ancf brafs, have their co¬
hefion nearly tripled ; copper and iron have it more than
doubled. In this operation they alfo grow much harder.
It is proper to heat them to rednefs after drawing a little.
This is called nealing or annealing. It foftens the metal again,
and renders it fufceptible of another drawing without the
rifle of cracking in the operation.
We do not pretend to give any explanation of this re¬
markable and very important fa£l, which has lomething re-
fembling it in woods and other fibrous bodies, as will be
mentioned afterwards.
The varieties in the cohefion of Hones and other minerals,
and of vegetable and animal fubftances, are hardly fufeep-
trble of any defeription or clafirfication.
We fhall take for the meaiure of cohefion the number of
pounds avoirdupois which are juft fufficient to tear afunder
a rod or bundle of one inch fquare. From this it will be
cfduieient eafy to compute the ftrength correfponding to any other
40
Coheiion
and
ferength
metal
dimenfion.
ijtf, Metals.
Gold, caft
Silver, caft
Copper,, caft
Iron, caft
Iron, bar
Steel, bar
Tin, caft;
f Japan
1 Barbary
Hungary
| Anglefea
L Sweden
f 20,!
1
I
Ordinary
iStirian
1 Bell Swedifh and Ruffian
Horfe-nails
C Soft
\ Razor temper
f Malacca
I Banca
4 Block
1 Englifh block
L- grain
{
lbs.
,000
000
q 0,00.0
43,000
19,500
22,000
3i,cco
34,000
37,000
42,000
59,000
68,000
75,000
84,000
71,000 (a)
120,000
150,000
3,100 ^
3,600/
3,800
5,200
6,500
Lead, caft
Reg ulus of antimony
Zinc
Bifinutn *
lb?,
860
1,000
2,600
2,900
Sfrengthej
Mater ids,
41
It is very remarkable that almoft all the mixtures of me-Tenacity
tals are more tenacious than the metals themfelves. The of mctfal®
change of tenacity depends n.jch on the proportion of the^^”,.^ 1
ingredients, and the proportion which produces the moll
tenacious mixture is different in the different metals. We
have felefted the following from the experiments of Mufchen-
broek. The proportion of ingredients here feledted is that
which produces the greateft ftrength.
Two parts of gold with one of filver
Five parts of gold with one of copper
Five parts of iilver with ©ne of copper
Four parts of filver with one of tin
Six parts of copper with one of tin
Five parts of Japan copper with one of Banca
tin -
Six parts of Chili copper with one of Malacca
tin - - .
Six parts of Swedilh copper with one of Malac¬
ca tin -
Brafs confifts of copper and zinc in an un¬
known proportion ; its ftrength is
Three parts of block-tin v/ith one part of lead
Eight parts of block-tin with one part of zinc
Four parts of Malacca tin with one part of re-
gulus of antimony - -
Eight parts of lead with one of zinc
Four parts of tin with one of lead and one of
zinc - -
28,000
50,000
48,500
41,000
41,000
57,000
60,000
64,000
51,000
10,200
10,000
12,000
4,500
13,000
Thefe numbers are of confiderable life in the arts. The
mixtures of copper and tin are particularly interefting in the
fabric of great guns. We lee that, by mixing "copper
whofe greateft ftrength does not exceed 37,000 with tin
which does not exceed 6,000, we produce a metal whofe
tenacity is almoft double, at the fame time that it is harder
and more eafily wrought. It is, however, more fufible,
which is a great inconvenience. We alfo fee that a very
fmall addition of zinc almoft doubles the tenacity of tin,
and increafes the tenacity of lead five times; and a fmall ad¬
dition of lead doubles the tenacity of tin. Thefe are eco¬
nomical mixtures. This is a very valuable information
to the plumbers for augmenting the ftrtngth of water-
pipes.
By having recourfe to thefe tables, the engineer can pro¬
portion the thicknefs of his pipes (of whatever metal) to
the preflures to which they are expofed.
Woods.
We may premife to this part of the table the following
general obiervations : ^
1. The wood immediately furrounding the pith or heart Tenacity c
of the tree is the weakeft, and its inferiority is fo much fhergrh oi
more remarkable as the tree is older. In this affertion^004,
however, we fpeak with fome hefitation. Mufchenbroek’s
detail of experiments is decidedly in the affirmative. Mr
Buffon, on the other hand, fays, that his experience has
taught him that the heart of a found tree is the ftrongeft ;
but he gives no initances. We are certain, from many ob-
fervationa
ftron-p??i!3 Waii an exPer,n]e"t hY Mufchinbroek, to examine the vulgar notion that iron forged from old horfe-nails was
wronger than all others, and ffiows its falfity.
S T R r
trcnpth of fervations of our own on very large oaks and tirs> that the
Materia!*. jieart ;8 much weaker than the exterior parts.
2. The wood next the bark, commonly called the <wlite
or b/ea, is alfo weaker than the reft ; and the wood gra¬
dually increafes in ftrength as we recede from the centre
to the blea.
43
Inbfolute
1 rtngth of
ifforent
I] inc!s of
ood,
3. The wood is ftronger in the middle of the trunk than
at the fpt inging of the branches or at the root; and the wood
of the branches is weaker than that of the trunk.
4. The wood of the north fide of all trees which grow
in our European climates is the weakeft, and that of the
fouth-eaft fide is the ftrongeft ; and the difference is moft
remarkable in hedge row trees, and fuch as grow fingly.
The heart of a tree is never in its centre, but always near¬
er to the north fide, and the annual coats ot wood are thin¬
ner on that fide. In conformity with this, it is a general
opinion of carpenters that timber is {Ironger whofe annual
plates are thicker. The trachea or air-veffels are weak¬
er than the fimple ligneous fibres. Thefe air-veffels are the
fame in diameter and number of rows in trees of the fame
fpecies, and they make the viiible feparation between the
annual plates. Therefore when thefe are thicker, they con¬
tain a greater proportion of the fimple ligneous fibres.
5. All woods are more tenacious while green, and lofe
very confiderably by drying after the trees are felled.
The only author who has put it in our power to judge
of the propriety of his experiments is Mufchenbroek He
has defcribed his method of trial minutely, and it feems
unexceptionable. The woods were all formed into flips
fit for his apparatus, and part of the flip was cut away
to a parallelepiped of yth of an inch fquare, and therefore
Trfh of a fquare inch in fe&ion. The abfolute ftrengths of
a fquare inch were as follow :
Loculi treee
Jnjeb
Beech, oak
Orange
Alder
Elm
Mulberry
Willow
Afh
] him
Elder
lib.
20,100
1 8,500
17,300
15.500
13,9°°
13,200
12.500
12,500
I 2,000
I 1,800
10,000
Pomegranate
Lemon
Tamarind
Fir
Walnut
Pitch pine
Quince
Cyprefs
Poplar
Cedar
lib.
9>75°
9,250
8.750
8>33°
8,130
7,650
6.750
6,000
;5>5CO
4,880
44
Vnd of o-
her fub-
•antes.
Mr Mufchenbroek has given a very minute derail of the
experiments on the afh and the walnut, Hating the weights
which were required to tear afunder flips taken from the four
fides of the tree, and on each fide in a regular progreffion from
the centre to the circumference. The numbers of this table
correfponding to thefe two timbers may therefore be confi-
dered as the average of more than 50 trials made of each ;
and he fays that all the others were made with the fame
care. We cannot therefore fee any reafon for not confi¬
ding in the rcfults ; yet they are confiderably higher than
thofe given by fome other writers. Mr Pitot fays, on the
authority of his own experiments, and of thofe of Mr Pa¬
rent, that 60 pounds will juft tear afunder a fquare line of
found oak, and that it will bear 50 with fafety. This gives
8640 for the utmoft llrength of a fquare inch, which is much
inferior to Mufchenbrotk’s valuation.
We may add to thefe,
Ivory
Bone
H orn
Whalebone
1 ooth of fea-calf
16,270
5,250
8,750
7,500
4,075
n ] S T R
Tire reader will furely obferve, that thefe numbers etc-^trengfli of
prefs fomething more than the utmoft cohefion ; tor the A‘^t'-naQ
weights are fuch as will very quickly, that is, in a minute ^
or two, tear the rods afunder. It may be faid in general. No fub-
that two-thirds of thefe weights will fenfibly impair theftance to ^
ftrength after a confiderable while, and that one half is ^lie
utmoft that can remain fufpended at them without rifle f,,rture above
ever ; and it is this laft allotment that the engineer fhould reC- one half nj
kon upon in his conftruritions. There is, however,confiderable ftrength.
differeiace in this refperit. Woods of a very ftraight fibre,
fuch as fir, will be lefs impaired by any load which is not luf-
ficient to break them immediately^
According to Mr Emerfon, the load which may be fafely
fufpended to an inch fquare is as follows :
Iron
Brafs
Hempen rope
Ivory
Oak, box, yew, plum-tree
Elm, afh, beech
Walnut, plum
Red fir, holly, elder, plane, crab
Cherry, hazle
Alder, afp, birch, willow
Lead '
Freeftone
76,400
35.600
19.600
15,700
7,850
6,070
5>36o
5,000
4,760
4,290
430
914
He gives us a pra&ical rule, that a cylinder whofe dia¬
meter is d inches, loaded to one-fourth of its abiolute ftrength,
will Carry as follows :
Iron - 135]
Good rope - 22 I
Oak - 14 [
Fir - 9)
Cwt.
The rank which the different woods hold in this lift of
Mr Emerfon’s is very different from what we find in Mu-
fchenbroek’s. But ptecife meafures muff not be expected in
this matter. It is wonderful that in a matter of fuch un-
queftionable importance the public has not enabled fome
perfons of judgment to make proper trials. They are be¬
yond the abilities of private perfons.
II. Bobies may be crushed.
It is of equal, perhaps greater, importance to know the ft is of im»
ftrain which may be laid on folid bodies without danger ofportance to
cnifhing them. Pillars and polls of all kinds are expofed to'5rjow'
this ilrain in its fimpleftform; and there are cafes where thie^^-^11^1
ftrain is enormous, viz. where it arifes from the oblique po-
fition of the parts; as in the fluts, braces, and truffes,
which occur very frequently in our great works.
It is therefore moft defirable to have fome general know¬
ledge of the principle which determines the ftrength of bo¬
dies in oppofition to this kind of ftrain. But unfortunately
we are much more at a lofs in this than in the laft cafe.
The mechanifm of nature is much more complicated in the
prefent cafe. It muft be in fome circuitous way that com-
prefiion can have any tendency to tear afunder the parts of
a folid body, and it is very difficult to trace the fteps.
If we fuppofe the particles infuperably hard and in con-
ta£l, and difpofed in lines which are in the diredlion of the
external preffurcs, it does not appear how any preffure can
difunite the particles; but this is a gratuitous fuppofition*
There are infinite odds againft this precife arrangement of
the lines of particles; and the compreflibility of all kinds of
matter in fome degree fhows that the particles are in a fitu-
ation equivalent to diftance. This being the cafe, and the
particles, with their intervals, or what is equivalent to in-
B 2 N tervals,
S T R [ I
pfTfinpth oftervals, being in fituations that are oblique with refpeft to
3VFj,p ’ l- the preffures, it muft follow, that by fqueezing them toge-
V * ther in one direction, they are made to bulge out ©r fepa-
rate in other direftions. This may proceed fo far that lome
may be thus pufhed laterally beyond their limits of cohelion.
The moment that this happens the refiftance to compreffion
is diminilhed, and the body will now be crufhed together.
We may form, feme notion of this by fuppofing a number
of fpherules, like fmall lliot, flicking together by means of
a cement. Compreffing this in fome particular direction
caufes the fpherules to adt among each other like fo many
wedges, each tending to penetrate through between the
three which lie below It : and this is the fimpleft, and
perhaps the only diilindl, notion we can have of the matter.
We have reafou to think that the conllitution of very ho.
xnogeneous bodies, fuch as glafs, is not very different from
this. The particles are certainly arranged fymmetrically
in the angles of fome regular folids. It is only fuch an ar¬
rangement that is coniillent with tranfparency, and with the
^ free paffage of light in every direction.
'P},c;r If this be the conflitution of bodies, it appears proba-
frren'th ble that the ftrength, or the refiftance which they are ca-
01 ^°fft'1" Pakle of making to an attempt to crufh them to pieces,
a'i'-t to' ProPoltional to the area of the feftion whofe plane is
fuch a perpendicular to the external force ; for each particle being
force fimilarly and equally adled on and refifted, the whole refift¬
ance muft be as their number; that is, as the extent of the
fedlion.
Accordingly" this principle is afiumed by the few writers
who have coniidered this fubjedl; but we confefs that it
appears to us very doubtful. Suppofe a number of brittle
or friable balls lying on a table uniformly arranged, but not
cohering nor in contadl, and that a board is laid over them
and loaded with a weight ; we have no hefitation in faying,
that the weight neceffary to crufh the whole colie&ion is
proportional to their number or to the area of the fedlion.
But when they are in contaft (and ftill more if they co¬
here), we imagine that the cafe is materially altered. Any
individual ball is crufhed only in confequence of its being
bulged outwards in the direction perpendicular to the pref-
fure employed. If this could be prevented by a hoop put
round the ball like an equator, we cannot fee how any force
can cruih it. Any thing therefore which makes this bul¬
ging outwards more difficult, makes a greater force neceffa¬
ry. Now" this effedl will be produced by the mere contadl
of the balls before the preffure is applied; for the central
ball cannot fwell outward laterally without puffing away
the balls on all Tides of it. This is prevented by" the fric¬
tion on the table and upper board, which is at leaft equal
to one third of the preffure. Thus any interior ball becomes
ilronger by the mere vicinity of the others ; and if we
farther fuppofe them to cohere laterally, we think that its
ftrength will be ftill more increafed.
The analogy between thefe balls and the cohering parti¬
cles of a friable body is very perfedl. We ffould therefore
expedl that the ftrength by which it refills being cruffed
will increafe in a greater ratio than that of the feeftion, or
the fquare of the diameter of iimilar fedlions ; and that a
fquare inch of any matter will bear a greater weight in
proportion as it makes a part of a greater fedlion. Ac¬
cordingly this appears in many experiments, as will be no¬
ticed afterwards. Mufchenbroek, Euler, and fome others,
have fuppofed the ftrength of columns to be as the biqua¬
drates of their diameters. But Euler deduced this from for¬
mulae which occurred to him in the courfe of his algebraic
analyfis; and he boldly adopts it as a principle, without
looking for its foundation in the phyfrcal affumptions which
he had made in the beginning of his inveftigation. But
] S T R
fome of his original affumptions w"ere as paradoxical, or atStrergffoj
leaft as gratuitous, as thefe refults : and thofe, in parti- Materials,
cular, from which this proportion of the ftrength of co-
lumns w'as deduced, were almoft foreign to the cafe ; and
therefore the inference was of no value. Yet it was recei¬
ved as a principle by IVIulchenbroek and by the academicians
of St Peterfburgh. We make thefe very few obfervations,
becaufe the fubjedl is of great pra&ical importance ; and it
is a oreat obftacle to improvements when deference to a
great name, joined to incapacity or indolence, caules authors
to adopt his carelefs reveries as principles from which they
are afterwards to draw important confequences. mint
be acknowledged that we have not as yet eflabliffed the re¬
lation between the dimenfions and the llrength of a pillar on
folid mechanical principles. Experience plainly .contradicts
the general opinion, that the ftrength is proportional to the
area of the fedlion ; but it is itill more inconfiftent with
the opinion, that it is in the quadruplicate ratio of the diame- 4^ ^
ters of fimilar lections. It would feem that the ratio de-
pends much on the internal llructure o? the body"; and ex- 01)|^ e:
periment feems the only method foi afeertaining its general perantut.
laws.
If we fuppofe the body to be of a fibrous texture, having
the fibres lituated in the dire£tion of the preffure, and (lightly
adhering to each other by fome kind of cement, fuch a body
will fail only by the bending of the fibres, by which they will
break the cement and be detached from each other. Some¬
thing like this may be fuppofed in wooden pillars. In fuch
cafes, too, it would appear that the refiftance mull be as the
number of equally refilling fibres, and as their mutual fup-
port, jointly ; and, thererore, as fome function of the area
of the fedlion. The fame thing muft happen if the fibres
are naturally crooked or undulated, as is obferved in many
woods, &c. provided we fuppofe fome fimilarky in their
form. Similarity of fome kind mull always be fuppofed,-
otherwife we need never aim at any general inferences.
In all cafes therefore we can hardly refufe admitting that
the ftrength in oppofition to compreffion is proportional to
a fundlion of the area of the feftion.
As the whole length of a cylinder or prifra is equally
preffed, it does not appear that the ftrength of a pillar is at
all affe&ed by its length. If indeed it be fuppofed to bend
under the preffure, the cafe is greatly changed, becaufe it is
then expofed to a tranfverfe drain ; and this increafes with
the length of the pillar. But this will be coniidered with
due attention under the next clafs of drains.
Few experiments have been made on this fpecies of
ftrength and drain. Mr Petit fays, that his experiments,
and thofe of Mr Parent, ftow that the force neceffary for
ernffing a body is nearly equal to that which will tear it
afunder. He fays that it requires fomething more than 60
pounds on every fquare line to crulh a piece of found oak.
But the rule is by no means general: Glafe, for inftance,
will carry a hundred times as much as oak in this way, that
is, relling on k; jsut will not fufpend above four or five
times as much. Oak will fufpend a great deal more than
fir; but fir will carry twice as much as a pillar. Wood's
of a foft texture, although confifting of vety tenacious
fibies, are more eafily cruffed by their load. This foftnefs of
texture is chiefly owing to their fibres not being ftraight but
undulated, and there being confiderable vacuities between
them, fo that they are eafily bent laterally and cruffed.
When a pod is overftrained by its load, it is obferved to
fwell fenlibly in diameter. Increafing the load caufes lon¬
gitudinal cracks or ffivers to appear, and it prefently after
gives way. This is called crippling.
In all cafes where the fibres lie oblique to the ftrain the
ftrength is greatly diminifhed, becaufe the parts can then be
made
[ateiials
S T R [ i
reng hofmade to Aide ©n each other, when the cohefion of the ce-
meriting matter is overcome. # . r . . ^
Mufchenbroek has given fome experiments on this iubjett;
hut they are cafes of long pillars, and therefore do not be¬
long to this place. They will be confidered afterwards.
The only experiments ©f which we have feen any detail
(and it is ufelefs to infert mere affertions) are thofe of Mr
Gautluy, in the 4th volume of Rozier’s Journal de Phyjique.
This engineer expofed to great preffures fmall re&angular
parallelopipeds, cut from a great variety of hones, and noted
the weights which crufhed them. The following table ex¬
hibits the medium refults of many trials on two veiy uni¬
form kinds of freeilone, one of them among the harden, anu
the other among the fofteft ufed in building.
Column lit expreffes the length AB of the feftion in
French lines or izths of an inch ; column zd expreffes the
breadth BC ; column 3d is the area of the feaion in fquare
lines ; column 4th is the number of ounces required to crufh
the piece ; column 5th is the weight which was then borne
by each fquare line of the feaion ; and column 6th is the
round numbers to which Mr Gauthey imagines that thofe
in column 5th approximate.
49
spe i-
ea.s for
is. yur-
fe made
1 frte-
jne
AB BC
8 8
9
9
18
18
12
16
16
18
18
24
Hard Stone.
AB X BC Weight
64 7i6
96 2625
128 4496
Soft Stone.
144 560
162
324
432
848
2928
5296
Force
1 T>5
27>3
35>l
3>9
5>3
9
12,2
12
24
36
4
4>5
9
12
50.
Met fatis-
fadtory.
Little can be deduced from thefe experiments: The 1 ft and
3d, compared with the 5th and 6th, (hould furnifh iimilar
refults ; for the iff and 5th are refpeaively half of the 3d
and 6th: but the 3d is three times ftronger (that is, a line
of the 3d) than the firfl, whereas the 6th is only twice as
ftrong as the 5 th.
It is evident, however, that the ftrength increafes much
fafter than the area of the feftion, and that a fquare line can
carry more and more weight, according as it makes a part of
a larger and larger fedtion. In the feries of experiments on
the foft ftone, the individual ftrength of a fquare line feems
toincreafe nearly in the proportion of the feftion of which it
makes a part.
Mr Gauthey deduces, from the whole of his numerous ex¬
periments, that a pillar of hard done of Givry, whole fedtion
is a fquare foot, will bear with perfedt fafety 664,000 pounds,
and that its extreme ftrength is 871,000, and the fmalleft
ftrength obferved in any of his experiments was 460,000. The
foft bed of Givry ftone had for its fmalleft ftrength 187,000,
for its greateft 311,000, and for its fafe load 249,000. Good
brick will carry with fafety 3 20,000 ; chalk will carry only
9000. The boldeft piece of architedfure in this refpeft v/hich
he has feen is a pillar in the church of All-Saints at Angers.
It is 24 feet long and 11 inches fquare, and is loaded with
60,000, which is not 4th of what is neceffary for crufhing it.
We may obferve here by the way, that Mr Gauthey’s
meafureot the fufpending ftrength of ftone is vaftly fmall in
proportion to its power of fupporting a load laid above it.
He finds that a prifm of the hard bed of Givry, of a foot
fedtion, is torn afunder by 4600 pounds ; and if it be
firmly fixed horizontally in a wall, it will be broken by a
weight of 56,000 iufpended a. foot from the wall. If it reft
on two props at afoot diftance, it will be broken by 206,000
laid on its middle. Thefe experiments agree fo ill with each
3 1 s T R
other, that little ufe can be made of them. The fubjedt is Strength of
of great importance, and well deferves the attention of the
patriotic philofopher. ^ j
A fet of good experiments would be very valuable, be- Good er-
caufe it is againft this kind of ftrain that we muft guard by p^rinients.
judicious conftrudfion in the moft delicate and difficult Pro'^!^|gj
blems which come through the hands of the civil and mili¬
tary engineer. The conftrudtion of ftone arches, and the
conftrudtion of great wooden bridges, and particularly the
conftruftion of the frames of carpentry called centres in the
eredtion of ftone bridges, are the moft difficult jobs that oc¬
cur. In the centres on which the arches of the bridge of
Orleans were built fome of the pieces of oak were carrying
upwards of two tons on every fquare inch of their fcamling.
All who faw it faid that it was not able to carry the fourth
part of the intended load. But the engineer underftood the
principles of his art, and ran the rifle : and the refult com¬
pletely juftified his confidence ; for the centre did not com¬
plain in any part, only it was found too fupple ; io that it
went out of fhape while the haunches only of the arch were
laid on it. The engineer corredted this by loading it at the
crown, and thus kept it completely in fhape during the pro-
grefs of the work.
In the Memoirs (old) of the Academy of Peteifburgh
for IT'S, there is a jdiffertation by Euler on this fubjedt,
but particularly limited to the ftrain on columns, in whick
the bending is taken into the account. Mr Fufs has treat¬
ed the fame fubjedt with relation to carpentry in afubfequent
volume. But there is little in thefe papers befides a dry ma¬
thematical difquifition, proceeding on affumptions-which (to
fpeak favourably) are extremely gratuitous. The moft im¬
portant confequence of the compreffion is wholly overlook¬
ed, as we fhall prefently fee. Our knowledge of the me-
chanifm of cohefion is as yet ffir too imperfedt to entitle us
to a confident application of mathematics. Experiments
fhould be multiplied. ^
The onlyr way we can hope fp make thefe experiments Bow they
ufeful is to pay a careful attention to the manner in which a!'e^to ^
the fradture is produced. By difeovering the general re-^ J
femblances in this particular, we advance a ftep in our power
of introducing mathematical meafurement. Thus, when a
cubical piece of chalk is flowly crufhed between the chaps
of a vice, we fee it uniformly fplit in a furface oblique to the
preffure, and the two parts then Aide along the furface of
fra&ure. This fhould lead us to examine mathematically
what relation there is between this furface of fradture and
the neceffary force ; then we fhould endeavour to determine
experimentally the pohtion of this furface. Having difeo-
vered fome general law or refemblance in this circurnffance^
we fhould try what mathematical hypothefis will agree with
this. Having found one, we may then apply our fimpleft
notions of cohefion, and compare the refult of our computa¬
tions with experiment. We are authorifed to fay, that a feries
of experiments have been made in this way, and that their re¬
fults have been very uniform, and therefore fatisfadtory, and,
that they will foon be laid before the public as the founda--
tions of iuccefsful pradtice in the conftrudtion of arches.
Ilf. A Body may be broken across.
S3
The moll ufual, and the greateft ftrain, to which mate-1* h of ira-
rials are expofed, is that which tends to break them tranf-
verfely. It is feldom, however, that this is done in a man-whjt fyra;r,
ner perfectly fimple ; for when a beam projedts horizontally will break,
from a wall, and a weight is fufpended' from its extremity,3 body
the beam is commonly broken near the wall, and the inter- *ranfveiA-
mediate part has performed the fundtions of a lever. It
fometimes, though rarely, happens that the pin in. the
joint of a pair of pincers or feiffars is cut through by the
ftrain. r
S T R
<*
Experi¬
ments
made to
silcertain
it.
Strengtli of ftrain ; and this is almoftthe only cafe of a fimple traniverfe
, iat'riaiS' fratlure. Bein^ fo rare, we may content ourfelves with
faying, that in this cafe the ftrength of the piece is propor¬
tional to the area of the fedh'on.
Experiments were made for difeovering the refiftances
made by bodies to this kind of drain in the following manner :
Two iron bars were difpofed horizontally at an inch diftance;
a third hung perpendicularly between them, being fupported
by a pin made of the fubftance to be examined. This pin was
made of a prifmatic form, fo as to fit exactly the holes in
the three bars, which were made very exaft, and of the fame
fize and fhape. A icale was fufpended at the lower end of
the perpendicular bar, and loaded till it tore out that part of
the pin which filled the middle hole. This weight was evi¬
dently the meafure of the lateral cohefion of two fedlions.
i he fide-bars xvere made to grafp the middle bar pretty
ftrongly between them, that there might be no diftance im-
pofed between the oppofite preflures. This would have
combined the energy of a lever with the purely tranfverfe
preffure. For the fame reafon it was neceffary that the in¬
ternal parts of the holes fhould be no fmaller than the edges.
Great irregularities occurred in our firft experiments from
this caufe, becaufe the pins were fomewhat tighter within
than at the edges; but when this was correfted they were
extremely regular. We employed three fets of holes, viz.
a circle, a fquare (which was occafionally made a rectangle
whofe length was twice its breadth), and an equilateral tri-
anode. We found in all our experiments the ftreiigth ex¬
actly proportional to the area of the fetlion, and quite in¬
dependent of its figure or pofition, and we found it confi-
derably above the diredf cohefion ; that is, it took consider¬
ably more than twice the force to tear out this middle piece
than to tear the pin afunder by a direft pull. A piece of
fine freeftone required 205 pounds to puli it direftly afun¬
der, and 575 to break it in this way. The difference was
very confiant in any one fubftance, butwaried from -yds to ^ds
in different kinds of mat . r, being fmalleft in bodies of a
fibrous texture. But indeed we could not make the trial on
any bodies of confiderable cohefion, becailfe they required
fuch forces as our apparatus could not fupport. Chalk,
day baked in the fun, baked fugar, brick, and freeitone,
were the ftrongeft that we could examine.
But the more common cafe, where the energy of a lever
intervenes, demands a minute examination.
Let DABC (fig. 5*n 1.) be a vertical feftion of a prifma¬
tic folid (that is, of equal fize throughout), projecting hori¬
zontally from a wall in which it is firmly fixed ; and let a
weight P be hung on it at B, or let any power P ad at B
in a diredion perpendicular to AB. Suppofe the body of
infuperable ftrength in every part except in the vertical fec-
tion DA, perpendicular to its length. It muft break in
this fedion only. Let the cohefion be uniform over the
whole of this fedion ; that is, let each of the adjoining par¬
ticles of the two parts cohere with an equal force/.
There are two ways in which it may break. The part
ABCD may limply Aide down along the furface of fvadure,
provided that the power ading at B is equal to the accu¬
mulated force which is exerted by every particle of the lec¬
tion in the diredion AD.
But fuppofe this effedually prevented by fomething that
fupports the point A. The adion at P tends to make the
body turn round A (or round a horizontal line palling thro’
A at right angles to AB) as round a joint. This it can¬
not do without feparating at the line DA. In this cafe
the adjoining particles at D or at E will be feparated ho¬
rizontally. But their cohefion refifts this reparation. In
order, therefore, that the fradure may happen, the en*
C 14 ]
S T R
55
Their re-
fult.
56
The
ftrength
of a lever
ergy or momentum of the power P, ading by means of the Strerrgh f>f
lever x'lB, muft be fuperior to the accumulated energies .of iVtatcri'dk
the particles. The endrgy of each depends not only on its ^
cohelive force, but alfo on its fituation ; for the fuppofed
infuperable firmnefs of the reft of the body makes it a lever
turning round the fulcrum A, and the cohelion of each par¬
ticle, fuch as D or E, ads by means of the arm DA or
EA. The energy of each particle will therefore be had by
multiplying the force exerted by it in the initant of fradure
by the arm of the lever by which it ads.
Let us therefore firft fuppofe, that in the inftant of frac¬
ture every particle is exerting an equal force f. The ener¬
gy of D wall be/XDA, and that of E will be /XEA,
and that of the whole will be the fum of all thefe produds.
Let the depth DA of the fedion be called d, and let any
undetermined part of it EA be called x, and then the fpace
occupied by any particle will be x. The cohefion of this
fpace may be reprefented by f and that of the whole by
f d. 'I he energy by which each element x of the line DA,
or / refifts the fradure, will be/x x, and the whole accu-
cumulated energies will be /x/x x. This we know to be
/X 4 eh, or fd X 4 It is the fame therefore as if the co¬
hefion/r/ of the whole fedion had been ading at the point
G, which is in the middle of DA.
xhe reader who is not familiarly acquainted with this
fluxionary calculus may arrive at the fame conclufion in an¬
other way. Suppofe the beam, inftesd of projeding hori¬
zontally frftm a wall, to be hanging fr®m the ceiling, in
which it is firmly fixed Let ns confider how tire equal co¬
hefion of every pari operates in hindering the lower part
from feparating from the upper by opening round the joint
A. The equal cohefion operates juft as equal gravity would
do, but in the oppofite diredion. Now we know, by tlrfe
moft elementary mechanics, that the effed of this will be the
fame as if the whole weight were concentr ated in the centre
of gravity G of the line DA, and that this point G is in
the middle of DA. Now the number of fibres being as
the length d of the line, and the cohefion of each fibre
being — /, the cohefion of the whole line is/Xr/or/J.
J he accumulated energy therefore of the cohefion in the
inftant of fradure is f dY*\d. Now this muft be equal or
juft inferior to the energy of the power employed to break
it. Let the length AB be called /; then P X / is the cor-
refponding energy of the power. This gives us f d \ d-~pl
for the equation of equilibrium correfponding to the verti¬
cal fedion ADCB.
Suppofe now that the fradure is not permitted at DA,
but at another fedion ^ “ more remote from B. The body
being priimatic, all the vertical fedions arc equal; and theie--
fore j d\ d is the fame as before. But the energy of the
power is by this means increafed, being now = P X B
inftead of P X B A : Hence we fee that when the prifmatic
body is not iniuperably llrong in all its parts, but .equally
ftrong throughout, it muft break clofe at the wall, where
the ftrain or energy of the power is greateft. We fee, too,
that a power which is juft able to break it at the wall is
unable to break it anywhere elfe ; alfo an abfolute cohe-
fton fd, which can withftand the powerin the fedion
DA, will not withftand it in the fedion ^ ^and will with¬
ftand more in the fedion d'd.
I his teaches us to diftinguifh between abfolute and rela¬
tive ftrength. The relative ftrength of a fedion has a refe¬
rence to the ftrain adually exerted on that fedion. This
relative ftrength is properly meafured by the power which
is juft able to balance or overcome it, when applied at its
proper
S T R r i
Strength rfpreper place. Now fmce we had fd\d-=:pl, we have
= for the meafure of the ftretjgth of the fe&ion
DA, in relation to the power applied at B.
If the folid is a rectangular beam, whofe breadth is b, it
is plain that all the vertical fedtions are equal, and that AG
or 4 d is the fame in all. Therefore the equation expreffing
the* equilibrium between the momentum of the external
force and the accumulated momenta of cohefion will be
- p l — f d b \ d.
The produft db evidently expreffes the area ot the fee-
tion of fradlure, which we may call /, and we may exprels
the equilibrium thus, pi— f s 4 A and 2 / \ d — j s : p.
Now fs is a proper expreffion of the abfolute cohefion of
the fedtion of fraAnre, and /> is a proper meafure of its
ftrength in relation to a power applied at B. We may
therefore fay, that twice the length of a rectangular beam is to
the depth as the abfolute cohejion to the relativeJlrength.
Since the adtion of equable cohefion is fimilar to the ac¬
tion of equal gravity, it follows, that whatever is the
fioure of the fedtion, the relative ftrength will be the fame
as if the abfolute coheiion of all tt e fibres were adding at
the centre ol gravity of the fedtion. Get g be the diitance
between the centre of gravity of the fedtion and the axis of
fradture, we (hall have pi zz. jsg, and l:g vz. f s % p. It will
be very ufeful to jecolledt this analogy in words : “ The
length of a prifmatic beam of any f ape is to the height of the
centre of gravity above the lower fde, as the abjolute cohefion to
the flrength relative to this length.”
Becaufe the relative ftrength of a redtangular beam is
fbdfdfbd1 .
l or—-—-, it follows, that the relative ftrengths ot
different beams are proportional to the abfolute cohefion of
the particles, to the breadth, and to the fqnare of the depth
diredtly, and to the length inverfely j alio in piifms whole
fedtions are fimilar, the ftrengths are as the cubes of the dia¬
meters.
Such are the more general refults of the meehanifm of
. this tranfverfe ft rain, in the hypothelis that all the particles
rice'i ^ ! are cxerting equal forces in the inftant of fradture. We are
indebted for this dodtrine to the celebrated Galileo ; and it
was one of the firft fpecimens of the application of mathe¬
matics to the fcience of nature.
We have not included in the preceding inveftigation that
adtion ot the external force by which the fblid is drawn
fidewife, or tends to flide along the furface of fradture. We
have fuppofed a particle E to be pulled only in the diredtion
E r, pei-pendicular to the fedtion of fradture, by the adtion
of the crooked lever BAE. But it is alfo pulled in the di-
redtion E A; and its readtion is in fome diredtion ‘ E, com¬
pounded of tf by which it refills being pulled outwards ;
and f r, by udiich it refifts being pulled downwards. We
are but imperfedtly acquainted with the force £ ey and only
know that their accumulated fum is equal to the force p :
but in all important cafes which occur in pradtice, it is un-
necefiary to attend to this force ; becaufe it is fo fmall in
comparifon of the forces in the diredtion E e, as we eafily
conclude from the ufual fmallnefs of AD in comparifon of
AB.
'The hypothefis of equal cohefion, exerted by all the par¬
ticles in'the irrftant of fradture, is not conformable to nature:
for we know, that when a force is applied tranfverfely at B,
to nature. ^ie beam is bent downwards, becoming convex on the up¬
per fide ; that fide is therefore on the ftretch. The par¬
ticles at D are farther removed from each other than thofe
at E, and are therefore ablual/y exerting greater cohefive for¬
ces. We cannot fay with certainty and precifioa in what
5 1 s T R
proportion each fibre is extended. It feems moll probable strength of
that the extenfions are proportional to the diftances from A. "t
We fhall fuppofe this to be really the cafe. Now recalled!
the general law which we formerly faid was obferved in all
moderate extenfions, viz. that the attra&ive forces exerted
by the dilated particles were proportional to their dilata¬
tions. Suppofe now that the beam is lo much bent that
the particles at D are exerting their utmoft force, and that
this fibre is juft ready to break or adlually breaks. It is
plain that a total fradlure rnuft immediately enfue ; becaufe
the torce which was fuperior -to the full coheiion of the par¬
ticle at D, and a certain portion of the cohefion of all the
reft, will be more than fuperior to the full cohefion of the
particle next within D, and a fmaller portion ol the cohe¬
iion of the remainder.
Now let F reprefent, as before, the full force of the ex¬
terior fibre D, which is exerted by it in the inftant of its
breaking, and then che force exerted at the fame inftant by
the fibre E will be had by this analogy AD : AE, or
f x
d:x — f'. ~t% and the force really exerted by the fibre E.
ls/x-.
The force exerted by a fibre whofe thicknefs is x is;
therefore —XLA but this force refifts the drain by adting
d
by means of the lever EA or x. Its energy or mo-
57 .
Afterr, in-
ed on tte
eq
hdiox
?3
But that
hyvothefii
rot con¬
formable
mentum is therefore
/x1;
and the accumulated moments
59
of all the fibres in the line AE will be /X fum of ——
a
This, when x is taken equal to d, will exprefs the momen¬
tum of the whole fibres in the line AD. This, therefore,,
■v di
is / —j , or/{ dly orfdX\d. Now / d expreffes the ab*
folute cohefion of the whole line AD. The accumulated
momentum is therefore the lame as if the abfolute coheiion
of the whole line were exerted at -jd ot AD from A.
From 1 hefe.premiles it follows that the equation expref-The
fing the equilibrium of the (train and cohefion is p / ^ J ^afterrireft
Xfd; and hence we deduce the analogy, “ ds thrice the {in ot^er
length is to the depthy fo is the abfolute cohefion to the relativcpiincipies*
Jlrength.”
This equation and this proportion will equally apply to
red!angular beams whofe breadth is b ; for we (hall then
have p / ^ ri X y A
We alfo fee that the relative ftrength is proportional to
the abfolute cohefion of the particles, to the breadth, and
to the fquare of the depth diredtly, and to the length in¬
verfely : for p is the meafure of the force with which it is
fbdld fb d' t , . . ^ t
refilled, and/> = ’ In ^ refPcft tliere*
fore this hypothefis agrees with the Galilean; but it aftigna
to every beam a (mailer proportion of the ablolute cohefion
of the ledtion of fradhire, in the proportion of 3 to 2. In
the Galilean hypothefis this fedtion has a momentum equal
to 4 of its ablolute ftrength, but in the other hypothefis it
is only fd. In beams of a different form the proportion
may be different.
As this is a moft important propofition, and the founda¬
tion of many pradtical maxims, we are anxious to have it
clearly comprehended, and its evidence perceived by all..
Our better informed readers will therefore indulge us while
we endeavour to prefent it in another point of view, where
it will be better feen by thofe who are not familiarly ac¬
quainted with the fluxionary calculus.
4
S T R t I
Ftfrcrgth of Fig'. n1 2. A is a pevfpeftive view oF a three fidea beam
IVTarerials. projedtiiig horizontally from a wall, ane1. loaded with a weight
at B juft fufilcient to break it.. DABC is a vertical plane
The far e through its highell point D, in the direftion ol its length,
prooofition aY) a is another vertical feftion perpendicular to AB. Xhe
prefeme.d p;ece ^ging fuppofed of infuperable ftrength everywhere ex-
.cept in the fedtion a I) a, and the cohefion being alio fup-
view. pofed iniuperable along the line ^ A o, it can break nowhere
but in this feftion, and by turning round a A a as round a
hinge Make D d equal to AD, and let D d reprefent the
abfolute cohefion of the fibre at D, which abfolute cohefion
we expreffed by the fymbol f. Let a plane a d a be made
to pats through a a and d, and let d a' a be another crofs
feftion. It is plain that the prifmatic folid contained be¬
tween the two iedlions a I) a and n' </d wall reprefent the
full cohefion of the whole fe&ion of frafture ; for we may
conceive this prifm as made up of lines fuch as Fy, equal
and parallel to D d, reprefenting the abfolute coheiion of
each particle fuch as F. The pyramidal folid c/D 0 cut
oft by the plane da a, will reprefent the cohefions aflually
exerted by the different fibres in the inflant of frafture.
For take any point E in the furface of fradfure, and draw
Ef parallel to AB, meeting the plane offline, and let
e A E be a vertical plane. It is evident that D J is to E e
as AD to AE ; and therefore (ftnce the forces exerted by
the different fibres are as their extenfion, and their exten-
fion as their diitances from the axis of fradfure) E e will re¬
prefent the Force actually exerted by the fibre in E, while D
is exerting its full force Jd d. In like manner, the plane
F F f f~expreffes the cohefion exerted by all the fibres in the
line F F, and fo on through the whole furface. Iherefoie
the pyramid//a 0 D expreffes the accumulated exertion of
the whole furface of fradfure.
Farther, fuppofe the beam to be held perpendicular to
the horizon with the end B uppermoft, and that the weight
of the prifm contained between the two fedfions 0 D 0 and
a' da' (now horizontal) is juft able to overcome the full co¬
hefion of the fedlion of fradlure. The weight of the pyra-
mid dY> a a will alfo be juft able to overcome the cohefions
aHually exerted by the different fibres in the inftant of frac¬
ture, becaufe the weight of each fibre, luck as E e> is juft
fuperior to the cohefion adtually exerted at E.
Let 0 be the centre of gravity of the pyramidal folid, and
draw 0 O perpendicular to the plane 0 D 0. T. he whole
weight of the folid ^ D 0 0 may be conceived as accumula¬
ted in the point 0, and as adfing on the point O,. and it will
have the fame tendency to feparate the two cohering furfaces
as when each fibre is hanging by its refpedtive point. For
this reafon the point O may be called the centre of a3ual effort
of the unequal forces of cohefion. The momentum there¬
fore, or energy by which the cohering furfaces are feparated,
will be properly meafured by the weight of the folid dJdaa
multiplied by OA; and this produd is equal to the
produdi of the weight p multiplied by BA, or by / . I hus
fuppofe that the cohefion along the line AD only is con-
fidered. The whole cohefion will be reprefented by a.tri¬
angle A D d. d reprefents /, and AD is d, and AD is x.
Therefore A D is \fd. The centre of gravity 0 of the
triangle A D ^ is in the interfe&ion of a line drawn from
A to the middle of D d with a line drawn from d to the
middle of AD ; and therefore the line 0 0 will make AO
— y of A D. Therefore the adtual momentum of cohefion
isfXidX^d, = fXdX\dy z=ifdX\d, or equal to the
abfolute cohefion a&ing by means of the lever —-. If the
fe&ion of fradlure is a retlangle, as in a common joift, whofe
breadth a a\^ ^l} it is plain that all the vertical lines
6 ] S T R
will be equal to AD, and their cohefions will be reprefented Strength
by triangles like A D^; and the whole adtual cohefion Materml
will be reprefented by a wedge whofe bafes are vertical ”
planes, and which is equal to half of the parallelepiped AD
X D X 0 0, and will therefore be=l-/dr/; and the
diftance A O of its centre of gravity from the horizontal
line A A' will be \ of A D. The momentum of cohefien
of a joift will therefore be \f b dX\d, or jb d\d, as we
have determined in the other way.
*1 he beam reprefented in the figure is a triangular prifm.
The pyramid D 0 0 d is y of the prifm a a T) d a'd. If we
make s reprefent the iurface oi the triangle a D 0, the pyra¬
mid is 4 of/T The diftance AO of its centre of gravity
from the horizontal line A A1 is 4 °f A D, or 4 d. 1 here-
fore the momentum of adlual cohefion is 4/y X 4 d, —fs\- df
that is, it is the fame as if the full cohefion of all the fibres
were accumulated at a point I whofe diftance trpm A is g-th
of AD or d ; or (that we may fee its value in every point
of view) it is the momentum or the full coheiiou ot
all the fibres when accumulated at the point D, or acting at
the diftance d = AY).
This is a very convenient way of conceiving the momen¬
tum of adlual cohefion, by compaiing it with the mo¬
mentum of abfolute cohefion applied at the diftance AD
from the axis of fra&ure. The momentum of the abfo¬
lute cohefion applied at D is to the momentum of adlual
cohefion in the inftant of fradlure as AD to AI. . f here-
fore the length of AI, or its proportion to AD, is a fort
of index of the ftrength of the beam. We fhall call it the
Index, and exprefs it by the fymbol i.
Its value is eafily obtained. The produdt of the abfolute
cohefion by AI mull be equal to that of the actual
coheiion by AO. Therefore fay, “ as the prifmatic folid
a a Y) dd a' is to the pyramidal folid 0 0 D J, fo is AO to
A 1.” We are aftiited in this determination by a very con¬
venient circumftance. In this hypothefis of the adlual co¬
hefions being as the diftances of the fibres from A, the
point O is the centre of ofcillation or percuffion of the iur¬
face D 0 0 turning round the axis 0 0: for the momentum of\
cohefidn of the line F F is F F X I ./X E A = F 1’ X E A2,
becaufe F/ is equal to E A. Now A O, by the nature of
the centre of gravity, is equal to the fum of all thefe mo¬
menta divided by the pyramid a a Yd d’, that is, by the fuin
of all the F F X Ff; that is, by the fum of all the FI XE A.
fum of F F X E A* , . , . . a ,
Therefore AO ="h‘ch 18 J"11 the
value of the diftance of the centre of percuffion of the
triangle 00D from A: (See Rotation). Moreover,
if G be the centre of gravity of the triangle 0 D 0, we fhall
have D A to G A as the abfolute cohefion to the fum of
the cohefions adlually exerted in the inftant of fradlure;
for, by the nature of this centre of gravity, A G is equal to
fumofrrxEA and the fuB of F F x AG is equal
fum of F F ’
to the fum of FF X E A. But the fum of all the lines
F F is the triangle 0 D 0, and the fum of all the F F X E A.
is the fum of all the re&angles F F//; that is, the pyramid
dY) a a. Therefore a prifm whofe bafe is the triangle 0 D 0,
and whofe height is AG, is equal to the pyramid, or wih
exprefs the fum of the adlual cohefions ; and a prifm, whofe
bafe is the fame triangle, and whofe height is Yd d or D 0,
expreffes the abfolute cohefion. I herefore D A is to G A
as the abfolute cohefion to the fum of the a&ual cohefions.
Therefore we have DA:GA — OA:IA.
Therefore, whatever be the form of the beam, that is,
whatever be the figure of its fedlion, find the centre of
ofcillation O, and the centre of gravity G of this ftajon.
S T R
[ 17 3
S T R
Jtrength of Call their diftances from the axis of frafture 0 and g. Then
and the momentum of cohefion is/j X
■Materials.
AI or i =
°_£
d '
d
where s is the area of fiafture.
This index is eafily determined in all the cafes which
generally occur in praftice. In a re&angular beam A I is ^d
©f AD ; in a eylinder (circular or elliptic) AI is rVll18
AD, &c. &c.
In this hypothefis, that the cohefion aftually exerted by
each fibre is as its extenfion, and that the extenfions of the
fibres v'e as their diftancesfrom A (fig. 5. n° 1.), it is plain
that tne forces exerted by the fibres D, E, &c. will be repre-
fented by the ordinates D E e, &c. to a ftraight line A d.
And we learn from the principles of Rotation that the
centre of percuffion O is in the ordinate which palfes
through the centre of gravity of the triangle A D t/, or (if
we confider the whole f°6lion having breadth as well as
depth) through the centre of gravity ©f the folid bounded
by the planes DA, d A ; and we found that this point
O was the centre of effort of the cohefions adually exerted
in the inftant of frafture, and that I was the centre of an
equal momentum, which would be produced if all the fibres
were accumulated there and exerted their full cohefion.
This conlideration enables us to determine, with equal
facility and neatnefs, the ftrength of a beam in any hypothe¬
fis of forces. The above hypothefis was introduced with a
cautious limitation to moderate ftrains, v/hich produced no
permanent change of form, or no fett as the artifts call it:
and this fuffices for all purpofes of praftice, feeing that it
would be imprudent to expofe materials to more violent
firains. But when we compare this theory with experi¬
ments in which the pieces are really broken, confiderable
deviations may be expected, becaufe it is very probable
that in the vicinity of rupture the forces are no longer pro¬
portional to the extenfions.
That no doubt may remain as to the juftnefs and com-
men m P^etene^s °f theory, we muft fhow how the relative
may1 bede- ftren£th may be determined in any other hypothefis. There-
termined f°re fuppofe that it has been eftablifhed by experiment on
by any o- any kind of folid matter, that the forces a&ually exerted in
lhdbhyP°" the.1'nftant of- fra&ure by the fibres at D, E, &c. are as the
-ordinates D d'> E <?', &c. of any curve line A cl d. We are
fiippofed to. know the form of this curve, and that of the
foiid which is bounded by the vertical plane through AD,
and by the furface which paffes through this curve A e’d'
perpendicularly to the length of the beam. We know the
place of the centre of gravity of this curve furface or folid,
and can draw a line through it parallel to A B, and cutting
the furface of fra&ure in fome point O. This point is alfo
the centre of effort of all the cohefions aftually exerted ;
•and the product of A O and of the folid which expreffes
,the actual cohefions will give the momentum of cohefion
■equivalent to the former f * • Dr we may find an index
A I, by making Ala fourth proportional to the full cohe¬
fion of the furface of fra&ure, to the accumulated a&ual cohe¬
fions, and to A O ; and then/j X i ( = A I) will be the
momentum of cohefion ; and we {hall {till have I for the
point m which all the fibres may be fuppofed to exert their
lull cohelion f, and to produce a momentum of cohefion
equal to the real momentum of the cohefions a&ually exerted,
and the relative ftrength of the beam will ftill be p or
fjS°_
dl ‘ Bhus, if the forces be as the fquares of the exten
£°Vr P YwT??0fed to be as the dil^ces from A), the
V OL. XVIII. Part I. ‘
61
How the
relative
ft reugth
curve Add will be a common parabola, having AB for its Sttength of
axis and AD for the tangent at its vertex. The area Material^
A Dr/' will be -fd A D X Dd; and in the cafe of a re&an- "' ’ ' # Lf
gular beam, AO will be |ths AD, and AI will be ^th of
AD.
We may obferve here in general, that if the forces
a&ually exerted in the inllant of fra&ure be as any powder f
A D
of the diftance from A, the index A I will be = —-—
for a re&aogular beam, and the momentum of cohefion will
always be {cateris paribus) as the breadth and as the fquare
of the depth ; nay, this will be the cafe whenever the a&ioit
of the fibres D and E is expreffed by any Jimilar fundiont
of d and x. This is evident to every reader acquainted with
the fluxionary calculus.
As far as we can judge from experience, no fimple algebraic
power of the diftance will exprefs the a&ual cohefions of the
fibres. No curve which has either AD or AB for its
tangent wall fuit. The obfervations which we made in the
beginning {how, that although the curve of fig. 2. muft be
fenfibly ftraight in the vicinity of the points of interfe&ion
with the axis, in order to agree with our obfervations which
{how the moderate extenfions to be as the extending forces,
the curve mujl be concave towards the axis in all its attra&ive
branches, becaufe it cuts it again. Therefore the curve A e'd*
of fig. 5. (n° 1.) muft make a finite angle with AD or AB,
and it^muft, in all probability, be alfo concave towards AD
in the neighbourhood of d'. It may however be convex in
fome part of the intermediate arch. We have made ex¬
periments on the extenfions of different bodies, and find
great diverfities in this refpe& : But in all, the moderate
extenfions were as the forces, and this with great accuracy
till the body took a fett, and remained longer than formerly
when the extending force was removed.
We muft now remark, that this corre&ion of the Galilean
hypothefis of equal forces was fuggefted by the bending
which is obferved in all bodies which are drained tranfverfe-
ly. Becaufe they are bent, the fibres on the convex fide have
been extended. We cannot fay in what proportion this ob¬
tains in the different fibres. Our moft dlftin& notions of
the internal equilibrium between the particles render it high¬
ly probable that their extenfion is proportional to their
diftance from that fibre which retains its former dimenfions.
But by whatever law this is regulated, we fee plainly that
the a&ions of the ftretched fibres muft follow the propor¬
tions of fome fun&ion of this diftance, and that therefore
the relative ftrength of a beam is in all cafes fufceptible of
mathematical determination. £1
We alfo fee an intimate conne&ion between the drain and Bernoulli’#
the curvature. This fuggefted to the celebrated James
Bernoulli the problem of the Elastic Curve, i. e. the curved lG:
curve into which an extenfible rigid body will be bent by a
tranfverfe ftrain. His folution in the Acta Lipfue 1694.
and 1695 is a very beautiful fpecimen of mathematical dif-
cuffion ; and we recommend it to the perufal of the curious
reader. He will find it very perlpicuoufly treated in the
firft volume of his works, publiihed after his death, where
the wide fteps which he had taken in his inveftigation are
explained fo as to be eafily comprehended. His nephew
Dan. Bernoulli has given an elegant abridgment in the
Peterfburg Memoirs for 1729. The problem is too in¬
tricate to be fully difeufled in a work like ours ; but it is
alfo too intimately conne&ed with our prefent fubje& to be
entirely omitted. We muft content ourfelves with {bowing
the leading mechanical property of this curve, from which
the mathematician may deduce all its geometrical properties.
When a bar of uniform depth and breadth, and of a given
length, is bent into an arch of a circle, the extenfion of the
C outer
S T R [I
Strength of outer fibres is proportional to the curvature; for, becaufc
Ala crials. curves formed by the inner and outer fides of the beam
'r—~ ’ are fimilar, the circumferences are as the radii, and the ra-
Its leading the inner circle is to the difference of the radii as the
mechanical length of the inner circumference is to the difference of the
property circumferences. The difference of the radii is the depth of
deferibed. the beamj tbe difference of the circumferences is the pten-
fion of the outer fibres, and' the inner circumference is fifp-
pofed to be the primitive length of the beam. Now the
fecond and third quantities of the above analogy, viz. the
depth and length of the beam, are conftant quantities, as is
alfo their produft. Therefore the produft of the inner radius
and the extenfion of the outer fibre is alfo a conftant quan¬
tity, and the whole extenfion of the outer fibre is inverfely
as the radius of curvature, or is dire&ly as the curvature of
the beam.
The .mathematical reader will readily fee, that into what¬
ever curve the elaftic bar is bent, the whole extenfion of the
outer fibre is equal to the length of a fimilar curve, having
the fame proportion to the thicknefs of the beam that the
length of the beam has to the radius of curvature.
Now let ADCB (fig. 5. nQ 3.) be fuch a rod, of uniform
breadth and thicknefs, firmly fixed in a vertical pofition, and
bent into a curve AEI'B by a weight W fufpended at B,
and of fuch magnitude that the extremity B has its tangent
perpendicular to the aftion of the weight, or parallel to the
horizon. Suppofe too that the extenlions are proportional
to the extending forces. From any two points E hnd F
draw the horizontal ordinates EG, FH. It is evident
that the exterior fibres of the fe&ions E e and Y f are ftretch-
ed by forces which are in the proportion of EG to FH
(thefe being the long arms of the levers, and the equal
thickneffes E e, Yf being the fhort arms). Therefore (by
the hypothefis) their exteniions are in the fame proportion.
But becaufe the extenfions are proportional to fome fimilar
fun&ions of the diftance from the axes of frafture E and F,
the extenfion of any fibre in the feeftion E e is to the contem¬
poraneous extenfion of the fimilarly fituated fibre in the
feftion F"/, as the extenfion of the exterior fibre in the
feftion E e is to the extenfion of the exterior fibre in the
feftion F/: therefore the whole extenfion of E e is to the
whole extenfion of F/as EG to FH, and EG is to F H as
the curvature in E to the curvature in F.
Here let it be remarked, that »his proportionality of the
curvature to the extenfion of the fibres is not limited to the
hypothefis of the proportionality of the extenfions to the ex¬
tending forces. It follows from the extenfion in the dif¬
ferent fedtions being as fome fimilar fundtion of the diftance
from the axis of fradture ; an aftumption which cannot be re-
fufed.
This then is the fundamental property of the elaftic curve,
from which its equation, or relation between the abfeifla
and ordinate, may be deduced in the ufual forms, and all its
other geometrical properties. Thefe are foreign to our
purpofe ; and we fhall notice only fuch properties as have an
immediate relation to the ftrain and ftrength of the dif¬
ferent parts of a flexible body, and which in particular ferve
to explain fome difficulties in the valuable experiments of Mr
Buffon on the Strength of Beams.
We obferve, in the firft place, that the elaftic curve cannot
be a circle, but is gradually more incurvated as it recedes
from the point of application B of the ftraining forces. At
B it hag no curvature y and if the bar were extended be¬
yond B there would be no curvature there. In like manner,
when a beam is fupported at the ends and loaded in the mid¬
dle, the curvature is greateft in the middle ; but at the props,
or beyond them, if the beam extend farther, there is no
curvature. Therefers when a beam projecting 20 feet from
64
It is not a
circle.
8 ] S T R
a wall is bent to a certain curvature at the wall by a weight Strength ef
fufpended at the end, and a beam of the fame fize projefting .IWat”ialr;
20 feet is bent to the very fame curvature at the wall by a *
greater weight at 10 feet diftance, the figure and the me¬
chanical ftate of the beam in the vicinity of the wall is dif-
ferent in thefe two cafes, though the curvature at the very
wall is the fame in both. In the firft cafe every part of the
beam is incurvated ; in the fecond, all beyond the ic feet
is wirhout curvature. In the firft experiment the curva¬
ture at the diftance of five feet from the wall is |ths of the
curvature at the wall 5 in the fecond, the curvature at the
fame place is but i of that at the wall. This mull weaken
the long beam in this whole interval of five feet, becaufe .
the greater curvature is the refult of a greater extenfion of
the fibres. . . 6$
In the next place, we may remark, that there is a certain Every beam
determinate curvature for every beam which cannot be ex- (jeter_
ceeded without breaking it; for there is a cei^a^n f^Par^* miriate cur-
tion of two adjoining particles that puts an end to their co- vature.
hefion. A fibre can therefore be extended only a certain
proportion of its length. The ultimate extenfion of the outer
fibres muft bear a certain determinate proportion to its
length, and this proportion is the fame with that of the
thicknefs (or what we have hitherto called the depth) to
the radius of ultimate curvature, which is therefore deter-
minate.
A beam of uniform breadth and depth is therefore moft when
incurvated where the ftrain is greateft, _and. will break breacjth afi<
the inofl incurvated part. But by changing its form, fo as ^pth is
to make the ftrength of its different fe&ions in the ratio moft incur-
of the ftrain, it is evident that the curvature may be the'vated
fame throughout, or may be made to vary according to any ^ra^n js
law. This is a remark worthy of the attention of thegEeatejj>
watchmaker. The moft delicate oblem in pra&ical me¬
chanics is fo to taper the balance-fpring of a watch that its
wide and narrow vibrations may be ifochronous. Hooke s
principle ut tenfioJlc vis is not lufficient when v\e take the
inertia and motion of the fpring itfelt into the account, ft he
figure into which it bends and unbends has alfo an influence.
Our readers will take notice that the artift aims at an ac¬
curacy which will not admit an error of and that
Harrrfon and Arnold have actually attained it in feveial in-
ftances. The taper of a fpring is at prefent a noftrum in
the hands of each artift, and he is careful not to impart his
fecret. , . ,
Again, fince the depth of the beam is thus proportional
to the radius ©f ultimate curvature, this ultimate or bi cak¬
ing curvature is inverfely as the depth. It may be expreffed
When a weight is hung on the end of a prifmatieT© what
beam, the curvature is nearly as the weight and the kn^th th^curva.
diredlly, and as the breadth and the cube of tL,_ lepth in- porljonap
verfely; for the ftrength is =/-7-. Let us fuppofe that
Now let the beam
this produces the ultimate curvature ^
be loaded with a fmaller weight w, and let the curvature pro-
b d* 1 ,
duced be C, we have this anaIogy/-j7- : ™ — 7-: C, and C
—. is evident that this is alfo true of a beam
fuppoited at the ends and loaded between the props ; and
we fee how to determine the curvature in its different pails*
whether arifing from the load, or from its own weight, or
from both. .
When a beam is thus loaded at the end or middle^ the
68
)efle6tion
S T R C . ^9. 1
tr«n^h of loaded point is pulled down, and the fpace through which ftiufes of Europe.
Materials. ^ j'g drawn may be called the deflection. This may be
confidered as the fub-tenfe of the angle of contact, or as the
verfed fine of the arch into which the beam is bent, and is
therefore as the curvature when the length of the arches is
given (the flexure being moderate), and as the fquare of the
length of the arch when the curvature is given. The de¬
flection therefore is as the curvature and as the fquare of
• 3 ^ w
the length of the arch jointly ; that is, as X /% or as
2 ft tlU
The defledion from the primitive flrape is there-
fbch
fore as the bending weight and the cube of the length di-
Cg redly, and as the breadth and cube of the depth inverfely.
’he then- In beams juft ready to break, the curvature is as the
invcl'fely> and the defledion is as the fquare of the
hf* fuhjeft ^ength divided by the depth ; for the ultimate curvature at
iford the the breaking part is the fame whatever is the length ; and
neft me- in this cafe the defledion is as the fquare of the length,
hods of ex- \yc ]iave ^ more particular in our confideration
relawfof fuhjed, becaufe the refulting theorems afford us the
^rpufeuiar hneft methods of examining the laws of corpufcular adion,
ftion. that is, for difeovering the variation of the force of cohelion
by a change of diftance. It is true it is not the atomical
law, or Hylarchic Principle as it may juftly be called,
which is thus made acceffible, but the fpecific law of the
particles of the fubftance or kind of matter under examina¬
tion. But even this is a very great point; and coinciden¬
ces in this refped among the different kinds of matter are
of great moment. We may thus learn the nature of the
corpufcular adion of different fubftances, and perhaps ap¬
proach to a difeovery of the mechan'ifm of chemical affini¬
ties. For that chemical adions are infenfible cafes of local
motion is undeniable, and local motion is the province of
mechanical dilcuffion; nay, we fee that thefe hidden
changes are produced by mechanical forces in many impor¬
tant cafes, for we fee them promoted or prevented by means
purely mechanical. The converfion of bodies into elaftic
vapour by heat can at all times be prevented by a fujjicient
external preffure. A ftrong folution of Glauber’s fait will
congeal in an inftant by agitation, giving out its latent
beat; and it will remain fluid for ever, and return its latent
heat in a clofe velfel which it completely fills. Even wa¬
ter will by fuch treatment freeze in an inftant by agitation,
or remain fluid for ever by confinement. We know that
heat is produced or extricated by fridion, that certain
compounds of gold or filver with faline matters explode
with irrehftible violence by the fmalleft preffure or agita¬
tion. Such fads fhould roufe the mathematical pliilofo-
pher, and excite him to follow out the conjectures of the il-
luftrious Newton, encouraged by the ingenious attempts of
Bofcovich; and the proper beginning of this ftudy is to
attend to the laws of attraction and repulfion exerted by
the particles of cohering bodies, difcoverable by experiments
made on their adual extenfions and compreffions
S T K
The cycloid, the catenaria, the elaftic Strength of
Curve, the velaria, the cauftics, were reckoned an abundant
recompenfe for much ftudy ; and James Bernoulli requefted, ¥ J
as an honourable monument, that the logarithmic fpiral
might be inferibed on his tombftone. The reward for the
ftudy to which we now prefume to iricite the mathemati¬
cians is the almoft unlimited extenfion of natural fcience,
important in every particular branch. To go no further
than our prefent fubjed, a great deal of important pradi-
cal knowledge refpeding the ftrength of bodies is derived
from the fingle obfervation, that in' the moderate exten-
Irons which happen before the parts are overftrained the
forces are nearly in the proportion of the extenfions or fepa«
rations ©f the particles. To return to our fubjed.
James Bernoulli in his fecound differtation on the elaftic Bernoulli
curve, calls in queftion this law, and accommodates his in-calls,!n
veftigation to any hypothefis concerning the relation of the
forces and extenfions. He relates fome experiments of
lute firings where the relation was confiderably different.
Strings of three feet long,
Stretched by 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 pds.
Were lengthened 9, 17, 23, 27, 30 lines.
But this is a moft exceptionable form of the experiment. The
firings were twifted, and the mechanifm of the extenfions is
here exceedingly complicated, combined with compreffions and
with tranfverfe twifts, &c. We made experiments on fine flip*
of the gum caoutchouc, and on the juice of the berries of the
white bryony, of which a fingle grain will draw to a thread of
two feet long, and again return into a perfedly round fphere» '
We meafured the diameter of the thread by a microfcope with
a micrometer, and thus could tell in every Hate of extenfion
the proportional number of particles in the fedlions. We
found, that though the whole range in which the diftance
of the particles was changed in the proportion of 13 to
1, the extenfions did not fmjibly deviate from the pro¬
portion of the forces. The fame thing was obferved in the
caoutchouc as long as it perfe&ly recovered its firft dimen-
fions. And it is on the authority of thefe experiments that
we prefume to announce this as a law of nature. 7*
Hr Robert Hooke was undoubtedly the firft who attend-Which was
ed to this fubjeft, and affumed this as a law of nature.
Mariotte indeed was the firft who exprefsly ufed it for Hooke,
termining the ftrength of beams : this he did about the
1679, correcting the fimple theory of Galileo. Leibnitz
indeed, in his differtation in the A8a Erudtiorum 1684 de
Rejijlentia Solidorum, introduces this confideration, and
wifhes to be confidered as the difeoverer; and he is always
acknowledged as fuch by the Bernoullis and others who adhe¬
red to his peculiar doftrines. ButMarriotte had publiflied the
doftrine in the moft exprefs terms long before ; and Bulfin-
ger, in the Comment. Petropol. 1729, completely vindicates his
claim. But Hooke was unqueftionably the difeoverer of this
law. It made the foundation of his theory of fprings, announ¬
ced to the Royal Society about the year 1661, and read in
1666. On this cccafion he mentions many things on the
ftrength of bodies as quite familiar to his thoughts, which
are immediate dedudions from this principle; and among
The ex-
penments of fimple extenfions and compreffions are quite -     «... r .r„ ,    
in u cient, becaufe the total ftretching of a wire is fo fmall, thefe all the fads which John Bernoulli fo vauntingly adduces
a quantity, that the miftake of the loocth part of an inch in fupport of Leibnitz’s finical dogmas about the force of bo-
occahons an irregularity which deranges any progreflion
fo as to make it ufelefs. But by the bending of bodies, a
1 enfion of T55th of an inch may be eafily magnified in
the defleClion . of the fpring ten thoufaad times. We
know that the inveftigation is intricate and difficult, but not
beyond the reach of our prefent mathematical attainments ;
vei7 ^ne opportunities of employing all the
C 8 ? analyfis. In the lait century and the beginning of
t e prefent this was a fufficient excitement to the
firft ge-
dies in motion ; a dodtrine which Hooke might have claimed
as his own, had he not perceived its frivolous inanity.
But even with this firft correction of Marriotte, the me-
• • J corrected
chanifm of. tranlverfe ftram is not fully nor juftly explain-jviari-
ed. The force adting in the diredtion BP (fig. 5. n° 1.), andotteitdoe*
bending the body ABCH, not only ftretches the fibres onjlot proper,
the fide oppofite to the axis of fradture, but compreffes thej^**^1^
fide AB, which becomes concave by the {train. Indeed itnifm 0f
cannot do the one without doing the other; For in order tranfverfs
C 2 tohrain,
S T R r 2° 1 ,
Strength nf to ftretch the fibres at D, there mud be Come fulcrum, feme quite accidental
Materials. fUpport, on which the virtual lever BAD may prefs, that
* it may tear afunder the ftretched fibres. I his fulcrum
xnuft. fuftain both the preffure arifing from the cohefion of
the diftended fibres, and alfo the aftion of the external
force, which immediately tends to caufe the prominent
part of the beam to Hide alon.j the fe&ion DA. Let BAD
(fig- S’ n° I-) fie confidered as a crooked lever, of which
A is the fulcrum. Let an external force be applied at B
in the dire&ion BP, and let a force equal to the accumu¬
lated cohefion of AD be applied at O in the dire&ion op-
pofite to AB, that is, perpendicular to AO ; and let thefe
two forces be fuppofed to balance each other by the inter¬
vention of the lever. In the hrlt place, the force at O muft.
foe to the force at B as AB to AO : Thetefore, if we make
AK equal and oppofite to AO, and AL equal andoppofite
to AB, the common principles of mechanics inform us
that the fulcrum A is affe&ed in the fame manner as if the
two forces AK and AL were immediately applied to it,
the force AK being equal to the weight P, and AL equal
to the accumulated cohefion actually exerted in the inftant
of fra&ure. The fulcrum is therefore really preffed in the
dire&ion AM, the diagonal of the parallelogram, and it
muft refill in the dire&ion and with the force MA ; and
this power of refiftance, this fupport, muft be furnilhed by
the repulfive forces exerted by thoje particles only which are
in a ftate of a&ual compreffion. The force AK, which is,
equal to the external force P, muft be refilled in the direc¬
tion KA by the lateral cohefion of the whole particles
between D and A (the particle D is not only drawn
forward but downward). This prevents the part CDAB
73 from Hiding down along the fedtion DA.
As is fully This is fully verified by experiment. If we attempt to
Hip of cork, or any fuch very compreflible
experi-1 ^ break a long
ment
body, we always obferve it to bulge out on. the concave
fide before it cracks on the other fide. If it is a body of
fibrous or foliated texture, it feldom fails fplintering off on
the concave fide ; and in many cafes this fplintering is very
deep, even reaching half way through the piece. In hard
and granulated bodies, fuch as a piece of freellone, chalk,
dry clay, fugar, and the like, we generally fee a confiderable
fplinter or Ihiver fly off from the hollow fide. If the frac¬
ture be flowly made by a force at B gradually augmented,
the formation of the fplinter is very diftin&ly feen. It
forms a triangular piece like a \ b, which generally breaks
in the middle. We doubt not but that attentive obferva-
tion would fliow that the dire&ion of the crack on each
fide of I is not very different from the dire&ion xAM and
its correfpondent ©n the other fide. This is by no means a
circumftance of idle curiofity, but intimately conne&ed with
the mechanifm of cohefion.
Let us fee what confequences refult from this ftate of the
cafe refpe&ing the ftrength of bodies. Let D A KC (fig. 6.)
reprefent a veitical fe&ion of a prifm of comprefiible mate-
ef the cafe, rials, fuch as a piece of timber. Suppofe it loaded with a
weight P hung at its extremity. Suppofe it of fuch a con-
ftitution that all the fibres in AD are in a ftate of dilata¬
tion, while thofe in A a are in a ftate of compreflion. In
the inftant of fra&ure the particles at D and E are with-held
by forces D <f, E e, and the particles at A and E repel, re-
fift, or fupport, with forces A E f.
Some line, fpeh as A £ L will limit all thefe ordinates,
which reprefent the forces a&ually exerted in the inftant of
fra&ure. If the forces are as the extenfions and compref-
fions, as we have great reafon to believe, r/e A and A* ^
will be two ftraight lines. They will form one ftraight line
d A j, if the forces which refill a certain dilatation are equal
to the forces which refill an equal compreflion. J3ut this is
74
Confequen
ces refult-
ing from
the ftate
S T R
and is not ftri&ly true in any body. In Strength ei
moft bodies which have any confiderable firmnefs, Ihe com- '
preffions made by any external force are not fo great as the
dilatations which the fame force would produce ; that is,
the repulfions which are excited by any fuppoled degree of
compreffion are greater than the attra&ions excited by the
fame degree of dilatation. Hence it will generally follow,
that the^angle AD is lefs than the angle j A a, and the
ordinates D E f, &c. are lefs than the correfponding or¬
dinates a E t, See.
But whatever be the nature of the line d A ,f, we are cer¬
tain of this, that the whole area AD d is equal to the whole
area A a J: for as the force at B is gradually increafed, and
the parts between A and. D are more extended, and greater
cohefive forces are excited, there is always fuch a degree of
repulfive forces excited in the particles between A and A
that the one fet precifely balances the othei. 1 he force at
B, a&ing perpendicularly to AB, has no tendency to pufli
the whole piece clofer on the part next the wall or to pull
it away. The fum of the attra&ive and repuliive forces
a&ually excited muft therefore be equal. 1 iiefe fums are
reprefented by the two triangular areas, which are therefore
equal..
The greater we fuppofe the repulfive forces correfpond¬
ing to any degree of compreffion, in compavifon with the
attra&ive forces correfponding to the fame degree of exten-
fxon, the fmaller will A a be in comparifon of AD. In a
piece of cork or fponge, A a may chance to be equal t0
AD, or even to exceed it; but in a piece of marble, A a
will perhaps be very fmall in companion of AD. . _ 75
Now it is evident that the repulfive forces excited be- An impor.
tween A and a have no fhare in preventing the fra&ure. tant confe-
They rather contribute to it, by furnifhing a fulcrum ^°^ecom-
thc lever, by whofe energy the cohefion of the particies iRpreflibilityj
ad is overcome. Hence we fee an important confequence of body
of the compreffibility of the body. Its power of reiifting fully pro-
this tranfverfe ftrain is diminifhed by it, and fo much the ved*
more diminifhed as the fluff is more compreflible.
This is fully verified by fome very curious experiments
made by Du Hamel. He took 16 bars of willow 2 feet
long and f an inch fquare, and fupporting them by props
under the ends, he broke them by weights hung on the
middle. He broke 4 of them by weights of 40, 41, 47,
and 52 pounds : the mean is 45* then cut 4 °f trrem
•yd through on the upper fide, and filled up the cut with a
thin piece of harder wood fluck in pretty tight, ihefe
were broken by 4^> 54> anc^ 5^ pounds ; the mean of
which is 51. He cut other four i through, and they were
broken by 47, 49, 5^’ 4b> mean of which is 4b- I he
remaining four were cut yds; and their mean ftrength was 42.
Another fet of his experiments is flill more remarkable.
Six battens of willow 36 inches long and It fquare were
broken by 525 pounds at a medium.
Six bars were cut yd through, and the cut filled with a
wedge ©f hard wood fluck in with a little force: thefe broke
with 551.
Six bars were cut half through, and the cut was filled
in the fame manner : they broke with 542-
Six bars were cut |ths through : thefe broke with 530.
A batten cut |ths through, and loaded till nearly broken,
was unloaded, and the wedge taken out of the cut. A
thicker wedge was put in tight, fo as to make the batten
ftraight again by filling up the fpace left by the compref-
fion of the wood : this batten broke with 577 pounds.
From this it is plain that more than yds of the thicknefs
(perhaps nearly ^ths) contributed nothing to the ftrength.
The point A is the centre of fra&ure in this cafe j and
ia order to eftimate the ftrength of the piece, we may fup-
- " pole
S T R r
rength cfpofe that the crooked lever virtually concerned in the ftrain
tatcrials. WTe mult find the point I, which is the centre
' of effort of all the attractive forces, or that point where the
full cohefion of AD mult be applied, fo as to have a mo¬
mentum equal to the accumulated momenta of all the variable
forces. We mud in like manner find the centre of effort i
of the repulfive or fupporting forces exerted by the fibres
lying between A and
It is plain, and the remark is important, that this lafl
centre of effort is the real fulcrum of the lever, although A
ts the point where there is neither extenfion nor contraction;
for the lever is fupported in the fame manner as ii the repul-
fions of the whole line A A were exerted at that point. There¬
fore let S reprefent the furface of fracture from A to D, and
y reprefent the abfolute cohefion of a fibre at D in the in-
ftant of fracture. We {hall haveyS X I -f- < — p /, or I: I
*+■ 1 =/S :p ; that, is, the length AB is to the diltance be¬
tween the two centres of effort I and /, as the abfolute cohe-
fion of the feftion between A and D is to the relative
ftrer.gth of the feddion.
It would be perhaps more accurate to make AI and At
equal to the diftances of A from the horizontal lines pafling
through the centres of gravity of the triangles dAD and
$ A It is only in this conftru&ion that the points I
and 1 are the centres of real effort of the accumulated at-
tra&ions and repulfions. But I and i, determined as we
have done, are the points where the full, equal, a&ions may
be all applied, fo as to produce the fame momenta. The
final refults are the fame in both cafes. The attentive and
duly informed reader will fee that Mr Bulfinger, in a very
elaborate differtation on the ftrength of beams in the Com¬
ment. Pet I opolihm. 1729, has committed feveral mi Hakes in
his eflimation of the aftions of the fibres. We mention this
becaufe his reafonings are quoted and appealed to as autho¬
rities by Mufchenbroek and other authors of note. The
fobjecl has been confidered by many authors on the conti¬
nent. Wc recommend to the reader’s perufal the very mi¬
nute difcuflions in the Memoirs of the Academy of Paris for
1702 by Varignon, the Memoirs for 1708 by Parent, and
particularly that of Coulomb in the Mem. par let Spavans
£trangers, tom. vii.
It is evident, from what has been far'd above, that if S
and s reprefent the furfaces of the feftions above and below
A, and ir o- and^ are the difiances of their centres of gravity
from A, and O and 0 the dittances of their centres of ofcil-
lation, and D and d their whole depths, the momentum of
cohefion will be
/S-G-0
76
ns confe-
encefar-
:r ex.
uncd.
±1
D T d -pi.
If (as is moft likely) the forces are proportional to the
extenlions and compreffions, the diftances AI and At, which
Gr*0 ^
are refpeaively = and are refpeaively = 4 D A,
and y a A ; and when taken together are = 4 D A.
moreover, the extenfions are equal to the compreflions in the*
mftant of fraaure, and the body is a reaangular prifm like
a common joift or beam, then DA and a A are alfo
equal; and therefore the momentum of cohefion is fby.-d
fbd* J
d, — —, — f b dy,^ d =r pi. Hence we obtain
this analogy, “ Six times the length is to the depth as the
ablolute cohefion of the feaion is to its relative ftrength.”
Phus we fee that the compreflibibty of bodies has a very
great influence on their power of withftanding a tranfverfe
ftrain. _ We fee that in this moft favourable fuppofition of
equal dilatations and comprefiions, the ilrength is reduced to
one half of the value of what it would have been had
* ie been incoropreffible. This is by no means
21 ] S T R
obvious; for it does not readily appear how compreilibi-Strength of
lity, which does not diminifh the cohefion of a Angle i-MaCemly
fibre, fliould impair the ftrength of the whole. The v—i>
reafon, however, is fufhciently convincing when pointed
out. In the inftant of frafture a imaller portion of the fec-
tion is actually exerting cohefive forces, while a part of it is
only ferving as a fulcrum to the lever, by whofe means the
ftrain on the feftion is produced. We fee too that this '
diminution of ftrength does not fo much depend on the fen-
fible compreffibility, as on its proportion to the dilatability
by equal forces. When this proportion is fmall, A a is
fmall in comparifon of AD, and a greater portion of the
whole fibre is exerting attra&ive forces. The experiments
already mentioned of Du Hamel de Monceau on battens of
willow fhow that its cempreffibility is nearly equal to its dU
latability. But the cafe is not very different in tempered
fteel. The famous Harrifon, in the delicate experiments
which he made while occupied in making his longitude
watch, difeovered that a rod of tempered fteel was nearly as
much diminifhed in its length as it was augmented by the
fame external force. But it is not by any means certain,
that this is the proportion of dilatation and compreftiora
which obtains in the very inftant of frafture. We rather
imagine that it is not. The forces are nearly as the dilata¬
tions till very near breaking ; but we thinklhat they dimi¬
nifh when the body is juft going to break. But it feems
certain that the forces which refill comprefiion increafe faft-
er than the compreflions, even before frafture. We know
inconteftably that the ultimate refiftances to comprefiion are
infuperable by any force which we can employ. The re¬
pulfive forces therefore (in their whole extent) increafe fafter,"
than the compreflions, and are expreffed by an affyniptotiV
branch of the Bofcovician'curve formerly explained. It is
therefore probable, eipecially in the more limple fubftancesc,
that they inefeafe fafter, even in fuch compreflions as fre¬
quently obtain in the breaking of hard bodies. We are
difpofed to think that this is always the cate in fuch bodies
as do not fly off in fplinters on the concave fide ; but this
muft be underftood with the exception of the permanent
changes which may be made by compreflion, when the bo¬
dies are crippled by it. This always increafes the dompref-
fion itfelf, and caufes the neutral point to fhift ftill more to¬
wards D. lire effect of this is fometimes very great and fatal.
Experiment alone can help us to difeover (he proportion
between the dilatability and comprefiibility of bodies. The
ftrain now under confiderafion feems the beft calculated foe
this refearch. Thus if we find that a piece of wood an inclt
fquare requires (2,000 pounds to tear it a funder by a dire£fc
pull, and that 200 pounds will break it tranfverfely by a£t-
ing 10 inches from the fe&ion of fradure, we muft con¬
clude that the neutral point A is in the middle pf the depth,
and that the attradive and repulfive forces are eqyal. Any
notions that we can form of the conftitution of fuch fibrous,
bodies as timber, make us imagine that the fenfible compref¬
fions, including what arifes from the bending up of the com-
preffed fibres, is much greater than the real corpufcular ex- -
tenfions. One may get a general convidion of this unex-
peded propofition by refleding on what muft happen du¬
ring the fradure. An undulated fibre can only be drawn
ftraight, and then the corpufcular extenfion begins ; but it.
may be bent up byr compreflion to any degree, the corpuf¬
cular compreflion being little affeded all the while. This-
obfervation is very important; and though the forces of
corpufcular repulfion maybe almoft infuperable by anycom-
preffion that we can employ, a fenfible compreflion may be
produced by forces not enormous, fuflieient to cripple the.
beam. Of this we Ihsll fee very important inftances after- •
wards.
Ik
S T ft [ 2
Strength of Tt dcferves to be noticed, that although the relative
,Ma emls. ^iengt:tl 0f a priTmatic folid is extremely different in the
three hypothefes now conlidered, yet the proportional
The pro- ft lengths of different pieces follow the fame ratio ; namely,
portional the dire& ratio of the breadth, the diredf ratio of the fquare
ilrengtns ofQf the depth, and the inverfe ratio of the length. In the
pieces f 1- hrft hypothefis (of equal forces) the ftrength of a rectangular
J()W J) (fo #
fame ra- beam was -—j ; in the fecond (of attractive forces propor-
£'0 ^ ^ f b (fa
tional to the extenfions) it was-'-—; and in the third (equal
3 /
attractions and repulfions proportional to the extenfions and
fbd* f b ik .
compremons) it was > or more generally yy> where
m exprefies the unknown proportion between the attractions
and repullions eorrefponding to an equal extenlion and com-
y3 preffion.
‘Tfhe Hence we derive a piece of ufeful information, which is
ftrtngth^of conf5rmej gy vrnexcepted experience, that the ftrength
pends chief-a-piece depends chiefly on its depth, that is, on that di-
ly on its
depth.
79
And there¬
fore a
in which
the cohe*
id on is op*
.jtofed to
the flrarn*
menlion which is in the direction of the {train. A bar of
timber of one inch in breadth and two inches in depth is
four times as ftrong as a bar of only one inch deep, and it
is twice as ftrong as a bar two inches broad and one deep ;
that is, a joift or lever is always ftrongeft when laid on its
■edge.
There is therefore a choice in the manner in which the
choice in cohefian is oppofed to the ftrarn. The general aim muft be
the manner put the centre of effort I as far from the fulcrum or the
neutral point A as poffible, fo as to give the greateft energy
or momentum to the coheflon. Thus if a triangular bar
projecting from a wall is loaded with a weight at its extre¬
mity, it will bear thrice as much when one of the hides is
mppermoft as when it is undermoft. The bar of fig. 5. nB 2.
would be three times as ftrong if the fide AB were upper-
moft and the edge DC' undermoft.
Hence it follows that the ftrongeft ioift that can be cut
■clt joiithas . » ^
*iot the Qtrt of a round tree is not the one which has the greatelt
greateft quantity of timber in it, but fuch that the produft of its
quantity of breadth by the fquare of its depth Ihall be the greateft pof-
Jible. Let A BCD (fig. 7.) be the fe&ion of this joift in-
fcribed in the circle, AB being the breadth and AD the
depth. Since it is a reftangular feftion, the diagonal BD
is a diameter of the circle, and BAD is a right angled tri¬
angle. Let BD be called a, and BA be called x ; then
AD is = Vc?—sc2. Now we muft have AB X AD2,
«r xXaz — x1, or a* x — x3, a maximum. Its fluxion
Ma-triali,
2 3 S T R
diameters and C the centre. Draw BD pcrpendiculai* to Strength of
BC, and join DC. Then, becaufe BD2 —CD2 — CB%
BD is the radius of a circle containing the fame quantity of
matter with the ring. If we eftimate the ftrength by the
firft hypothefis, it is evident that the ftrength of the'tube
will be to that of the folid cylinder, whofe radius is BD, as
BD2 X AC to BDZ X BD ; that is, as AC to BD : for
BD2 expreffes the cohefion of the ring or the circle, and
AC and BD are equal to the diftances of the centres of ef¬
fort (the fame with the centres of gravity) of the ring and
circle from the axis of frafhire.
The proportion of thefe {Lengths will be different in the
other hypothefes, and is not ealily expreffed by a general
formula ; but in both it is ftill more in favour of the ring or
hollow tube.
The following very fimple folution will be readily un-
derftood by the intelligent reader. Let O be the centre of
ofcillation of the exterior circle, 0 the centre of ofcillation
of the inner circle, and iu the centre of ofcillation of the
ring included between them. Let M be the quantity of
furface of the exterior circle, m that of the inner circle, and
that of the ring.
M-FO—rc-Fo 5FC2 -4-EC'
We have F w — , = 717n
h- 41 C
and
the ftrength of the ring
__ yV X F ‘iu
and the ftrength of
the fame quantity of matter in the form of a folid cylinder
is/-* X BD ; lo that the ftrength of the ring is to that of
the folid rod of equal weight as F w to B D, or nearly as
FC to BD. This will eafily appear by recollecting that
FO is = (fee Rotation), and that the mo*
Fo
FC
x—-3X2 x muft be made = 0, or a1 =. 3 x% or x2 = -i.
3
If therefore we make DE = ^ DB, and draw EC perpen¬
dicular to BD, it will cut the circumference in the point C,
which determines the depth BC and the breadth CD.
Becaufe BD : BC = CD : CE, we have the area of the
feftion BC'CD — BD’CE. Therefore the different fec-
tions havrag the fame diagonal BIO are proportional to
their heights CE. Therefore the feftion BCDA is lefs
than the fedtion BrD o, whofe four fides are equal. The
joift fo fhaped, therefore, is both ftronger, lighter, and
s t cheaper.
A hollow The ftrength of A BCD is to that of <7 B it D as ic,coo
iubeflrong-to 9186, and the weight and expence as 10,000 to 10,607;
er than a fG that ABCD is preferable to 0 B c D in the proportion of
ecn'atmn0 * IO’^°7 to 9*^6, or nearly 1 15 to too.
the fame From the fame principles it follows that a hollow tube is
quantity of ftronger than a folid rod containing the fame quantity of
matter, matter. Let fig. 8. reprefent the fedlion of a cylindric
. tube, of which AF and BE are the exterior and interior
mentum of cohefion is for the inner
2FC 2
circle, &c. *
Emerfon has given a very inaccurate approximation to
this value in his Mechanics) qto.
This property of hollow tubes is accompanied alfo with And mart
greater ftiffnefs ; and the fupcriority in ftrength and ftiffnefs
is fo much the greater as the furrounding ihell is thinner in
proportion to its diameter.
Here we fee the admirable wifdom of the Author ofjjenccthe
nature in forming the bones of animal limbs hollow. The wiflom of
bones of the arms and legs have to perform the office of le-kodin
vers, and are thus oppofed to very great tyanfverfe ftrains. By
this form they become incomparably ftronger and Itifter, hojow.
and give more room for the inleYtion of rr-ufcles, while they
are lighter and therefore more agile ; and the fame WH-
dom has made ufe of this hollow for other valuable purpofes
of the animal economy. In like manner the quills in the
wings of birds acquire by their thinneis the very great
ftrength which is neceffary, while they are fo light as to
give fufficient buoyancy to the animal in the rare medium
in which it mult live and fly about. The ftalks of many
plants, fuch as all the graffes, and many reeds, are in like
manner hollow, and thus poffefs an extraordinary ftrength.
Our belt engineers now begin to imitate nature by making
many parts of their machines hollow, fuch as their axles ot
caft iron, &c. ; and the ingenious Mr Ramfden now makes
the axes and framings of his great aitronomical inftruments
in the fame manner.
In the fuppolltion of homogeneous texture, it is plain
that the fradture happens as foon as the particles at D are
feparated beyond their utmoft limit of cohefion. This is a
determined quantity, and the piece bends till this degree of
extenfion is produced in the outermoft fibre. It follows,
that the fmalkr we fuppofe the diftance between A and D,
the
Fip-
84
How a
S T R fa
tj ^
,, <5ti,enjth of tKc greater will be the curvature which the beam will ac-
1* Material}. qU{re before it breaks. Greater depth therefore makes a
^ ' * beam not only ttronger but alfo ftiffer. But if the parallel
fibres can Aide on each other, both the ftrength and the
ftiffnefs will be diminifhed. Therefore if, inftead of one
beam D ^ KC, we fuppofe two, DABC and A a KB, not
cohering, each of them will bend, and the extenfion of the
„ fibres AB of the under beam will not hinder the compref-
compound flon ^ ^e adjoining fibres AB of the upper beam. The
beam may two together therefore will not be more than twice as
fee formed, firong as one ef them (fuppofing DA = A a) inilead of
being four times as flrong ; and they will bend as much as
either of them alene would bend by half the load. This
may be prevented, if it were poflible to unite the two beams
all along the learn AB, fotbat the one fhall not Aide on the
other. This may be done in fmall works, by gluing them
together with a cement as ftrong as the natural lateral co-
hefion of the fibres. If this cannot be done (as it cannot
in large works), the Aiding is prevented by joggling the
beams together ; that is, by cutting down feveral rectangu¬
lar notches in the upper fide of the lower beam, and making
fimilar notches in the under fide of the upper beam, and
filling up the. fquare fpaces with pieces ef very hard wood
firmly driven in, as reprefented in fig. p. Some employ
iron bolts by way of joggles. But when the joggle is much
harder than the wood into which it is driven, it is very apt
».o woik loofe, by widening the hole into which it is lod¬
ged. 1 he fame thing is fometimes done by fcarfing tire one
upon the other, as reprefented in fig. 9. (^2.); but this waftes
more timber, and is not fo ftrong, becaufe the mutual hooks
which this method forms on each beam are very apt to tear
each other up. By one or other of thefe methods, or fome-
thmg fimilar, may a compound beam be formed, of any
depth, which will be almoft as iliff and ftrong as an entire
piece.
On the other hand, we may combine ftrength with pli-
ablenefs, by compoiing our beam of feveral thin planks laid
on each other, till they make a proper depth, and leaving
t icm at full liberty to Aide on each other. It is in this
manner that coach-lprings are formed, as is reprefented in
g. 10. In this afTemblage there muft be no joggles nor
bolts of any kind put through the planks or plates; for
this would hinder their mutual Aiding. They muft be
kept together by ftraps which furround them, or bv ibme-
tning equivalent.
The preceding obfervations fhow the propriety of fame
maxims of .conltruftion, which the artifts have derived from
long experience.
Thus, if a mortife is to be cut out of apiece which is ex-
po ed to a crofs ftrain, it fhould be cut out from that fide
which becomes concave by the ftrain, as in fig. u. but by
no means as in fig. 12. j
If a piece is to be ftrengtbened by the addition of ano¬
ther, the added piece muft be joined to the fide which grows
convex by the ftrain, as in fig. 13. and 14. b
t ore we go any farther, it will be convenient to recal
the reader s attention to the analogy between the ftrain on
a beam projedma from a wall and loaded at the extremity,
and a beam fupported at both ends and loaded in feme iu-
an^nt T P°w - ?,.,S fufficient on this °ccafion to read
attentively what is delivered in the article Roofr, na rq.—
We learn there that the ftVain on the middle point C (fig.
nortef ^ Prtfent T,cIe> °f a reasn&“lar beam AB, fup-
pSeTr0158 ^ u "I B’ 18 the fa-e as part CA
weiht W SeiidTd’a" ^ ^ °f the
b impended at A. I he momentum of the ftrain
“ iWxiAE, „rri.
ft
I 85
: How
I ftrength
may he
| combined
With plia-
| feienefs.
S6
I Maxims of
jeonftruc-
I lion.
1 ] S T R
The momentum of cohefion mufl be equal to this in every Strength nt
hypothefis. Materials,
Having now confidered in fufficient detail the circum- *
ftances which afFed the ftrength of any fedion of a folid
body that i* {trained traniverfely, it is neceflary to take no¬
tice of fome of the chief modifications of the ftrain itfelf.
We fiiall confider only thofe that occur moft frequently in
our conftrudions.
The ftrain depends on the external force, and alfo on the
lever by which it ads.
It is evidently of importance, that fince the ftrain is ex- Theft^a,'*
erted in .any fedion by means of the cohefion of the parts depends ora
intervening between the fedioft under confideration and the die exter-
point of application of the external force, the body muft benal
able in all thefe intervening parts to propagate or excite the
ftrain in the remote fedion. In.every part it muft be able
to refill the ftrain excited in that part. It Aiould therefore
be equally ftrong; and it is ufelefs to have any part ftrong-
er, becauie the piece will neverthelefs break where it is not
ftronger throughout .; and it is ufelefs to make it ftronger
(relatively, to its ftrain) in any part, for it will neverthelefs
equally fail in the part that is too weak.
buppofe then, in the firft place, that the ftrain arifes
from, a weight fufpended at one extremity, while the other
end is fiimly fixed in a wall, fcuppoimg alfo the crofs lec¬
tions to be all redangular, there are feveral ways of Aiaping
the beam fo that it ftiall be equally ft’rong throughout.
T-hus it may he equally deep in every part, the upper and
under furfaces being horizontal planes. The condition will
be fulfilled by making all the horizontal fedions triangles,
as in fig. 15. 7 he two fides are vertical planes meeting in
an Ci.ge at the extremity D. lor the equation exprefling the
balance offtrain and' ftrength is = fbdx. Tharefore
fince d 1 is the fame throughout, and al'fo p, we muft have
Jb — l, and b (the breadth AD of any fedion ABCD)
muft he proportional to / (or AL), which it evidently is.
Or, it the beam be of uniform breadth, we muft have d1'
everywhere proportional to /. This will be obtained by
making the depths the ordinates of a common parabola, of
which L. is the vertex and the length is the axis. The
upper.or under fide may be a ftraight line, as in fig. 16. or
the middle line may be ftraight, and then both upper and
under fur&ces will be curved. It is almoft indifferent what
is the ftiape of the upper and under furfaces, provided the-
diftances between them in ever/ part be as the ordinates of
a common parabola.
Or, if the fedions are all fimilar, fuch as circles, fquares,
or any other fimilar polygons, we muft have d ' or b * pro¬
portional to /, avid the depths-or breadths muft be as the or¬
dinates of a cubical parabola..
It is evident that thefe are alfo the proper forms for aAndtfn the
ever movcaole round a fulcrum, and afted on by a force at form of the
toe extremity. The force comes in the place of the weightievers
fufpended in the cafes already confidered ; and as fuch levers"^ U
always are conneded with another arm, we readily fee that **
both arms fliould be faftiioned in the fame manner. Thus
n 1 tPe piece tim,Der ma7 be fuppofed a kind of
fteelyard, moveable round a horizontal axis OP, in the front
of.the wall, and having the two weights P and ^ in equili-
bruv The ftrain.. occasioned by each at the fedion in which
the axis OP is placed muft he the fame, and each arm OL.
and O x muft be equally ftrong in all its parts. The Ion*
gltudirnl fedions of each arm muft be a triangle, a common
parabola, or a cubic parabola,, according to the conditions
previoufly given.
> And, moreover, all thefe forms are equally ftrong : For
any one of them is equally ftrong in all its parts, and they
aie all fuppofed to have the fame fedion.at the front of the
6 wall
s
89
The exter¬
nal ftrain-
in^ force
may he di-
flributed
over the
beam.
Jt wall.
T R t H
•Str.mt}. of wall or St tlie fulcrum. They are not, however, equally
• Materials. 'fhe firft, reprefented in fig. 15. will bend lealt
" upon tlie whole, and the one formed by the cubic pai abo a
will bend moft. But their curvature at the very fulcrum
-will be the fame in all. „ , „ , ...
It is alfo plain, that if the lever is of the fecond or third
‘kind, that is, having the fulcrum at one extremity, it mult
ftillbe of the fame lhape ; for in abltrad inechamcs it is
indifferent which of the three points is confidcred as the
axis of motion. In every lever the two forces at the extre¬
mities add in one direction, and the force in the middle acts
in the oppofite direction, and the great ftrain is always at
- that point. Therefore a lever fuch as fig. 15. moveable
round an axis palling horizontally through A, and ailing
againft an obffacle at OP, is equally able in all its parts to
•refill the ftrains excited in thofe parts.
The fame principles and the fame cbnfixtnflion will apply
to beams, fuch as joifts, fupported at the ends L and x (fig-
15.), and loaded at fome intermediate part OP.. This will
appear evident by merely inverting the directions of the
forces at thefe three points, or by recurring to the article
Roofs, n° 19.
Hitherto we have fuppofed the external {training force as
ailing only in one point of the beam. But it may be uni¬
formly dillributed all over the beam. To make a beam in
fuch circumftances equally ftrong in all its parts, the lhape
mull be conliderably different from the former.
Thus fuppofe the beam to project from a wall.
9° If it be of equal breadth throughout, its fides being verti-
beamitrong'cal planes parallel to each other and to the length, the ver-
which pjo- tical fe&ion in the direftion of its length mull be a triangle
jjefts from jnftead of a common parabola ; for the weight uniformly
dillributed over the part lying beyond any feilion, is as the
length beyond that feilion : and fince it may all be con¬
ceived as colle&ed at its centre of gravity., which is the
middle of that length, the lever by which this load a&s or
ftrains the feftion is alfo proportional to the fame length.
The ftrain on the fe&ion (or momentum of the load) is as
the fquare of that length. The fe&ion mull have ftrength
an the fame proportion. Its ftrength being as. the breadth
and the fquare of the depth, and the breadth being conftant,
the fquare of the depth of any fe&ion mull be as the fquare of
its diftance from the end, and the depth mull be as. that di-
ftance ; and therefore the longitudinal vertical fe&ion mull
be a triangle.
But if all the tranfverfe fe&ions are circles, fquares, or
any other limtlar figures, the llrength of every fe&ion, or
the cube of the diameter, mitll be as the fquare of the
lengths beyond that fe&ion, or the fquare of its diffance
from the end ; and the iides of the beam mull be a femieu-
bical parabola.
If the upper and under furfaces are horizontal planes, it
is evident that the breadth mull be as the fquare of the di-
flance from the end, and the horizontal fe&ions may be form¬
ed by arches of the common parabola, having the; length for
their tangent at the vertex.
By recurring to the analogy fo often quoted between a
proje&ing beam and a joift, we may determine the proper
form of joitls which are uniformly loaded through their
whole length.
This is a frequent and important cafe, being the office of
joifts, rafters, &g. and there are fome circumftances which
mull be particularly noticed, becaule they are not fo obvi¬
ous, and have been nrifunderftood. When a beam AB
(fig- x7-) is fupported at the ends, and a weight is laid on
any point P, a 'llrain is excited in every part of the beam.
The load on P caufes the beam to prefs on A and B, and
.the props rea& with forces equal and oppofite to theie
1
S T R
nreffures. The load at P is to the preffures at A and B as Strength f,j
AB to PB and PA, and the preffures. at A is to that at tVlateml,-|
B as PB to PA ; the beam therefore is in the fame ftate,
wnth refpe& to' ftrain in every part of it, as if it were reft-
ing on a prop at P, and were loaded at the ends with
weights equal to the two preffures on. the props : and ob-
ferve, thefe preffures are fuch as will balance each other,
being inverfely as their diftances from P. Let P reprefent
the weight or load at P. The preffure on the prop P mull
PA
t p y —This is therefore the rea&ion of the prop B,
AB
and is the weight which we may fuppofe fufpended at B9
when we conceive the beam reding on a prop at P, and car¬
rying the balancing weights at A and B.
The drain occafioned at any other point C, by the load
P at P, is the fame with the ftrain at C, by the weight
p x hanging at B, when the beam refts on P, in the
manner now fuppofed; and it is the fame if the beam, in®
Head of being balanced on a prop at P, had its part AP
fixed in a wall. This is evident. Now we have ihown at
. , „ PA, .
length that the ftrain at C, by the weight P X ^ ^ hanging
PA
at B, is P X X BC. We defire it to be particularly
remarked that the preffure at A has no influence on the
ftrain at C, arifing from the a&ion of any load between A
and C ; for it is indifferent how the part AP of the projec¬
ting beam PB is fupported. The weight, at A juft per¬
forms the fame office with the wall in which we fuppofe tire
beam to be fixed. We are thus particular, becaufe we have
feen even perfons not unaccuftomed to difeuffions of this kind
puzzled in their conceptions of this ftrain.
Now let the load P be laid on fome point /> between C
and B. The fame reafoning Ihows us that the point is
(with refpe& to drain) in the fame .ftate as if the beam were
fixed in a wall, embracing the part p B, and a weight
^ B , «
= P X were hung on at A,
P B
P X X AC.
and the ftrain at C is
AB
In general, therefore, the llrain on any point C, arifing ^ gener;
from a load P laid on another point P, is proportional to propofi.
the re&angle of the diilances of P and C from the ends “om
PAxCB n /> B X CA
neareft to each. It is P X r-?; , or P X
_ 91
The ftrain
upon a
beam fup¬
ported at
both ends.
AB ’ ~ AB ’
according .as the load lies between C and A or between C
and B.
Cor. i. The ftrains which a load on any point P occa-
fions on the points C, c, lying on the fame fide of P, are as
the diftances of thefe points from the end B. In like man¬
ner the ftrains an E and e are as E A and e A.
Cor. 2. The ilraiu which a load occafions in the part on
which it refts is as the re&angle of the parts on each fide.
Thus the ftrain occafioned at C by a load is to that at 1)
by the fame load as AC X C1j to AL) X 13 B. It la there¬
fore greateft in the middle. . . 93
Let us now confider the ftrain on any point C arifing The ftra
from a load uniformly diftributed along the beam. Let
AP be reprefented by x, and P by x, and the whole weight diftrihut
on the beam by a- Then a'ong tl
J • beaai.
The weight on P/> is - = « A B*
Preffure on B by the weight on Pp = a JL. x
Ali AB
Or
S T R
C
trfrgth of
Materials
- - =5 <3 X X
Ab*
4-AC* AC1
Pref. on B by the whole wt. on AC = a~p^"=ZaYK^i>
AC2 XBC
Strain at C by the weight on AC =: a ———*
o . . BC2 X AC
Strain at C by the weight on BC ~ a —— ■
it vi • - . AC*xBC4-BC1XAC.
iJo. by the whole weight on AB =r a —"
; AB :
_ ^ AC X BC X AC-f-CB
a 2AB* ’
AC X BC
2AB
Thus w'e fee that the ftrain is proportional to the rec¬
tangle of the parts, in the fame manner as if the load a had
been laid direltly on the point C, and is indeed equal to
one-half of the drain which would be produced at C by the
load a laid on there.
tiftakes in. wa8 nece^'ary to be thus particular, becaufe we fee
iis ful)je6kjn f°me elementary treatifes of mechanics, publifhed by au-
immitted thors of reputation, millak.es which are very plaufible, and
author# ininead the learner. It is there faid, that the preflure at
reputa. from a weight uniformly dilfufed along AB is the lame
as if it were collefted at its centre of gravity, which would
be the middle of AB ; and then the drain at C is faid to
be this prelFure at B multiplied by BC. But furely it is
not difficult to lee the difference of thefe drains. It is plain
that the preffure of gravity downwards on any point be¬
tween the end A and the point C has no tendency to dimi-
nilh the drain at C, arifmg from the upward readfion of
the prop B ; whereas the preffure of gravity between C and
B is almod in direct oppolition to it, and mud diminifh it.
We may however avoid the fluxionary calculus with fafety by
the confideration of the centre of gravitv, by fuppoling the
weights of AC and BC to be colkaed at their refpedtive
centres of gravity ; and the refult of this computation will
be the fame as above : and we may ufe either method, al¬
though the weight is not uniformly didributed, provided
only that we know in what manner it is didributed.
, I his invellfgation is evidently of importance in the prac¬
tice of the engineer and architea, informing them what fup-
port is neceifary in the different parts of their conftruc-
tions. We confidered fome cafes of this kind in the article
95 Roofs.
ult°which r lt is, n.ow ea{y to form a that it fhall have the
ay have ^ame drength in all its parts.
efame re- f- make it equally able in all its parts to carry a given
rivefI, • SU,lald 0n any Poillt C taken at random, or uniformly
dfpart” d,ffu/ed °.ver *hc whole knKth> the drength of the feaion
1 1 P -at the point C muft be as AC X CB. Therefore
1. If the fides are parallel vertical planes, the fquare of
the depth (which is the only variable dfmenfiori) or CD\
muft1,beras AC X CB, and the depths mult be ordinates of
an elhpfe.
2. 11 the tranfverfe feftions are'fimflar, we mud make CD *
as AC X CB.
£ the AUPper and under Surfaces are parallel, the breadth
mud be as AC X CB.
II. If the beam is neceffarily loaded at fome given point
’ arlT TUId haVC the beam effually able ^ all its parts
to refid the drain anfing from the weight at C, we mud
-make the drength of every tranfverfe feaion between C and
cither end as its didance from that end. Therefore
11 fldeS are paraIlel vertical Plaiies» mud make
CD :KF* = AC; AE.
2. If the feftlons are fimilar, then CDJ ;EF3 — AC:AE.
Vol. XVIII. Part l.
25 1 S T R
3. II the upper and under furfaces are parallel, then, length of
breadth at C ; breadth at E = AC ; AE. Material#.
The fame principles enable us tq determine the drain and ^
drength of fquare or circular plates, of different extent, butThe {train
equal thicknefs. This may be comprehended in this generalaiid
propofition. ftrength of
Similar plates of equal thicknefs fupported all round will
carry the lame abfolute weight, uniformly diftributed, orplates of
reding on fimilar points, whatever is their extent. \ different
Suppofe two fimilar oblong plates of equal thicknefs, ande*tent’ bat
let their lengths and breadths be L, /, and B, b. Let their
drength or momentum of cohefion be C, r, and the drains may be de-
from the weights W, iv, be S, s. termined
Suppofe the plates fupported at the ends only, and f‘om the
refiding frafture tranfverfely. The drains, being as the^n^.I>rm“
weights and lengths, are as WL and w /,. but their coh«-C plCS’
fion are as the breadths; and fince they are of equal rela¬
tive drength, we have WL : <zy /= B ; and WL£=:
iv IB and L : /= w B : W £ : but fince they are of fimilar
fhapes L ; /~B : bt and therefore W.
The lame reafoning holds again when they are alfo fup¬
ported along the fideg, and therefore holds when they are
fupported allround (in which cafe the drength is doubled).
And if the plates are of any other figure, fuch as circles
or ellipfes, we need only conceive fimilar rectangles in-
fcribed in them. Thefe are lupported all round by the con¬
tinuity of the plates, and therefore will fudain equal
weights ; and the fame may be iaid of the fegments which
lie without.them, becaufe the drcngths of any fimilar feg¬
ments are equal, their lengths being as .their breadths.
Therefore the thicknefs of the bottoms of veffels holding
heavy liquors or grains (hould be as their diameters, and as
the Iquare root of their depths jointly.
Alio the weight which a fquare plate will bear is to that
which a bar of the fame matter and thicknefs will bear
as twice the length of the bar to its breadth.
There is yet another modification of the drain which Tbe ffrain
tends to break a body tranfverfely, which is of very fre-of a heanl
quent occurrence, and in fome cafes mud be very care- f
fully attended to, viz. the drain arifing from its own own1
weight. . v weight-
When a beam projefle from a wall, every fe&ion is drain¬
ed by the weight of all that projeAs beyond it. This may
be confidered as all collected at its centre of gravity.
Therefore the drain on any feAion is in the joint ratio of
the weight of what projeAs beyond it, and the didance of
its centre of gravity from the feAfon.
The determination of this drain and of the drength ne-
ceffary for withdanding it mud be more complicated than
the former, becaufe the form of the piece which refults
from this adjudment of drain and drength influences the
drain. The general principle mud evidently be, that the S>S
drength or momentum of cohefion of every feAion mudGeneraf
be as the produA of the weight beyond it multiplied by SSL
the didance of its centre of gravity. For example : it. b
Suppofe the beam DLA (fig. 18.) to projcA from the wall, * p!ate
and that its fides are parallel vertical planes, fo that the depth CCCCLXixv‘
is the only variable dimenfion. Let LBzrjc and B b = y
The element B £ c C is = y x. Let G be the centre of grai
vity of the part lying without B b, and ^ be its diftance
from the extremity L. Then x—g is the atm of the lever
by which the drain is excited in the feAion B b. Let B b
ory be as fome power rw of L B ; that is, lety=xTO. Then
xm+i
the contents of LB£ is The momentum of gravi¬
ty round a horizontal axis at L is yxx'=xm+'x, and the
whole momentum round the axis is
D
The didance of
the
S T R
[ 26
Strength of the ttntrc of gravity from L Is had by ‘•^s mo
Materials x± —
mentum by tlic whole weight, which ^ ^ie C^U0
t:ent or g js ¥L”!±L. And the dlflance of the centre
m-{-2
rcXtw + i _
of gravity from the fedllon B i Is x m-{-2 >
x X w4*2 — 3f X t»+i
m-\- 2
' W+2*
Therefore the ftrain on the
xm+x
feftlon Bi is had by multiplying by ?n_p2*^ ^e^r°"
dud Is -==—== . This muft be as the fquare of the
7B + 2XOT+l
depth, or as _>>*. But.y is as x'”, as Therefore
99
A conoid
equally
able in eve
j y fed ion
to bear its
own
weight.
100
The more
a beam
its own
Weight.
lot
Small bo¬
dies moie
able to
withftand
the flrain
produced
by the
weight of
the ma-
we hare m-j-2=r2tw, and m~'l\ that is, the depth mult be
as the fquare of the diftance from the extremity, and the curve
L £ A is a parabola touching the horizontal line in L.
It is eafy to fee that a conoid formed by the rotation of
this figure round DL will alfo be equally able in every fec-
tion to bear its own weight.
We need not profeeute this farther. When the figure of
the piece is given, there is no difficulty in finding the ftrain ;
and the circumftance of equal ftrength to refill this ftrain is
chiefly a matter of curiofity.
It is evident, from what has been already faid, that a pro-
jefting beam becomes lefs able to bear its own weight, as it
proje<9s>theprojefts farther. Whatever may be the ftrength of the
ka[on DA» the lenSth ma? be fuch that Jt Wl11 break by
its own weight. If we fuppofe two beams A and B of the
fame fubftance and fimilar fhapes, that is, having their
lengths and diameters in the fame proportionj and farther
fuppofe that the ffiorter can juft bear its own weight; then
the longer beam will not be able to do the fame: For the
ftrengths of the feftions are as the cubes of the diameters,
while the ftrains are as the biquadrates of the diameters;
becaufe the weights are as the cubes, and the levers by which
thefe weights a£l in producing the ftrain are as the lengths
or as the diameters.
Thefe confiderations (how us, that in all cafes where the
ftrain is affe&ed by the weight of the parts of the machine
or ftru&ure of any kind, the fmaller bodies are more able
to withftand it than the greater; and there feems to be
bounds fct by nature to the fize of machines conftru&ed of
any given materials. Even when the weight of the parts
of the machine is not taken into the account, we cannot
chine ^han en^arge in t^e ^ame ProPorti°n i*1 t^e‘r PartS.
great bo- ' Thus a fteam-engine cannot be doubled in all its parts, fo
die?. as to be ftill efficient. The preffure on the pifton is qua¬
drupled. If the lift of the pump be alfo doubled in height
while it is doubled in diameter, the load will be increafed
eight times, and will therefore exceed the power. The
depth of lift, therefore, muft remain unchanged; and in this
cafe the machine will be of the fame relative ftrength as be¬
fore, independent of its own weight. For the beam being
doubled in all its dimenfions, its momentum of cohefion is
eight times greater, which is again a balance for a qua¬
druple load adling by a double lever.—But if we now con-
fider the increafe of the weight of the machine itfelf, which
muft be fupported, and which muft be put in motion by
the intervention of its cohefion, we fee that the large ma¬
chine is weaker and lefs efficient than the fmall one.
There is a fimilar limit fet by nature to the fize of plants
and animals formed of the fame matter. The cohefion of
an herb could not fupport it if it were increafed to the
fize of a tree, nor could an oak fupport itfelf if 40 or
] S T R
eo times bigger, nor could an animal of the make of a Strength r
lon^-legged fpider be increafed to the fize of a man; the /
articulations of its legs could not fupport it. _ 102
Hence may be underftood the prodigious fuperiority of Even fmal
the fmall animals both in ftrength and agility. A man by animals ar
falling twice his own height may break his firmeft bones.
A moufe may fall 20 times its height without rifle ; and even^ a^Jr.
the tender mite or wood-loufe may fall unhurt from the top
of a fteeple. But their greateft fuperiority is in refpeft .of
nimblenefs and agility'. A flea can leap above 500 times its
own length, while the ftrength of the human mufcles could
not raife the trunk from the ground on limbs of the fame
eonftru£lion.
The angular motions of fmall animals (in which confifts
their nimblenefs or agility) muft be greater than thofe of
large animals, fuppofing the force of the mucfuhr fibre to
be the fame in both. For fuppofing them fimilar, the num¬
ber of equal fibres will be as the fquare of their linear di¬
menfions ; and the levers by which they aft are as their
linear dimenfions. The energy therefore of the moving
force is as the cube of thefe dimenfions. But the momen¬
tum of inertia, or Jp. r% is as the 4th power: Therefore
the angular velocity of the greater animals is fmaller.. The
number of ftrokes which a fly makes with its wings in a fe-
cond is aftonifhingly great} yet, being voluntary, they arc
the effedls of its agility.
We have hitherto confined our attention to the fimpleft
form in which this tranfverfe ftrain can be produced. This
was quite fufficient for fhowing us the mechanifm of nature
by which the ftrain is refifted ; and a very flight attention is
fufficient for enabling us to reduce to this every other w7ay
in which the ftrain can be produced. We fhall not take up
the reader’s time with the application of the fame principles
to other cafes of this ftrain, but refer him to what has been
faid in the article Roofs. In that article we have fhown the
analogy between the ftrain on the feflion of a beam pro-
je&ing from a wall and loaded at the extremity, and the
ftrain on the fame fe&ion of a beam fimply refting on fup.
ports at the ends, and loaded at fome intermediate point or
points. The ftrain on the middle C of a beam AB (fig-19*)
fo fupported, arifing from a weight laid on there, is the
fame with the ftrain which half that weight hanging at B
wopjd produce on the lame fedlion C if the other end of
the beam were fixed in a wall. If therefore 1000 pounds
hung on the end of a beam projefting 10 feet from a wall
will juft break it at the wall, it will require 4000 pounds
on its middle to break the fame beam refting on two props
jo feat afunder. We have alfo fhown in that article the
additional ftrength which will be given to this beam by ex¬
tending both ends beyond the props, and there framing it
firmly into other pillars 01 fupports. We can hardly add
any thing to what has been faid in that article, except
few obfervations on the effefts of the obliquity of the ex-cy0f the
ternal force. We have hitherto fuppofed it to a£l in theexternal
direftion BP (fig. 6.) perpendicular to the length of theforc€*
beam. Suppofe it to aft in the direftion BPr, oblique to BA.
In the article Roof we fuppofed the ftrain to be the fame
as if the force/) afted at the diftance AB', but ftill perpendi-
dicular to AB : fo it is. But the ftrength of the feftion A A
is not the fame in both cafes ; for by the obliquity of the
aftion the piece DCKa is preffed to the other. We are nofc
fufficiently acquainted with the corpufcular forces to fay
precifely what will be the effeft of the preffure arifing from
this obliquity ; but we can clearly fee, in general, that
the point A, which in the inftant of frafture is neither
ftretched nor compreffed, muft now be farther up, or nearer
a
S T R [ :
fcengOi pfto I) ; and therefore the number of particles which are ex-
Materials. ertjng cohefive forces is fmaller, and therefore the ftrength is
diminUhed. Therefore, when we endeavour to proportion the
/Irength of abeam to the ftrain ariiing from an external force
ȣUng obliquely, we make too liberal allowance by increafing
this external force in the ratio of AB to AB. We ac¬
knowledge our inability to affign the proper correction. But
this circumftancc is of very great influence. In many ma¬
chines, and many framings of carpentry, this oblique aftion
of the ftraining force is unavoidable ; and the moll enor¬
mous drains to which materials are expofed are generally
of this kind. In the frames fet up for carrying the ring-
ftones of arches, it is hardly poflible to avoid them : for
although the judicious engineer difpofes his beams fo as to
fuftain only preflures in the direction of their lengths, tend¬
ing either to crufli them or to tear them afunder, it frequent¬
ly happens that, by the fettling of the work, the pieces
come to check and bear on each other tranfverfely, tending
to break each other acrofs. This we have remarked upon
in the article Roofs, with refpedl to a trufs by Mr Price
(fee Roofs, n° 40, 41, 45). Now when a crofs ftrain is
thus combined with an enormous preflure in the diredtion
of the length of the bream, it is in the utmoft danger of
fnapping fuddenly acrofs. This is one great caufe of the
carrying away of mafts. They are comprefled in the di-
redlion of their length by the united force of the Ihrouds,
and in this ftate the tranfverfe adlion of the wind foon com¬
pletes the fraCture.
i°4 _ When confidering the comprefiing ftrains to which ma-
>n columns ter'a^s are exP°fed, we deferred the ditcuflion of the ftrain on
columns, obferving that it was not, in the cafes which ufually
occur, a Ample comprefllon, but was combined with a tranC-
verfe ftrain, arifing from the bending of the column. When
the column ACB (fig. 20.) refting on the ground at B,
and loaded at top with a weight A, aCting in the vertical
direftion AB, is bent into a curve ACB, fo that the tangent
at C is perpendicular to the horizon, its condition fomewhat
refembles that of a beam firmly fixed between B and C, and
ftrongly pulled by the end A, fo as to bend it between C and
A. Although we cannot conceive how a force adting on a
ftraight column AB in the diredlion AB can bend it, we
may fuppofe that the force adled firft in the horizontal di¬
redlion A £, till it was bent to this degree, and that the rope
was then gradually removed from the diredlion A ^ to the
diredlion AB, increafing the force as much as is neceffary for
preferving the fame quantity of flexure.
Dbferva- aut^or (we believe) whoconfidered this import-
iviis on ant fubjedl with fcrupulous attention was the celebrated Euler,
Euler’s the-who publiftied in the Berlin Memoirs for 1757 his Theory
'jy Strength of Columns. The general propofition
;olumns. titabhft^d by this theory is, that the ftrength of prifmatical co¬
lumns is in the diredt quadruplicate ratio of their diameters
and the inverfe duplicate ratio of their lengths. He profe-
cuted this fubjedl in the Peterfburgh Commentaries for
1778, confirming his former theory. We do not find that
any other author has beftowed much attention on it, all
feeming to acquiefce in the determinations of Euler, and to
confider the iubjedt as of very great difficulty, requiring the
application of the moft refined mathematics. Mufchenbioek
lias compared the theory with experiment; but the compari-
fon has been very unfatisfadtory, the difference from the
theoiy being fo enormous as to afford no argument for its
juftnefs. But the experiments do not contradidl it, for they
we lb anomalous as to afford no conclufion or general rule
whatever.
.To ky ^ie truth, the theory can be confidered in no
Q.">er ight than as a fpecimen of ingenious and very artful
raic analyfis, Euler was unqueftionably the firll analylt
7 1 S T R
in Europe for refource and addrefs. He knew this, and length
enjoyed his fuperiority, and without fcruple admitted any Materials.*
phyfical affumptions which gave him an opportunity of dif- v
playing his (kill. The inconiiftency of his aflumptions with
the known laws of mechanifm gave him no concern ; and
when his algebraic proceffes led him to any conclufion which
would make his readers ftare, being contrary to all our ufual
notions, he frankly owned the paradox, but went on in his
analyfis, faying, “ Sed analy/t magis jidendum” Mr Robins
has given fome very rifible inftances of this confidence in his
analyfis, or rather of his confidence in the indolent fubmif-
fion of his readers. Nay, fo fond was he of this kind of
amufement, that after having publiflied an untenable Theory
of Light and Colours, he publiftied feveral Memoirs, ex¬
plaining the aberration of the heavenly bodies, and deducing
fome very wonderful confequences, fully confirmed by expe¬
rience, from the Newtonian principles, which were oppofite
and totally inconfiftent with his own theory, merely becaufe
the Newtonian theory gave him “ occafionem analyfeos pro-
movendx.” We are thus fevere in our obfervations, becaufe
his theory of the ftrength of columns is- one of the ftrong-
eft inftances of this wanton kind of proceeding, and becaufe
his followers in the Academy of St Peterfburgh, fuch as Mr
Fufs, Lexill, and others, adopt his conclufions, and merely
echo his words. Since the death of Dan. Bernoulli no
member of that academy has controverted any thing advan¬
ced by their Profejfor fublimis geometric, to whom they had
been indebted for their places and for all their knowledge,
having been (moft of them) his amanuenfes, employed by
this wonderful man during his blindnefs to make his com¬
putations and carry on his algebraic inveftigations. We are
not a little furprifed to fee Mr Emerfon, a confiderable ma¬
thematician, and a man of very independent fpirit, haftily
adopting the fame theory, of which we doubt not but our
readers will eafily fee the falfity.
Euler confiders the column ACB as in a condition pre-
cifely fimilar to that of an elaftic rod bent into the curve
by a cord AB conne&ing its extremities.—In this he is not
miftaken.—But he then draws CD perpendicular to AB,
and confiders the ftrain on the fedlion C as equal to the
momentum or mechanical energy of the weight A ailing
in the direition DB upon the lever nr D, moveable round
the fulcrum r, and tending to tear afunder the particles
which cohere along the fe&ion rC*. This is the fame
principle (as Euler admits) employed by James Bernoulli in
his inveftigation of the elaftic curve ACB. Euler confiders
the ftrain on the feition r * as the fame with what it would
fuftain if the fame power ailed in the horizontal direilion
EF on a point E as far removed from C as the point D
is. We reafoned in the fame manner (as has been obferved)
in the article Roofs, v/here the obliquity of ailion was
Inconfiderable. But in the prefent cafe, this fubftitution
leads to the greatefl miftakes, and has rendered the whole
of this theory falfe and ufelefs. It would be juft if the
column were of materials which are incompreffible. But
it is evident, by what has been faid above, that by the
compreffion of the parts the real fulcrum of die lever ffiifts
away from the point r, fo much the more as the compreffion
is greater. In the great compreffions of loaded columns,
and the almoll unmeafurable compreffions of the trufe
beams in the centres of bridges, and other cafes of chief im¬
portance, the fulcrum is fhiited far over towards *, fo that
very few fibres refill the fradlure by their cohefion; and
thefe lew have a very feeble energy or momentum, on ac¬
count of the Ihort arm of the lever by which they aft. This
is a moft important confideration in carpentry, yet makes no
element of Euler’s theory. The confequence ot this is, that
a very’ frnall degree of curvature is fufficient to caufe the co-
D 2 luma
S T R C 28 ] S T R
Strength oflumn or ftrutt to fnap in an inftant, as is wcllknown to every are called, to flay the middle of long heamt, which are ^nKth j
Materials, experienced carpenter. The experiment by Mufchenbroek, employed as pillars, limits, or trufs beams, and are ex- Maten-»
 which Euler makes ufe of in order to obtain a meafure of pofed, by their pofition, to enormous preffures in the di-^^" '
ftrength in a particular inftance, from which he might de- redlion of their lengths. Such Hays may be obferved, dif-
70fi
Th's ther.
duce all others by his theorem, is an inconteftable proof of
this. The force which broke the column is not the
twentieth part of what is necefiary for breaking it by add¬
ing at E in the direction Ei1. Euler takes no notice of
this immenfe difcrepancy, becaufe it mull have caufed him
to abandon the fpeculation with which he was then amufmg
himlelf.
The limits of this Work do not afford room to enter
ry laife ant) minutely upon the refutation of this theory; but we can
vklrti. eafily fhow it3 ufciefsnefS) by itg total inconfillency with
common obfervation. It refults legitimately from this
theory, that if CD have no magnitude, the weight A
can have no momentum, and the column cannot be broken—
True,—it cannot be broken in this way, fnapped by a tranf-
verfe fradture, if it do not bend ; but we know very well
that it can be crulhed or crippled, and we fee this frequent¬
ly happen. This circumflance or event does not enter into
Euler’s inveftigation, and therefore the theory is imperfeft
at leaft and ufelefs. Had this crippling been introduced
in the form of a phyficial affumption, every topic of reafon-
ing employed in the procefs mull have been laid afide, as
the intelligent reader will ealily fee But the theory is not
only imperfedl, but lalfe. The ordinary reader will be con¬
vinced of this by another legitimate confequence of it. Fig.
.20. n° 2. is the fame with fig. 106 ot Emerfm’s Mechanics,
pofed with great judgment and economy, in the centres em¬
ployed by Mr Perronet in the eredtion of his great llono
arches. He was obliged to corredl this omiffion made by
his ingenious predeceffor in the beautiful centres of the
bridge of Orleans, which we have no hefitation in affirming
to be the linell piece of carpentry in the world.
It only remains on this head to compare thefe theoretical
deductions with experiment.
Experiments on the tranfverfe ftrength of bodies are eafily
made, and accordingly are very numerous, efpecially thole
made on timber, which is the cafe moft common and molt
interelling. But in this great number of experiments there
are very few from which we can draw much pradtieal infor¬
mation. The experiments have in general been made on
fuch fmall fcantlings, that the unavoidable natural inequalities
bear too great a proportion to the ftrength of the whole
piece. Accordingly, when we compare the experiments of
different authors, we find them differ enormoufly, and even
the experiments by the fame author are very anomalous.
The completeft feries that we have yet leen is that detailed
by Belidor in his Science des Jngenieurs. They are contain-experi-
ed in the following table. The pieces were found, even-ments
grained oak. The column b contains the breadths of the1”^ ^
pieces in inches ; the column d contains their depths ; the 1 0
column / contains their lengths ; column p contains the
S T R [
'■enpth ff comparing Experiments ift and 3d, the ftrength ap-
tateriak pCar3 proportional to the breadth.
^ Experiments 3d and 4th (hew the ftrength proportional
arollarles to the fquare of the depth.
duced Experiments ift and 5 th (hew the ftrength nearly in the
>01 them, jnverfe proportion of the lengths, but with a feniible de»
ficiency in the longer pieces.
Experiments 5th and 7th fhew the ftrengths proportional
to the breadths and the fquaie of the depth.
Experiments ift and 7th fhew the fame thing, compound¬
ed with the inverfe proportion of the length : the deficiency
relative to the length is not fo remarkable here.
Experiments lit and 2d and experiments 5th and 6th
fhew the increafe of ftrength, by fattening the ends, to be in
the propoition of 2103. The theory gives the propor¬
tion of 2 to 4. But a difference in the manner of fixing
may produce this deviation from the theory, which only
luppofed them to be held down at places beyond the props,
as when a joifl is held in the walls, and all'o refts on two
pillars between the walls. (See what is faid on this fubjedt in
the article Roof, § tQ-) » where note, that there is a miftake,
when it is faid that a beam fupported at both ends and
loaded in the middle will carry twice as much as if one end
were fixed in the wall and the weight fufpended at the other
end. The reafoning employed there fhows that it will carry
four times as much.
The chief fource of irregularity in fuch experiments is
the fibrous, or rather plated texture of timber. It confifts
of annual additions, whofe cohefion with each other is vaftly
weaker than that of their own fibres. Let fig. 21. repre-
fent the leftion of a tree, and ABCD, abed the feftion of
two battens that are to be cut out of it for experiment,
and let AD and ad be the depths, and DC, dc the
breadths. The batten ABCD will be the ftrongeft, for the
fame reafon that an affemblage of planks fet edgewife will
form a ftronger joift than planks laid above each other like
the plates of a coach-fpring. Mr Buffon found by many
trials that the ftrength of ABCD was to that of abed
(in oak) nearly as 8 to 7. The authors of the different
experiments were not careful that their battens had their
plates all difpofed fimilarly with refpeft to the drain. But
even with this precaution they would not have afforded fare
grounds of computation for large works ; for great beams
occupy much, if not the whole, of the feftiou of the tree ;
and from this it has happened that their ftrength is lefs
than in proportion to that of a fmall lath or batten. In
fhort, we can truft no experiments but fuch as have been
made en large beams. Thefe muft be very rare, for they
are molt expenfive and laborious, and exceed the abilities of
moft of thofe who are difpofed to ftudy this matter.
. But we are not wholly without fuch authority. Mr Buf¬
fon and Mr Du Hamel, two of the firft philofophers and me¬
chanicians of the age, were directed by government to make
experiments on this fubjedt, and were fupplied with ample
funds and apparatus. The relation of their experiments is
to be found in the Memoirs of the French Academy for
1740, 1741, 1742, 1768 ; as alfo in Du Hamel’s valuable
performances fur VExploitation des Arbres, et fur la Confer-
•vation et le Eranfport de Bois. We earneftly recommend
thefe differtations to the perufal of our readers, as containing
much ufeful information relative to the ftrength of timber,
tg ] s T R
and the beft methods of employing it. We fhall here give Strength of
an abltradf of Mr Buffon’s experiments. Material?.^
He relates a great number which he had profecuted during j t x
two years on fmall battens. He found that the odds of a Mr Buf-
fmgle layer, or part of a layer, more or lefs, or even a dif-f00’* e*pe-
ferent difpofition of them, had fuch influence that he was™™^9 011
obliged to abandon this method, and to have recourfe to thef0UI1(^
largeft beams that he was able to break. The following
table exhibits one feries of experiments on bars of found oak,
clear of knots, and four inches fquare. This is a fpecimen
of all the reft.
Column ift is the length of the bar in feet clear between
the fupports.
Column 2d is the weight; of the bar (the 2d day after it
was felled) in pounds. Two bars were tried of each length.
Each of the firft three pairs confifted of two cuts of the
fame tree. The one next the root was always found the
heavieft, ftiffeft, and ftrongeft. Indeed Mr Buffon fays
that this was invariably true, that the heavieft was always
the .ftrongeft ; and he recommends it as a certain (orfure)
rule for the choice of timber. He finds that this is always
the cafe when the timber has grown vigoroufly, forming
very thick annual layers. But he alio obferves that this
is only during the advances of the tree to maturity ; for the
ftrength of the different circles approaches gradually to
equality during the tree’s healthy growth, and then it de¬
cays in thefe parts in a contrary order. Our tool-makers
affert the fame thing with refpedl to beech : yet a contrary
opinion is very prevalent; and wood with a fine, that is, a
fmall grain, is frequently preferred. Perhaps no perfon
has ever made the trial with fuch minutenefs as Mr Buf¬
fon, and we think that much deference is due to his opinion.
Column 3d is the number of pounds neceffary for breaking
the tree in the courfe of a few minutes.
Column 4th is the inches which it bent down before-
breaking.
Column 5th is the time at which it broke.
The experiments on other fizes were made in the fame'
way. A pair at leaft of each length and fize was takeni
The mean refults are contained in the following table. The
beams were all fquare, and their fizes in inches are placed at
the head of the columns, and their lengths in feet are in th©
firft column.
s t n
gtcenet'h of
Material--,
5312
4550
4025
3b1 2
2987
11525
9787
8308
7125
6075
5320
4350
3700
3225
2975
2162
*775
1893c
*5525
1315°
11250
9100
7475
6362
5562
4950
32200
26050
22350
*9475
16175
*3225
11000
9245
8375
8
47649
3975°
32800
27750
23450
*9775
16375
13200
11487
11525
10085
8964
8068
6723
5763
5042
4482
4° 3 4
3667
3362
288 r
Mr Buffbn had found by numerous trials that oak-timber
loft much of its ftrength in the courfe of drying or feafoning;
and therefore, in order to fecure uniformity, his trees were
all felled in the fjame feafon of the year, were fquared the day
after, and tried the third day. Trying them in this green
Hate gave him an opportunity of obferving a very curious
and unaccountable phenomenon. When the weights were
laid brilkly on, nearly fufficient to break the log, a very
fenfible fmoke was obferved to ifiue from the two ends with
a fharp hilling noife. This continued all the while the tree
was bending and cracking. This fhows that the log is af-
fefted or drained through its whole length; indeed this
muft be inferred from its bending through its whole length.
It alfo Ihows us the great effe&s of the compreflion. It is
a pity Mr Buffon did not take notice whether this fmoke
iffued from the upper or compreffed half of the fe&ion only,
or whether it came from the whole.
Obferva- We muft now make fome obfervations on thefe experi-
tions on Mr meats, in order to compare them with the theory which we
30 ] s T R
which we can conceive the length of a beam ta have,
increafe the ftrain at the fedtfon of fra&ure by employing lN Ue'u^
the intervening beam as a lever. But we do not diftinftly
fee what change this can produce in the mode of adlion
of the fibres in this feftion, fo as either to change their
cohefion or the place of its centre of effort: yet fome*
thing of this kind muft happen.
We fee indeed fome circumftances which mull contribute
to make a fmaller weight fufficient, in Mr Buffon’s experi¬
ments, to break a long beam than in the exadl inverfe pro¬
portion of its length.
In the firft place, the weight of the beam itfelf augments
the ftrain as much as if half of it were added in form of
a weight. Mr Buffon has given the weights of every beam -
on which he made experiments, which is very nearly 74
Biiffon’
experi¬
ments.
Jhave endeavoured to ellablilh,
Mr Buffon confiders the experiments with the 5-inch
bars as the ffandard of comparifon, having both extended
thefe to greater lengths, and having tried more pieces of
each length.
Our theory determines the relative ftrength of bars of the
fame fe&ion to be inverfely as their lengths. But (if we
except the five experiments in the firft column) we find a
very great deviation from this rule. Thus the 5-inch bar
of 28 feet long Ihould have half the ftrength of that of 14
feet, or 2650; whereas it is but 1775. The bar of 14 feet
Ihould have half the ftrength of that of 7 feet, or 5762 ;
whereas it is but 5300. In like manner, the fourth of
11525 is 2881 ; but the real ftrength of the 28-feet bar is
*775* We have added a column A, which exhibits the
ftrength which each of the 5-inch bars ought to have by the
theory. This deviation is moft diftin&ly feen in fig. 22.
where BK is the fcale of lengths, B being at the point 7
of the fcale and K at 28. The ordinate CB is = 11525,
and the other ordinates DE, GK, See. are refpe&ively =
7 CB
The lines DF, GH, &c. are made =r 4350,
.Length*
pounds per cubic foot. But they are much too fmall to
account for the deviation from the theory. 1 he half weights
of the 5-inch beams of 7, 14, and 28 feet length are only
45, 92, and 182 pounds; which makes the real ftrains in
the experiments 11560, 5390, and 1956} which are far
from having the proportions of 4, 2, and 1.
s Buffon fays that healthy trees are univerfally llrongeft at
the root end ; therefore, when we ufe a longer beam, its
middle point, where it is broken in the experiment, is in
a weaker part of the tree. But the trials of the 4-inch
beams fhow that the difference from this caufe is almoft
infenfxble.
The length muft have fome mechanical influence which
the theory we have adopted has not yet explained. It may
not however be inadequate to the tafk. The very ingeni¬
ous inveftigation of the elaltic curve by James Bernoulli and
other celebrated mathematicians is perhaps as refined an ap¬
plication of mathematical analyfis as we know. Yet in this
inveftigation it was neceffary, in order to avoid almoft infuper-
able difficulties, to take the fimpleft poffible cafe, viz. where
the thicknefs is exceedingly fmall in comparifon with the
length. If the thicknefs be confiderable, the quantities ne-
gledled in the calculus are too great to permit the conclu-
fion to be accurate, or very nearly fo. Without being able
to define the form into which aa elaftic body of confiderable
thicknefs will be bent, we can fay with confidence, that in
an extreme cafe, where the compreffien in the concave fide
is very great, the curvature differs coniiderably from the
Bernoullian curve. But as our inveftigation is incomplete
and very long, we do not offer it to the reader. The fol- pro”^[{
lowing more familiar confiderations will, we apprehend, ren-^^. the
der it highly probable that the relative ftrength of beams relative
decreafes fafter than in the inverfe ratio of their length. The
curious obfervatiou by Mr Buffon of the vapour which iffued ^)eanis^v
I775> expreffing the ftrengths given by experiment.
The ic-leet bar and the 24-feet bar are remarkably anoma¬
lous. But all are deficient, and the defedl has an evident
progreffion from the firft to the laft. The fame thing may
be fhown of the other columns, and even of the firft, though
it is very fmall in that column. It may alfo be obferved in
the experiments of Belidor, and in all that we have feen.
We cannot doubt therefore of its being a law of nature, de¬
pending on the true principles of cohefion and the laws of
mechanics.
But it is very puzzling, and we cannot pretend to give a
fatisfadory explanation of the difficulty. The only effed
• • • ■ — creafes
with a hiffing noife from the ends of a beam of green oak,er thaI,
while it was breaking by the load on its middle, fhows that the inverfi
the whole length of the piece was affeded : indeed it muft ratio of
be, fince it is bent throughout. We have (hown above,^eir,
that a certain definite curvature of a beam of a given form' “
is always accompanied by rupture. Now fuppofe the beam
A ot 10 feet long, and the beam B of 20 feet long, bent to
the fame degree, at the plac« of their fixure in the wall }
the weight which hangs on A is nearly double of that
which muft hang on B. The form of any portion, fuppofe
5 feet, of thefe two beams, immediately adjoining to the wall,
is confiderably different. At the diftance of 5 feet the cur¬
vature of A is,4- of its curvature at the wall. The curva¬
ture of B in the correfponding point is Jths of the fame cur¬
vature at the wall. Through the whole of the intermediate
5 feet, therefore, the curvature of B is greater than that of
A. This muft; make it weaker throughout. It muff occa-
fion the fibres to Aide more on each other (that it may ac¬
quire this greater curvature), and thus affed their lateral
union ;
S T R . £ 3
Strergth eftinioR ; and therefore thofe which are Wronger will not aflift
Materials, ^^eir weaker neighbours. To this we muft add, that in the
u—-'T”"-' fhorter beams the force with which the fibres are prefled la¬
terally on each other is double. This muft impede the mu¬
tual Aiding of the fibres which we mentioned a little ago; nay,
this lateral comprefiion may change the law of longitudinal
cohefion (as will readily appear to the reader who is ac¬
quainted with Bofcovich’s do&rines), and increafe the
ftrength of the very furface of fra&ure, in the fame way
(however inexplicable) as it does in metals when they
are hammered or drawn into wire.
The reader muft judge how farthefe remarks are worthy
of his attention. The engineer will carefully keep in mind
the important fad, that a beam of quadruple length, inftead
of having ^th of the ftrength, has only about ^-th ; and
the philofopher ftiould endeavour to difcover the caufe of
this diminution, that he may give the artift a more accurate
rule of computation.
We Vat not Our ignorance law ^7 which the cohefion of the
iifcover the particles changes by a change of diftancc, hinders us from
preafe re- difcovering the precife relation between the curvature and
lation be- jjjg momentum of cohefion; and all we can do is to multiply
•uiVature experiments, upon which we may eftablifti feme empirical
ind the rules for calculating the ftrength of folids. Thofe from
tnotrentum which we muft reafon at prefent are too few and too ano-
jf cohefion. malous to be the foundation of fuch an empirical formula.
We may, however, obferve, that Mr Buffon’s experiments
give us confiderable afiiftance in this particular: For if
to each of the numbers of the column for the 5-inch beams,
correfted by adding half the weight of the beam, we add
the conftant number 1245, we (hall have a fet of numbers
which are very nearly reciprocals of the lengths. Let 1245
be called r, and let the weight which is known by experi¬
ment to be neceflary for breaking the 5-inch beam of the
length a be called P. We fiiall have a — c zz p.
Thus the weight necefiary for breaking the 7-foot bar is
11560. This added to 1245, and the fum multiplied by
89635
Let / be 18 ; then —
7, gives P 4- c X a = 89635.
hi
U
ti
ti<
"?
115
ifei
to uj
delation
between
— *245 =r 3725, p, which differs not more than
from what experiment gives us. This rule holds equally
well in all the other lengths except the 10 and 24 foot
beams, which are very anomalous. Such a formula is abun¬
dantly exadt for pradlice, and will anfwer through a much
greater variety of length, though it cannot be admitted as
a true one; becaufe, in a certain very great length, the
ftrength will be nothing. For other fizes the conftant
number muft change in the proportion of d or perhaps
of p.
The next comparifon which we have to make with the
theory is the relation between the ftrength and the fquare
■ ar.d ^ie depth of the fedtion. This is made by comparing
Pquare of each other the numbers in any horizontal line of the
the depth table. In making this comparifon we find the numbers of
the fee. the five-inch bars uniformly greater than the reft. We
imagine that there is fomething peculiar to thefe bars :
They are in general heavier than in the proportion of their
fedtion, but not fo much fo as to account for all their fuperi-
ority. We imagine that this fet of experiments, intended
as a ftandard for the reft, has been made at one time, and
that the feafon has had a confiderable influence. The fadt
however is, that if this column be kept out, or uniformly
dimmiihed about TVth Jn their ftrength, the different fizes
will deviate very little from the ratio of the fquare of the
depth, as determined by theory. There is however a fmall
deficiency in the bigger beams.-
i ] S T R
We have been thus anxious in the examination of thefe Strength oF
experiments, becaufe they are the only ones which have . i \
been related in fufficient detail, and made on a proper kale
for giving us data from which we can deduce confidential
maxims for pradtice. They are fo troublefome and expen-
five that we have little hopes of feeing their number greatly
increafed; yet furely our navy board would do an unfpeak-
able fervice to the public by appropriating a fund for fuch
experiments under the management of fome man oi fcience. II(y
There remains another comparifon which is of chiei im- proportiont
portance, namely, the proportion between the absolute between
cohesion and the relative strength. It may be gue^e,i»^£Qp°|utc
from the very nature of the thing, that this muft be very an/the re¬
uncertain. Experiments on the ablolute ftrength muft. bejative
confined to very fmall pieces, by reafon of the very great ftrength.-
forces which are required for tearing them afunder. The
values therefore deduced from them muft be fubjedt to great
inequalities. Unfortunately we have got no detail of any
experiments; all that we have to depend on is two paffages
of Mufchenbroek’s EJfa'tt de Phyjique} in one of which he fays
that a piece of found ©ak x^ths of an inch fquare is torn
afunder by 1150 pounds; and in the other, that an oak
plank 12 inches broad and 1 thick will juft fufpend 189163
pounds. Thefe give for the cohefion of an inch fquare
15,755 and l5>7^3 pounds. Bouguer, in his Traits du
Navire, fays that it is very well known that a rod of found
oak ^th of an inch fquare will be torn afunder by 1000
pounds. This gives 16000 for the cohefion of a fquare *
inch. We fliall take this as a round number, eafily ufed in
our computations. Let us compare this with Mr Buffon’s
trials of beams four inches fquare.
The abfolute cohefion of this fedfion is 16,000 X 16 =
256,000. Did every fibre exert its whole force in the in-
ftant of fradture, the momentum of cohefion would be the
fame as if it had all adted at the centre of gravity of the
fedtion at 2 inches from the axis of fradture, and is there¬
fore 512000. The 4-inch beam, 7 feet long, was broken
by 5312 pounds hung on its middle. The hah of this, or
2656 pounds, would have broken it, if fufpended at its ex¬
tremity, projedting 3x feet or 42 inches from a wall. The
momentum of this ftrain is therefore 2656 X42, = i 11552.
Now this is in equilibrio with the adlual momentum of cohe¬
fion, which is therefore 111552, inftead of 512000. The
ftrength is therefore diminifhad in the proportion of 512000
to 111552, or very nearly of 4,59 to 1.
As we are quite uncertain as to the place of the centre
of effort, it is needlefs to confider the full cohefion as afting
at the centre of gravity, and producing the momentum
512,000 ; and we may convert the whole into a Ample mul-
tiplyer m of the length, and fay, as m times the length is ta
the depth, fo is the abfolute cohefon of the ftBion to the re¬
lative Jlrength. Therefore let the abfolute cohefion of a
fquare inch be called f, the breadth Z, the depth d, and the
length l (all in inches), the relative ftrength, or the exter*
f b dz
nal force which balances it, is —, or in round num-
fbd- 9>1*1
bers for m = 2 X 4,59-
This great diminution of ftrength cannot be wholly ac¬
counted for by the inequality of the cohefive forces exerted
in the inftant of fradfure ; for in this cafe we know that the
centre of effort is at -fd of the height in a redlangular fec-
tion (becaufe the forces really exerted are as the extenfionS'
of the fibres). The relative ftrenath would be and
. . 3'
p would have been 8127 inftead of 2656.
We muft aferibe this diminution (which is three times
greater than that produced by the inequality of the cohe-
fiver
S T R
t 3* 3
S T R
StrensA offive forces) to the compreffion of the under part of the
Materials. ^eam . an(i we muft endeavour to explain in what manner
this compreflion produces an effeft which feems fo little ex¬
plicable by fuch means.
As we have repeatedly obferved, it is a matter of nearly
'imiverfal experience tlyit the forces adually exerted by the
particles of bodies, when ftretched or compreffed, are very
nearly in the proportion of the diftances to which the par¬
ticles are drawn from their natural poiitions. Now, altho’
we are certain that, in enormous compreffions, the forces in-
creafe falter than in this proportion, this makes no feniible
change in the prefent cjueftion, becaufe the body is broken
'before the compreffions have gone fo far ; nay, we imagine
that the comprelfed parts are crippled in moll cafes even
before the extended parts are torn afunder. Mufchenbroek
aflerts this with great confidence with refpeft to oak, on
the authority of his own experiments. He fays, that al¬
though oak will fufpend half as much again as fir, it will
not fupport, as a pillar, two-thirds of the load which fir
will fupport in that form.
We imagine therefore that the mechanifm in the prefent
cafe is nearly as follows :
Let the beam DCK a (fig. 23.) be loaded at its extre¬
mity with the weight P, adting in the direction KP perpen¬
dicular to DC. Let D A be the fe&ion of frafture. Let
DA be about yd of D a. A will be the particle or
•fibre which is neither extended nor compreffed. Make
& & :T) d— DA : A a. The triangles DA d, A A will
reprefent the accumulated attrafting and repelling forces.
Make AI and A f = y DA and y A A. The point I will
be that to which the full cohefion D d or f ok the particles
in AD muft be applied, fo as to produce the fame momen¬
tum which the variable forces at I, D, &c. really produce
at their feveral points of application. In like manner, i is
the centre of fimilar effort of the repulfive forces excited by
the compreffion between A and a, and it is the real fulcrum
of a bended lever li K, by which the whole effeCf is produ¬
ced. The effect is the fame as if the full cohefion of the
ftretched fibres in AD were accumulated in I, and the full
repulfion of all the compreffed fibres in A a were accumu¬
lated in i. The forces which are balanced in the operation
are the weight P, afting by the arm k i, and the full cohe¬
fion of AD afting by the arm I i. The forces exerted by
the compreffed fibres between A and A only ferve to give
fupport to the lever, that it may exert its ftrain.
We imagine that this does not differ much from the real
procedure of nature. The pofition of the point A may be
different from what we have deduced from Mr Buffon’s ex¬
periments, compared with Mufchenbroek’s value of the ab-
folute cohefion of a fquare inch. If this laft fhould be only
12000, DA muft be greater than we have here made it, in
the proportion of 12000 to 16000. For I r muft ftill
fee made = y A a, fuppofing the forces to be propor¬
tional to the extenfions and compreffions. There can be
no doubt that a part only of the cohefion of D A operates
an refilling the irafture in all fubllances which have any
compreffibility; and it is confirmed by the experiments of
Mr Du Hamel on willow, and the inferences are by no
means confined to that fpecies of timber. We fay therefore,
that when the beam is broken, the cohefion of AD alone
is exerted, and that each fibre exerts a force proportional to
its extenlion ; and the accumulated momentum is the fame
as if the full cohefion of AD were afting by the lever I i
r=:yd of D A.
It may be faid, that if only 4d of the cohefion of oak be
. exerted, it may be cut ^ds through without weakening it.
But this cannot be, becaufe the cohefion of the whole is em¬
ployed in preventing the lateral Hide fo often mentioned.
We have no experiments to determine .that it may »e>/beS’rengt},,,
cut through yd without iofs of its ftrength. r^aterial«,
This muft not be confidered as a fubjeft of mere fpecula- L j""
tive curiofity : It is intimately connefted with all the prac¬
tical ufes which we can make of this knowledge ; for it is
almoft the only way that we can learn the comprefiibility of
timber. Experiments on the direft cohefion are indeed
difficult, and exceedingly expenfive if we attempt them in
large pieces. But experiments on compreffion are almoft
imprafticable. The moft inftruftive experiments would be,
firll to eftabhfh, by a great number of trials, the tranfverfe
force of a modern batten ; and then to make a great num¬
ber of trials of the diminution of its ftrength, by cutting it
through on the concave fide. This would very nearly give
us the proportion of the cohefion which really operates in
refifting fraftures. Thus if it be found that one-half of the
beam may be cut on the under fide without diminution of
its ftrength (taking care to drive in a flice of harder wood),
we may conclude that the point A is at the middle, or
fomewbat above it.
Much lies before the curious mechanician, and we are as
yet very far from a fcientific knowledge of the ftrength of
timber. ,
In the mean time, we may derive from thefe experiments A ^,
of Buffon a very ufeful praftical rule, without relying onpra&jca;
any value of the abfolute cohefion of oak. We fee that the rule majt
ftrength is nearly as the breadth, as the fquare of the depth, deduced
nr
and as the inverfe of the length. It is moft convenient to
from J
Buffim’i
meafure the breadth and depth of the beam in inches, andexpen.
its length in feet. Since, then, a beam four inches fquare ments.
and feven fee't between the fupports is broken by 5312
pounds, we muft conclude that a batten one inch fquare
and one foot between the fupports will be broken by 581
pounds. Then the ftrength of any other beam of oak, or
the weight which will juft break it when hung on its middle,
3d*
is 581
/
But we have feen that there is a veiy confiderable devia¬
tion from the inverfe proportion of the lengths, and we muft
endeavour to accommodate our rule to this deviation. We
found, that by adding 1245 to each of the ordinates or
numbers in the column of the five-inch bars, we had a fet
of numbers very nearly reciprocal of the lengths ; and if we
make a fimilar addition to the other columns in the propor¬
tion of the cubes of the fixes, we have nearly the fame refult.
The greateft error (except in the cafe of experiments which
are yery irregular) does not exceed iVth of the whole.
Therefore, for a radical number, add to the 5312 the num¬
ber 640, which is to 1245 very nearly as 4’ to y5. This
gives 5952. The 64th of this is 93, which correfponds to
a bar of one inch fquare and feven feet long. Therefore
93 X 7 will be the reciprocal correfponding to a bar of one
foot. This is 651. Take from this the prefent empirical
6 40
correftion, which is -7— , or 10, and there remains 641 for
0 4 1
the ftrength of the bar. This gives us for a general rule
b d*
/> =r 65 1 --7— — \ ob d*
l
Example, Required the weight neceffary to break an
oak beam eight inches fquare and 20 feet between the
8 X 81
props, /> = 651 X —— — l o X 8 X 8 \ This is 11545,
whereas the experiment gives 11487. The error is very
{mall indeed. The rule is moll deficient in companion with
the five-inch bars, which we have already faid appear ftrong-
er thaa the reft.
The
R
r
S T
oF The following procefs is eafily remembered by fuch as
Mater.ale. are not algebraifts.
—v ^ Multiply the breadt-h in inches twice by the^ depth, and
call this productMultiply j by 65 an(^ divide by the
length in feet. From the quotient^ take 10 times/. The
remainder is the number of pounds which will break the
beam.
We are not fufficiently fenfible of our principles to be
confident that the correction ro/fhould be in the propor¬
tion of the feftion, although we think it molt probable. It
is quite empirical, founded on Bufton’s experiments. There-
fore the fafe way of ufing this rule is to fuppofe the beam
fquare, by increaiing or diminidling its breadth till equal to
the depth. Then find the ftrength by this rule, and dimi-
liifh or increase it for the change which has been made in
its breadth. Thus, there can be no doubt that the ftrength
of the beam given as an example is double of that of a beam
of the name depth and half the breadth.
The reader cannot but obferve that all this calcula¬
tion relates to the very greateft weight which a beam will
bear for a very few minutes. Mr Buffon uniformly found
that two-thirds of this weight fenfibly impaired its ftrength,
and frequently broke it at the end of two or three months.
One-half of this weight brought the beam to a certain bend,
. • which did not increafe after the firfl minute or two, and may
be borne by the beam for any length of time. But the beam
contracted a bend, of which it did not recover any conlider-
able portion. One-third feemed to have no permanent ef-
fedt on tire beam ; but it recovered its reCtilineal fhape com¬
pletely, even after having been loaded feveral months, pro¬
vided that the timber was feafoned when firft loaded ; that
is to fay, one-third of the weight which would quickly break
a feafoned beam, or one-fourth of what would break one
juft felled, may lie on it for ever without giving the beam
a fett.
We have no detail of experiments on the ftrength of
other kinds of timber: only Mr BufFon fays, that fir has
about T^ths or the ftrength of oak; Mr Parent makes it
-V^ths ; Emerfon, ^ds, &c.
We have been thus minute in our examination of the me-
chanifm of this tranfverfe ftrain, becaufe it is the greattft to
which the parts of our machines are expoled. We wifh to
imprefs on the minds of artifts the neceffity of avoiding this
as much as poftible. They are improving in this refpeCt, as
may be feen by comparing the centres on which ftone arches
of great fpan are now turned with thofe of former times.
1 he} were formerly a load of mere joifls refting on a multitude
of polls, which obftrufted the navigation, and were frequent¬
ly lofing their fhape by fome of the polls finking into the
ground. Now they are more generally truffes, where the
beams abutt on each other, and are relieved from tranfverfe
Trains. . But many performances of eminent artifts are ftill
very mjudicioufly expofed to crofs ftrains. We may in-
itance one which is confidered as a fine work, viz. the
bridge at Walton on Thames. Here every beam of the
great arch is a joifl, and it hangs together by framing. The
", Pl.ece ot carpentry that we have feen is the centre em-
ployed m turning the arches of the bridge at Orleans, de-
M-xibed by Perronet. In the whole there is not,one crofs
irain. i he beam, too, of Hornblower’s fleam-engine, de-
th,atnarticl.e> 18 very fcientifically conltrurScd.
IV. I he laiUpecies of ftrain which we are to examine is
that produced by twiftmg. This takes place in all axles
vduch conned the working parts of machines.
cent nl1<>U/hu WC P.ret€nd t0 have a very difiind con-
wHch it eft m‘).dt5lca'10nr°1f thecohefion of a body by
that when^ 11 l '1S ^iri,d ffram, we can have no doubt
Von. XVlilTtf8 a^^e’ t^ie rcftfiance mull be
nS
Strain pt0
duced hy
Swilling.
33 1 . S T It
proportional to the number. Therefore if wc fuppofe the ^rensjtfc of
two parts ABCD, ABFE (fig. 24.), of the body EFCD Ma^f;a,s*
to be of infuperable {length, but cohering more weakly in
the common furface AB, and that one part ABCD is pufh-The refill¬
ed laterally in the direftion AB, there can be no doubt that a ce muft
it will yield only there, .and that the refiftance will be pro-be Pr'’Por-
ponional to the furface. , . . .
In like manner, we can conceive a thin cylindrical tube,of jiartick*.
of which KAH (fig. 25.) is the fedlion, as cohering more
weakly in that fedion than anywhere elfe. Suopofe it to be
grafped in both hands, and the two parts twilled round the
axis in oppofite diredions, as we would twift the two joints
of a flute, it is plain that it will firft fail in this fedion,
which is the circumference of a circle, and the particles of
the two parts which are contiguous to this circumference
will be drawn from each other laterally. The total refin¬
ance will be as the number of equally refifting particles,
that is, as the circumference (for the tube being fuppofed
very thin, there can be no fenfible difference between the
dilatation of the external and internal particles). We can
now fuppofe another tube within this, and a third within
the fecond, and fo on till we reach the centre. If the par¬
ticles of each ring exerted the lame force (by fuffering the
fame dilatation in the diredion qt the circumference), the
1 efifiance of each ring of the fedion would be as its circum¬
ference and its breadth (fuppofed indefinitely fmall), and
the whole refiftance would be as the furface ; and this would
reprefent the refiftance of a folid cylinder. But when a cy¬
linder is twilled in this manner hy an external force appli¬
ed to its circumference, the external parts will fuffer a
greater circular extenfion than the internal ; and it appears
that this extenfion (like the extenfion of a beam {trained
tranfverfely) will be proportional to the diflance of the par¬
ticles from the axis. We cannot fay that this is demon-
ftrable, but we can afiign no proportion that is more pro¬
bable. I his being the cafe, the forces fimultaneoufly ex¬
erted by each particle will be as its diftance from the axis.
Therefore the. whole force exerted by each ring will be as
the fquare of its radius, and the accumulated force adually
exerted will be as the cube of the radius; that is, the accu-
mulated force exerted by the whole cylinder, whofe radius is
CA, is to the accumulated force exerted at the fame time by
the part whofe radius is CE, as CA3 to CE3.
The whole cohefion now exerted is juft two-thirds of
what it would be if all the particles were exerting the fame
attractive forces which are juft now exerted by the particles
in the external circumference. This is plain to any perfon
in the leaft familiar with the fluxionary calculus. But fuch as
are not may eafily fee it in this way.
Let the redangle AC c a be fet upright on the furface
of the circle along the line CA, and revolve round the
axis C r. It will generate a cylinder whofe height is C c
or A a, and having the circle KAH for its baft’ If the
diagonal C a be fuppofed alfo to revolve, it is plain that the
triangle c C a will generate a cone of the fame height, and
having for its bale the circle deferibed by the revolution of
c a, and the point C for its apex. The cylindrical furface
generated by A a will dxprefs the whole cohefion exerted
by the circumference A.HK, and the cylindrical furface ge¬
nerated by E ^ will reprefent the cohefion exerted by the
circumference ELM, and the folid generated by the triangle
C A a will reprefent the cohefion1 exerted by the whole
circle AHK, and the cylinder generated by the reftangle
AC r a will reprefent the cohefion exerted by the fame fur¬
face if each particle had fuffered the extenfion A a.
Now it is .plain, in the firft place, that the folid genera¬
ted by the triangle e EC is to that generated by a AC as
EC 3 to AC 3. In the next place, the folid generated by
E a AC
S T R
[
Strength of^ AC ;s tw0.thi’r<!3 of the cylinder, becaufe the cone gene-
Matei iaife. raje(j foy c Q a h one-tliird of it.
We may now fuppofe the cylinder twifted till the parti¬
cles in the external circumference lofe their cohelion. There
can be no doubt that it will now be wrenched afunder, all
the inner circles yielding in fucceflion. Thus we obtain
With5 what one ufeful information, viz. that a body of homogeneous
force a bo- texture refifts a Jimple tivift with two-thirds of the force with
dy of a ho. wiu'ch jt reii(ts an attempt to force one part laterally from the
mogeneov.8 t^e or vvith one-third part of the force which will cut it
fids a fun- afunder by a fquare-edged tool. For to drive a fquare-
edged tool through a piece of lead, for inftance, is the
fame as forcing a piece of the lead as thick as the tool
laterally away from the two pieces on each fide of the tool.
Experiments of this kind do not feem difficult, and they
would give us very ufeful information.
When two cylinders AHK and BNO are wrenched a-
funder, we muft conclude that the external particles or each
are juft put beyond their limits of cohefion, are equally ex¬
tended, and are exerting equal forces. Hence it follows,
the fquarebthat in the inftant of fraffure the fum total of the forces ac-
of the di- tually exerted are as the fquares of the diameters,
ameters. jror drawing the diagonal C e, it is plain that E ~ A a,
expreftes the diftenfion of the circumference ELM, and that
the folid generated by the triangle CE e exprefies the co¬
hefion exerted by the furface of the circle ELM, when the
particles in the circumference fuflfer the extenfion E e equal
to A <7. Now the folids generated by CA a and CE e be¬
ing refpeftively two thirds of the correfponding cylinders,
are as the fquares of the diameters.
■Relative Having thus afeertained the real ftrength of the fe&ion,
and its relation to its abfolute lateral ftrength, let us exa-
^i116 its ftrength relative to the external force employed to
temai force break it. This examination is very limple in the cafe un¬
employed der confideration. The (training force muft aft by fome le¬
ver
pie twill.
ill
The forces
exei ted in
b'-eakin^
two cylin¬
ders are as
to break it. verj aRCj cohefion muft oppofe it by afting on fome
othei lever. The centre of the left ion may be the neutral
^point, whofe pofition is not difturbed.
Let E be the force exerted laterally by an exterior par¬
ticle. Let a be the radius of the cylinder, and x the inde¬
terminate diftance of any circumference, and x the indefi¬
nitely fmail interval between the concentric arches ; that is,
let x be the breadth of a ring and x its radius. The for¬
ces being as the extenfions, and the extenfions as the di-
llances from the axis, the cohefion actually exerted at any
part of any ring will be fxJi‘ The force exerted by the
a
whole ring (being as the circumference or as the radius)
- • . a:2 x r
will be_/—-j~. The momentum of cohefion of a ring, be-
. . . , . X 3 X
ing as the force multiplied by its lever, will beThe
accumulated momentum will be the fum or fluent off —— ;
a *
that is, when x — a, it will be ? / , — ah
The itfift- Hence we learn that the ftrength of an axle, by which it
arce of the refifts being wrenched alunder by a lorce atring at a given
axle is as dift?nce trom the axis, is as the cube of its diameter.
iudLune^ ^ut ^arthcr’ if a 3 19 -W « 2 X r a- Now fa 2 repre-
ter. Lnts the full lateral cohefion of the feftion. The momen¬
tum therefore is the fame as if the full lateral cohefion were
accumulated at a point diftant from the axis by gth of the
jadius or -|th of the diameter of the cylinder.
Therefore let F be the number of pounds which meafures
34 3 S. T. R
the lateral eohefion of a circular inch, d the diameter of the ShTpgp, 6|
cylinder in inches, apd / the length of the lever by which ;Materul).
the draining forcep isfuppofed toa&, we (hallhave FX-g^J
d3
~ pi, and F rp/ = /»• .
We fee in general that the ftrength of an axle, by which
it relifts being wrenched afunder by twilling, is as the cube
of its diameter.
We fee alfo that the internal parts are not adling fo
powerfully as the external. If a hole be bored out of the
axle of half its diameter, the ftrength is diminifhed only -jj-th, IJ4
while the quantity of matter is diminifhed ^th. Therefore Hollow
hollow axles are ftronger than folid ones containing theaxiesm,r(
fame quantity of matter. Thus let the diameter be 5 and
that of the hollow 4: then the diameter of another fol d ’ ^
cylinder having the fame quantity of matter with the tube
is 3. The ftrength of the folid cylinder of the diameter y
may be expreffed by 53 or 125. Of this the internal p*rt (of
the diameter 4) exerts 64; therefore the ftrength of the
tube is 125—64, = 61. But the ftrength of the folid axle
of the fame quantity of matter and diameter 3 is 35, or 27»
which is not half of that of the tube. up
Engineers, therefore, have of late introduced this im And now
provement in their machines, and the axles of call iron areK^ Jra|lf
all made hollow when their frze will admit it. They haveu s
the additional advantage of being much itiffer, and of afford¬
ing much better fixure for the flanches, which are ufed for
connedling them with the wheels or levers by which they
are turned and ftrained. The fuperiority of ftrength of
hollow tubes over folid cylinders is much greater in this
kind of flrain than in the former or tranfverfe. In this
laft cafe the flrengh of this tube would be to that of the
{©lid cylinder of equal weight as 61 to 324- nearly.
The apparatus which we mentioned on a former occafion
for trying the lateral ftrength of a fquare inch of folid mat¬
ter, enabled us t@ try this theory of twill with all delirable ac¬
curacy. The bar which hung down from the pin in the for¬
mer trials w'as now placed in a horizontal pofition, and loaded ^
with a weight at the extremity. Thus it adted as a power-rp^ ratjft
ful lever, and enabled us to wrench afunder iptcimens of the.q rtlift.
ftrongeft materials. We found the refults perfe&ly con-anerro
form-able to the theory, in as far as it determined the pro-tw,ftir!?
portional ftrength of different fizes and forms : but
found the ratio of the reliftance to twilling to the fimplercfiftance
feme a, pears
different.
lateral rehftance confiderably different; and it was
time before we difeovered the caufe.
We had here taken the fimpieft view that is poffble of
the adtion of cohefion in relifting a twill. It is fre /
exerted in a very different way. When, for infta m
iron axle is joined to a wooden one by being driv .uto
one end of it, the extenfions of the different circles ot par¬
ticles are in a very different proportion. A con¬
fideration will fhow that the particles in immedate contadt
with the iron axle are in a ftate of violent extenfion ; fo
are the particles of the exterior iurface of the wooden part,
and the intermediate parts are lefs,{trained. It is almoli
impoffible to affign the exadl proportion of the cohefive
lorces exerted in the different parts. Numberleis ca*es can
be pointed out where parts of the axle are in a Hate of
compreffion, and where it is (till more difficult to determine n?
the ftate of the other particles. We muft content ourfeL-?/^^
with the dedudlions made from this fimple cafe, which is
fortunately the molt common. In the experiments juft nowaj;ereyi!
mentioned the centre of the circle is by no means the neu-Wi. exai
tral point, and it is very difficult to afeertain its place : but
when this confideration occurred to us, we eafily freed the ex¬
periments from this uncertainty, by extending the lever to
bath fides, aud by means of a pulley applied equal L>ice
Plate C C C C L XXXV.
 _
St'-etto.
on timber
irregular.
S T R [35
Strength of to each arm, a&ing In oppofite direfiions. Thus the centre
Materials i3ecame the neutral point, and the refiftance to twill was
found to be ^da 0f the fimple lateral ftrength.
We beg leave to mention here that our fuccefs in thefe
experiments encouraged us to extend them much farther.
We hoped by tbefe means to difcover the ablolute coheiion of
rhalb day tTiany lubftances,’which would have required an enormous ap-
and wax, paratus and a moll unmanageable force to tear them afunder
ratisfiAoryjdiredlly. But we could reafon with confidence from the
hut tliofe refinance to twifi (which we could eafily meafure), provided
that we could afcertain the proportion of the direft and the
lateral ilrengths. Our experiments on chalk, finely pre¬
pared clay, and white bees-wax (of one melting and one
temperature), were very confiftent and fatisfaffory. But
we have hitherto found great irregularities in this propor¬
tion in bodies of a fibrous texture like timber. Thefe
are the mofl important cafes, and we ftill hope to be able
to accomplifh our project, and to give the public fome
valuable information. T his being our foie objeft, it
was our duty to mention the method which promifes fuccefs,
and thus excite others to the talk ; and it will be no morti¬
fication to us to be deprived of the honour of being the firft
who thus adds to the flock of experimental knowledge.
When the matter of the axle is of the moll fimple tex¬
ture, Inch as that of metals, we do not conceive that the
length of the axle has any influence on the fradlure. It is
otherwife if it be of a fibrous texture like timber : the fibres
are bent before breaking, being twilled into Ipirals like a
cork-fcrew. The length of the axle has fomewhat of the
influence of a lever in this cafe, and it is eafier wrenched
afunder if long. Accordingly wc have found it fo; but we
119 liave n°t been able to reduce this influence to calculation.
Concluding ^ur reader* are requefted to accept of thefe endeavours
rema ks. to communicate information on this important and difficult
fubjedl. We are duly fenfible of their imperfection, but flat¬
ter ourfelves that we have in many inftances pointed out
the method which mult be purfued for improving our
knowledge on this fubjedt ; and we have given the Eng-
lilh reader a more copious lift of experiments on the
ftrength of mateiials than he will meet with in our lan¬
guage. Many ufeful deductions might be made from thei'e
premifes reipedfing the manner of difpofing and combi¬
ning the ftrength of materials in our ftrudtures. The belt
form of joints, mortifes, tenons, fcarphs ; the rules for jog-
gling, tabling, faying, fiftiing, See. pradtifed in the delicate
art ol mall-making, are all founded on this dodtrine : but
the difeuffion of thefe would be equivalent to writing
a complete treatife of carpentry. We hope that this will
be executed by lome intelligent mechanician, lor there is
nothing in our language on this fubjedl but what is almoll
contemptible ; yet there is no mechanic art that is more
fufceptible or fcientific treatment. Such a treatife, it well
executed, could not fail of being well received by the pub-
bc in this age of mechanical improvement.
. S'! RENG 1 HENERS, or Corroborants, fuch me¬
dicines as add to the bulk and firmnefs of the folids ; and
fucli are all agglutinant and aftringent medicines. See Ma¬
teria Mfdica, p.649. art. 6.
S I RE I CHING, in navigation, is generally underftood
to imply the progreffion of a Ihip under a great furf ace of fail,
when clofe-hauled. The difference between this term and
Jtandmg, conhfts apparently in the quantity of fail; which i
1 S T R
STRIATED leaf, among botanifts, one that has a
number of longitudinal furrows on its furface.
STRIKE, a meafure of capacity, containing four bulhels. ,
Alfo an inftrument ufed in meafuring corn.
STRIX, the owl, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of accipitres. The bill is hooked, but has no
cere or wax ; the noftrils are covered with fetaceous fea¬
thers ; the head is very large, as are alfo the ears and eyes ;
and the tonyue is bifid. There are 46 fpecies; the moft
remarkable are,
1. The bubo, or great-eared owl, in fize is almoft equal to
an eagle. Irides bright yellow; head and whole body finely
varied with lines, fpots, and fpecks of black, brown, cine¬
reous, and ferruginous. Wings long; tail (hurt, marked
with dufky bars. Eegs thick, covered to the very end of
the toes witli a clofe and full down of a teftaceous colour.
Claws great, much hooked, and duiky. — It has been fhot in
Scotland and in Yorkfhire. It inhabits inacceffible rocks
and defert places; and preys on hares and feathered game.
Its appearance in cities was deemed an unlucky omen ; Rome
itfelf once underwent a luftration becaufe one of them ftray-
ed into the capitol. The ancients had them in the utmoft
abhorrence ; and thought them, like the fcreeoh-owls, the
meffengers of death. Pliny ftyles it bubofunebrh, and no£!is
monjlrum.
Solaque culminlbus ferali carmine bubo
Stcpe queri et longas in jhtum ducere voces. Virgil.
Perch'd on the roof, the bird of night complains,
In lengthen’d fhrieks and dire funereal drains.
Striated
Strix.
?. The otus, or long-eared owl, is found, though not
frequently, in the north of England, in Chefnire, and in
Wales. Mr Haffelquift faw it alive in Cairo, and it is
not unfrequent all over Egypt. Its weight, according
to Dr Latham, is nine ounces; the length 14 inches and
a half; the breadth 34 ; the irides are of a bright yellow ;
the bill black ; the breaft and belly are of a dull yellow,
marked with {lender brown ftrokes pointing downwards;
the thighs and vent-feathers of the fame colour, but un-
fpotted. The back and coverts of the wings are varied
with deep brown and yellow; the quill-feathers of the
{ame colour, but near the ends of the outmoft is a broad
bar of red ; the tail is marked with duiky and reddifti bars,
but beneath appears afh-coloured ; the horns or ears are
about an inch long, and confift of fix feathers variegated
with yellow and black ; the feet are feathered down to the
claws.
the latter may be very moderate ; ‘but ilretching generally
jgnihes excels : as, we law the enemy at day break ftretch-
Jke fouthward under a croud of fail, &c. Falconer.
S I RET 1 O, in Italian mufic, is fometimes ufed to ligni-
7 thft the. ^eafure is te be Ihort and concife, and confe-
quently quick. In this fenfe it Hands oppofed to Largo.
3-lThe Irachyotos,orfhort-eared owl, is 14 inches long; three
feet broad; the head is fmall and hawk-like ; the bill is duiky;
weight 14 ounces; the circle of feathers that immediately fur-
rounds the eyes is black ; the larger circle white, terminated
with tawny and.black ; the feathers on the head, back, and
coverts of the wings, are brown, edged with pale dull yel¬
low ; the breaft and belly are of the fame colour, marked
with a few long narrow ftreaks of brown pointing down¬
wards ; the quill-feathers are duiky, barred with red ; the
tail is of a very deep brown, adorned on each fide of the fhaft
of the four middle feathers with a yellow circle which con¬
tains a brown fpot; the tip of the tail is white. The
horns of this fpecies are very fmall, and each conlifts of on¬
ly a Angle feather ; thefe it can raife or deprefs at pleafure ;
and in a dead bird are with difficulty difeovered. This
kind is fcarcer than the former; both are folitary birds,
avoiding inhabited places. Thefe fpecies may be called
long-nuinged owls ; the wings when clofed reaching beyond
the end of the tail; whereas in the common kinds they fall
fhort of it.—This is a bird of paffage, and has been obfer-
ved to viftt Lincolnlhire in the beginning of Odtober, and
E 2 to
S T R
[ 36 ]
S T R
Strir,
to retire early in tbe fpring ; To probably, as it performs its
' migrations with the woodcock, its fummer-retreat is Nor¬
way. During day it lies hid in long old grafs; when di-
iturbed, it feldom flies far, but will bght, and lit looking at
one, at which time the horns may be feen very diftindlly.
It has not been obferved to perch on trees like other owls ;
it ufually flies in fearch of prey in cloudy hazy weather.
Farmers are fond of feeing thefe birds in the fields, as they
clear them from mice. It is found frequently on the hill ot
Hoy in the Orkneys, where it flies about and preys by day
like a hawk. It is found alfo, as we mentioned before, in
Lancalhire, which is a hilly and woody country ; and in
New England and Newfoundland.
4. The Jlammea, or common white owl. The elegant
plumage ot this bird makes amends for the uncouthnefs of
its form: a circle of foft white feathers furround the
eyes. The upper part of the body, the coverts, and fecon-
dary feathers of the wings, are of a fine pale yellow : on
each fide of the lhafts are two grey and two white fpots
placed alternate: the exterior fides of the quill-feathers are
yellow ; the interior white, marked on each fide with four
black fpots : the lower fide of the body is wholly white ;
the interior fides of the feathers of the tail aVe white ; the
exterior marked with fome obfcuie dulky bars ; the legs are
feathered to the feet : the feet are covered with fhort hairs :
the edge of the middle claw is ferrated. The ufual weight
is 11 ounces ; its length 14 inches; its breadth 3 feet.—
This fpecies is almoft domeftic ; inhabiting, for the greatefl
part of the year, barns, hay-lofts, and other out houfes ; and
is as ufeful in clearing thofe places from mice as the conge¬
nial cat: towards twilight it quits it:? perch, and takes a re¬
gular circuit round the fields, fkimming along the ground in
queft of field-mice, and then returns to its ufual refidence :
in the breeding-feafon it takes to the eaves of churches,
holes in lofty buildings, or hollows of trees. During the
time the young are in the neft, the male and female alter¬
nately lally out in queft of food, make their circuit, beat
the fields with the regularity of a fpaniel, and drop inftant-
ly on their prey in the grafs. They very fddom ftay out
above five minutes ; return with their prey in their claws;
but as it is neceflary to fhift it into their bill, they always
alight for that purpofe on the roof, before they attempt to
enter their neft. This fpecies does not hoot ; but fnores
and hifl’es in a violent manner ; and while it flies along will
often fcream moft tremendoufly. Its only food is mice.
As, the young of thefe birds keep their neft for a great
length oi time, and are fed even long after they can fly, ma¬
ny hundreds of mice will fcarcely fuffice to iupply them
with food. Owls call up the bones, fur, or feathers of
their prey, in form of fmall pellets, after they have de¬
voured it, in the fame manner as hawks do. A gentle¬
man, on grubbing up an old pollard afh that had been the
habitation of owls for many generations, found at the bot¬
tom many bufhels of this reje&ed fluff. Some owls,
when they are fatisfied, hide the remainder of their meat
like dogs.
5. The Jlrtdula, or tawny owl. The female of this fpecies
weighs 19 ounces; the length is 15 inches ; the breadth 2
feet 8 inches; the irides are dufky ; the ears in this, as in
all owls, very large ; and their ienfe of hearing very ex-
quifite. The colour of this kind is fufficient to diftinguifh
it from every other: that of the back, head, coverts of the
wings, and on the Icapular feathers, being a fine tawny red,
elegantly fpotted and powdered with the black or dulky
fpots of various fizes : on the coverts of the wings and on
the Icapulars are leveral large white fpots : the coverts of
Strit.
is varioufly blotched, barred and fpotted with pale red and
black ; in the two middle feathers the red predominates: vT-,‘*
the breall and belly are yellowilh, mixed with white, and
marked with narrow black ftrokes pointing downwards:
the legs are covered with feathers down to the toes.—This
is a hardier fpecies than the former ; and the young will
feed on any dead thing, whereas thofe of the white owl
muft have a conftant fupply of frelh meat. It is the ftrix
of Aldrovandus, and what we call the fcreech-orw't; to
which the folly of fuperftition had given the power of pre-
faging death by its cries. The ancients believed that it
fucked the blood of young children : a fa<ft foipe think not
incredible ; for Haffelquift deferibes a fpecies found in Syria,
which frequently in the evening flies in at tire windows, and
deftroys the helplels infant.
Node volant^ puerafque petunt nutrias egentes,
Et vitiant curuis corpora rapta fuis.
Ca’pere dicuntur ladcntia vifeera rojlrisy
Et plenum poto /anguine guttur habent.
EJi illis Jlrigibus nomcn, fed nominis bujus
Cauja quod horrendaJiridere nodefolent. Ovid l aft. vi. I 3
6, The ulula, or brown owl, agrees with the former in
its marks ; differing only in the colours : in this, the head,
wings, and back, are of a deep brown, fpotted with black
in the fame manner as the former : the coverts of the wings
and the fcapulars are adorned with fimilar white fpots: the
exterior edges of the four firft quill-feathers in both are
ferrated: the breaft in this is of a very pale afh-colour mix¬
ed with tawny, and marked with oblong jagged tpots : the
feet too are feathered down to the very claws : the circle
round the face is afh-coloured, ipotted with brown. both
thefe fpecies inhabit woods, where they refide the whole
day : in the night they are very clamorous ; and when
they hoot, their throats are inflated to the fize of an hen’s
egg. In the dufk they approach our dwellings ; and will
frequently enter pigeon-houfes, and make great havoc in
them. They deftroy numbers of little leverets, as appears
by the legs frequently found in their nefts. They alio kill
abundance of moles, and 1km them with as much dexterity
as a cook does a rabbit. They build in hollow trees or
ruined edifices; lay four eggs, of an elliptic form, and of a
whitifh colour.
7. The pajferina, or little owl, is very rare in England-5-
it is fometimes" found in Yorkfhire, Flintfhire, and alio near-
London : in fize it fcarcely exceeds a thrufh, though the
fulnefs of its plumage makes it appear larger : the irides are
of a light yellow ; the bill of a paper-colour ; the feather s
that encircle the face are white tipt with black; the head
brown, fpotted with white ; on the breaft is a mixtui'e of
white and brown ; the belly is white, marked with a fe\v
brown fpots ; the tail of the fame colour with the back ; in
each feather barred with white ; in each adorned with cir¬
cular white fpots, placed oppofite to one another on both
fides of the fhaft ; the legs and feet are covered with feathers
down to the claws.—The Italians make ufe of this owl to
decoy fmall birds to the limed twig ; the method of which
is exhibited in Olina’s Uccel/iera, p. 65. Mr Steuait, au¬
thor of the Antiquities of Athens, informed Mr Pennant,
that this ipecies of owl was very common in Attica ; that
they were birds of paffage, and appeared there in the begin¬
ning of April in great numbers ; that they bred there ; and
that they retired at the fame time as the Hoiks, whole
arrival they a little preceded.
8. The fpeftacle owl of Cayenne, which is accurately L„ti. Sj
feribed by Dr Latham, is 21 inches in length : the uppervoJ. vii-
the tail are tawny, and quite free from any marks; the tail parts of the body are of a reddifh colour; the lower parts j°«
S T R
r 37 1
S T R
5>rrbilt'S,
stroking.
:e Brief
ccount of
(r a!efl¬
it; Great
ii'Sy Lon
u, t606,
of a rufous white : the head and neck are white, and not fo
full of feathers as thofe of owls generally are, and from this
circumflance it appears not unlike a hawk: a large patch of
dark brown furrounds each eye, giving the bird much the
appearance of wearing fpe&acles; the legs are covered with
feathers quite to the toes, and are of a yellowifh colour. A
fpecimen of this curious biid may be feen in the Leverian
mufeum.
STROBILUS, in botany, a pericarp formed from an
amentum by the hardening of the fcalesr
STROKING, or rubbing {jently with the hand, a me¬
thod which has been employed by fome perfons for curing
difeafes.
Mr Greatrakes or Greatrix, the famous Infh ftroker, is
faid to have uerformed many wonderful cures. He gives
the following account of his difcovery of this art, and of the
fuccefs with which he praCtifed it “ About 1662 I had
an impulfe ((ays he), or a ilrange perfuafion in my own
mmd (of which I am not able to give any rational account
to another), which did very frequently fuggefl to me, that
there was bellowed on me the gilt of curing the king’s evil;
which, for the extraordinarinefs of it, I thought fit to con¬
ceal for iorae time ; but at length I communicated this to
my wife, and told her, that I did verily believe that God
had given me the bltffing of curing the king’s evil; for
whether I were in private or public, lleeping or waking,
ftill I had the fame impulfe. But her reply to me was, that
fire conceived this was a ftraage imagination ; yet, to prove
the contrary^ a few days after there was one William Ma¬
ther of c alterbridge in the parilh of Lxfmore, who brought
his fon William to my houie, defiring my wife to cure him,
who was a perfon ready to afford her charity to her neigh¬
bours, according to her fmall fkill in chirurgery. On which
my wife told me, there w'as one that had the king’s evil very
grievoully in the eyes, check, and throat; whereupon I told
her, that fhe fhould now fee whether this were a bare fancy
or imagination, as fire thought it, or the di&ates of God’s
Spirit on my heart. Then 1 laid my hands on the places
afkaed, and prayed to God for Jefus fake to heal him; and
bid the parent two or three days afterwards to bring the
child to me again, which accordingly he did; and I then
faw the eye was almoft quite whole; and the node, which
was almoft as big as a pullet’s egg, was fuppurated ; and
the throat ftrangely amended ; and, to be brief (to God’s
glory I {'peak it) within a month dilcharged itfelf quite, and
was perfectly healed, and fo continues, God be praifed.”
Then there came to him one Margaret Macftiane of Bal-
linecly, in the patifh of Lifmore, wTo had been affii&ed
with the evil above feven years, in a much more violent de-
gree ; and loon after, his lame inereafing, he cured the
lame difeafe in many other perfons tor three years. He did
not meddle all this time with any other diftemper; till about
the end of theft three years, the ague growing epidemical,
tie tound, as formerly, that there was bellowed on him the
gift of curing that difeafe. He cured Colonel Phaire, of
Gahirmony m the county of'Corke, of an ague, and after-
wards many other perfons of different dillempers, by itro-
jmg ; fo that his name was wonderfully cried up, as if fome
civine perfon had been lent from above. January j66c 6,
he came over to England, at the requeft .of the earl of Gr-
rery ; in order to cure the lady of the lord-vifcount Con¬
s’ 0yvag;ey ln Warwickfhire, who had for many years
aboured under a moft violent headache.. He Raid at Lg-
endeavT °J 3 m?nth,; and thou^ ^ failed in his
neoule in^w rC ieV£ that ady’ hc cured valt numbers of
p opie in thofe parts and at Worcefter.
1 10Ugh we are 110 friends to the.marvellous, nor believe
it poflible that either the king’s evil or ague can be cured by
ftroking or fridtion of any kind, whether gentle or fevete, we
have no hefitation to acknowledge that many cures might
be performed by Mr Greatiakes. Every reflefting per¬
fon who reads the foregoing account which he gives ofhim-
felf will fee that he was an enthufiaft, and believed himfelf
guided by a particular revelation ; and fuch is the credulity
of mankind, that his pretenfions were readily admitted, and
men croudcd with eagernefs to be relieved of their difeafes.
But it is well known to phyficians, that in many cafes the
imagination has accomplifhed cures as wonderful as the force
of medicine. It is owing chiefly to the influence of ima¬
gination that we have fo many accounts frotn people of ve¬
racity of the wonderful effefts of quack medicines. We are
perfedfly affured that thefe medicines, by their natural ope¬
ration, can never produce the effedls afcribed to them ; for
there is no kind of proportion between the medicine and the
effedl produced, and often no connexion between the medi¬
cine and the difeafe.
S PROM A i'EUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes be¬
longing to the order of abodes. I he head is compreffed ;
the teeth are placed in the jaws and palate ; the body is
oval and flippery ; and the tail is forked J here are three
fpecies according to Gmelin, the fiatola, paru, and cu-
marca.
S PROMBOLI, the moft northern of the Lipari iflands.
It is a volcano, which conftantly difcharges much fire and
fmoke. It rifes in a conical form above the furface of the
fea. On the eaft fide it has three or four little craters ran¬
ged near each other, not at the fummit, but on the decli¬
vity, nearly at two-thirds o its height. But as the furface
of the volcano is very nigged and interfered with hollow-
ways, it may be naturally concluded, that at the time of
fome great eruption, the fummit and a part of this fide fell
in, as muft have happened alfo to Veftivius; confequently,
the common chimney is at this day on the declivity, al¬
though always in the centre of the whole bale. It is inha¬
bited notwithftandiag its fires ; but care is taken to avoid
the. proximity of the crater, which is yet much to be feared.
“ I was affured (fays M. de Luc) by an Englifhman, who,
like me, had the curiofity to vifit thefe iffes, that the line
weather having invited him and his. company to land at
Stromboli, they afcended a volcano, whole craters at that
time threw out nothing ; but that while they were atten¬
tively viewing them, unapprehenfive of any danger, they
were fuddenly fainted by fuch a furious di{charge, as to be
obliged to retreat with precipitation, and not without one
of the company being wounded by a piece of fcoria,” Of
all the volcanoes recorded in hiftory, Stromboli feems to be
the only one that burns without ceafing. Etna and Vcfu- -
vius often he quiet for many months, and even years, with—
out the leaft appearance of fire ; but Stromboli is ever at
work, and for ages paft. has been looked upon as the great. ,
lighthoufe of thefe leas~ E.Long. 15.45. N. Lat. 3c. o.
o I ROMBUS, in natural hiftenyya genus of vermes, be¬
longing to the order of tejtacea. The animal is a limax 5
the if ell is univalve and fpiral ; the opening is much dila¬
ted, and ends in a canal which turns to the left. Gmelin
enumerates 53 fpccies ; of which only one is peculiar to
Britain, the pes pelecani. The fpires are ten; the lip is
fingered ; the point very .{harp ; the length two inches.
S I RONGOLI, a town ol the kingdom of Naples, with
a bifhop s fee. it is fituated on a rugged mountain, is about
three miles from the fea, and feven north from St Severino.
It is iuppoied to be the ancient Pelelia, which made a con-
fpicuous figure in the fecond Punic war by its obftinate re-
hftancc agamit Hannibal. Near its wails Marcellus the ri¬
val
Stromateus
II
Strong oli.
 v 1
Slrontlfe*
^iranfac-
tions of the
Ir'ijh Aca¬
demy, Vol.
V.
cTranf ac¬
tions of the
Royal Socie
ty of Edin.
burgh, Vol.
ill.
S T R C 3
• val of Hannibal was {lain in a flarmifh. E. Long. 17. 26.
1N. Lat. 39. 20.
STRONTITES, or strontian earth, a new fpecies
of earth lately difeovered at Strontian in Scotland.
Who the difeoverer of this earth was we have not learn¬
ed ; but Dr Kirwan fays, the firft information he received
of it was from Dr Crawford in the year 1 79^' t-be Mi¬
ners Journal for February 179* a good defeription of its
external appearance, with feme account of its chemical pro¬
perties, was publilhed from the obfervations of Mr Suker.
Dr Kirwan examined it in Oftober I793> anb found it to
he a new earth between the barytic and common limeftone.
Dr Hope, who is now joint profeffor of chemiftry with
Dr Black in the univerfity of Edinburgh, read a paper on
the 4th November 1793 before the Royal Society of Edin¬
burgh, intitled “ An Ascount of a Mineral from Stron¬
tian, and of a peculiar Species of Earth which it contains
an abridgment °f which is publifhed in the third volume of
the Edinburgh Philofophical Tranfa&icns. Mr SchmeifTer
read a paper on the fame fubjedl before the Royal Society
of London in May >794) which is publilhed in their Tranf-
a&ions for that year, p. 418, &c.
Its external charaAers are thefe : Its colour is whitiih or
light green ; its luftre common ; its traniparency interme¬
diate between the femitranfparent and opaque ; its fraAure
itriated, prefenting oblong diftmA concretions, fomewhat
uneven and bent; itshardnefs moderate, being ealily ferateh-
ed, but notferaped. It is very brittle ; and its fpecific gra¬
vity from 3,4 to 3,644.
For a full account of its chemical qualities we muft refer
to the books already mentioned, as all the accounts of it
which we have feen are too long to infert here, and as we
do not confider the circumftance of its being a newly difeo¬
vered earth a fufficient reafon for running into a tedious de¬
tail till its utility be afeertained. We fhall, however, men¬
tion fome of its mod remarkable qualities. It requires 180
times its weight of water at a low temperature to diilolve it.
When diffolved in boiling water, and allowed to cool, it de-
pofits tranfpareut cryftals, which when expofed to the air
become white and powdery. It is not afleAed by the ful-
phuric acid ; but when diluted, 10,000 parts of it will dif-
folve one of ftrontites. Diluted nitric acid diffolves it ra¬
pidly. The muriatic acid, whether diluted or oxygenated,
diffolves it in a fimilar manner.
Strontites has a ftrong refemblance to barytes, but eflen-
tially differs from it. Its fpecific gravity is lefs; it parts
with its carbonic acid when urged by heat fomewhat more
readily, and without fuffering lulion ; when calcined, it im¬
bibes moifture with vaffly greater avidity, fwelling and
cracking with more heat and noife. Strontites diffolves
much more abundantly in hot water than barytes; and the
form of the cryftals of thefe pure earths is very diffimitar.
The compounds generated by ffrontites differ from thole of
barytes. It will fufflce to mention the nitrate and muriate.
This earth, united to nitric and muriatic acid, forms falts
that futfer changes from expofure to air, which do not hap¬
pen to the nitrate and muriate of barytes. They are like-
wife much more foluble in water, and have cryftals of a pe¬
culiar figure. The combinations of ftrontites with acids are
not, like thofe of barytes, decompoled by pruffiate of lime
or ofbpotafh. Strontites and its compounds tinge fame,
which barytes does not. Laftly, thefe earths difagree in the
order of their attraAions. From thefe conhderations it is
concluded, that the mineral is not aerated barytes.
It alfo is diftinguifhed from calcareous fpar or limeftone :
for it is much heavier, and retains its fixed air with more
ot'ftinacy in the fire. The incomparably greater folubility
$ ] S T R
of the pure earth in hot than in cold water, and the etyft&l- 3tro>48
line form it affumes, fufficiently diftinguifh it from lime,
which the difpofition of the nitrate and muriate to cryftai- \
lize no lefs tends to do.
The moft remarkable quality of ftrontites is that ef tin¬
ging flame of a red colour. The muriate has it in the moft
eminent degree, and its effeAs are well exhibited by putting
a portion of the fait on the wick of a candle, which is there¬
by made to burn with a very beautiful blood-red flame. The
nitrate Hands next, then cryftallized ftrontites, and after k
the acetite. A hundred parts of ftrontites are compoled of
61.2f of earth, 30.20 of carbonic acid, and 8.59 of
water,
ST ROPHE, in ancient poetry, a certain number of
verfes, including a perfeA fenfe, and making the firft part of
an ode. See Poetry, n° 130.
STRUM.dE, fcrophulous tumors arifirg on the neck and
throat, conftituting what is commonly called the king's evil.
Sec Medicine, n° 349.
STRUMPFIA, in botany ; a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of fyngenejia, and to the order of monogamia.
T he calyx is quinquedentate and luperior ; the corolla is
pentapetalous ; and the berry monofpermous. There is only
one fpecies, the maritima.
STRUTHIO, in natural hiftory ; a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order of grallx of Linnaeus; but, according
to the new claffification of Dr Latham, it forms, along with
the dodo, caffuarius, and rhea, a feparate order under the
name of’Jlruthious, As the dodo or didus, and rhea, have
been already deferibed in their proper place, we will now
give fome account of the oftrich and calTowary.
I. The Ostrich (the Camelus of Linnaeus) has a bill p|a,e
fomevvhat conical ; the wings are fo fhort as to be unfit cccclxxh
for flying ; the thighs and fides of the body are naked ; the
feet are formed for running, having two toes, one only
of which is furnifhed with a nail. In this refpeA it
differs entirely from the caflbwary, which has three toes
complete. The oftrich is without doubt the largeft of all
birds : it is nearly eight feet in length, and when Handing
upriuht from fix to eight feet in height. We are told in
the Gentleman’s Magazine*, that two oftriches were fhown # Voln
in London in the year 1750, a»d that the male was xc feetp. 53^
in height, and weighed three hundred weight and a quarter.
T he head and bill fomewhat refemble thofe of a duck ; and
the neck may be likened to that of a fwan, but that it is
much longer; the legs and thighs refemble thofe of an hen;
though the whole appearance bears a ftrong refemblance to
that of a camel. But though ufually feven feet high from
the top of the head to the ground, from the back it is only
four ; fo that the head and neck are above three feet Ions.
From the top of the head to the rump, when the neck is
ftretched out in a right line, it is fix feet long, and the tail
is about a foot more. One of the wings, without the fea¬
thers, is a foot and an half ; and being ftretched out, with
the feathers, is three feet.
The plumage is much alike in all; that is, generally blactc
and white; though iome of them are faid to be grey. There
are no feathers on the fides, nor yet on the thighs, nor un¬
der the wings. The lower part of the neck, about half
way, is covered with ftill fmaller feathers than thofe on the
belly and back ; and thoie alfo are of different colours.
All thefe feathers are of the fame kind, and peculiar
' to the oftrich ; for other birds have feveral forts, fome of
which are foft and downy, and others hard and ftrong.
Oftrich-feathers are almoft all as foft as down, being utterly
unfit to ferve the animal for flying, and ftill lefs adapted to
be a proper defence againit external injury. The feathers
s T R [ 39 7 s T R
Strothin. 0f othfr birds have the webs broader «n one fide than the
-—r~J other, but tiiofe of the oitrich have their (haft exa&ly in the
middle. ?j/he upper part of the head and neck are covered
with a very fine clear white hair, that fhines like the brifilts
of a hog; and in fgnae places there are fmall tufts of it,
confining of about i 2 hairs, which grow from a iingle ihaft
about the thicknefs of a pin.
At the end of each wing there is a kind of fpur almoft
like the quill of a porcupine. It is an inch long, being hol¬
low and of an horny fubltance. There are two of thefe on
each wing ; the large ft of which is at the extremity of the
bone of the wing, and the other a foot lower. The neck
fetms to be more {lender in proportion to that of other birds,
from its not being furnilhed with feathers. The fir in in
this part is of a livid flelh-colour, which fome, improperly,
would have to be blue. The bill is fhort and pointed, and
two inches and an half at the beeinning. The external
form of the eye is like that of a man, the upper eye-lid be¬
ing adorned with eye-lalhes which are longer than thole on
the Ikl below. The tongue is fmall, very fhort, and com-
pofed of cartilages, ligaments, and membranes, intermixed
with fiefhy fibres. In fome it is about an inch long, and
very thick at the bottom ; in others it is but half an inch,
being a little forked at the end.
'1 he thighs are very flefhy and large, being covered with
a white Ikm inclining to rednefs, and wrinkled in the man¬
ner of a net, whole mefiies will admit the end of the finger.
Some have very imall feathers here and there on the thighs;
aud others again have neither feathers nor wrinkles. What
are called the legs of birds, in this are covered before with
laige leaks. Ihe end af the foot is cloven, and has two
very large toes, which, like the leg, are covered with kales
Thefe toes are of unequal iizes. The largeft, which is on
the innde, is feven inches long, including the claw, which
is near three-fourths of an inch in length, and almoft as
broad. J he other toe is but four inches long, and is with¬
out a claw. 0
diinks; and tne place of its habitation feems to confirm Struthio.
the ahertion. In thefe formidable regions oftnehes are feen jv ™"*"
in large flocks, which to the diftant fpeftator appear like a
regiment of cavalry, and have often alarmed a whole cara-
van.^ There is no defert, how barren foever, but what is
capable of fupplying thefe animals with provifion ; they eat
aimoft every thing ; and thefe barren tracts are thus doubly
grateful, as they afford both food and fecurky. The oftrich
is of all other animals the moft voracious. It will devour
leather, grals, hair, iron, ftones, or any thing that is given,
i hofe fubftances which the coats of the itomach cannot
{often* pafs whole ; lo that j^lafs, ftones, or iron, are exclu- **
ded in the form in which they were devoured. In an oftrich
diftecled by Ranby, there appeared fuch a quantity of he¬
terogeneous fubftances, that it was wonderful how any ani¬
mal could digeft fuch an overcharge of nouriftunent. * Va-
lifmen alfo found the firil ftoniach filled with a quantity of
incongruous fubftances ; grafs, nuts, cords, ftones, glals,
brals, copper, iron, tin, lead, and wood ; a piece of (lone
was found among the reft that weighed more than a pound.
He law one of thefe animals that was killed by devouring a.
quantity of quicklime. It would feem that the oftrich is-
obliged to fill m> the great capacity of its ftomach in order
to be at eate ; but that nutritious fubitances not occurring*
it pouis in whatever offers to fupply the veil.
In their native deferts, however, it is probable they live
chiefly upon vegetables, where they lead an inoffenfive and
locial life ; the male, as Thevenot affures us, afforting with
the female with connubial fidelity. They are laid to be
very much inclined to vtntry ; and the make of the parts in
both fexes ieems to confirm the report. It is probable alfo
they copulate like other birds, by comprefiion. They lay
very large eggs, fome of them being above five inches in dia¬
meter, and weighing above fifteen pounds. Thefe eggs,
have a very hard fheil, fomewhat refembling thofe of the
crocodile, except that thofe of the latter are lefs and round-
I he internal parts of this animal are formed with no lefs
iurprifing peculiarity. At the top of the breaft, under the
Ikm, the at is two inches thick ; and on the fore-part of
iV.lfAh-7!11 -S 7 hard,aS fuet’ aad about two inches
Til S* r ""I pW r Xt has two di/Hna ftoraachs.
f he hrft, which is lowermoft, in its natural fituation fome-
vvhat refembles tne crop-in other birds; but it is confider-
ab y larger than the other ftomach, and is furniflied with
ftroug nmfcular fibres, as well circular as longitudinal. The
fecond ftomach or g.zxard has outwardly the fhape of the
ftomach 0 d man ; arid HPon opening is always \rnnd filled
with a variety of difeordant fubllanee, ; hay IrX barlev
tLT;5' fomc a*"
ftTfcj ::;ed s:;; ^
_n ., lt 1° tnc?1 lb a natlve oriIy of the torrid regions of Africa
and has long been celebrated by thofe who have hn ? A'r‘ca»
to mention the animals of ,ha region rf fl ^ OCCarGo"
heel in Scripture as unfit ,o d 'at™ and n f f T C' N
cient writers deferibe it as well 1, * ■* 1 ^ ^ tbe an_
the t .T , , as wel1 known in their times, i ike
the race of the elephant, it is tranfmhierl /llce
tnwture} and has never been know! t!? ^"’1'"'“‘’T
that country which firil produced it It ff1 °Jt "
to hve amono- thp 1%, ,1 F j e • lt’ ‘cems formed
zone ;• and as n f/ 7 bU”UHff dcferts of ^ torrid
penial influ’ence J 11 0W"S itS bIrth to fhs*'r
or mere fertile * ’fh c mio rates mto traifts more mild
* fhe Arabians affm that the oftrich never
The feafon for laying depends on the climate where the
animal is bred. In the northern parts of Africa, this fea-
kn is about the beginning of July; in the fouth, it is about
the latter end of December. Tbefe birds are very prolific,
and lay generally from 40 to 50 eggs at one clutch, which-
are as big as a child’s head. It has been commonly report¬
ed, that the female depofits them in the land, and covering
them up, leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the cli¬
mate, and then permits the young to ihift for themfelves.
Very httfe o* this, however, is true : no bird has a ftron-rer
aftecuon for her young than the oftrich, nor none watches
her eggs with greater affiduity. It happens, indeed, in thofe
hot climates, that there is lefs necefiky for the continual
incubation of the female ; and Are more frequently leaves
her eggs, which are in no danger of being chilled by the-
weather : but though (he fometimes forfakes them by day,
ke always carefully broods over them by night; and Kol-
ben wdro has feen great numbers of them at the Cape of
Good Hope, affirms, that they fit on their eggs like other
bnds, and that the male and the female take this office by
turns, as he had frequent opportunities of obferviW Nor
is .t more true what rs faid of their forfaking their youn^v
aiter they are excluded the ffiell. On the contrary7, thf
young ones are not even able to walk for feveral days after
they are hatched. During this time the old ones are very
afhduous m Applying them with grafs, and very careful to
de.end them from danger; nay, they encounter every dan-
ger m therr defence. The young, when brought forth, are
,, £‘n a^i'col°ur the firft year, and are covered with feathers
ad over. But in time thefe feathers drop; and thofe parts
which
S T It
t 40 1
S T R
Sfraihio. which ave covered afTurae a different and more becoming
plumage.
The beauty of a part of this plumage, particularly the
long feathers that compofe the wings and tail, is the chief
rcafon that man has been fo aftive in purfuing this harmlefs
bird to its deferts, and hunting it with no 1'mall degree oi
expence and labour. The ancients ufed thofe plumes in
their helmets ; our military wear them in their hats ; and
the ladies make them an ornament in their drefs. Thofe
■feathers which are plucked from the animal while alive are
much more valued than thole taken when dead, the latter
** being dry, light, and fubjedl to be worm-eaten.
Bdide the value of their plumage, fome of the favage na¬
tions of Africa hunt them alfo for their flefh ; which they
confider as a dainty. They fometimes alfo breed thefe birds
tame, to eat the young ones, of which the females are hud to
be the greateft delicacy. Some nations have obtained the
name of Struthophagl, or ojlx'ich eaters, ftom their peculiar
fondnefs for this food ; and even the Romans themfelves
-were not averfe to it. Even among the Europeans now,
the egcrs of the oftrich are faid to be well tafted, and ex¬
tremely nourifhing ; but they are too fcarce to be fed upon,
although a lingle egg be a lufficient entertainment lor eight
men.
As the fpoils of the oftrich are thus valuable, it is not to
be wondered at that man has become their moft afliduous
purfuer. For this purpofe, the Arabians train up their beft
and fleeteft- horfes, and hunt the oftrich ftill in view. Per¬
haps, of all other varieties of the chafe, this, though the
moft laborious, is yet the moft entertaining. As foon as the
hunter comes within fight of his prey, he puts on his horfe
with a gentle gallop, fo as to keep the oftrich ftill in fight;
yet not fo as to terrify him from the plain into the moun¬
tains. Of all known animals, the oftrich is by far the fwfft-
eft in running ; upon obferving himfelf, therefore, purfued
at a diftance, he begins to run at nrft but gently ; either
infenfible of his danger, or fure of efcaping. In this fitua-
tion, he fomewhat refembles a man at full fpeed ; his wings,
like two arms, keep working with a motion correfpondent
to that of his legs; and his fpeed would very foon fnatch
him from the view of his purfuers ; but, unfortunately for
the filly creature, inftead of going off in a direff line, he
takes his courfe in circles; while the hunters ftill make a
fmall courfe within, relieve each other, meet him at unex-
pe&ed turns, and keep him thus ftill employed, ftill follow¬
ed, for two or three days together. At laft, fpent with fa¬
tigue and famine, and finding all power of efcape impoffible,
he endeavours to hide himfelf from thofe enemies he cannot
avoid, and covers his head in the land or the firlt thicket he
meets. Sometimes, however,, he attempts to face his pur¬
fuers ; and though in general the moft gentle animal in na¬
ture, when driven to deiperation he defends himfelf with
his beak, his wings, and his feet. Such is the force of his
motion, that a man would be utterly unable to withftand
him in the fhock.
The Struthophagi have another method of taking this
bird : they cover themfelves with an oftrich’s fkin, and paf-
fing up an arm through the neck, thus counterfeit all the
motions of this animal. By this artifice they approach the
oftrich, which becomes an eafy prey. He is fometimes alfo
taken by dogs and nets ; but the moft ufual way is that
mentioned above.
When the Arabians have thus taken an oftrich, they cut
its throat; and making a ligament below the opening, they
fhake the bird as one would rinfe a barrel; then taking ©If
the ligature, there runs out from the wound in the throat a
■confiderable quantity of blood mixed with the lat of the ani-
®al, and this is confidered as one of their greateft dainties.
They next /lea the bird 5 and of the fit in, which is ft rang
and thick, fometimes make a kind of veft, which anfwers the
purpofes of a cuirats and a buckler.
There are others who, more compaffionate or more pro¬
vident, do not kill their captive, but endeavour to tame it,
for the purnofes or' {applying thofe feathers which are in fo
great requeit. The inhabitants of Dara and Lybia breed
up whole flocks of them, and they are tamed with very little
trouble. But it is not for their feathers alone that they are
prized in this domeftic ftate; they are often ridden upon
and ufed as horfes. Moore aflures us, that at Joar he faw a
man travelling upon an oftrich ; and Adanfon afterts, that
at the fadlory of Podore he had two oftriches, which were
then young, the ftrongeft of which ran fwifter than the beft
Englilh racer, although he carried two negroes on his back.
As foon as the animal perceived that it was thus loaded, it
fet off running with all its force, and made feveral circuits
round the village ; till at length the people were obliged to
Hop it by barring up the way. Howr far this ftrength and
fwiftnefs maybeufeful to mankind, even in a polifhed ftate,
is a matter that perhaps deferves inquiry.
II. The Cassowary (the Cafuarius of Linnaeus, and Ga-
leated CaJJb'wary of Dr Latham) was firft brought into Eu¬
rope from Java by the Dutch about the year 1597*
nearly equal in fize to the oftrich, but its legs are much
thicker and ftronger in proportion. This conformation gives
it an air of ftrength and force, which the fiercenefs and iin-
gularity of its countenance confpire to render formidable It
is five feet and an half long from the point of the bill to the
extremity of the claws. The legs are two feet and an half
high from the belly to the end of the claws. The head and
neck together are a foot and an half; and the largeft toe,
including the claw, is five inches long. The claw alone of
the leaft toe is three inches and a half in length. The wing
is fo fmall that it does not appear, it being hid under the
feathers of the back, in other birds, a part of the feathers
ferve for flight, and are different from thofe that ferve mere¬
ly for covering; but in the caffowary all the feathers are of
the fame kind, and outwardly of the fame colour. They
are generally double, having two long ihafts, which grow
out of a fhort one, which is fixed in the /km. Thofe that
are double are always of an unequal length ; for fome are
14 inches long, particularly on the rump, while others are
not above three. The beards that adorn the ftem or fhaft
are about half-way to the end, very long, and as thick as
an horfe-hair, without being fubdivided into fibres. The
ftem or draft is flat, (hining, black, and knotted below; and
from each knot there proceeds a beard; likewife the beards
at the end of the large feathers are perfectly black, and to¬
wards the root of a grey tawny colour ; fhorter, more foft,
and throwing out fine fibres like down; fo that nothing ap¬
pears except the ends, which are hard and black ; becaufe
the other part, compofed or down, is quite covered. There
are feathers on the head and neck ; but they are fo ftrort
and thinly fown, that the bird’s fkin appears naked, except
towards the hinder part of the head, where they are a little
longer. The feathers which adorn the rump are extremely
thick; but do not differ in other refpe&s from the reft, ex¬
cepting their being longer. The wings, when they are de¬
prived of their feathers, are but three inches long ; and the
feathers are like thofe on other parts of the body. The
ends of the wings are adorned with five prickles, of different
lengths and thicknefs, which bend like a bow: thefe are
hollow from the roots to the very points, having only that
flight fubftmee within which all quills are known to have.
The longeft of thefe prickles is 11 inches ; and it is a quar¬
ter of an inch in diameter at the root, being thicker there
than towards the extremity; the point feema bioken off-
a The
Plate CC VC L XXXVI.
c/u'rt/a/uii.
'en’Txvrt'
//(/nr
r/./■}.■//
S T It
Struthio.
The part, however, which moft dHlIflguhhes this animal
is the head ; which, though fmall, like that of an oftrich,
does not fail to infpire fome degree of terror. It is bare of
feathers, and is in a manner armed with an helmet of horny
fubftance, that covers it from the root of the bill to near
half the head backwards. This helmet is black before and
yellow behind. Its fubflance is very hard, being formed by
the elevation of the bone of the Ikull; and it confifts of fe-
veral plates, one over another, like the horn of an ox. Some
have fuppofed that this was ihed every year with the fea¬
thers ; but the moft probable opinion is, that it only exfo¬
liates flowly like the beak. To the peculiar oddity of this
natural armour may be added the colour of the eye in this
animal, which is a bright yellow; and the globe being above
an inch and a half in diameter, give it an air equally fierce
and extraordinary. The hole of the ear is very large and
Open, being only covered with fmall black feathers. The
fides of the head, about the eye and ear, being deftitute of
any covering, are blue, except the middle of the lower eye¬
lid, which is white. The part of the bill which anfwers to
the upper jaw in other animals is very hard at the edges
above, and the extremity of it is like that of a turkey-cock.
The end of the lower mandible is flightly notched, and the
whole is of a greyiih brown, except a green fpot on each
fide. As the beak admits a very wide opening, this con-
tributes not a little to the bird’s menacing appearance. The
neck is of a violet colour, inclining to that of Hate ; and it
is red behind in feveral places, but chiefly in the middle.
About the middle of the neck before, at the rife of the
large feathers, there are two proceffes formed by the fkin,
which referable fomewhat the gills of a cock, but that they
are blue as well as red. The Ikin which covers the fore¬
part of the breaft, or. which this bird leans and refts, is hard,
callous, and without feathers. The thighs and legs are co¬
vered with feathers, and are extremely thick, ftrong, ftraight,
and covered with fcales of feveral ftiapes ; but the legs are
t 41 3
S T R
ir?.r!’ ^ ft°nes> but even live and burning coals, without Struthio
teftifying the fmalleft fear or feeling the leaft injury. It is II
faid, that the paflage of the food through its gullet is per- Str>'mon-
formed fo fpeedily, that even the very eggs which it has ~
fwallowed whole pafs through it unbroken in the fame form
they went down. In faft, the alimentary canal of this ani.
mal, as was oblerved above, is extremely fhort; and it may
happen, that many kinds of food are indigeftible in its fto-
mach, as wheat or currants are to man, when fwallowed
whole.
The cafibwary’s eggs are of a grey-afh colour, inclininar
to green. They are not fo large nor fo round as thofe of
the oftrich. They are marked with a number of little tu¬
bercles of a deep green, and the fhell is not very thick. The
largeft of thefe is found to be 15 inches round one way.
and about 12 the other. 1
The fouthern parts of the moft eaftern Indies feem to
be the natural climate of the caflowary. His domain, ifwc
may fo call it, begins where that of the oftrich terminates.
The latter has never been found beyond the Ganges; while
the caffowary is never feen nearer than the iflands of Banda,
Sumatra, Java, the Molucca iflands, and the correfponding
parts of the continent. _ Yet even here this animal feems
not to have multiplied in any confiderable degree, as we
find one of the kings of Java making a ptefent of one of
thefe biids to the captain of a Hutch (hip, confidering it as
a very great rarity.
2. The Cafuarius Novt Hollanduty or New Holland caf¬
fowary, differs confiderably from the common caffowary.
It is a much larger bird, ftanding higher on its legs, and
having the neck longer than in the common one. Total GWwr
length feven feet two inches. The bill is not greatly diffe-^'7^’'
rent from that of the common caffowary ; but the horny 0?^
appendage or helmet on the top of the head in this fpecies J
is totally wanting: the whole of the head and neck is alfo
covered with feathers, except the throat and fore part of
t^faTe likewife^r ‘hd '^h'h “ “"f oth"Pla“- The ,hc neck^bout haKa^Xh aV„«Vo wdl feaXred t
!Xt: btx ^and
within. U ance’ blackwithout and white The plumage in general confifts of a mixture of brown
The internal parts are equally remarkable Th, , (T flT ^ are fomewhat curled or bent at
bafe. Upon the whole! it has the h«d „f\, d E' iX’ T' 15 ,thtre1 ;,n)’ appearance of a tail. The legs are
e.eof a l™, the defence of a porcopine,
New HoHand, as feeera,
-r.1. n r- 8 . KPe.ct.e<1 that the caf- of them have been feen about Botany Bay and other parts.
r   t> ^ mat tnc cal-
Wary was one of the moft fierce and terrible animals of the
creation. But nothing is fo oppofite to its natural charac-
" • a\tack8 others > and inftead of the bill, when
attacked, it rather makes ufe of its legs, and kicks like a
l:rXr"g3nft;ts ^ ^
The mannerin which thisanimal moves is not lefs extraor-
dmary than tts appearance. Inftead of goint; dircaly fo!-
ward, it feems to kick up behind with one leg j and7 then
making a bound onward with the other, it goes with fu!h
prodigious velocity, that the fwifteft racer would be left far
«heTohftrichmeE,CSr'e Ofrrac!,0“tn'fs w,,:ch we ™
lowseverv th' .1 “ ftr0ng^. t're- Tile calTowary f.al-
let. The D, "ithwt C°T the capacity of its gul-
Vot. XVIII. Paru’,1131 11 devour not only glafs,
Although it cannot fly, it tuns fofwiftly, that a greyhound
can fcarcely overtake it. The flelh is faid to be in taile not
unlike beef.
. ^ f RUTHIOLA, in botany ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of tetrandria, and order of monogynia. The
corolla is wanting ; the calyx is tubulous, with eight glan-
dules at its mouth ; the berry is without juice, and mono-
fpermous. The fpecies are three, the virgata, ereda, and
nana, all of foreign extra&ion.
. STRYCHNOS, in botany : A genus of plants belong-
ing to the clafs of pentandria, and order of monogynia ; and
in the natural fyftem ranging under the 28th order, Luride.
The corolla is quinquefid; the berry is unilocular, with a
woody bark. 1 he fpecies are three, the nux vomica, co«
lubnna, and potatorum, natives of foreign countries.
BTRYMON (anc. j, formerly Conozus ,’.a river con-
^ ftituting
S T U
r 4* i
S T U
Strvpe,
Suiart.
ftitutinp* tKs aficieot limits of Macedonia and Thrace ; rifing
w in mount Scombrus (Ariftotle). Authors differ as to the
' modern name of this river. .
STRYPE (John), was defcended irom a German tami-
ly, born at London, and educated at Cambridge. _ He was
vicar of Low Layton in Effex, and diftinguifhed hnnfelf by
his compilations of Lives and Memoirs ; in which, as Dr
Eirch remarks, his fidelity and induftry will always give a
value to his writings, however deftitute they may be of the
graces of ftyle. lie died in 1737, after having enjoyed his
vicarage near 68 years. . .
STUART (Dr Gilbert), was born at Edinburgh in
the year 1742- His father Mr George Stuart was profef-
for of humanity in the univerfity, and a man of confiderable
eminence for his claffical talk and literature. For thde ac-
complifhments he was probably indebted in no fmall degree
to his relation the celebrated Ruddiman, with whom both
he and his fon converfed familiarly, though they afterwards
xmited to injure his fame.
Gilbert having finifhed his claflical and philofophical ftu-
tlies in the grammaf-fchool and univerfity, applied himfelf
to jurifprudence, without following or probably intending
to follow the profeffion of the law. For that profeffion he
lias been reprefented as unqualified by indolence ; by a paf-
fion which at a very early period of life he difplayed for ge¬
neral literature ; or by boundlefs diffipation and all thefe
circumftances may have contributed to make him relinquifh
purfuits in which he could hope to fucceed only by patient
perfeverance and ftrift decorum of manners. That he did
not walk his youth in idlenels, is, however, evident from
An Hiftorical Differtation concerning the Antiquity of the
Britilh Conftitution, which he publifhed before he had com*
pleted his twenty-fecond year, and which had fo much me¬
rit as to induce the univerfity of Edinburgh to confer upon
the author, though fo young a man, the degree of LL.D.
After a ftudious interval of fome years, he produced a
valuable work, under the title of A View of Society in
Europe, in its Progrefs from R.udenefs to Refinement; or,
Inquiries concerning the Hdtory of Laws, Government, and
Manners. He had read and meditated with patience on
the moft important monuments of the middle ages ; and in
this volume (which fpeedily reached a fecond edition) he
aimed chiefly at the praife of originality and invention, and
^ifcovered an induftry that is feldom connedkd with ability
and difcernment. About the time of the publication of
the fit ft edition of this performance, having turned his
thoughts to an academical life, he alked for the profefibr-
fhip of public law in the univerfity of Edinburgh. Accord¬
ing to his own account he had been promifed that place by
the minifter, but had the mortification to fee the profeflbr-
fhip beftowed on another, and all his hopes blafted by the
influence of Dr Robertfon, whom he reprefented as under ob-
Jigations to him.
^ To the writer of this article, who was a, ftranger to thefe
rival candidates for hiftorical fame, this part of the ftory
feems very incredible ; as it is not eafy to conceive how it
ever could be in the power of Dr Stuart to render to the
learned Principal any efiential femce. It was believed in¬
deed by the earl of Buchan, and by others, who obferved
that the illiberal jealoufy not unfrequent in the world of
letters, was probably the fource of this oppofition ; which
entirely broke the intimacy of two perfons who, before that
time, were underftood to be on the moft friendly footing
with each other. Ingratitude, however, is as likely to have
* Chalmers vJce of Dr Stuart as of Dr Robertfon; for we
*” hT>Sn-^ have been told by a writer *, who, at leaft in one inftance,
1 has completely proved what he affirms, that “ fuch was Gil¬
bert Stuart’s laxity of principle as a man, that he confider.
ed ingratitude as one of the moft vernal fins ; fuch was his
conceit as a writer, that he regarded no one’s merits but
his own ; fuch were his difappointments, both as a writer
and a man, that he allowed his peeviihnefs to four into ma¬
lice, and indulged his malevolence till it fettled in corrup-
Stuart,
Stucco.
tion.
Soon after this difappointment Dr Stuart went to Lon¬
don, where he became from 1768 to 1774 one of the wri¬
ters of the Monthly R eview. In 17 7 2 Dr Adam^reftor of
the high fchool at Edinburgh, publiihed a Latin Grammar,
which he intended as an improvement of the famous Ruddi-
man’s. Stuart attacked him in a pamphlet under the name
of Bufoly, and treated him with much feverity. In do-
injr this, he was probably a&uated more by fome perfonat
difiike of Dr Adam than by regard for the memory of his
learned relation; for 011 other occafions he fhowed fufneient-
ly that he had no regard to Ruddiman’s honour as a gram¬
marian, editor, or critic. _
In i-774 he returned to his native city,, and began tne
Edinburgh Magazine and Review, in which he difcufled
the liberty and conftitution of England, and diftinguifhed
himfelf by an inquiry into the charaaer of John Knox the
reformer, whofe principles he reprobated in the feyereft
terms. About this time he revifed and publiftied Sullivan’s
Ledures on the Conftitution of England. Soon after he
turned his thoughts to the hiftory of Scotland, and pub¬
lifhed Obfervations concerning its Public Law and Confti-
tutional ITiftory; in which he examined with a critical care
the preliminary book to Dr Robertfon s Hiftory. His
next work was The Hiftory of the Reformation ; a book
which deferves praife for the eafy dignity of the narrative*
and for ftrid impartiality. His laft great work, The HiU
tory of Scotland from the Eftablifhment of the Reformation
to the Death of Queen Mary, which appeared in 1782, has
been very generally read and admired. PL's purpofe was to
vindicate the char after of the injured queen, and expofe the
weaknefs of the arguments by which Dr Robertfon had en¬
deavoured to prove her guilty: but though the ftyle of this
work is his own, it contains very little matter.which was
not furmfhed by Goodall and Pytler ; and it is with the
arms which thefe two writers put into his hands that Dr
Stuart vanquished his great antagonift.
In 1782 he once more vifned London, and engaged m
the Political Herald and Englifh Review ; but the jaundice
and dropfy increafing on him, he returned by fea to his na¬
tive country, where he died m the houfe of his father on the
13th of Auguft 1786.
In his perfon Dr Stuart was about the middle fize and
juftly proportioned. His countenance was modeft and ex-
preffive, fometimes glowing with fentiments of friendflup, of
which he was truly fufeeptible, and at others darting that
fatire and indignation at lolly and vice which appear in feme
of his writings. He was a boon companion ; and, with a
conftitutien that might have Hood the Ihock of ages, he fell
a uremature martyr to intemperance. His talents were cer¬
tainly great, and his writings are ufeful ; but he feems to
have been influenced more by paffion than prejudice, and
in his charafter there was not much to be imitated.
STUCCO, in building, a compolition of white marbte
pulvenfed, and mixed with plaikr ol lime ; and the whole
being lifted and wrought up with water, is to be ufed like
common plaikr r this is called by Pliny marmoratum opus,
and albarium opus. ■ ....
A patent has been granted to Mr B. Higgins for in-
ven ing a new kind of ftucco, or water-cement, more firm
and durable than any heretofore. Its compofition, as ex-
trafted
S T U r 43 1 S T U
Ptuf?o. traced from the fpecification figned by Idmfelf, Is as fob
V—^Iows: “ Drift-farid, or quarry (a) fand, which conjifts chief-,
ly of hard quartofe fiat-faced grains with fharp angles;
which is the freeft, or may be moll eafily freed by waffling,
from clay, fairs, and calcareous, gypfeous, or other grains
lefs hard and durable than quartz ; which contains the fmall-
eft quantity of pyrites or heavy metallic matter infeparable
by wafiring ; and which fuffers the fmalleft diminution of
its bulk in wafhing in the following manner—is to be pre¬
ferred before any other. And where a coarfe and a fine
fand of this kind, and correfponding in the fize of their
grains with the coarfe and fine fands hereafter deferibed,
cannot be eafrly procured, let fuch fand of tbe foregoing
quality be chofen as may be forted and cleanfed in the fol¬
lowing manner:
“ Let the fand be lifted in ftreaming clear water, thro’
a fieve which fhall give pafiage to all fuch grains as do not
exceed one-fixteenth of an inch in diameter; and let the
ft ream of water and the fitting be regulated fo that all the
fand, which is much finer than the Lynn-fand commonly
ufed in the London glafsjhoufes, together with clay and
every other matter fpecifically lighter than fand, may be
wafhed away with the ftream, whilft the purer and coarfer
fand, which pafles through the fieve, fubfides in a conveni¬
ent receptacle, and whilft the coarfe rubbilh and rubble re¬
main on the fieve to be rejected.
“ Let the fand which thus fubfides in the receptacle be
■walhed in clean ftreaming water through a finer fieve, fo
as to be further cleanfed and foiled into two parcels ; a coar¬
fer, which will remain in the fieve which is to give paflage
to fuch grains of fand only as are lefs than one-thirtieth of
an inch in diameter, and which is to be faved apart under
the name of coarfe fancl; and a finer, which will pafs thro* State*,
the fieve and fubfide in the water, and which is to be faved ^
apart under the name offine fond.—Let the coarfe and the
fine fand be dried feparately, either in the fun or on a clean
iron-plate, fet on a convenient furface, in the manner of a
fand-heat (b),
“ Let lime be chofen (c) which is ftone-lime, which,
heats the moft In flaking, and flakes the quickeft when du¬
ly watered ; which is the frefheft made and clofeft kept ,;
which difl’olves in diftilled vinegar with the leaft effervef-
cence, and leaves the fmalleft refidue infolufele, and in this
relidue the fmalleft quantity of clay, gypfum, or martial
matter.
“ Let the lime chofen according to thefe important rules
be put in a brafs-wired fieve to the quantity of 14 pounds.
Let the fieve be finer than either of the foregoing ; the fi¬
ner, the better it will be: let the lime be flaked (d) by
plunging it in a butt filled with foft water, and railing it
out quickly and fuffering it to heat and fume, and by re¬
peating this plunging and railing alternately, and agitating
the lime, until it be made to pals through the fieve into the
water; and let the part of the lime which does not eafily
pafs through the fieve be rejected: and let frefh portions
of the lime be thus ufed, until as many (e) ounces of lime
have parted through the fieve as there are quarts of water
in the butt. Let the water thus impregnated Hand in the
butt clofely covered (f) until it becomes clear ; and through
wooden (g) cocks placed at different heights in the butt,
let the clear liquor be drawn off as fall ( h ) and as low as
the lime fubfides, for ufe. This clear liquor I call the ce¬
menting liquor (1). The freer the water is from faline mat¬
ter, the better will be the cementing liquor made with it.
F 2 “ Let
(a) “ This is commonly called pit-fand.
(b) “ The fand ought to be ftirred up continually until it is dried, and is then to be taken off; for otherwife the eva¬
poration will be very flow, and the fand which lies next the iron plate, by being overheated, will be difcoloured.
(c) “ "1 he preference given to ftone-lime is founded on the prefent practice in the burning of lime, and on the
cloier texture of it, which prevents it from being fo foon injured by expofure to the air as the more fpongy chalk-
lime is; not on the popular notion that ftone-lime has fomething in it whereby it excels the beft chalk in the cementing
properties.. The gypfum contained in lime-ftone remains unaltered, or very little altered, in the lime, after the buro-
jng; but it is not to be expeAed that clay or martial matter fhould be found in their native ftate in well-burned lime &
for they concrete or vitrify with a part of the calcareous earth, and conftitute the hard grains or lumps which remain un»
diflolved in weak acids, or are feparable from the flaked lime by lifting it immediately through a fieve.
(d) “ This method of impregnating the water writh lime is not the only one which may be adopted. It is, how¬
ever, preferred before others, becaufe the water clears the fooner in confequence of its being warmed by the flaking
lime ; and the gypfeous part of the lime does not diffufe itfelf in the water fo freely in this way as it does when the
lime is flaked to fine powder in the common method, and is then blended with the water ; for the gypfeous part of
the lime flakes at lirft into grains rather than into fine powder, and will remain on the fieve after the-pure lime has
paffed through, long enough to admit of the intended feparation ; but when the lime is otherwife flaked, the gypfeous
grains have time to flake to a finer powder, and pafiing through the fieve, difiblve in the water along with the lime. I
ave imagined that other advantages attended this method of preparing the lime-water, but I cannot yet fpeak of them
with precifion. * it o 1 r
(e) “ If the water contains no more acidulous gas than is ufually found in river or rain water, a fourth part of this
quantity of lime, or lefs, will be fufficient.
(f ) “ I he calcareous cruft which forms on the furface of the water ought not to be broke, for it afiifts in excluding
the air, and preventing the abforption of acidulous gas whereby the lime-water is fpoiled.
(g) i Brafs-cocks are apt to colour a part of the liquor.
<$ -Time-water cannot .be kept many days unimpaired, in any veffels that are not perfectly air-tight. If the liquor
be drawn off before it clears, it will contain whiting, which is injurious ; and if it be not inftantly ufed after it is drawn
limpid Tom toe bntt into open veffels, it will grow turbid again, and depofit the lime changed to whiting by the gas ab-
orbed fiom the air. i he calcareous matter which fubfides in the butt refembles whiting the more nearly as the lime has
een more fpan'ngly employed; in the contrary circumftances, it approaches to the nature of lime; and in the intermedi-
ate, at^’ ^ ^ common compofition of the plafterers for infide ftucco.
5, t‘me writing this Ipecification, I preferred this term before that of lime-water, on grounds which I
aad not fufficiently examined.
s T U [ 44 ] S T. U
take 98 pounds of the fine fand, wet it with the -cementmg t 5
liquor, and mix it with the purified lime and the bone- ^
afh in the quantities and in* the manner, iabove defcribed ;
with this difference only, that 15 pounds of lime, or (o)
thereabouts, are to be ufed inftead of r 4 pounds, if the
greater part of the fand be as fine as Lynn fand. . This I
call ivater-cement fine-grained. It is to be ufed in giving the
laft coating, or the finifh to any work intended to imitate
the finer-grained ftones - or ftucco. But it may be applied
to all the ufes of the water-cement coarfe-grained, and in the
fame manner.
“ When for any of the foregoing purpofes of pointing,
building, &c. fuch a cement is required much cheaper and
coarfer-grained, then much coarfer clean fand than the forego¬
ing coarfe fand, or well-wafhed fine rubble, is to be provided.
Of this coarfe fand or rubble take 56 pounds, of the forego¬
ing coarfe fand 28 pounds, and oi the fine fand 14 pounds £
and after mixing thefe, and wetting them with the cement¬
ing liquor in the foregoing manner, add 14 pounds, or
fomewhat lefs, of the (p) purified lime, and then 14 pounds
or fomewhat lefs of the bone-alh, mixing them together in
the manner already defcribed. When my cement is requi¬
red to be white, white fand, white lime, and the whiteft
bone-aih are to be chofen. Grey land, and grey bone-afh
formed of half-burnt bones, are to be chofen to make the
cement grey ; and any other colour of the cement is obtain*-
ed, either by choofing coloured fand, or by the admixture
of the necefiary quantity of coloured talc in powder, or of
coloured, vitreous, or metallic powders, or other, durable co¬
louring ingredients commonly ufed in paint.
“ To the end that fuch a water-cement as I have defert-
bed may be made as ufeful as it it pofiible in all circum-
ftances ; and that no perfon may imagine that my claim and i
right under thefe letters-patent may be eluded by divers .va¬
riations, which may be made in the foregoing procefs with¬
out producing any notable deleft in the cement; and to. the
end that the principles of this art, as well as the art itfelf,
of making my cement, may be gathered from this fpecifica-
tion and perpetuated to the public ; I (hall add the follow¬
ing obfervations :
“ This my water-cement, whether the coarfe or fine .
grained, is applicable in forming artificial ftone, by making
alternate layers ol the cement and of flint, hard fl.one,-or
brick,
(it) “ The vapour which arifes in the flaking of lime contributes greatly to the flaking of thefe pieces which lie in its
Way $ and an unneceflary wafte of the liquor is prevented, by applying it to the lime heaped in a pit or in a veffel, which
may reftrain the iffue of the vapour, and direft it through the mafs. If more of the liquor be ufed than is neceflary to
flake the lime, it will create error in weighing the flaked powder, and will prevent a part of it from palling freely thro®
the fieve. The liquid is therefore to be ufed fparingly, and the lime which has efcaped its aftiba is to be fprinkled apart
with frelh liquor. # ..... . f
(1,) “ When the aggregation of the lumps of lime is thus broken, it is impaired much fooner titan it is in the former
ftate, becaufe the air more freely pervades it.
( m) “ Becaufe it confifts of heterogeneous matter or of ill-burnt lime ; which laft. will flake and pafs through the fieve,
if the lime be not immediately fifted after the flaking, agreeable to the text.
(n) “ Thefe,proportions are intended for a cement made with lharp fand, for incruftation in expofed fituations, where
it is neceflary to guard againft the effefts of hot weather and rain. In general, half this quantity of bone-alhes will be
found fufficient; 'and although the incruftation in this latter cafe will not harden deeply fo foon, it will be ultimately
ftronger, provided the weather be favourable.
“ The injuries which lime and mortar fuftain by expofure to the air, before the cement is finally placed in a quiefcenl
Hate, are great; and therefore our cement ia the worfe for being long beaten, but the better as it is quickly beaten until
the mixture is effefted, and no longer. ,
(0) “ The quantity of bone-afhes is net to be increafed with that of the limebut it is to be leliened as the expoiure
and purpofes of the work will admit.
(p) “ Becaufe lefs lime is neceffary, as the fand is coarfer*
Stucco. w Let pounds of the aforefaid chofen lime be flaked,
—-V- 1' by gradually fprinkling on it, and efpecially on the unfla¬
ked pieces, the cementing liquor,in a clofe (k) clean place.
Let the flaked part be immediately (l) fifted through the
laft-mentioned fine brafs-wired fieve : Let the lime which
paffes be ufed inftantly, or kept in air-tight veflels, and let
the part of the lime which does not pafs through the fieve
be rejefted (m).—This finer richer part of the lime which
pafles through the fieve I call purified lime.
“ Let bone-afh be prepared in the ufual manner, by
grinding the whiteft burnt bones, but let it be fifted, to.be
much finer than the bone-afh commonly fold for making
cupels.
“ The moft eligible materials for making my cement be¬
ing thus prepared, take 56 pounds of the coarfe fand and
42 pounds of the fine fand; mix them on a large plank of
bard wood placed horizontally ; then fpread.the fand fo that
it may Hand to the height of fix inches, with a flat furface
on the plank; wet it with the cementing liquor; and let
any fuperfluous quantity of the liquor, which the fand in
the condition deferibed cannot retain, flow away off the
plank. To the wetteft fand add 14 pounds of the putrefi¬
ed lime in feveral fucceflive portions, mixing and beating
them up together in the mean time with the inftruments ge¬
nerally ufed in making fine mortar : then add 14 pounds of
the bone-alh in fucceffive portions, mixing and beating all
together. The quicker and the more perfeftly thefe ma¬
terials are mixed and beaten together, and the fooner the
cement thus formed is ufed, the better (n) it will be. This
I call the water-cement coarje-grained, wlrich.- is to be applied
In building, pointing, plaftering, ftnccoing, or other work,
as mortar and ftucco now are ; with this difference chiefly,
that as this cement is fhorter than mortar or common ftuc¬
co, and dries fooner, it ought to be worked expeditioufly
in all cafes; and in ftuccoing, it ought to be laid on by Ai¬
ding the trowel upwards on it; that the materials ufed
along with this cement in building, or the ground on which
it is to be laid in ftuccoing,- ought to be well wetted with
the cementing liquor in the inflant of laying on the cement;
and that the cementing liquor is to be ufed when it is ne-
ceffary to moiften the cement, or when a liquid is required
to facilitate the floating of the cement.
« When fuch cement is required to be of a finer texture,
S T U [ 45 ] S T U
Stucao. b»ckr in moulds of the figure of the intended {lone, and
by expofing the mafies fo formed to the open (qJ air to
harden.
“ When fiich cement is required for water (a) fences,
two-thirds of the prefcribed quantity of bone-afhes are to be
omitted ; and in the place thereof an equal meafure of pow¬
dered terras is to be ufed ; and if the fand employed be not
of the coarfeft fort, more terras mufl. be added, fo that the
terras fhall be by weight oiie-fixth part of the weight of
the fand.
When fuch a cement is required of the fineil grain (s)
or in a fluid form, fo that it may be applied with a brufh,
flint powder, or the powder ot any quartofe or hard earthy
fubftance, may be ufed in the place of fand; but in a quan¬
tity fmaller, as the flint or other powder is finer ; fo that
the flint-powder, or other fuch powder, fhall not be more
than fix times the weight of the lime, nor lefs than four
times its weight. The greater the quantity of lime within
thcfe limits, the more will the cement be liable to crack
by quick drying, and vice verfa.
“ Where fuch fand as I prefer cannot be conveniently
procured, or where the fand cannot be conveniently wafhed
and forted, that fand which mofl refembles the mixture of
coarfe and fine fand above prefcribed, may be ufed as I have
dire&ed, provided due attention is paid to the quantity of
the lime, which is to be greater (t) as the quantity is finer,
and vice verfa.
“ Where fand cannot be eafily procured, any durable
{lony body, or baked earth grofsly powdered (u), and fort¬
ed nearly to the fizes above prefcribed for fand, may be
ufed in the place o! fand, meafure for meafure, but not weight
for weight, unlefs fuch grofs powder be as heavy fpecifically
as fand.
“ Sand may be cleanfed from every fofter, lighter, and lefs
durable matter, and from that part of the fand which is too
fne, by' various methods preferable (x), in certain circum-
ftances, to that which I have deferibed.
“ Water may be found naturally free from fixable gas,
felenite, or clay ; fuch water may, without any notable in¬
convenience, be ufed in the place of the cementing liquor ; ^
and water approaching this Hate will not require fo much
lime as I have ordered to make the cementing liquor ; and
a cementing liquor fufficiently ufeful may be made by vari¬
ous methods of mixing lime and water in the deferibed pro¬
portions, or nearly fo.
“ When ftone-lime cannot be procured, chalk-lime, or
fhell-lime, which bell refembles ftone-lime, in the charac¬
ters above written of lime, may be ufed in the manner de¬
feribed, except that fourteen pounds and a half of chalk-
lime will be required in the place of fourteen pounds of
ftone-lime. The proportion of lime which I have prefcri¬
bed above may be increafed without inconvenience, when
the cement or ftucco is to be applied where it is not liable
to dry quickly ; and in the contrary circumftance, this pro¬
portion may be diminifhed ; and the defeft of lime in quan¬
tity or quality may be very advantageoufly fupplied (y),
by caufing a confiderable quantity of the cementing liquor
to foak into the work, in fucceffive portions, and at diftant
intervals of time, fo that the calcareous matter of the cement¬
ing liquor, and the matter attra&ed from the open air, may
fill and ftrengthen the work.
“ The powder of almoft every well dried or burnt ani¬
mal fubftance may be ufed inftead of bone-alli; and feveral
earthy powders, efpecially the micaceous and the metallic ;
and the elixated afhes of divers vegetables whofe earth will
not burn to lime ; and the afhes of mineral fuel, which are
of the calcareous kind, but will not burn to lime, will an-
fwer the ends of bone-afii in fome degree.
“ The quantity of bone-afli deferibed may be leflened
without injuring the cement, in thofe circumftances efpeci.
ally which admit the quantity of lime to be leflened, and in
thofe wherein the cement is not liable to dry quickly.
And the art of remedying the- defeas of lime may be ad^
vantageoufiy pradifed to fupply.the deficiency of bone afli,
efpecially in building, and in making artificial ftone with
this cement.
STUD,
M “ the7 muft not be expofed to the rain until they are almoft as ftrong as frefh Portland ftone ; and even then
they ought to be flickered from it as much as the circumftances will admit. Thefe ftones may be made very hard and
beautiful, with a fmall expence of bone-afh, by foaking them, after they have dried thoroughly and hardened, in the
lime hquor, and repeating this procefs twice or thrice, at diftant intervals of time. The like efted was experienced in
mcruflations. r
(r) ‘‘ In my experiments, mortar made with terras-powder, in the ufual method, does not appear to form fo ftromr a
cement for water-fences as that made, according to the fpecification, with coarfe fand; and I fee no morereafon for
avoiding the ufe of fand m terras-mortar, than there would*be for rejeding ftone from the embankment. The bone-
tlfisMancV11 t US PlaCe arC the dark ^rey °r ^aclc fort‘ * am not yet iuII7 fatisfied about the operation of them in
iS) .“The qualities and iifes of fuck fine calcareous, cement are recommended chiefly for the purpofe of fmoothtW
and nnilhing the ftronger cruftaceous works,, or for wafhing walls to a lively and uniform colour. For this laft intentiorf
tne mixture mult be as thin as new cream,- and laid on brillly with a brufh, in dry weather; and a thick and durable coat
•S ° , ipac|e by repeated^wafhuig ; but is not to.be attempted by ufing.^thicker liquor; for the coat made with this laft
s pt to kale, whilft the former endures.the weather much longer than any other thin calcareous covering that has been
app ied in this way. Fine yellow-ochre is the cheapeft colouring-ingredient fur fuch wafli, when it is required to imitate
ijath-ftone, or the warm-white Hones.,,. ^
^ T | 44 if fea-fand be well wafhed in frefh water, it is as good as any other round fand.
“ The cement made with thefe and the proper quantities. of purified, lime and lime-water, are inferior to the
be , as the grains of thefe powders are .more peiifhable and brittle than thofe of fand. They will not therefore be
employed, unlefs for the fake of evaiion, or for want of fand: in this latter cafe, the finer powder ought to be wafhed
miiV* anci tbe ne,xt Pa[agrapb is inferted with a view to evafiorvs, as well as to fuggeft the eafier and cheaper
ed to^each ^ be a^°Pte^ in certaia circumftances,. by artifts who unduftartd the principles which I endeavour-
the^thod nf8 Pra<ai*ce {s potjee^ as the remedy which may be ufed for the defefts arifing from evafive meafure#. and as
the method of giving fpongy mcrufiations coatammg bone-alhes the greateft degree of harauefs.’V
Stucco.
S*-ud
Gturnnu?.
S T U [ 46 ] ^ T u
a colkalon of breeding horfes de Manderfcbeid, wbofe receiver bis father was. He after, St«rm|j,,
ward purfued his ftudy at Liege in the college of St jerom,, u 1U\
Five years he fpent ’ ' ^
STUD, in the manege,
and mares.
STUDDING-sails, certain light fails extended, in
moderate and Heady breezes, beyond the fkirts of the prin¬
cipal fails, where they appear as wings upon the yard-arms.
STUFF, in commerce, a general name for all kinds of
fabrics of gold, lilver, filk, wool,_ hair, cotton, or thread,
manufaftured on the loom ; of which number are velvets,
brocades, mohairs, fatins, taffetas, cloths, ferges, &c.
STUKELY (Dr William), a celebrated antiquarian,
defeended from an ancient family in Lincolnlhire, was born
?.t Holbech in 1687, and educated in Bennet college, Cam-
br'dge. While an under-graduate, he often indulged a
jlrong propeniity to drawing and ddigning; but made phy-
iic his principal ftudy, and firft began to pra&ife at Bofton
in his native country. In 1717 he removed to London,
where, on the recommendation of Dr Mead, he was foon
»fter eledled a fellow of the Royal Society; he was one of
the firft who revived that of the antiquarians in 1718,
and was their fecretary for many years during his refidence
in town. In 1729 he took holy orders by the encourage¬
ment of archbifhop Wake ; and was foon after prefented by
lord-chancellor King with the living of All-Saints in Stam¬
ford. In 1741 .he became one of the founders of the E
gyptian fociety, which brought “him acquainted with the
benevolent duke of Montague, one of the members ; who
prevailed on him to leave Stamford, and prefented him to
the living of St George the Martyr, Queen Square. He
<lied of a ftroke of the palfy in 1765. In his phyfical ca¬
pacity, his Differtation on the Spleen was well received ;
.and his Itinerarium Curiojum, the firft fruit of his juve¬
nile excurfions, was a good fpeeimen of what was to be ex¬
pected from his riper age. His great learning, and pro¬
found relearches into the datk remains of antiquity, enabled
him to publifh many elaborate and curious works: his
friends ufed to call him the arcb-druid of his age. His dil-
courfes, intitled PaUographia Sacra, on the vegetable crea¬
tion, befpeak him a botanift, phiiofopher, and divine.
STUM, in the wine-trade, denotes the unfermented juice
of the grape after it has been feveral times racked off
and feparated from its fediment. The cafics are for this
purpofe well matched or fumigated with brimftone every
time, to prevent the liquor from fermenting, as it would
otherwife readily do, and become w’ine. See Must.
STUPIDITY. The Greek word nufornc correfponds
moft with our Englifti word Jlupidity or fooliflmcfs, when
ufed to exprefs that ftate of mind in which the intellefts are
defe&ive. The immediate caufes are faid to be, a de¬
ficiency of vital heat, or a defied in the brain. Stupid chil¬
dren fometimes become fprightly youths; but ft ftupidity
continues to the age of puberty, it is hardly ever removed.
If ftupidity follows upon a violent pafiion, an injury done
to the head, or other evident caufe, and if it continues long,
it becomes incurable. But the ftupidity which confifts in a
iofs of memory, and fucceeds a lethargy, fpontaneoufly ceafes
when the lethargy is cured.
STUPOR, a numbnefs in any part of the body, whether
©ccafioned by ligatures obftruding the blood’s motion, by
the palfy, or the like.
STUPPA, or Stupe, in medicine, is a piece of cloth
dipped in ftrme proper liquor, and applied to an afteded
part.
- STURDY, a diftemper to which cattle are fubjed, called
alfo the turning evil. See Farriery.
STUP.GEON. See Accipenser.
STURM1US (John), a learned philologer and rhetori¬
cian, was born at Slcida in Eifel near Cologne in 1507. He
iludied at firft. in his native country with the fons of count
and then went tq.*Louvam m 1524 _ . _
there, three in •Teaming and two in teaching. He let up a
printing-preis with Rudger Relcius profeflbr of the Greek
tongue, and printed feveral Greek authors. He went to
Paris in 1529, where he was highly efteemed, and read
public ledures on the Greek and Latin writers, and on lo¬
gic. He married there, and kept a great number of
boarders : but as he liked what were called the new opinionst
he was more than once in danger ; and this undoubtedly
was the reafon why he removed to Strafburg in I537> ^
order to take poffeffion of the place offered him by the ma-
giftrates. The year following he opened a fchool, which
became famous, and by his means obtained of Maximilian II.
the title of an univerfity in 1566. He was very well {killed
in polite literature, wrote Latin with great purity, and was
a good teacher. His talents were not confined to the
fchool ; for he was frequently intruded with deputations iu
Germany and foreign countries, and difeharged thefe em¬
ployments with great honour and diligence. He fhowed
extreme charity to the refugees on account of religion : He
not only laboured to afiift them by his advice and recom¬
mendations ; but he even impoverifhed himfelf for them.
He died in his 8 2d year, after he had been for fome time
blind. He publiftied many books ; the principal of which
are, I. Partitiones DialeSica. 2. De Educatione Principum.
3. De Nobilitate yinghcana. 4' Lingu* Latinae re/olvends
Ratio. 5. Excellent Notes on Ariftotle’s and Hermogenes’s
Rhetoric, &c.
Fie ought not to be confounded with yohn Sturmius, a
native of Mechlin, and phyfician and profeffor of mathema¬
tics at Louvain, who alfo wrote feveral works.
STURNUS, the Starling ; agenus of birds belonging
to the order of pajferes. The beak is Tubulated, depreffed*
and fomewhat blunt; the fiaperior mandible is entire, and
fomewhat open at the edges ; the noftrils are marginated
above ; and the tongue is fharp and emarginated. T. here are
15 fpec»«:s according to Dr Latham ; the vulgaris, capenfis,
ludovicianus, militaris, cellaris, carunculatus, gallinaceus,
fericeus, viridis, olivaceus, moritanicus, loyca, dauuricus,
junceti, and mexicanus.
The vulgaris, or common ftarling, is the only fpecies
©f the fturnus that is indigenous. The weight of the
male of this fpecies is about three ounces; that of the
female rather lefs. The length is eight inches three quarters: Lathst
the bill is brown or yellow, but in old birds generally yellow.
The whole plumageisblack,very refplendent, with changeable 0 ’
blue, purple, and copper: each feather marked with a pale
yellow fpot. The leffer coverts are edged with yellow, and
{lightly gloffed with green. The quill-feathers and tail
dulky : the former edged with yellow on the exterior fide ;
the lalt with dirty white. The legs of a reddifir brown.
The ftare breeds in hollow trees, eaves of houfes, towers,
ruins, cliffs, and often in high rocks over the fea, fuch as that
of the ifle of Wight. It lays four or five eggs, of a paie-
greenifh afh-colour ; and makes its neft of ftraw, fmall fibres
of roots, and the like. In winter, flares affemble in vaft
flocks ; they colledf in myriads in the fens of Lincoln {hire,
and do great damage to the {en-men, by roofling on the
reeds, and breaking them down by their weight; for reeds
are the thatch of the country, and are laid up in harveft: with
great care. Thefe birds feed on worms and infedfs } and it is
faid that they will get into pigeon-houfes, for the fake of
fucking the eggs. Their flelh is fo hitter as to be fcarce
eatable. They are fond of following oxen and other large
cattle as they feed in the meadows, attradled, it is faid, by
the iufe&s which flutter round them, or by thofe, perhaps,
5 which
Sty*,
Style.
' iufffin'j
m. Hi-
lory of
Ihds,
'o). iii.
STY
which fwarm in their clung, or in meadows
From this habit is derived the German name Hinder Staren.
J They arc alfo accufed of feeding on the carcafes that are
expofed on gibbets ; but it is probably in fearch only of
infects. They live feven or eight years, or even longer, in
the domeftic ftate. The wild ones cannot be decoyed by
the call, becaufe they regard not the feream of the owl. A
method has been difeovered of taking entire families, by fix¬
ing to the walls and the trees where they' lodge pots of
earthen ware of a convenient form, which the birds often
prefer to place their nells in. Many are alfo caught by the
gin and draw-net. In fome parts of Italy' it is common to
employ tame weafels to drag them out of their nefls, or
rather their holes; for the artifice of man confifts in em¬
ploying one enflaved race to extend his dominion over the
reft.
The ftare, it is faid, can be taught to fpeak either French,
German, Latin, Greek, &c. and to pronounce phrafes of
fome length. Its pliant throat accommodates itfelf to every
infleftion and every accent. It can readily articulate the
letter R, and acquires a fort of warbling which is much fu-
perior to its native fong. This bird is fpread through an
extenfive range in the ancient continent. It is found in
Sweden, Germany, France, Italy, the Ifle of Malta, the
Cape of Good Hope, and is everywhere nearly the fame ;
whereas thofe American birds which have been called flares,
prefent a great diverfity of appearance.
STYE, or Stythe, in the eye. See Crithe.
STYLE, a word of various fignincations, originally de¬
duced from^/?y/or, a kind ot bodkin wherewith the ancients
wrote on plates of lead, or on wax, &c. and which is ftill
uled to write on ivory-leaves and paper prepared for that
purpofe, &c.
Style, in dialling, denotes the gnomon or cock of a dial
railed on the plane thereof to project a fhadow.
Style, in botany. See Botany, Seft. iv. p. 434.
Style, in language, is the peculiar manner in which a
man exprtffes his conceptions. It is a picture of the ideas
which rife in his mind, and of the order in which they are
there produced.
T. he qualities of a good ftyle may be ranked under two
heads ; perfpicuity and ornament. It will readily be ad-
Plati*
nutted, that perfpicuity ought to be efientially connected
with every kind of writing ; and to attain it, attention muft
be paid, firft to fingle words and phrafes, and then to the
conftrudtian of fentences. When confidered with refpedl
to words and phrafes, it requires thefe three qualities ; purity,
propriety, and precifion. When confidered with regard to
fentences, it requires a clear arrangement of the words and
unity in the LHe ; to which, if ftrength and harmony be
added, the ftyle will become ornamented.
One of the moft important diredirrns to be obferved by
him who vvifhes to form a good ftyle, is to acquire clear
and precife ideas on the fubjeA concerning which he is to
write or fpeak. 1 o this muft be added frequency of compo-
frtion, and an acquaintance with the ftyle of the belt authors.
A fervile imitation, however, of any author is carefully to
be avoided ; for he who copies, can hardly avoid copying
faults as well as beauties. A ftyle cannot be proper unlefs
it be adapted to the fubjedt, and likewife to the capacity of
uisr hearers, if we are to fpeak in public. A fimple, clear,
and unadorned ftyle, fuch as that of Swift, is fitted for in¬
tricate d.fquifition ; a ftyle elegant as Addifon’s, or impe¬
tuous like Johnfon’s, is moft proper for fixing the at-
tentmn on truths, which, though known, are too much
B^,e1 c ’ mull not be inattentive to the ornaments
^ * "j1 * -l, WC W1^ that our labours fhould be read and ad¬
mired : but he is a contemptible writer, who looks not
r 47.] STY
in general, beyond the drefs of language, who lays not the chief ftrefs
upon his matter, and who does not regard ornament as a
fecondary and inferior recommendation. For further ob-
fervations on the different kinds of ftyle, fee Oratory,
n° 99, &c.
Style, in jurifprudence, the particular form or man¬
ner of proceeding in each court of jurifditlion, agreeable
to the rules and orders eftabliihed therein : thus we fay, the
flyle of the court of Rome, of chancery, of parliament, of
the privy-council, &c.
Style, in mufic, denotes a peculiar manner of finging*
playing, or compofing ; being properly the manner that
each perfon has of playing, finging, or teaching ; which is
very different both in refpecl of different geniufes, of coun.
tries, nations, and of the different matters, places, times,
fubjedts, paffions, expreffions, &c. Thus we fay, the ftyle
of Paleftrina, of Lully, of Corelli, of Handel, &c. ; the ftyle
of the Italians, French, Spaniards, &c.
Old Srrin, the Julian method of computing time, as the
New Sms is the Gregorian method of computation.
See Kalendar.
STYLEPHORLTS chordatits, a genus of fifties belong¬
ing to the order of afodes. This very curious genus was ccccx'xx^vt’
difeovered by Dr Shaw, who read a defcription oi it be¬
fore the Linnsean Society in the year 17,88. The eyes
are fixed on cylindrical pillars which lie clofe together. The
roilmm, or narrow part which is terminated by the mouth,
is conne&ed to the back part of the head by a flexible lea¬
thery duplicature, which permits it either to be extended in
fuch a manner that the mouth points diredtly upwards, or
to fall back fo as to be received into a fort of cafe, formed
by the upper part of the head. There are three pairs of
branchiae lituate under the throat. The pe&oral fins are Tranfac-
Imall; the dorfal fin runs from the head to within about au/''”x <’/'/>
inch and a half of the tail ; the caudal fin is fhoriy and is ^
furnifhed with five remarkable fpines. The body is extreme- ^’ V°A" **
ly long, and compreffed very much, and gradually dimi.
nifties as it approaches the tail, which terminates in a procefs
or flung of an enormous length, and finifties in a very fine
point. This firing, or caudal procefs, feems to be flrength-
ened throughout its whole length, or at lead as far as the
eye can trace it, by a fort of double fibre or internal part.
The ftylephorus chordatus is a native of the Weft Indian
Sea. It was taken between the iflands of Cuba and Martini-
co, near a fmall duller of little iflands about nine leagues
from fhore, and was feen fwimming near the furface. The
whole length of this uncommon animal from the head to
the extremity of the caudal procefs is about thirty-two
inches, of which the procefs itfelf meafures twenty-two.
STYLET, a fmall dangerous kind of poniard which
rnay he concealed in the hand, chiefly ufed in treacherous
affaflinations. I he blade is ufually triangular, and fo fmall
that the wound it makes is almoft imperceptible.
STYL.ITES, pillar sa iNTs, in eecldxaftical hiftory, an
appellation given to a kind of folitaries, who flood motionlefs.
upon the tops of pillars, raifed for this exercife of their pa¬
tience, and remained there for feveral years, amidft the admi*.
ration and applanfe of the ftupid populace. Of thefe we find
feveral mentioned in ancient writers, and even as low as th@
twelfth century, when they were totally fuppreffed.
The founder of the order was St Simeon Stylites-, a fa¬
mous anchoret in the fifth century, who firft took up his
abode on a column fix cubits high * then on a fecond of
twelve cubits, a third of twenty-two,, a fourth, of thirty-fix,
and on another of forty cubits, where he thus paffed thirty-
feven years of his life. The tops of thefe columns were
only three feet in diameter, and were defended by a rail
that reached almofl to the girdle, femewhat refembling a
pulgitL
loidej
II
Styrax.
STY
pulpit. There was no lying down in it. _ .
devout people of the Eaft, imitate this extraordinary kind or
life to this day.
STYLOCERALOIDES, name6 0f different
STYLO Gloss us, ( mufcles in ■ the human
' Sino-lfyoidaut, f bGdy. See Table of the
\ Mufcles under Anatomy.
STYLO IDES, J J
STYLOS ANTHES, in botany: A genus of the
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia'c\a.\s> of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papili-
onacett. The calyx is tubulated, vtry long, having the co¬
rolla attached to it. The legumen or pod biarticulated and
hooked. Of this there are two fpecies, both itatives of Ja¬
maica, viz. f. Procumbent, the hedyfarum procumbent of Lin-
nseus; a figure of which may be feen in Sloane’s Natural
Hiftory of Jamaica. 2. V'tfcofa, xhttrifo/ium 2. of Browne;
-a figure of which is alfo given by Sloane.
STYPTIC, in pharmacy, a medicine which by its aftrin*
gency ftops haemoirhagies, See. ‘See'FHARMACY, n® 547-
STYRAX, the storax-tree, in botany : A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of decandr'ta, and to the order
of monogynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
18th order, bicornet. ' Linnaeus only mentions one fpecies of
this genus, the Jlyrax-oJJicinale 4 but Aiton, in his Hortus
Keivenfu, has added two more ; namely, the grande folium and
/ Uvigatum;; and we believe a fourth may now be added, the
fid rax benzoin.
The officinale ufually rifes above twenty feet in height; it
• -fends off many ftrong branches, which are covered with a
roughilh bark of a grey colour: the leaves are broad, elliptical,
entire, fomewhat pointed, on the upper furface fmooth, and
of a light green colour, on the under furface covered with a
whitith down ; "They are placed alternately, and Hand upon
fFtodvlllt'j fhort footllalks: the flowers are large, white, and difpofed
Medial in clufters upon fhort peduncles, which terminate the
Botany, branches: the corolla is monopetalous, funnel-fhaped, and
®ol. ii. divided at the limb into five lance-fhaped fegments : the fila¬
ments are ten, placed in a regular circle, and feem to adhere
towards the bafe: the anther* are ereft and oblong: the
germen is oval, and fupports a flender ftyle, with a fimple
r ftigma: the fruit is a pulpy pericarpium, which contains one
e or two nuts of an oval compreffed figure.
The refinous drug called flora* iflues in a fluid ftate from
incifions made in the trunk or branches of the tree. Two
forts of this refin have been commonly diftinguifhed in the
{hops. 1. Storax in the tear : is fcarcely, if ever, found in
feparate tears, but in maffes, fometimes compofed of whi-
tifli and pale reddilh brown tears, and fometimes of an
uniform reddifh yellow or browniflr appearance ; unttuous
and foft like wax, and free from vifiblc impurities. This is
fuppofed to be the fort which the ancients received from
Pamphylia in reeds or canes, and which was thence named
calamita.
2. Common flora*: in large mafles, confiderably lighter
and lefs compaft than the former, and having a large ad¬
mixture of woody matter like faw-duft. This appears to
be the kind intended by the London college, as they di-
reft their ftyrax calamita to be purified, for medicinal ufe,
by foftening it with boiling water, and prefling it out from
the feces betwixt warm iron plates; a procefs which the
firft fort does not ftand in need of. And indeed there is
rardy any other than this impure rtorax to be met with in
the (hops.
Storax, with feme of the ancients, was a familiar remedy
as a refolvent, and particularly ufed in catarrhal complaints,
-coughs, afthmay, menftrual obftrutb’ons, &c« and from its
Stym;
Plate
1 Lcuiis's
Materia
Medico,
wol. it.
t 48 ] ! S T Y
The faquirs, or affinity to the ballams it was alfo preferibed in ulceration^
■ ■ of the lungs, and other ftates of pulmonary conlumption.
And out pharmacopoeias formerly diredled the/>/'/«/<* efly race',
but this odoriferous drug has now no place in any of the
officinal compounds ; and though a medicine which might
feem to promife feme efficacy in nervous debilities, yet by
modern pradlitioners it is almoft totally difregarded.
T\itflyrax benzoin is deferibed by Dr Dryander in the
Philofophical Tran factions for I7^7» P* ^c’ . ^ hasCCCCI,Ba'
been characterized by oblong acuminated leaves, which are
downy underneath, and nearly of the length of the racemi.
The botanical charadler of this tree was miftaken by modern
botanitls till Dr Dryander afeertained it to be altyrax. Ben¬
zoin was long fuppofed to be the produce of a fpecies of
laurus. Linnaeus dete&ed this error : but he committed ano¬
ther; for he tells us, that it is furnilhed by a flirub which, in
the country where it grows, is called croton bezoe ; and after¬
wards, m his Supplementum Plantarum, defenbes the fame
plant a fecond time, under the name of terminalia benzoin.
This tree, which is a native of Sumatra, is deemed in fix
years of fufficient age for affording the benzoin, or when its
trunk acquires about feven or eight inches in diametei ; the
bark is then cut through longitudinally, or fomewhat oblique¬
ly, at the origin of the principal lower branches, from
which the drug exudes in a liquid ftate, and by expofure to
the fun and air foon concretes, when it is feraped off from
the bark with a knife or chifel. The quantity of benzoin
which one tree affords never exceeds three pounds, nor are
the trees found to fuftain the effe&s of thefe annual incifions
longer than ten or twelve years. The benzoin which iffues
firft from the wounded bark is the pureft, being foft, ex-
tremely fragrant, .and very white ; that which is lefs efteem-
ed is of a brownifh colour, very hard, and mixed with va¬
rious impurities, which it acquires during its long continu¬
ance upon the trees. Efchelfkron diftinguilhes benzoin
into three kinds, viz. camayan poeti, or white benjamin,
which, upon being melted in a bladder by the heat of the
fun, appears marked with red ftreaks or veins. Camayan
hamatta is lefs white than the former, and often fpotted with
white circles, called eyes, from the number of which it*
goodnefs is eftimated : it likewife melts by the heat of the
fun. Camayan itam, or black benjamin, which requires to
be melted in hot water for its prefervation in bladders. In
Arabia, Perfia, and other parts pf the Eaft, the coarfer kinds
of benjamin are confumedffor fumigating and perfuming the
temples, and for deftroying infe&s.
The benzoin which we find here in the {hops is in
large brittle maffes, compofed partly of white, partly of
yeilowifh or light brown, and often alfo of darker coloured
pieces: that which is cleareft, and contains the moft white
matter, called by authors benzoe amygdaloides, is accounted
the beft. This refin has very little tafte, impreffing on
the palate only a flight fweetnefs : its fmell, efpecially when
rubbed or heated, is extremely fragrant and agreeable. It
totally diffolves in rectified fpirit, (the impurities excepted,
which are generally' in a very fmall quantity), into a deep
yellowifh red liquor, and in this ftate difeovers a degree of
warmth and pungency, as well as fweetnefs. It imparts, by
digeftion, to water alio a confiderable (hare of its fragrance,
and a flight pungency: the filtered liquor, gently exhaled,
leaves not a reiinous or mucilaginous extraft, but a cryftalline
matter, feemingly of a faline nature, amounting to one-centh
or one eighth of the weight of the benzoin. Expofed
to the fire in proper veffels, it yields a quantity of a white
faline concrete, called floret benzoesi- of an acidulous tafte
and grateful odour, foluble in re&ified fpirit, and in water
by die affiftance of heat.
5 The
STY
ftyrp*,
-Styx,
'Mf. nf
■ K, Se.
ty of E-
iburgt,
4. ii.
The pvlHetpal ufe of thl? fragrant refm U in perfumes,
and as a cofmetic ; for which Jaft purpofe, a foiution oi it in
fpirit of wine is mixed with fo much water as is fuflicient to
render it milky, as twenty times its quantity or more. It
proraifes, however, to be applicable to other ufes, and to
approach in virtue, ns in fragrance, to ftorax and baliam of
Tolu It is faid to be of great fervice in diforders of the
bread, for refolving obflrudtions of the pulmonary veffels,
and promoting expeftoration : in which intentions the
flowers are fometimes given, from three or four grains to
fifteen. The white powder, precipitated by water from
folurions of the benzoin in {pirit, has been employed by
fome as limilar and fuperior to the flowers, but apoears to
be little other than the pure benzoin in fubftance : it is not
the ialine. but the refinous matter of the benzoin, that is
rnofl difpofed to be precipitated from fpirit by water. The
flowers, fnuffed- up the nofe, are faid to be a powerful er-
rhine.
Liquid ftorax is a refinous juice obtained from a tree call¬
ed by Linnaeus /iquidambar jlyraafiuc, a native of Virginia
and Mexico, and lately naturalized in this country. The
juice called liquidambar is faid to exude from incifions made
in the trunk of this tree, and the liquid ftorax to be obtained
by boiling the bark or branches in water. Two forts of liquid
Itoi^ax an; diftinguifhed by authors : one, the purer part
of the rtfinous matter that rifes to the furface in boiling, fe-
parated by a ftrainer, of the confiftence of honey, tenacious
like turpentine, of a reddifti or afh brown colour, moderately
tranfparent, ol an acrid umPcuous tafte, and a fragrant fmell,
faintly tefembling that of the folid ftorax, but fomewhat
difagreeable : the other, the more impure part, which re¬
mains on the ftiainer, is not tranfparent, in fmell and tafte is
much weaker, and contains a coniiderable proportion eft the
fubftance of the bark. What is moft commonly met with
und?r this name in the fhops is of a weak fmell and a grey
colour, and is fuppofed to be an artificial cornpofition.
Liquid ftorax has been employed chiefly in external ap¬
plications. Among us, it is at prefent almoil wholly in
tlifufe.
ST\ X (fab. hift.), a celebrated river of hell, round which
r 49 3
SUB
were conveyed in a boat acrofs the lake Acherufia} and StiuM*
that Charon was a boatman who had long officiated in that 11
fervice.' The learned Dr Blackwell fays, in his life of Hc>,SuW*via!
mer, that, in the old Egyptian language, Charoni fignified
“ ferryman.”
SUABIA, a circle of Germany, bounded on the north
by the circle of Franconia and that of the Lower Rhine ; on
the weft by the circle of the Lower Rhine and Alface ; on
the fouth by Switzerland ; and on the Gaft by the circle of
Bavaria. Of all the circles of the empire, Suabia is the
moft divided ; it contains four ecclefiaftic and thirteen lay
principalities, nineteen independent prelacies and abbeys,
twenty-fix earldoms and lordfhips, and thirty-one free cities.
The prime directors of the circle, as they are termed, are
the bifiiop of Con fiance and the duke of Wirtemberg. The
duke has the iole direction of all that relates to war.
The mixture of the various forms of government and re- '
lioious fedls ; the opprcffion exercifed by the great on the
poor ; the game conftantly played by the emperor, who
pofTeffes many pieces of detached country in Suabia, which
depend not on the circle, and can, in confequence of his pri¬
vileges as archduke of Auftria, extend his pofieffions in it
by various ways; are circumftances (fays baron Riefbeckj
which give the cultivation of the country, and the chanrfter
of the inhabitants, a molt extraordinary caft. In feveral of^^T/
the poll towns where you flop, you fee the higheft degree Germany,
of cultivation in the midft of the moft lavage wildnefs ; a *•
great degree of knowledge and polifh of manners, mixed
with the groffeft ignorance and fuperftition ; traces of liber¬
ty, under the deepeft oppreffion ; national pride, together
v iththe contempt and negleft of the native countiy ; in
fhort, all the focial qualities in linking contrail and oppofi-
tion to each other. Thofe parts of Suabia which belong
to the great potentates, fuch as Wirtemberg, A uftria, and
Baden, are certainly the moft improved The whole of
Suabja may comprehend about nine hundred German fquare
miles, and two millions of people. More than half of thefe
are fubjedts of the three above mentioned princes, though
they are not proprietors of near one half of the lands.
SCARES (Francis), a Jefuit, was born in Granada on
it flows nine times. The gods held the waters of the Styx in The yth of January 1548. He was a profefibr of theolo-y
luck veneration, that to fwear by them was reckoned an oath at Alcala, Salamanca, Rome, and Coimbra in Portugal,
altogether inviolable. If any of the gods had perjured He died at Lifbon in 1617 with the greateft refi rnation;
tliernielves, Jupiter obliged them to drink the waters of the “ I never thought (faid he) that it was fo eafy to die.’*
Styx, which hilled them for one whole year into a femelefs His memory was aftonifliimr, he could repeat the whole of
ilupidity, for the nine following jears they were deprived of his voluminous works by Heart. His writings lift 23 folio
the ambrofia and the neftar of the gods, and after the ex¬
piation of the years of their puuifhment, they were reftored to
the aflembly of the deities, and to all their original privileges.
It is faid that this veneration was fhown to the Styx, be-
caulc it received its name from the nymph Styx, who with
hei three daughters affiiled Jupiter in his war againft the
Titans. * &
Styx was a river which it was neceffary for departed
fnades to pafs before they could enter the infernal regions;
and it was the office of Charon to ferry them over in a boat
which was kept for that purpofe. The ghofts of thofe who
had not been honoured with the rites of fepulture were
obliged to wander an hundred years before Charon could
admit them into his boat to convey them before the judges
of Hades. What could have given rife to this fable of
Charon and his boat, it is not very material to inquire.
Mythological writers have faid, that'the Greeks learned it
from the Egyptians, which is indeed probable enough ;
that the Egyptians framed both this, and fome other fables
re ating to tne. dead, from certain cuftoms peculiar to their
country ; that in particular there was, not far from Mem-
u 3 buryin£'Place> t0 whlch th? ^ad bodies
Vox-, XVIII. part I.
volumes, and are nioftly on theological and moral fubjedls.
Ilis Treatife of Laws has been reprinted in this country.
His Defence of the Catholic Faith againil the Errors of
England was written at the requell of pope Paul V. This
book was publicly burnt at London by order of James I.
When Snares heard it, he is faid to have exclaimed, O
that I too could feal with my blood the truths which I have
defended with my pen !”
SUBAH, the general name of the viceroyftiips, or great¬
er governments, into which the Mogul empire was divided,
confifting of feveral provinces. The jimfdidlion of a fubah-
dar, the fame as fubahfhip, fubaedaree, or nizamut.
SUBAHDAR, the viceroy, lord-lieutenant, or governor,
holding a fubah ; the fame as nabob or nazim. Alfo the
black commander of a company of Seapoys.
SUBALTERN, a fubordinate officer, or one who dif-
charges his poll under the command and fubjecl to the di¬
rection of another; fuch are lieutenants, fub lieutenants,
cornets, and enfigns, who ferve under the captain.
SUBCLAVIAN, in anatomy, is applied, to any thing
under the arm-pit or fhoulder, whether artery, nerve, vein,
or mufcle.
G SUB-
SUB . £ 50
Sub deacon SUB-DE \CON, an Inferior miniller, w!io anciently at-
I! . tended at the altar, prepared the facred veffels, delivered
SUb)kUlU* them to the deacons in time of divine fervice, attended the
^ doors of the church during communion-fervice, went on the
the bifhop’s embaffies with his letters or meffages to foreign
churches, and was inverted with the firft of the holy orders.
They were fo fubordinate to the fuperior rulers of the church,
that, by a canon of the council of Laodicea, they were for¬
bidden to fit in the prefence of a deacon without his leave.
According to the canons, a perfon muft be twenty-two
years of age to be promoted to the order of fubdeacon. See
Deacon.
SUBDOMINANT, in mufic, a name given by M.
Rameau to the fourth note of the tone, which of confe-
quence is the fame interval from the tonic when defcending
as the dominant in riling. This denomination arifes from
the affinity which this author finds by inverfion between
the minor mode of the fubdominant and the major mode of
the tonic.
SUBDUPLE ratio, is when any number or quantity
is contained in another twice. Thus 3 is faid to be fubdu-
ple of 6, as 6 is duple of 3. See Ratio.
SUBDUPLICATE ratio of any two quantities, is
the ratio of their fquare roots.
SUBER, the cork-tree, in botany. See Qjjercus.
SUBJECT, a perfon under the rule and dominion of a
fovereign prince or Hate.
Subject is alfo ufed for the matter of an art or fcience,
or that which it confiders, or whereon it is employed : thus
the human body is the fubjeft of,medicine.
SUBINFEUDATION, was where the inferior lords,
in imitation of their fuperiors, began to carve out and grant
to others minuter eftates than their own, to be held of them-
felves ; and were fo proceeding downwards in irifinitum, till
the fuperior lords obferved, that by this method of fubin-
feudation they loft all their feodal profits, of wardffiips,
marriages, and efcheats, which fell into the hands of thefe
mefne or middle lords, who were the immediate fuperiors of
HlfriMonc's the terre-tenant, or him who occupied the land. This oc-
Cammcn- cafioned the flat, of Weftm. 3. or quia emptores, 18 Edw. I.
iury, vol.ii, to be made ; which direfts, chat, upon all fales or feoffments
of lands, the leoffee ffiall hold the fame, not of his immediate
feoffer, but of the chief lord of the fee o! whom fuch feof-
fer himfelf held it. And from hence it is held, that all
manors exifting at this day mull have exifted by immemorial
prefcription ; or at leaft ever fiince the 18 Edw. I. when the
flatHte of quia emptores was made.
SUBI TO, in the Italian mufic, is ufed to fignify that a
thing is to be performed quickly and hartily : thus we meet
with vo/ti fulito, turn over the leaf quickly.
SUBJUNCTIVE, in grammar. See Grammar.
SUBLIMA TE, a chemical preparation, confitfting of
quickfilver united with the marine acid. See Chemistry-
Index.
SUBLIMATION, in chemiftry, the condenfing and
collefting, in a folid form, by means of veffels aptly conftrudt-
ed, the fumes of bodies raifed from them by the application
of a proper heat. See Chemistry, n° 581.
SUBLIME, or Sublimity. See the article Grandeur
and Sublimity
SUBLINGUAL artery. See Anatomy.
Svblingual Glands, in anatomy, two glands under the
tongue, placed one on each fide thereof.
SUBMULTIPLE, in geometry, &c. A fubmultiple
number, or quantity, is that which is contained a certain
number ot times in another, and which, therefore, repeated
a certain number of times* becomes exa£Uy equal thereto.
] S U B _
Thus 3 is a fubmultiple of 21. In which fenfe a fubmulti* ST multi"
pie coincides with an aliquot part. Plc
Submultiple Ratio, is that between the quantity con- StlWJrlr<>
tained and the quantity containing. Thus the ratio of 3 - tion.'
to 21 is fubmultiple. In both cafes fubmultiple is the re--y—,
verfe of multiple : 21, e. gr. being a multiple of 3, and the
ratio of 21 to 3 a multiple ratio.
SUBORDINARIES. See Heraldry, Chap. III.
Seft. II. page 454.
SUBORDINATION, a relative term, exprefiing an
inferiority betwixt one perfon and another.
SUBORNATION, in law, a fecret, underhand, pre¬
paring, inftru&ing, orbringing in a falfe witnefs ; and from
htxvze fubornation of perjury is the preparing or corrupt allu¬
ring to perjury. The punifhment for this crime'was formerly
death, then banifhment or cutting out the tongue, afterwards
forfeiture of goods ; and it is now a fine and imprifonment,
and never more to be received as evidence. The ftatute 2 Geo*
II. c. 23. fuperadded a power for the court to order the of¬
fender to be fent to the houfe of corre&ion for a term not
exceeding feven years, or be tranfported for the fame period.
SUBPCENA, in law, a writ wheieby common perfons
are called into chancery, in fuch cafes where the common
law hath provided no ordinary remedy ; and the name of it
proceeds from the words therein, which charge the party
called to appear at the day and place affigned, fub poena cen¬
tum librarum. See. The fubpoena is the leading procefs in
the courts of equity ; and by ftatute, when a bill is filed
againft any perfon, procefsxof fubpoena (hall be taken out to
oblige the defendant to appear and anfwer the bill, &c.
Subpoena ad tejlificandum, a writ or procefs to bring in
witneftes to give their teftimony. If a witnefs on being
ferved with this procefs does not appear, the court will
ifiue an attachment againft him ; or a party, plaintiff or
defendant, injured by his non-attendance, may maintain an
adftion againft the witnefs. See Blachjl. Com. Vol.III.p. 369.
Subpoena in Equity, a procefs in equity, calling on a
defendant to appear and anfwer to the complainant’s bill. See
ftatute 9th Geo. II. c. 29. which ena£ls, that where the
party cannot be found to be ferved with a fubpoena, and
abfeonds (as believed) to avoid being ferved, a day fhali
be appointed him to appear to the hill of the plaintiff;
which is to be inferted in the London Gazette, read in
the pariftr-church where the defendant laft lived, and fixed
up at the Royal Exchange : and if the defendant doth
not appear upon that day, the bill ihall be taken pro confejfo.
SUBREPTI TIOUS, a term apulied to a letter, licence,
patent, or other aft, fraudulently obtained of a fuperior, by
concealing fome truth which, had it been known, would
have prevented the conceffion or grant.
SUBROGATION, or Surrogation, in the Civil
Law, the aft of fubftituting a perfon in the place, and in-
titling him to the rights, of another. In its general fenfe, iub-
rogation implies a fucceffion of any kind, whether of a per¬
fon to a perfon, or of a perfon to a thing.
There are two kinds of fubrogation *. the one convention¬
al, the other legal. Conventional fubrogation is a contraft
whereby a creditor transfers his debt, with all appurtenance*
thereof, to the profit of a third perfon. Legal fubroga¬
tion is that which the law makes in favour of a perlon
who difeharges an antecedent creditor; in which cafe there
is a legal tranflation of all rights of the ancient creditor to
the perfon of the new one.
SUBSCPvIPTION, in general, fignifies the frgnature
put at the bottom of a letter, writing, or inftrument.
In commerce, it is ufed for the (hare or intereft which,
particular perfons take in a public flock or a trading com-
8 pany,
SUB
r 5t ]
sue
nbularia.
<Mcrip- pa^y, by writing their names, and the (hares they require,
tion in the books or regifter thereof.
Subscription to articles of faith is required of the cler-
r gy of every eftabliihed church, and of fome churches not
eftablifhed. Whether fuoh fubfeription ferves any good
purpofe, in a religious or theological view, is a very doubt¬
ful queftion. It may be neceffary in an eftablifhment, as a
teft of loyalty to the prince, and of attachment to the con-
llitution, civil and ecclefiallical, but it cannot produce uni¬
formity of opinion. As all language is more or lefs ambi¬
guous, it becomes difficult, if not impoffible, to determine
in what fenfe the words of long ellablifhed creeds are to be
interpreted ; and we believe that the clergy of the churches
of England and Scotland feldom conlider themfelves as fet-
teied by the Thirty-nine Articles, or the Confeffion of
Faith, when compofing inflruftions either for their refpec-
tive parifhes or for the public at large. Ste Indepen¬
dents.
Subscription, in the commerce of books, fignifies an
engagement to take* a certain number of copies of a book
intended/to be printed, and a reciprocal obligation of the
bookfeller or publilher to deliver the laid copies, on certain
terms. — Thefe fubferiptions, which had their rife in Eng.
land about the middle of the laft century, were lately ve^y
frequent in France and Holland, and are now very common
among ourfelves. ^
SUBSEQUENT, fomething that comes after another,
particularly with regard to the order of time.
SUBSIDY, in law, fignifies an aid or tax granted to
the king by parliament, for the neceflary occafions of the
kingdom ; and is to be levied on every fubjeft of ability, ac¬
cording to the rate or value of his lands or goods: but this
word, in fome of our ftatutes, is confounded with that of
cufloms. See Tax.
SUBSTANCE, the fubjeft to which we fuppofe quali-
ties belong. Thus gold is the fubftance to which the qua¬
lities of du&ility, yellownefs, denfity, &c. belong. See Me¬
taphysics, n° 145.
SUBS I AN 1 IAL, in the fchools, fomething belonging
to the nature of fubftance.
SUBSTANTIVE, in grammar. See Grammar.
SUB STIST UTE, a perfon who officiates for another
in his abfence.
SUBS flTUTlON, in the civil law, a difpofition of a
teftament, whereby the teftator fubftitutes one heir for ano
ther, who has only the ufufruit, and not the property, of
the thing left him.
SUBSTRACTION, or Subtraction, in arithmetic,
the fecond rule, or rather operation, in arithmetic, whereby
we deduft a lefs number from a greater, to learn their pre-
cife difference. See Arithmetic and Algebra.
SUBTANGENT of a Curve, the line that determines
trie arterfe&ion of a tangent with the axis; or that de-
termines the point wherein the tangent cuts the axis pro¬
longed. r
SUBTENSE, formed from fub “ under,” and tendo
i itretch,’ in geometry, a right line which is oppofite to
an angle, and drawn between the two extremities of the arch
which meafures that angle.
SUBrERRANEOUS,whatever is under ground: thus
naturahfts fpeak of fubterraneous ffres, fubterraneous damps,
Subterraneous Cavern, j^ee Quarries.
SUB1ILE, in phyfics, an appellation given to what-
T? 13 ^remely final], fine, and delicate ; fuch as the
pofid t^be18’ tHe efflima °f O1'dorous bodies> &c- are <up-
•wort, in botany : A genus of plants belonging to the clafs Subnlatet
of tetradynamia, and order of Jiiiculofa ; and in the natural 3UCC([[jj0n
order ranging under the 39th ov&.er,JiHquofit. The filicula a
is entire and ovate ; the valves are ovate, concave, and con¬
trary to the partitions. The ftyle is ffiorter than the hli-
cula. There is only one fpecies, the aquatica, which is a
native of Britain. It is about an inch high. i he leave#
are awl-fhaped, and grow in clufters round the root. ihe
(talk is naked, and produces four or five fmall white flowers
growing alternately on ffiort footftalks. It flowers under <
water, whereas moft aquatic plants emerge above water at
the time of flowering. The Author of Nature has, how¬
ever, carefully prevented the tender flower from receiving
any injury from the water, by making the petals clofe, and
form themfelves into a kind of arch. This plant grows on
the borders of the Highland lakes, in Loch Bay, in Scot¬
land, alfo in Wales and Ireland.
SUBULATED, fomething lhaped like an awl.
SUCCEDANEUM, in pharmacy, denotes a drug fub-
ftituted in the place of another.
SUCCESSION, in metaphyfics, the idea which we get
by refledfing on the ideas that follow one another in our
mind ; and from the fucceffion of ideas we get the idea of
time. See Metaphysics, n° 93. and 209.
Succession, in law. See Descent.
Succession to the Crovun. See Hereditart Right.—■
From the days of Egbert, the firft foie monarch of Eng¬
land, even to the prefent, the four cardinal maxims mention¬
ed in that article have ever been held conftitutional canons
of fucceffion. It is true, as Sir William Blaekftone obferves,
this fucceffion, through fraud or force, or fometimes through
neceffity, when in hoftile times the crown defeended on a
minor or the like, has been very frequently fufpended ; but
has generally at lafl returned back into the old hereditary
channel, though fometimes a very confiderable period has
intervened. And even in thofe inftances where this fuc¬
ceffion has been violated, the crown has ever been looked
upon as hereditary in the wearer of it. Of which the ufur-
pers themfelves were fo fenflble, that they for the moft
part endeavoured to vamp up fome feeble fhow of a title by
defeent, in order to amuie the people, while they gained the
pofleffion of the kingdom. And, when pofleffion was once
gained, they considered it as the purchafe or acquifltion of
a new eftate of inheritance, and tranfmitted, or endeavoured
to tranfmit it, to their own pofterity byr a kind of heredita¬
ry right of ufurpation. (See R/ack. Com. v. i. 197—217.)
From the hiftorical view there given, it appears, that the
title to the crown is at prefent hereditary, though not quite
fo abfolutely hereditary as formerly : and the common
ftock, or anceftor, from whom the defeent muft be derived,
is alfo different Formerly, the common ftock was King Eg¬
bert ; then William the Conqueror; afterwards, in James I.’s
time, the two common ftocks united; and fo continued till
the vacancy of the throne in t688 : now it is the Prim,
cefs Sophia, in whom the inheritance was veiled by the new
king and parliament. Formerly, the defeent was abfolute,
and the crown went to the next heir without any reftric-
tion : but now, upon the new fettlement, the inheritance
is conditional; being limited to fuch heirs only, of the
body of the Princefs Sophia, as are Proteftant member#
of the church of England, and are married to none but
Proteftants.
And in this due medium confifts the true conftitutiona!
notion of the right of fucceffion to the imperial crown of
thefe kingdoms. The extremes between which it fteer#
are each of them equally deftru&ive of thofe ends for which
focieties were formed and are kept on foot. Where the ma-
SUBITT Apia p * iocietieswererormeaana are kept on toot. Where the ma-
i , Rough-leaved Alysson, or dwh- ^iftrate, upon every fucceffion, is ele&ed by the people, and
G t
may
SUC C 52 ] SUE
SiceefTion by tb<» expref* provifion of the laws be depofed (if not
Succnmm punUhed) byhis fubjefts, this may found like the perfedlion
l v of liberty, and look well enough when delineated on paper;
but in prafh’ce will be ever produftive of tumult, conten¬
tion, and anarchy. And, on the1 other band, divine inde-
feahble hereditary right, when coupled with the dodlrine of
unlimited pafiive obedience, is furt ly of all conftitutions the
moil thoroughly ilavith and dreadful. Eut when fuch an
hereditary right as our laws have created and veiled in the
royal flock, is clofely interwoven with thofe liberties which
are equally the inheritance of the fubjetl; this union wall
form a conilitution, in theory the molt beautiful of any, in
praftiee the moil approved, and, we truft, in duration the
moft permanent.
In France the fucceflion to the monarchy was limited to
heirs male (fee Salic) ; but in Navarre the crown was in¬
herited by the heir of line, whether male or female. The
caie hands thus: Philip the Fourth, king of France, fur-
named the Fab', in the year 1285 efpoufed Jane queen of
Navarre in her own right; and as king confort of this latter
kingdom added the title of Navarre to his former one of
France. Louis X. fon and heir ot Philip and Jane (furnamed
ffutiriy or the Boi/lerous), fucceeded to both crowns. By
Margaret his f.rll wife, who had been crowned queen of
Navarre, he left one daughter Joan or Jane. His fecond
wife Clementia was pregnant at the time of his dcceafc, and
■was delivered of a pollhumous fon, whom moll of the
French annalifts recognize as John I. of France, though he
Jived no longer than three weeks. On his death the king¬
dom of France puffed to Philip V. (furnamed the Long),
and that of Navarre (to which the Salic law could by no
conllrudlion extend) to Joanna' the only child and heir of
Louis and Margaret. From Joanna, in lineal fucceffion,
the kingdom of Navarre palled to Jane d’Albret, mother of
Henry IV. of France, and wife of Anthony oT V'sndofme,
. who as king comfort wore the crown of Navarre. On the
acceffion ot Henry to the kingdom of France, the two mo¬
narchies were united, arid the four fucceeding princes af-
fumed the joint titles. But if ever the monarchy be re-
llored in France, Mary, princefs royal and daughter of
Louis XVI. will have the fame right to the throne of Na¬
varre that her uncle has to the throne of France ; for fhe
is the undoubted heir of line of the great and illuftrious Hen¬
ry IV.
SUCCINIC Acid, an acid extradled from amber by fu-
blimation in a gentle heat, and rifes in a concrete form into
the neck ot the fubliming veffel. 1 he operation mnit not
be pufhed too far, or by too ilrong a fire, otherwife the
lifter's oil of the amber rifes along with the acid. The fait is dri-
aZSr/ ed Up°n bl?ttInS PaPcr’ and purified by repeated folution
J -s' and cryftallization.
I he acid is foluble in 24 times its weight of cold water,
and in a much fmaller quantity of hot water. It pofleffes
the qualities of an acid in a very fmall degree, and only af-
feds the blue vegetable colours very lightly, lire affinities
of this acid with the falifiable bafes were determined by Mr
de Morveau, who is the firfl chemifl that has endeavoured
to afeertain them.
SUCClNUivI, Amber, in mineralogy, a fpecies of bitu-
tnen claffid under the inflammable fubftances. As a full ac¬
count of this mineral was given under the word Amber,
nothing remains but to mention a few things which recent
expei iments enable us to add. According to Dr Kirvvan, 100
grains of amber afford about 72 of petroleum, 4.5 of fucci-
^1C and a refidue of fixed matter and water. Mr
C. ee^/ays, that, when diililled, it yields an aqueous acid
relembhng vinegar in its qualities. This would induce us
to believe it to be of vegetable origin. But its origin is a
point not yet alcettained. Its fpecific gravity is from r,o(5? fhieeoiy
to 1,100, and melts at 550" of Fahrenheit. Wallerius af- s J
firms, that mirrors, prifms, &c. may be made of amber.  ^
SUCCORY, in botany. See Cichorium.
SUCCOTH (anc, geog.), a town which lay between
the brook'Jabbok and the river Jordon, where Jacob fixed
his tents. There was another Succoth wh-oe the Ifraelites
lirfl encamoed after their departure from Ramefes towards
the Red Sea. Succoth fignifies tents.
SUCCUBUS, a term ufed by fome writers for a daemon
who affumes the fhape of a woman, and as fuch lies with a
man ; in which fenfe it (lands oppofed to incubus, which.wan
a d;emon in form of a man, that lies with a woman. But
the truth is, the fuccubus is only a fpecies of the night*
mare. See Medicine, ii° 329
SUCCULA, in mechanics, an axis or cylinder, with
flaves in it to move it round ; but without any tympanum
or peritrochmm.
SUCCULENT Plants, among botamfls, fuch whofe
leaves are thick and full of juice.
SUCKER, in ichthyology. See CytLOPTERus.
SUCKERS, in gardening, the fame with Offsets.
SUCKING-fish. See Echeneis. _
SUCKLING (Sir John), an Englifh poef and dramatic
writer, was the fon of Sir John Suckling, comptroller of
the houfehold to king Charles I. and born at Witham in
Efiex in 1613. He difeovered an uncommon propenfity
to the acquiring of languages, infomuch that he is reported
to have fpoken Latin at five years of age, and to have written
it at nine. When he was grown up, he travelled ; but
leems to have affected nothing more than the character of
a courtier and fine gentleman ; which he fo far attained,
that he was allowed to have the peculiar happinefs of ma¬
king every thing he did become him. In his travels he
made a campaign under the great Guilavus Adolphus ; and
his loyalty, if not his valour, appeared in the beginning of
our civil wars ; for, after his return to England, he raifed a
troop of horfe for the king’s fervice entirely at his own
charge ; and mounted them fo completely and richly, that
they are laid to have coft him 12,000 1. This tropp, with
Sir John at its head, behaved fo ill in the engagement with
the Scots, upon the Englifh borders, in 1639, as to occa-
fion the famous lampoon compofed by Sir John Mennis ;
“Sir John he got him an ambling nag,” &c. This ballad,
which was fet to a brifk tune, was much fung by the par¬
liamentarians, and continues to be fung to this day. This
difaftrous expedition, and the ridicule that attended it, was
fuppoftd to have haftened his death ; being feized by a fe¬
ver, of which he died, at 28 years of age. He was a
fprightly wit, and an eafy verfifier, but no great poet. His
works, conlifting of a few poems, letters, and plays, have
neverthelefs gone through feveral editions.
SUCT ION, the aCt of fucking or drawing up a fluid, as
air, water, milk, or the like, by means of the mouth and
lungs; or, in a fimilar manner, by artificial means. See
Pneumatics and Hydrostatics.
SUDATORY, a name given by the ancient Romans
to their hot or fweating rooms; fometimes alfo called Ln-
conica.
SUDlcROE. See Ferro-I (lands.
SUDORIF 1C, an appellation given to any medicine that
caufes or promotes fweat.
SUESSIONES, a branch of the Remi, a people of
Gallia Lelgica (Pliny); called fometimes Suejfones, in the
lower age hueffi ; fituated between the Remi to the eaft, the
Nervii to the north, the Veromandui to the weft, and the
Meldas to the fouth, in the trad now called le Soiffonois.—
SueJfioneS) Sucjfones, and Sufflona, the name of their city in
the
fiuet
■ 11
^ Suez.
P'olniv'f
Trawls f
rol. i.
SUE [ 53 1 SUE
the lower Rffe ; thought to have been formerly called N’ovio- {els which M. Volney tells us he has feet! thef?> to>*the
dunum (Caeiar),is now called Sojjfons. T1 ! 1 tVt V!.0!* /~\ t O f" O £» *v-\ i.'M 1 •. 1 / l rm *• V» /■* iS r~\ r> »*» _
Sue?,
SUET, Sevum, or Sebum, in anatomy, the folid fat found
in feveral animals, as fheep. oxen, &c. but not in the human
fpecies. See the article Fat.—It is of the fevum that tal¬
low is made.
SUETONIUS tranquillus (Cains), a famous Latin
hillorian, was born at Rome, and became iecretary to the
emperor Adrian, about the i i8th year or the Chritlian era;
but that poll was taken from him three years after, when
feveral perfons fell under that prince’s difpleafure for not
fhowiny the emprefs Sabina all the refpect fhe deferved.
During his difgrace he compofed many works, which are
loft. fhofe now extant are his Hillory of the XII firft
Emperors, and a part of his Treatife of the llluftrious
Grammarians and Rhetoricians. Pliny the Younger was
his intimate friend, and perfuaded him to publifh his books.
His Hiltpry of the XI i Roman Emperors has been much
commended by moil of our polite fcholars. He reprefents,
in a continued feries of curious and interefting particulars,
without any digrefllons or reflections, the aftions of the
emperors, without omitting their vices, which he expofes
with all their deformity, and with the fame freedom men¬
tions the good qualities of the very fame peifons ; but the
horrid dififolutenefs and obfcene adfims he relates of Tibe¬
rius, Caligula, Nero, &c. have made fome fay, that he wrote
the lives pf the emperors with the fame licentioufnefs with
which they lived. The edition of this hiflory procured by
Graevius at Utrecht in 1672, with the excellent Commen¬
taries of Torrentius and Caiaubop, and the notes of fame
other learned critics, is much efteemed. Burmau alfo pu-
blifhed an edition in two vols gto with notes.
SUEVI, the Catti or Chatti of Casfar (Strabo), placed
on the Rhine : the reafon of Caelar’s calling them thus does
number of 28 at a time, might be attacked without oopo-
fition ; for the fhips themfelves are incapable of refiftance,
none having any other artillery than four rulty fwivels.
Suez has always been, notwithftanding its local difadvan*
tages, a place of great trade, on account of its geographi¬
cal htuation. It was by the gulph of Suez that the com¬
modities of India were formerly conveyed to Europe, till
the diicovery of the paffage by the Cape of Good Hope
converted that trade into a new channel. As the ifthmus
of Suez, which feparates the Red Sea from the Mediterra¬
nean, is not more than 57 miles, it has been frequently' pro-
pofed to join thele two feas together by a canal. As there
are no mountains nor remarkable inequalities of furface, this
plan would at firft view apoear eafy to be executed. But
though the difference of levels would not prevent a
junction, the great difficulty arifes from the nature of
the corrcfponding coails of the Mediterranean and the Red
Sea, which are of a low an I Tandy foil, where the waters
form lakes, fhoals, and moraffes, fu that veffels cannot ap¬
proach within a coniiderable diftance. It will therefore be
found fcarcely poflible to dig a permanent canal amid thefc
fhi:ting fands : not to mention, that the Ihore is deftitute
of harbours, which muff be entirely the work of art. The
country behdes has not a drop of frefh water, and to fup-
ply the inhabitants, it muff be brought as far as from the
Nile.
I he beft and only method therefore of .effecting this
junction, is that which has been already fuccefsfully prac-
tifed at different times; which is, by making the river itfelf
the medium of communication, for which the ground is per-
fedtly well calculated ; for Mount Mokattam fuddenly ter¬
minating in the latitude of Cairo, forms only a low and fe-
micircular mound, round which is a continued plain from
zzrsJztcooMmb,y diaant from r psr.mr
I he ancients, who early underflood the advantage to be de¬
rived
Suevi (Tacitus), a common name of the people fitua-
ted between the Elbe and the Viftula, diftinguifhed other-
whe by particular names ; as in Ptolemy, Sucvt Avgeii, Sue-
nn bemones.
SUEVUS (anc. geog.), a river of Germany, thought
to be the fame with the Viadrus or Oder, emptying itfek
at three mouths into the Baltic, the middlemoit of which
is called Sw'.ne or Swine; which laft comes nearer the name
Suevus.
SUEZ, a fmall fea-port town, fituated near the northern
extremity of the Red Sea, and about 30 hours journey eaft
from Cairo. 'I he country around it is a Tandy plain, with¬
out the imalleft fpot of verdure. The only water which
lived fiom this fituation, adopted the idea of joining the two
feas by a canal connedled with the river. Strabo * obfei ves, * m, xvi^
that this \\'as firll executed under Setoftris, who reigned
about the time of the Trojan war ; and this work was fo con-
iiderable as to occahon it to be remarked, “ that it was loo
cubits (or 170 feet) wide, and deep enough for large vef-
fels.1 * * * 5’ After the CUeeks conquered the country, it was re-
ilored by the Ptolemies, and again renewed by Trajan. la'
fhoit, even the .Arabs themfelves followed thefe examples,
“In the time of Omar ebnel-Kattab (lays the hifloriaa
E Makin), the cities of Mecca and Medina fuffering from
famine, the Calif ordered Amrou governor of Egypt to cut
a canal from the Nile to Kolzoum, that the contributions of
can be drunk is brought from El Naba nr tVn f • * a canat from the Nile to Kolzoum, that the contributions of
the diilaiice of th,M IHTu^dTt iffotclift ^
1 . J j “ au 10 ivj uidGKlin
that without a mixture of rum it is infupportable to Euro-
peans. ^ I he town itfelf is a colle&ion of miferabie ruins, the
khans Dung the only folid buildings; yet from March till
June, the feafon when the Jidda and Yambo fleet arrives
the town becomes crowded; but after its departure nobody
remains except the governor, who is a Mamlouk, l2 or
perions wko form his lioufehold, and tlie garrifon. The
fortrefs „ a defer,celel. heap of ruins, which the Arabs com
!'nd,gaSap If’ becaul!: 11 contains fix brafs four pounders,
Z T ,t g!!rTS' afide when
thev tire. i he haibour is a wretchwl  .1. _
way,
I his canal is the fame which runs at prefent to Cairo,
and lofes itielf in the country to the north-eaft of Berket-el-
liadjj or the Lake of the Pilgrims.
1 he place on the well coatt of the gulph of Suez, where
the children of iirael are fuppofedto have entered it, is called
Aadeu, about fix miles to 'the north of Cape Korondel, on
the other fide of the gulph, as we are informed in a letter
tiom the ingenious Edward Wortley Montague, F. R. S*
to Dr Wat Ion, containing an account of his journey from
Cairo to the Written Mountains in the defert of Sinai,
The
/
"Suez
Suffolk.
S U F C 54
The Britifh nation, we believe, never attempted to carry
1
for Suez, laden with piece-goods of Bengal and coaft ma
nufaftures. The command of the vefiels was committed to
Captain Greig, a meritorious feaman ; and the management
of the goods was entrufted to Mr Straw, a gentleman di-
ftinguifhed for his mercantile knowledge. The fale turned
out to advantage ; but fuch great expences were incurred m
making prefents to the bey of Cairo and Suez, as to con-
fume the whole profits gained by the fale ot the cargo.
The great purpofe of the expedition ■was, however, accom-
plifhed, as a firman was obtained from th(j government of
Cairo to trade by the way of Suez. In confequence of this,
three (hips went to Suez the following year, and as many
In t778 The opening of this trade alarmed the jealoufy
of the Eaft India Company ; they applied to our govern¬
ment, and orders were given to relinquifh this promifing
commerce Thefe orders reached Egypt fooner than Bengal,
and the confequence was fatal to the unfortunate adventu¬
rers who vifited Suez that year (1779)- By a P*311 con*
certed between the beys, a large body of Bedouin Arabs
attacked the caravan pafiing from Suez to Cairo with
goods valued at 12 lacks of rupees. The goods were plun¬
dered, the Europeans were flripped and left naked in the
defert, expofed to the burning rays of the fun, without a
drop of water to quench their thirft, or food to fupport
life. Moft of them died, and fome of their bodies were
afterwards found mangled and disfigured by wolves. We
have been favoured with a particular account of the fuffer-
ings of our countrymen by a correfpondent, which, we are
forry, we have not room to infert. Thofe who wifh to
cbtain a more full account may confult the Annual Regi-
for 1781 or 1782.
SUFFETULA (anc. geog.), a town of Africa, in the
dominions of Carthage ; probably fo called from Suffetes,
the title of the magiftrates of that city. It is now called
Spaitla, in the kingdom of Tunis, and has many elegant re¬
mains of antiquity. There are three temples in a great
meafure entire ; one of them of the Compofite order, the
other two Corinthian. “ A beautiful and perfeft capital
of the Compofite order (fays Mr Bruce), the only perfect
one that now exilts, is defigned in all its parts in a very
large fize ; and with the detail of the reft of the ruin, is a
precious monument of what that order was, now in the col-
feftion of the king.” The town itfelf (he fays) is fitua-
ted in the moft beautiful fpot in Barbary, furrounded by
great numbers of juniper-trees, and watered by a plealant
ftream, which finks under the earth at that place, without
appearing any morfc.
SUFFOCATION, in medicine, the privation of re-
fpiration or breathing. See the articles Drow'ning, Hang¬
ing, &c.
SUFFOLK, a county of England. Its name is con-
trafted from Southfoiky fo called from its fit nation in regard
to Norfolk. It is bounded on the weft by Cambridge-
ftiire ; on the fouth by Effex, from which it is parted by
the river Stour ; on the eaft by the German Ocean; and
on the north by Norfolk, feparated from it by the Leffer
Isu^b's edi Oufe and the Waveney. From weft to eaft it is 52 miles in
length, about 20 at a medium in breadth, and 196 in cir¬
cumference. It contains 22 hundreds, 29 market towns,
575 parifhes, upwards of 34,000 houfes, and more than
200,000 inhabitants. The whole is divided into two parts,
viz. the Liberty of St Edmund, and the Geldable ; the for¬
mer of which contain the weft parts of the county, and
the other the eaft; and there is a grand jury for each at the
vn of Cam
eris Bri-
annia.
S U G
aflizes. The air is/reckoned as wholefome and pleafant as Suffagm
anv in the kingdom, nor is it otherwife upon the fea coaft,
' • - " ■ ^ , * r r  r ,t n-es. The
very rich,
being a compound of clay and marie. Towards the fea
there are large heaths and tra&s of fand ; but thefe produce
hemp, rye, and peafe, and feed great flocks of fheep. A-
bout Newmarket the foil is much the fame ; but in high
Suffolk or the woodlands, befides wood, there are very rich
paftures, where abundance of cattle are fed. In other parts
of the county, as about Bury, there is plenty of corn. Af
this county is noted for the richnefs of its paftures, fo is it
for butter and cheefe, efpecially the former, which is faid
to be remarkably good ; fo that being packed up in fir¬
kins, it is fold for all ufes both by lea and land, and con¬
veyed to many parts of England, efpecially to Lopdon.
The inland parts of the county are well fupplied with wood
for fuel, and thole upon the fea-coaft with coals from New-
caftle. The manufa&ures of the county are chiefly wool¬
len and linen cloth. It lies in the diocefe of Norwich, has
two archdeacons, viz. of Sedbury and Suffolk ; gives title
of earl to a branch of the Howards ; fends two members to
parliament for the county, and two for each of the follow¬
ing places, Ipfwich, Dunwich, Orford, Aldborough, Sud¬
bury, Eye, and St Edmund’s-Bury. The county is ex¬
tremely well watered by the following rivers, which either
traverfe its borders, or run acrofs into the German Ocean,
viz. the Leffer Oufe, the Waveney, the Blithe, the Dcben,
the Orwell or Gipping, and the Stour.
SUFFRAGAN, an appellation given to Ample bifhop*
with regard to archbifhops, on whom they depend, and to
whom appeals lie from the bifhops courts.
Suffragan is likewife the appellation given to a biftiop,
who is occafionally appoiated to refide in a town or village,
and affift the diocefan.
SUFFRAGE, denotes a vote given in an affembly, where
fomething is deliberated on, or where a perfon is ele&ed to
an office or benefice.
SUFFRUTEX, among botanifts, denotes an underfhrub,
or the loweft kind of wmody plants, as lavender.
SUGAR, a folid fweet fubftance obtained from the juice
of the fugar-cane ; or, according to chemifts, an effential
fait, capable of cryftallization, of a fweet and agreeable fla¬
vour, and contained in a greater or lefs quantity in al-
moft every fpecies of vegetables, but moft abundant in the
fugar-cane. 1
As the fugar-cane is the principal produftion of the Weft Valneof
Indies, and the great fource of their riches ; as it is fo im-fuKar
pertant in a commercial view, from the employment which
it gives to feamen, and the wealth which it opens for mer¬
chants; and befides is now become a neceffary of life—it may
juftly be efteemed one of the moft valuable plants in the
world. The quantity conlumed in Europe is eftimated at
nine millions Sterling, and the demand would probably be
greater if it could be fold at a reduced price. Since fugar
then is reckoned fo precious a commodity, it muft be an ob¬
ject of defire to all perfons of cmiofity and refearch, to ob¬
tain fome general knowledge of the hiftory and nature of ‘
the plant by which it is produced, as well as to underftand
the procefs by which the juice is extra&ed and refined. We
will therefore firft inquire in what countries it originally
flourifhed, and when it was brought into general ufe, and
became an article of commerce.
From the few remains of the Grecian and Roman authors
which have furvived the ravages of time, we can find no
proofs that the juice of the fugar-cane was known at a very
early period. There can be no doubt, however, that in thofe
countries where it was indigenous its value was not long
con-
Su^ar.
SVG [ 55 ] SVG
toncca?ec!. It is not improbable that it was known to travelled into the Eafl about the year 1250, found fugar in s,’gar
^he ancient Jews; for there is fome reafon to fuppofe, that abundance in Benoal. Vafco de Gama, who doubled the
the Hebrew word nip, which occurs frequently in the Old Cape of Good Hope in 1497, relates, that a coniiderable
biv known Tellament, and is by our tranflators rendered fometimes ca/a- trade in fu^ar was then carried on in the kingdom of Ca-
—*
Greek and
Roman au¬
thors.
: -I
Was proha
blv known X Ciuuucin., auu in uui     —
to the an- mus and fometimes fiveet-cane, does in faff mean the lu
cent Jews. gar.canet qqie pafage in which we have obferved it
mentioned is Exod. xxx. 23. where Mofes is commanded to
make an ointment with myrrh, cinnamon, kene, and caflia.
Now the kene does not appear to have been a native of E-
pypt nor of Judea; for in Jeremiah vi. 20. it is mentioned
as coming from a fat country. “ To what purpefe cometh
there to me incenfe from Sheba and the fweet-cane from a
far country ?” This is not true of the calamus aromaticus,
3 which grows fpontaneoufly in the Levant, as well as in many
Account of parts of Europe. If the cinnamon mentioned in the pafTage
^ by of Exodus quoted above was true cinnamon, it mult have
come from the Eaft Indies, the only country in the world
from which cinnamon is obtained. There is no difficulty
therefore in fuppofmg, that the fugar-cane was exported
from the fame country. If any credit be due to etymology,
it confirms the opinion that kene denotes the fugar-cane ;
for the Latin word canna and the Englifh word, cane are evi¬
dently derived from it. It is alfo a curious fact, that fachar
or Jheker in Hebrew, figniftrt inebriation, from which the
Greek word aa.xx3? “ fugar” is undoubtedly to be traced.
The fugar cane was firft m?de known to the weftern parts
of the world by the conquefts of Alexander the Great.
» Lib. xv Strabo * relates that Nearchus his admiral found it in the
Eaft Indies in the year before Chrift 325. It is evidently
alluded to in a fragment of Theophraftus, preferred in Pho-
tius. Varro, who lived A. C. 68, defcribes it in a frag-
; Lit. xvi;.ment quoted by Ifidorus $ as a fluid prefled from-reeds of
ap. 7. a large fize, which was fvveeter than honey J|. Diofcorides,
about the year 35 before Chrift, fays “ that there is a kind of
[xv.' Cai ’ honey cahed faccharon, which is found in India and Arabia
Felix. It has the appearance of fait, and is brittle when
chewed. If diflfolved in water, it is beneficial to the bowels
and ftomach, is ufe:ul in difeaies o^the bladder and kidneys,
and, when fprinkled on the eye, removes thofe fubftances
that obi cure the iight.‘,> ihis is the hrft account we have
of its medical qualities. Oalen often prefenbed it as a me¬
dicine. Lucan relates, that an oriental nation in alliance
with 1 ompey uied the juice of the cane asa common drink.
Unique bibunt tenera dulcet ab arundine fuccos.
Lib. iii, 237.
Pliny fays it was produced in Arabia and India, but
11 that the heft came from the latter country. I« Is alfo men¬
tioned by Arrian, in his Periplus of the Red Sea, by the name
of {/achat) as an article of commerce from India to
Nat Hi/, the Red Sea. iElian If, Tmuilian J, and Alexander Aphro-
i- ^“'‘chfeust, mention it as a fpecies of honey procured from
Lib. ii. canes (a).
•, vb. 7y. That the fugar-cane Is an indigenous plant in fome parts
a native f 'nn f havTe the ^ongeft reafon to believe ;
ftheS f?1 1 hunberg f^nd in JW and has accordingly mem
‘d,e8* ZtV- a nar Tatrr in his F/ora J°P°nica,
Publi^d in 1784. Olheck alfo found it in China in
It'may indeed have been tranfplanted from fome other coun¬
try ; but as it does not appear from hiftory that the inha¬
bitants of Japan or Chma ever carried on any commerce
trade in fugar was then carried on in the kingdom of
licut. On the authority of Diofcorides and Pliny', too, we
ffiould be difpofed to admit, that it is a .native of Arabia,
did wd net find, on confulting Niebuhr’s Travels, that that
botanift has omitted it when enumerating the molt valuable
plants of that country. If it be a fpontaneous production
of Arabia, it mult ftill flouriffi in its native foil. Mr Bruce
found it in LTpper Egypt. If we may believe the relation
of Giovan Lioni, a confide rable trade was carried on in
fugar in Nubia in 1500 : it abouifted alfo at Thebes, on
the Nile, and in the northern parts of Africa, about the
fame period. y
There is reafon to believe that the fugar-cane was intro-?ntro^ucet*
duced into Europe during the crufades ; expeditions which
however romantic in their plan, and unfuccefsful in their during the
execution, were certainly productive of many advantages to crufades.
the nations of Europe. Albertus Aquenfis, a monkifh
writer, obferves, that the Chriftian foldiers in the Holy
Land frequently derived refreffiment and fupport during a
fearcity of provifrons by fucking the canes. Thisxplant
flourifhed alfo in the Morea, and in the Hands of Pmodes
and Malta; from which it was tranfported into Sicily.
The date of this tranfaCtion it is not eafy to afeertain ; but
we are fure that fugar was cultivated in that Hand previous
to the year 1166 ; for Lafitau the Jefuit, who wrote a hi¬
ftory of the Portuguefe difeoveries, mentions a donation
made that year to the monaftery of St Bennet, by William
the fecond king of Sicily, of a mill for grinding fugar-canes,
with all its rights, members, and appurtenances.
trom Sicily, where the fugar cane ftill flourifhes on the
fides of mount Hybla, it was conveyed to Spain, Madeira, n'OrvUl V
the Canary and Cape tie Verd Hands, foon after they were Travels! *
difeovered in the 13th century. 6 *
An opinion has prevailed^, that the fugar-cane is not a na- SuPP°Rel
tive of the weftern continent, or its adjacent Hands the Weft^ta™etive
Indies, but was conveyed thither by the Spaniards or Por-of America
tuguefe foon after the difeovery of America by Columbus.01- the Weft-
From the teftimony of Peter Martyr, in the third book oflndiei*
his firft decade, compofed during Columbus’s fecond voyage,
which commenced in 1493 an(d ended in 1495, it appears,
that the fugar-cane was known at that time in Hilpaniola.
It may be faid, that it was brought thither by Columbus ;
but for this aftertion we have found no diredl evidence ; and
though we had dired evidence, this would not prove that
the fugar-cane was not an indigenous plant of the Weft In¬
dies. There are authors of learning who, after inveftigating
this fubjedf with attention, do not hefitate to maintain, that
it is a native both of the Hands and of the continentof Ame¬
rica.
I. Lab at has fupported this opinion- with much appear¬
ance ol truth jl ; and, in particular, he appeals to the tefti- 1 Tom. ia.
mony of Thomas Gage, an Engliihman, who vifited Newc-Xv’-
Spam in 162;. Gage enumerates fugar-canes among the rh^ L-
provifrons w.th which the Chandbes of Guadaloupe fuppliednion on"
- is (hip. “ Now (fays Labat) it is a tael that the Spaniards P°feci fry
had never cultivated an inch of ground in the Smaller
tilles. Their drips commonly touched at thofe Hands in¬
deed for wood and water; and they left fwine in the view
with remote nations, it could only be conveved> fT °! )vaod.a'ld. water» ?nd tht7 left fwine in the view
neighbouring country. Marco Polo, a noble Venetian who a with freffi provifions fuch of their countrymen
, nooie v enetian, who as might call there in future ; but it would be abiurd in the
-    higheit
aftiocs, in Volume IV.Ty D? Falcone^ may°S confulted? ^ ^ and 11x10,1116 ages' a *paper of the Manchefter Trat&
r
Sugar.
s u a
W’ned decree to fuppofe, that they would plant fu^^r-
canes, and at the fame time put hoa8 afhore to ^rtroy them,
u Neither had the Spaniards any motive tor hdtovi,
this plant on itlands which they conficlered as ot no kmd
uns v . .1   Wen men-
of imoortance, except for the purpofe that has been men-
j .U-if vP.' Pti^mibes munit have cul-
8
From tedi-
snor-y,
lUlUUltanvvj —J.—   11 . , -i
tioned ; and to fuppofe that the Charaibes might have c
tivated, after their departure, a produdion of which they
knew nothing, betrays a total ignorance ot the Indian cil-
pofition and charadter. ,
t " But (continues Labat) we have furer teflimony, and
v i n    fnorar-cane
fuch as proves, beyond all contradiction, that the fugar-cane
is the natural production of America, tor, betides t .e evi¬
dence of Francis XImints, who, in a Treatife on American
> Plants, printed at Mexico, aflerts, that the fugsr-cane grows
without* cultivation, and to an extraordinary fize, on the
banks of the river Plate, we are a (hired by Jean de l.ery,
a Proteftant minifter, who was chaplain in 1550 to the
Dutch garrifou in the fort of Coligny, on the river Janei¬
ro, that he himfelf found fugar-canes in great abundance in
many places on the banks of that river, and m lituations ne¬
ver vifited by the Portuguefe. Father Flennepen and other
voyagers bear teftimony in like manner to the growth ot
the cane near the mouth of the Mitfifirppi ; and Jean ue
X-aet to its fpontaneous production in the ifland of St \ in¬
tent. It is not for the plant itfelf, therefore, but for the
feeret of making fugar from it, that the Wetl Indies aie in¬
debted to the Spaniards and Portuguefe ; and thefe to the
nations of the eatt.” , . , , , , T r
Such is the reafoning of Labat, which the learned Lah-
tau has pronounced incontrovertible; and it is pi fatly
(Lengthened by recent difeoveries, the fugar cane having
been found in many of the ifiands of the Pacific Ocean
by our late illuftrious navigator Captain Cook.
FkfcnHtion fugar-cane, or faccharum officinarum of hotanifts, is a
< i' the fu- jointed reed,commonly meafuring (the flag part not included)
from three feet and a half to feven feet in height, hut fome-
times riling to 12 feet. When ripe it is of a fine if raw co¬
lour inclining to yellow, producing leaves or blades, the
edges of which are finely and lharply ferrated, and termina¬
ting in tin arrow decorated with a panicle. I he joints in
one ftalk are from 40 to 60 in number, and the llalks riling
from one root are fometimes very numerous. The young
fnoot afeends from the earth like the point of an arrow ; the
{haft of which foon breaks, and the two lirft leaves, which
had been inclofed within a quadruple {heath of feminal leaves,
rife to a coniiderable height (b). See PlateCCCCLXXXVL
M is the arrow and N the lower part with the root.
As the cane is a rank fucculent plant, it mult require a
ftrong deep foil to bring it to perfection, perhaps indeed no
foil can be too rich for this purpofe. The foil which ex¬
perience has found to be moll favourable to the cultivation
of it in the Weft Indies is the dark grey loam ot St Chrif-
topher’s, which is fo light and porous^as to be penetrable
by the flrghteft application of the hoe. The under llvatum
is gravel from 8 to' 1 2 inches deep. Canes planted in par¬
ticular fpots in this illand have been known to yield 8000
gar canc.
To
Soil moft
favourabe
to its
growth.
<6 j S' IT G'
pounds of Mtifcovado fugar from a fingle acre. The av*« Sugar,
rao-e produce of the ifland for a feries of years has been
j 6,coo hegfteads of 16 cwt. which is one-half only of the
whole cane-land, or 8500 acres. Wrhen annually cut, it
gives nearly two'hogfheads of 16 cwt. per acre lor the whole
of the land in ripe canes.
Next to the aftry loam of St Chnftopher’s is the loil
which in Jamaica is called brick-mold ; not as refembling a
brick in colour, but as containing fuch a due mixture of
clay and fand as is fuppofed to render it well adapted for
the ufe of the kiln. It is a deep, warm, and mellow, hazel
earth, eafily worked; and though its furface foon grows dry
after'rain, the under ftratun retains a confiderabk degree of
rnoifture in the drieft weather ; with this advantage too,
that even in the wetteft feafon it feldom requires trenching.
Plant canes, by which is meant canes of the firft growth,
have been known in very fine feafons to yield two tons and
a half of fugar per acre. After this may be reckoned the
black mold of feveral varieties. The heft is the deep black Eiw.rA1,
earth of Barbadoes, Antigua, artd fome. other of the wind-
ward ifiands ; but there is a ipecies of this mold in Jamaica*^
that is but little, if any thing inferior to it, which abounds ^ ^
with limeftone and flint on a iubftrattim ot foapy rnatle*
Black mold on clay is more common; but as the mold is ge¬
nerally {hallow, and the clay (tiff and retentive of water, this
la ft fort of land requires great labour, both in ploughing
and trenching, to render it profitable. When manured and
properly pulverized, it becomes very productive. It is un-
ncceffary to attempt a minute defeription of all the other
foils which are found in thefe ifiands. There is, however,
a peculiar fort of land on the.north fide of Jamaica, chiefly
in the parifh of Trelawney, that cannot be pafled over un¬
noticed, not only on account of its Icarcity hut its value ;
few foils producing finer fugars, or fuch ns anfwerfb ‘well in
the pan ; an expreffion fignifying a greater return of refined
fugar than common. The land alluded to is generally of a
red colour; the {hades of which, however, vary tonfiderably
from a deep chocolate ty a rich fcailet ; in fome places it
approaches to a bright yellow, but it is-everywhere remark¬
able, when firft turned up, for a glofty or Ihining furface,
and if wetted ftains the fingers like paint. n
As in every climate there is a feafon more favourable for f,rppe(
vegetation than others, it is of great importance that plants fbn for
for feed be committed to the ground at the commencementplaiui“i
of this feafon. As the cane requires a great deal of moil-
ture to bring it to maturity, the propereft feafon for plant¬
ing it is in the months of September and October, when the
autumnal rains commence, that it may be fufficiently luxu¬
riant to fhade the ground before the dry weather fets in.
Thus the root is kept moift, and the crop is ripe for the
mill in the beginning of the enfuing year. Canes planted
in the month of November, or later in the feafon, lole the
advantage of the autumnal rains; and it orten happens
that dry weather in„the beginning of the enfuing year
retards their vegetation until the vernal or May rains fet in,
when they fprout both at the roots and the joints ; fo that
by
(b) “A field of canes, when {landing, in the month of November, when it is in arrow or full hlofiom (fays Mr Beck-
ford in his deferiptive Account of the Ifiand of Jamaica), is one of the moft beautiful produaions that the pen or pencil
can pofhbly deferibe. It in common rifes from three to eight feet or more in height ; a difference of growth that very
itrongly marks the difference of foil or the varieties of culture. It is when ripe of a bright and golden yellow ; and
where obvious to the fun, is in many parts very beautifully ftreaked with red : the top is of a darkifh green ; but the
more dry it becomes, from either an excefs of ripenefs or a continuance of drought, of a ruflet yellow, with long and
narrow leaves depending; from the centre of which fhoots up an arrow like a filver wand from two to fix feet in height ;
and from the fummits of which grows out a plume of white feathers, which are delicately fringed with a lilac dye ; and
indeed is, in its appearance, not much unlike the tuft that adorns this particular and elegant tree.
S U G r J7 ] .S. U °
Soper, the time they are cut the field is loaded with unripe for the want of attention in this particular,
•—v fuckers inftead of fugar-canes. A January plant, however.
A careful ma¬
nager will remove at the fame time all the lateral fhoots or
Sugar,
commonly turns out well ; but canes planted very late in the
fpring, though they have the benefit of the May rains, fel-
dom anfwer expeftation ; for they generally Come in unfea-
fonably, and throw the enfuing crops out oF regular rota¬
tion. They are therefore frequently cut before they arc
ripe ; or if the autumnal feafons fet in early, are cut in wet
weather, which has probably occafioned them to fpring a-
fredi; in either cafe the effect is the fame : The juice is un-
concofted, and all the fap being in motion, the root is de¬
prived of its natural nourifhment, to the great injury of the
ratoon. The chief objection to a fall plant is this, that
the canes become rank and top heavy, at a period when vio¬
lent rains and high winds are cxpedted, and are therefore
frequently lodged before they are fit to be cut.
Method of The fugar-cane is propagated by the top-fiioots, which
planting are cut from the tops of the old canes. The ufual method
of planting in the Weft Indies is this : The quantity of
land intended to be planted, being cleared of weeds and
,1 other incumbrances, is firft divided into feveral plats of cer¬
tain dimenfions, commonly from 15 to 20 acres each ; the
i fpaces between each plat or divifion are left wide enough for
roads, for the convenieney of carting, and are called inter¬
vals. Each plat is then fubdivided, by means of a liny and
wooden pegs, into fmall fquares of about three feet and a
half. Sometimes indeed the fquares are a foot larger ; but
this circumftance makes but little difference. The negroes
are then placed in a row in the firft line, one to a fquare,
and direfted to dig out with their hoes the feveral fquares,
commonly to the depth of five or fix inches. The mold
which is dug up being formed into a bank at the lower fide,
the excavation or cane-hole feldom exceeds 15 inches in
width at the bottom, and two feet and a half at the top.
r! he negroes then fall back to the next line, and proceed as
be'ore, Thus the feveral fquares between each line are
formed into a trench of much the fame dimenfions with that
which is made by the plough. An able negro will dig
from 100 to 120 of thefe holes for his day’s work of ten
hours ; but if the land has been previoufly ploughed and
lain tallow, the fame negro will dig nearly double the num¬
ber in the fame time (c).
Pit! The cane-holes or trench being now completed, whether
f)I by the plough or by the hoe, and the cuttings fele&ed for
planting, which are commonly the tops of the canes that
have been ground for fugar (each cutting containing five or
fix gems), two of them are lufficient for a cane hole of the
dimenfions deferibed. ft hefe, being placed longitudinally
in the bottom of the hole, are covered with mold about two
inches deep ; the reft of the bank being intended for future
life. In 12 or 14 days the young fprouts begin to appear ;
13 and as foon as they rife a few inches above the ground,
: are> °r *° ke> carefully cleared of weeds, and
1 * ' furniftred with an addition of mold from the banks. This
is ufually performed by the hand. At the end of four or
, five months the banks are wholly levelled, and the fpaces
t between the rows carefully hoe-ploughed. Frequent clean-
r mgs, while the canes are young, are indeed fo effentially ne-
ceffary, that no other merit in an overfeer can compenfate
Vol. XVIII. Part I. l
14
fuckers that fpring up after the canes begin to joint, as
they feldom come to maturity, and draw nourishment from
the original plants.
“ In the cultivation of other lands, in Jamaica efpecially The plough
(fays Mr Edwards, the elegant historian of the Weft Indies,5111^
whofe fuperior excellence has induced us frequently to refer .
to him in the courfe of this article), the plough has been 0
introduced of late years, and in fome few cafes to great ad¬
vantage ; but it is not every foil or fituation that will admit
the ufe of the plough ; fome lands being much too Itony,
and others too fteep ; and I am forry I have occafion to re¬
mark, that a pradtice commonly prevails in Jamaica, on pro¬
perties where this auxiliary is ufed, which would exhautt the
fineft lands in the world. It is that of ploughing, then
crofs-ploughing, round-ridgimr, and harrowing the fame
lands from year to year, or at lead every other year, with¬
out affording manure: accordingly it is found that this me¬
thod is utterly deftruCtive of the ratoon or fecond growth,
and altogether ruinous. It is indeed aftoniihing that any
planter ot common reading or obfervation fhould be paffivff
under fo pernicious a fyftem. Some gentlemen, however,
of late manage better : their praClice is to break up ftiff and
clayey land, by one or two ploughings, early in the fpring,
and give it a fummer’s fallow. In the autumn following,
being then mellow and more eafily worked, it is holed and
planted by manual labour after the old method, which has
been already deferibed. But in truth, the only advantage- EJivardt'*
ous fyftem of ploughing in the Weft Indies is to confine it °f
to the fimple operation of holing, which may certainly be
performed with much greater facility and difpatch by theVol. ir.
plough than by the hoe ; and the relief which, in the cafe
of ftiff and dry foils, is thus given to the negroes, exceeds
all eftimation, in the mind of a humane and provident own¬
er. On this fubjeft I fpeak from praClical knowledge. At
a plantation of my own, the greateft part of the land which
is annually planted is neatly and fufficiently laid into cane-
holes, by the labour of one able man, three hoys, and eight
©xen, with the common fingle-wheeled plough, 'fhe plough-
firare indeed is fomewhat wider than ufual; but this is the
only difference, and the method of ploughing is the fimpleft
poffible. By returning the plough back along the furrow,
the turf is alternately thrown to the right and to the left,
forming a trench feven inches deep, about two feet and a
half wide at the top, and one foot wide at the bottom. A
fpace of 18 or 20 inches is left between each trench, on
which the mold being thrown by the fhare, the banks are
properly formed, and the holing is complete. - Thus the
land is not exhaufted by being too much expofed to the
fun ; and in this manner a field of 20 acres is holed'with
one plough, and with great eale, in 13 days. The plants
are afterwards placed in the trench as in the common me¬
thod, where manual labour alone is employed.
In molt parts of the Weft Indies it is ufual to hole and
plant a certain proportion of the cane-land, commeuly one-
third in annual rotation. Canes of the firft year’s growth Canc^na-
are called plant canes^ as has been already obferved. Theroedac-
fprouts that fpring from the roots of the canes that havecordu,° to
rj- .the age of
keen their roots.
fnrLJrr, " negI(?es work at l^s hufmefs very unequally, according to their different degrees of bodily ftrength, it is
nlnnoh C-t ^ ^ra i ^ t0 ^Ut t'vo negroes *<> a fingle fquare ; but if the land has not had the previous affiftance of the
to eafe’tL'001111110!! 7 ^ ,abour of 5° able negroes for 13 days to hole 20 acres. In Jamaica, fome gentlemen,
holintr ana nW ^ r T*" * US laborious Part of thc planting-bufinefs performed by job-work. The ufual price far
land is commonlv'asmuch ^ ^ t0 L' 4? 7 S* Sttrli.ag)- The coll of faffing and clearing heavy wood-
Sugar.
16
Manures
employed.
The fugar-
cane de-
rtroye 1 by
monkeys.
S U G" [58
been nrevioufly eut for fugar are tailed ro/oew; the firft
yearly returns from their roots are called/r// ratoons ; the
fecond year’s growth, fecond ratoons.
Mr Edwards informs us, that the manure generahy uied
is a compoft formed, ift, Of the_ vegetable afaes, drawn
from the fires of the boiling and ftill houfes. 2dly, recu-
lencies difeharged from the ftill-houfe, mixed up with rub-
bilh of buildings, white-lime, &c. jdly, Refufe, or held-
trafh (i.><?.), the decayed leaves and items of the canes; io
called in contradiftin&ion to cane-trafli, referved tor fuel.
4thlv, Dung, obtained from the horfe and mule ttables, and
from moveable pens, or fmall inclofures made by polls and
rails, occalionally fbifted upon the lands intended to be plant¬
ed, and into which the cattle are turned at night. thly,
Good mold, collefted from gullies and other wafte peaces,
and thrown into the cattle pens.
The fugar-cane .is liable to be deftroyed by monkeys,
rats, and infedts. The upland plantations fuffer greaUy
from monkeys ; thefe creatures, which now abound in the
Sugar,
t « S U G
The fugar-cane is alfo fubjea to a difeafe which «o fare- ^ 
firrbt can obviate, and for which human wifdom has hither- ^
to in vain attempted to find a remedy, i his aifeafe is call-And u
ed the bla/l, and is occafined by the aphis of Linnaeus, lefts.
When this happens, the fine, broad, green blades become
fickly, dry, and withered; loon after they appear ftam-
ed in foots; and if thefe fpots are carefully examined
they will be found to contain innumerable eggs of an inket
like a bug, which are foon quickened, and cover the^ plants
with the vermin : the juice of the canes thus afteaed be¬
comes four, and no future (hoot iffues from the joints.
Grainger's
Hijlury of
the Sugur-
f«ne.
18
Rats,
comes Itk'tll j ail*-* - • 1
Ants alfo concur with the bugs to fpoil the plantation, and
againft thefe evils it is hard to find a remedy. i3
The crops of fugar-canes do not ripen precifely at the Time at
fame period in all the colonies. Mn the Dam ft, Spamlh, which
and Dutch fettlements, they begin in January, and conti- P ?
nue till Oaober. This method doth not imply any fixed
feafon for the maturity of the fugar-cane. 1 he plant, how-
from monkeys; thefe creatures, which now abound in tne ^ in1 flower8 in^fe'montTs of November
mountainous parts of St Chnftopher ^ wer^hrll^ rogsU. It mufi. necefiarily follow, from the eullom Hiftoryof
thefe nations have adopted of continuing to Kathei t ei* ^ a
crops for to months without intermiffion, that they cut
fome canes which are not ripe enough, and others that are vol> iv<
too ripe, and then the fruit hath not the requifite qualities.
The time of gathering them ftould be at a fixed feafon,
and probably the months of March and April are the nt-
- - • • ‘'all the fweet fruits are ripe at that
thither by the French, when they poffeffed half that ifiand;
they come down from the rocks in filent parties by night,
and having polled centinels to give the alarm if any thing
approaches/they deftroy incredible quantities of the cane,
by their gambols as well as their greedinefs. It is in vain
to fet traps for thefe creatures, however baited ; and the on
ly way to protect the plantation, and deflroy them, is to
iy way to protect tne pwauu-iuii,   > * . r
fet a numerous watch, well armed with fowling-pieces,#and tell for it; becaule
r will nprfnrm this fervice time, while tlie lour
furnifted with dogs. The negroes will perform this fervice
cheerfully, for they are very-fond of monkeys as food. 1 ne
celebrated Father Labat fays,, they are very delicious, but
the white inhabitants of St Kitt’s never eat them.
The low-land plantations fuffer as much by rats as thofe on
the mountains do from monkeys ; but the rats, no more than
the monkeys, are natives of the place ; they came with the
time, while’the four ones do not arrive to a flate of matu¬
rity till the months of July and Augufl.
The Englift cut their canes in Match and April; but
they are not induced to do this on account of their ripenefe.
The drought that prevails in their iflands renders the rams
which fall in September neceffary to their planting ; and as
the monkeys, are natives of the place; uiey came w^u tnC the canes are 18 m®Rt^ ^ )"°d 3 „
dipping from Europe, and breed in the ground under loofe bn/A ^ iflands (fays Mr Edwards) A feafjru
rocks and buftes : the field negroes eat them greedily, and . r 1 T r d Lftiuitv to man and b‘aall Sof£ft*v‘ty-
thev are laid to be publicly fold In the markets at Jama,- is the feafon of gladnefs and fefti 5 iuicetf the cane “w''
ra ' l o fr-e the t'lantatlons from thefe vermin, the breed palatable, lalutary, and nounlhing, is the juice ot the cant, vol „
Cof wild ca[: mould’be encoukred, and fnakes’fuffered fhat every individual of the an- —
multiolv unmolefted : they may alfo be poifoned wrth ar- of it, derives health and vigour from its ule 1
feniefand the rafped root of the calfava made into pellets, and fickly among the negroes exhibit * f|^rlfu'| fe ^
and plentitully fcattered over the g-ounds. This pradlice, in a lew weeks after the null » ^
however is dangerous ; for as the rats when thus poifoned mg hortes, oxen, and mules, though almoh confta y
teome exceeding thirfty* they run in droves to the neigh- work doling this feafon, vet, b“"S
bouring ftreams, which they poifon as they drink, and the the green tops or this noble plant, and iome o e
cattle grazing on the banks of thefe'polluted waters have mings from the boiling-houfe, improve more than at a y
frequently penfted bv drinking after them : It is fafer there- other period of the year. Even the pigs and poultry
fore to make the pallets of flour, kneaded with the juice of ten on the refufe. In ftort, on a ^U-regulated P^ntatio",
the ni ht-ftade, the Lent of which will drive them away under a humane and benevolent dircftor, there is luch an
inc - - A • — • - n t ji • appearar)ce during crop-time of plenty and bufy cheerful-
nefs, as to foften, in a great mealure, the hardfttps of fla-
very, and-induce a fpedlacor to hope, when the milenes of
life are reprelented as iniupportable, that they are fometimes
exaggerated through the medium of fancy.”
The plants being cut, the branches at the top are given
to the cattle for food ; the top-fhoot, which is lull of eyes.
though they will not eat it. There is an Eafl Indian ani¬
mal called mangoes, which bears a natural antipathy to rats;
if this animal was introduced into our fugar iflands, it would
probably extirpate the whole race of thefe noxious vermin.
The formica otnntvora of Linnaeus, the carnivorous ant,
which is called in Jamaica the rnjjlc’s ant, would foon clear a
fugar plantation of rats.
('d) The account given in the text concerning the time when the fugar-canes are collected, we have taken from the
Abbe Raynal’s Hiflory of the Trade and Settlements of the Eadt and Weil Indies ; but Mr Cazaud obferves, thzl i
February, March, and April, all the canes, whatever be their age, are as ripe as the nature of the foil ever allows tnern^ ^
to be. He fays farther, that the drynefs ob the weather, and'not the age of the canes, which increafes from January to
April, is the caufe that in January 400 gallons of juice commonly yield 48 gallons of fugar and molaiies one witir ano¬
ther ; in February from 96 to 64 ; in March from 64 to 72 ; in April fometimes 80 ; after which period tne lugar ler-
ments, and even burns, when the refiner is not very expert at his bufinefs
SUO r 59 1 S U G
Sugar,
V.
he juice
trailed
ts preferved for planting. The cancs ?irc ent into pieces
«—V-—about a yard long, tied up in bundles, and carried in carts
’h/ernes to t^e where they are bruifed, and the juice is extraft-
/hen cut ed from them. The mill coufilts principally of three up-
re fent to right iron-plated rollers or cylinders, from 30 to 40 inches
lemill. in length, and from 20 to 25 inches in diameter; and the
middle one, to which the moving power is applied, turns the
other two by means of cogs. Between thefe rollers, the canes
(being previdufly cut fliort, and tied into bundles) are twice
comprefied ; for having palled through the firft and fecond
rollers, they are turned round the middle one by a circular
piece of frame-work or fereerr, called in Jamaica the Dumb-
returner, and forced back through the fecond and third ;
an operation which fqueezes them completely dry, and
fometimes even reduces them to powder. The cane juice
is received in a leaden bed, and thence conveyed into a vefiel
called the receiver. The refufe, or macerated rind of the
cane (which is called cane-trajh, in contradiilintfion to field-
trafi), ferves for fuel to boil the liquor.
The juice as it flows from the mill, taken at a medium,
contains eight parts of pure water, one pare of fugar, and
am them. one part confiding of coarfe oil and mucilagious gum, with
a portion of elfential oil.
jfltbuftd -A-3 this juice has a ftrong difpolition to fermentation, it
r purify- TTurft be boiled as foon as poffible. There are fome water-
git are, mJUg t}iat wjp grind with great eafe canes fufficient for 30
hoglheads of fugar in a week. It is neceflary to have boil¬
ing veflels, or clarifiers, that will correfpond in dimenfions
to the quantity of juice flowing from the receiver. Thefe
clarifiers are commonly three in number, and are fometimes
capable of containing toco gallons each; but it is more
ufual to fee them of 300 or 400 gallons each. Befides the
clarifiers which are ufed for the firll boiling, there are ge¬
nerally four coppers or boilers. The clarifiers are placed in
the middle or at one end of the boiling-houfe. ff at one
end, the boiler called the teache is placed at the other, and
feveral boilers (generally three) are ranged between them.
The ■ teache is ordinarily from 70 to too gallons, and the
boilers between the clarifiers and teache diminifh in fize from
the firft to the lad. Where the clarifiers are in the middle,
there is ufually a let of three boilers of each lide, which con-
ftitute in eftedl a double boihng-houle. On very large eftates
this arrangement is found.ufeful and neceflary. The objeftion
to fo great a number is the expence of fuel ; to obviate
which, in fome degree, the three boilers on each fide of the
clarifiers are commonly hung to one fire.
i he juice runs from the receiver along a wooden gutter
lined with lead into the boiling-houfe, where it is received
into one of the clarifiers. When the clarifier is filled, a fire
is lighted, and a quantity of Briflol quicklime in powder,
which is cafled temper, is poured into the veffel. The ufe
of the lime is to unite with the fuperabundant acid, which,
for the fuccefs of the procefs, it is neceffary to get rid of.
The quantity fufficient to feparate the acid muft vary ac¬
cording to the ftrength of the quicklime and the quality of
the liquor. Some planters allow a pint of lime to every
100 gallons o! liquor ; but Mr Edwards thinks that little
more than half the quantity is a better medium proportion,
and even then, that it ought to be diffolved in boding, wa¬
ter, that as little of it as poffible may be precipitated. The
beat is fuffered gradually to increafe till it approaches within
few degrees of the heat of boiling water, that the impurities
may be thoroughly feparated. But if the liquor were iuffered
to boil with violence, the impurities would again incorpo¬
rate with it. _ It is known to be fufficiently heated when
fmtfi i’eSlnS t0 nfe in bl‘fters> which break into white
• 1 ’ afjJaPPear generally in about 40 minutes. The fire
u eniy extinguiflied by means of a damper, which1
ie dari
excludes the eternal air, and the liquor is allowed to re-
mam about an hour undiflmrbrd, during which period the ~*'v
impurities are colle&ed in feum on the furface. The juice
is then drained off either by a fyphon or a cock ; the feum -
being of a tenacious gummy nature, does not flow out with
the liquor, but remains behind in the clarifier. The liquid
juice is conveyed- from the clarifier by a gutter into the eva¬
porating boiler, commonly termed the and if it
has been obtained from good canes it generally appears
tranfparent. ^
In the evaporating boiler, which fhould be large enough And four
to receive the contents of the clarifier, the liquor is allowed c0PPers.
to boil; and as the feum rifes it is taken off. The feurru
ming and evaporation are continued till the liquor becomes
finer and thicker, and fo far diminilhed in bulk that it may
be ealily contained in the fecond copper. When put into
the fecond copper, it is nearly of the colour of Madeira
wine ; the boiling and feumming are continued, and if the
impurities be confiderable, a quantity of lime water is ad¬
ded. This procefs is carried on till the liquor be fufficiently
diminifhed in quantity to be contained in the third copper.
After being purified a third time, it is put into the fourth
copper, which is called the teache, where it is boiled and eva¬
porated till it is judged fufficiently pure to be removed from
the fire. In judging of the purity of the,liquor, many of the
negroes (fays Mr Edwards) guefs folely by the eye (which
by long habit they do with great accuracy), judging by
the appearance of the grain on the back of the ladle : but
the pra&ice moft in ufe is to judge by what is called the
touch ; i e. taking up with the* thumb a fmall portion of
the hot liquor from the ladle ; and, as the heat diminifhes,
drawing with the fore-finger the liquid into a thread. This
thread will fuddenly break, and fhrink from the thumb to
the iufpended finger, in different lengths, according as the
liquor is more or lefs boiled. The proper boiling height
for ftrong mufeovado fugar is generally determined by a
thread of a quarter of an inch long. It is evident, that cer¬
tainty in this experiment can be attained only by long habit,
and that no verbal precepts will furnifh any degree of (kill
in a matter depending wholly on conftant prattice. .
The juice being thus purified by paffing through the cla- After being
rifier and four coppers, it is poured into coolers, which arecl;irifietl h
ufually fix in number. The removal from the teache to the18 cool.ed’,
cooler is called fnking. The cooler is a (hallow wooden indh-eed *
veffel 7 feet long, from 5 to 6 wide, about 1 1 inches deep, from it*
and capable of containing a hogfliead of fugar. As the li- meiaffea.
quor cools, the fugar grains, that is, colle&s into an irregulaf
mafs of imperfedl cryftals, feparatmg itfelf from the melaffes.
It is then removed from the cooler, and conveyed to the cu-
ring-houfe, where the melaffes drain from it. For receiving
them there is a large ciftern, the Hoping fides of which are
lined with boards. Dire&ly above the ciffern a frame of
joift-work without boarding is placed, on which empty
hog (heads without heads are ranged. The bottoms of
thefe hogfheads are pierced with 8 or to holes, in each
of which the ftalk of a plantain leaf is fixed fo as to pro-
jedl 6 or 8 inches below the joifts, and rife a little above
the top of the hogfhead. The hogflieads being filled with
the contents of the cooler, confifting of fugar and melaffes,
the melaffes being liquid, drain through the fpungy ftalk,
and drop into the ciftern. After the melaffes are drained off,
the fugar becomes pretty dry and fair, and is then called
mufeovado or ra<iv fugar.
We have deferibed the procefs for extraffing fugar, which
is generally adopted in the Britifh Weft India iflands, accord¬
ing to the latell improvements; and have been anxious to
prefent it to our readers in the fimpleft and moft perfpicu-
ous form, that it might be intelligible to every peribn; and
H 2 have
S U G
f 60 ]
sugar.
IS
Cb*ptaV s
(. hcmij]ryy
vol. iii.
have there fore avoided to ir.etrtion the obfervations and pro-
pofed amendments of thofe who have written on this fubjeft,
Had we done fo, we fhould have fwelled the prefent article
to too gieat a f:ze, without accomplifhing the purpofe which
we have in view ; for our intention is not to inftruft the
planters, but to give a diftind account of the moil approved
methods which the planters have generally adopted. But
though we judge it ufelefs to trouble our readers with all the
little varieties in the procefs which different per fans employ,
we flatter ourfelves it will not be difagreeable to learn by
what methods the French make their fugar purer and whiter
Method of than ours. A quantity of fugar from the cooler is put into
purifying conical pans or earthen pots, called by the French formes,
Ufed by the having a fmall perforation at the apex, which is kept clofed.
french. Each cone, reverfed on its apex, is fupported in another
earthen vefiel. The fyrup is itirred together, and then left
to cryilallize. At the end of 15 or 16 hours, the hole in
the point of each cone is opened, that the impure fyrup may
run out. The bafe of thefe fugar loaves is then taken out,
and white pulverized fugai fubftituted in its Head; which
being well prdfed down, the whole is covered with clay
moiftened with water. This water filters through the mafs,
carrying the fyrup with it which was mixed with the fugar,
but which by this managefnent flow's into a pot fubilituted
in the place of the firft. This fecond fluid is called fine fyrup.
Care is taken to moiften and keep the clay to a proper de¬
gree of foftnefs as it becomes dry. The fugar loaves are af¬
terwards taken out, and dried in a Hove for eight or ten
days; after which they are pulverized, packed, and ex¬
ported to Europe, where they are ftill farther purified. The
reafon affigned why this procefs is not univerfally adopted
in the Britifh fugar iflands is this, that the w'ater which di¬
lutes and carries away the molafles diifolves and carries with
it fo much of the fugar, that the difference in quality does
not pay for the difference in quantity. The French plan¬
ters probably think otherwife, upwards of 400 of the plan¬
tations of St Domingo having the neceflary apparatus for
claying and a&iially carrying on the fyftem.
The art of refining fugar was firft made known to the
Europeans by a Venetian, who is faid to have received
100,000 crowns for the invention. This difeovery wras
made before the new world wras explored ; but whether it
was an invention of the perfon who firft communicated it,
or whether it was conveyed from China, where it had been
known for a confiderable time before, cannot now perhaps
be accurately afeertained. We find no mention made of the
refining of fugar in Britain till the year 1659, though it
probably was praftifed feveral years before. For in the Por-
tuguefe ifland of tSt Thomas in 1624 there were 74 fugar
ingenios, each having upwards of 200 flaves. The quantity
of raw fugar imported into England in 1778 amounted to
1,403,995 cwts.; the quantity imported into Scotland in
the fame year was 117,285 cwts. ; the whole quantity im¬
ported into Great Britain in 1787 was 1,926,741 cwts.
Tire fugar which undergoes the operation of refining in
mixedwith-EuroPe ^ either raw fugar, fometimes called mufeovado or
lin e-water coffonado, which is raw fugar in a purer ftate. The raw fu-
and bul- gar generally contains a certain quantity of melafles as well
as earthy and feculent fubftances. The caffonado, by the
operation of earthing, is freed from its melaffes. As- the
intention of refining thefe fugars is to give them a higher
degree of whitenefs and folidity, it is neceffary for them to
undergo other procefles. The firft; of thefe is called clarifi¬
cation. It confifts in diffolving the fugar in a certain pro¬
portion of lime-water, adding a proper quantity of buU
lock’s blood,, and expofing it to heat in order to re¬
move the impurities which ftill remain. The heat is in-
creafed very gradually till it approach that of boiling water,.
S U G
By "the afliftance of the heat, the animal matter which was
thrown in coagulates, at the fame time that k attra&s all'
the folid feculent and earthy matter, and raifes it to the
furface in the appearance of a thick foam of a browni(h co¬
lour. As the feculencies are never entirely removed by a
Sugar.
29
The art of
rdining fu¬
gar intro-
•iluced by a
Venetian.
+4ndtrfen's
Origin of
Cuvijnet ce.
30
In refine-
ing it is
lock’s
blood, and
exjofed to
heat.
firft procefs, a fecond is neceflary. The folution is there¬
fore cooled to a certain degree by adding fome water ; then
a frelh quantity of blood, but lefs confiderable than at firft,
is poured in. The fire is renewed, and care is taken to in-
creafe the heat gently as before. The animal fubftance feizes
on the impurities which remain, colle&s them on the furface,
and they are then fkimmed off. The fame operations re.
peated a third and even a fourth time, but no addition is
made to the liquor except water. If the different proceffes
have been properly conduced, the foluticn will be freed
from every impurity, and appear tranfparent. It is then
conveyed by a gutter into an oblong bafket about 16 inches
deep, lined with a woollen cloth ; and after filtering through
this cloth, it is received in a cittern or copper which is pla¬
ced below. 31
The folution being thus clarified, it undergoes a fecond Then freed
general operation called evaporation. Fire is applied to the from itsrt'
copper into which the folution was received, and the liquid
is boiled till it has acquired the proper degree of confiftency.
A judgment is formed of this by taking up a fmall portionracion.
of the liquid and drawing it into a thread. When, after
this trial, it is found fufficiently vifcous, the fire is extinguifh-
ed, and the liquid is poured into coolers. It is then ftirred
violently by an inftrument called an oar, from the refem-
blance it bears to the oar of a boat. This is done in order
to diminilh the vifeofity, and promote what is called the
granulation, that is, the forming of it into grains or imper-
fed cryftals. When the liquid is properly mixed and cool¬
ed, it is then poured into moulds of the form of a fugar
loaf. Thefe moulds are ranged in rows. The fmall ends,
which are loweft, are placed in pots ; and they have each of
them apertures flopped up with linen for filtering the fyrup,
which runs from the moulds into the pots. The liquor is^fterwari
then taken out (lowly in ladlefuls from the coolers, and pou-pouredinu
red into the moulds. When the moulds are filled, and the moulds,
contents ftill in a fluid ftate, it is neceffary to ftir them, f
that no part may adhere to the moulds, and that the fmall
cryftals which are juft formed may be equally diffufed thro’from it.
the whole mafs. When the fugar is completely cryftallized,
the linen is taken away from the apertures in the moulds*
and the fyrup, or that part which did not cryftallize, defeends
into the pots in which the moulds are placed. After this
purgation the moulds are removed and fixed in other pots,
and a ftratum of fine white clay diluted with water is laid
on the upper part of the loaf. The water defeending thro*
the fugar by its own weight, mixes with the fyrup which
ftill remains in the body of the loaf, and wafhes it away.
When the clay dries, it is taken off, and another covering
of moift clay put ki its place ; aud if it be not then fuffi-
niently wafhed, a third covering of clay is applied. After
the loaves have flood fome days in the moulds, and have ac-fofedto»
quired a confiderable degree of firmnefs and folidity, they certain ^
are taken out, and carried to a Hove, where they are gra,h're^1'
dually heated to the 50® of Reaumur (64° of Fahrenheit)* lta *
in order to diflipate any moifture which may be ftill con¬
fined in them. After remaining in the (love eight days,
they are taken out; and after cutting off all dilcolouting.
fpecks, and the head if ftill wet, they are wrapped in blue
paper, and are ready for fale. The feveral fyrups colleCled
during the different parts of the pvocefs, treated in the fame
manner which we have juft deferibed, afford fugars of infe¬
rior quality ; and the laft portion, which no longer affords
any fugar, is ibid by the name of mdajfes.
The
Sugar.
34
In what
the b( auty
«f fugar
coi .nl *';
how far¬
ther * e-
h* ed-
35
H' w fu-
gar-candy
m made.
SVG [ 61
The beauty of refined fugar, when formed into loaves,
J confiits in whitenefs, joined to a fmallnefs of grain ; in be¬
ing dry, hard, and fomewhat trarfparent. The procefs
which we have deferibed above refers to fugar once refined ;
but fome more labour is neceffary to produce double refined
fugar. The principal difference in the operation is this, the
latter is clarified by white of eggs inftead of blood, and frefh
water in place oi lime-water.
Sugar candy is the true effence of the cane formed into
large cryftals by a flow procefs. When the fyrup is well
clarified, it is boiled a little, but not fo much as is done for
the proof mentioned in the procefs for making common fu¬
gar. It is then placed in old moulds, having their lower
ends flopped with linen, and croffed at little diftances with
fmall twigs to retain the fugar as it cfyftallizes. The
moulds are then laid in a cool place. In proportion as the
fyrup cools cryftals are formed. In about nine or ten days
the moulds are carried to the ftove, and placed in a pot;
but the linen is not removed entirely, fo that the fyrup falls
down flowly in drops. W hen the fyrup has dropped away,
and the cryftals of the fugar-candy are become dry, the
moulds are taken from the ftove and broken in pieces, to
difengage the fugar, which adheres ftrongly to the Tides of
the moulds. If the fyrup has been coloured with cochineal,
the cryftals take a flight taint of red; if indigo has been
mixed, they affume a bluifh colour. If it be deiired to have
the candy perfumed, the effence of flowers or amber may be
nrnnnpii inffVi   __ *Ai_ . i r '
Sugar,
38
] S U G
this affertion. A veffel laden with fugar bound from the
Weft Indies was becalmed in its paffage for feveral days/
during which the ftock of provifions was exhaufted. Some
of the crew were dying of the feurvy, and the reft were
threatened with a ftill more terrible death. In this emer¬
gency recourfe was had to the fugar. The confequenco
was, the fymptoms of the feurvy went off, the crew found,
it a wholefome and fubftantial aliment, and returned in good
health to France. ^
“ Sugar (fays Dr Rufh) affords the greateft quantity of Affords the
nourifhment in a given quantity of matter of any fubftance in^reateft
nature; of courfe it may be preferved in lefsroom in our hou-^”^ °*
fes, and may be confumed in lefs time, than more bulky and 0f
lefs nourifhing aliment. It has this peculiar advantage over any kind
moft kinds of aliment, that it is not liable to have its nutri-°f f00<i
tious qualities affe&ed by time or the weather ; hence it is
preferred by the Indians in their excurfions from home.
They mix a certain quantity of maple fugar, with an equal
quantity of Indian corn, dried and powdered, in its milky
ftate. 1 his mixture is packed in little bafkets, which are T'ranfaBion*
frequently wetted in travelling, without injuring the fugar. ^t,3e Ame*
A few fpoonfuls of it mixed with half a pint of fpring wa-/T” ^
ter^afford them a pleafant and ftrengthening meal. From,ty vol.Ui,
the degrees of ftrength and nounfhment which are convey¬
ed into animal, bodies by a fmall bulk of fugar, it might
probably be given to horfes with great advantage, when
they are ufed in places or under circumftances which make
it difficult or expenfive to fupport them with more bulky
dropped into the .moulds along with the fyrup. uuuumi ur exper
Having now given fome account of the method ufually or weighty aliment. A pound of fimar with o-rafa A
to (kri^ o? rLu:
qBalitic- of When'imittd^wfth 'a ^aHrpoIrtion ^f'wlter^'t6 bee . A larger
combuftible ; when expofed to fire emitting^ Hue flLxt' of (him.‘mP0rtat‘0” °f Z™’'’ PreVente<1 by ““ Want
36
Chemical
the combuftion be flow., and a white flame if the combuftion
be rapid. By di ft illation it produces a quantity of phleg-m,
acid, oil, gas, and charcoal. Bergman, in treating fugar
with the nitrous acid, obtained a new acid now known by
the name.of the c.™4r acid: but he has omitted to mention
the pnnciples of which fugar is compoied. Lavoifier, how-
levers.
37 .
t? nits in
,medicine,
See.
The plentiful ufe of fugar in diet is one of the heft An excef-
preventives that has ever been difeovered of the difeales *ent ant* *
which are produced by worms. Nature feems to have im. doteaKainfi;
planted a love for this aliment in all children, as if it wereW°imSj
on purpofe to defend them from thofe difeafes. Dr Rufh
ever, has fupplied this omiffion • and^fter n°W" a SenjIer(ian in Philadelphia, who early adopted this
has affigned three principles in fimar h A Y penments pPir‘lon> and who, by indulging a large family of children
sdb
during the decompulition otthe Tuga” whbhTcominued bee/know^in 7^ ha3 reni;":kcd’tl,at the'PlaSue ,las ”e«r An/^nW.
of ammoniac. If the juice be exnofed to p0rt,10n .bable ,tbat the frequency of malignant fevers of all kindsPhasandrother
mentation, . wine is oLi^ /li" " l7 ,t ^“u'^ ^ ^ ^ > — general 2^'
^ba ^
and^moo/ntT,/ f“gnr are fPP11^ are indeed numerous
adelicious.feafonXX^^l^^isuf^t
pharmacy for tt unties with medicines, and removes th7r
qu!?r,'eaT fl‘1V0U.r: ■' ,s the bafls of all fyrups. M. Mac-
f“g"r XT 3 7V ^i8^017 raa"“r h°“' ofeful
has alX T'//mP y a “r kr^g Sugar
able article „f fo^d L a"d 3 ValU'
would defend that clafs of people who are TSSTbi^'
to malignant fevers from being fo often affe&ed by them,
. numerous and frequent diforders of the breaft
which, occur in all countries where the body is expofed to
a variable temperature of weather, fugs* affords the bafis
of many agreeable remedies. It. is ufeful in weakneffes
and acrid defluxions upon other parts of the body. Many
ffi&s might be adduced in favour of this affertion. Dr
Ruffi mentions only one, which, from the venerable name of '
the perfon whofe cafe furnifhed it, cannot fail of command¬
ing attention and credit. Upon my inquiring of Dr Frank w,*41
■ in, at the requeft of a friend (fays our relpeflable authotj/lirKm
about a year before he died, whether he had found any reliefthe Pain of’
from the pain of the ftone from the blackberry jam, of which.the
* t m  t j J Utlly WillU A
x a,llCie ot t00d in cafes of neceffitv M Tu '"T ■ , la,rSe quantities, he told me that he had, but that he
Lennes, firft furgcon to the kte Dukf of Orkan^nuhl f " ^ medielnfaI part of the jam refided wholly in the-
the following ftory k tn ^ c pubhfli- lugar ; and as a reafon for thinking fo, he added that
7 411 .the Gazette dc Sanu, which confirms often found-the fame relief by taking about h^f a pint of a
3 fyrup.
4*
JJot hurt¬
ful to the
teeth*
Shigar, f.rj-n'n, prepareS by boilin.- o i.v.v»v --or , - T
-V—-" before he went to bed, that he did from a dofe of opium. It
has been fuppofed by fome of the early phyficians o ur
country, that the fugar obtained from the maple-tree is more
medicinal than that obtained from the Weft India lugai-
cane ; but this opinion I believe is without foundation. It is
preferable iivits qualities to the Weft-India fugar only from
its fuperior ckanlinefs. . .
« Cafes may occur in which fugar may be required in me¬
dicine, or in diet, by perfons who rehife to be benefited,
even indire£Ily by the labour of flaves. In iuch cafes the
innocent maple fugar will always be preferred. It has been
faid, that fugar injures the teeth ; but this opinion now
has fo few advocates, that it does not deferve a fenous re¬
in the account which we have given above of the method
of cukivatinjr and manufa&uring fugar, we have had in our
eye the plantations in the Weft Indies, where flaves alone are
employed ; but we feel a peculiar pleafure in having it m our
43 power to add a ihort defection of the method ufed in the
Siwar ma- Indies, becaufe there fugar is manufactured by tree
•nufadured ^ on a jan w}lIc^ ;s much more economical than what is
Indie* bv followed in the Weft Indies. The account which we mean
iremen! to give is an extraft from the report of the committee of
Privy-council for trade on the fubjedt of the African flave-
trade, drawn up by Mr Botham. We fhall give it m the
author’s own words. ^ ,
“ Havino' been for twro years in the Eughih and trench
Weft-Indian iflands, and flnee condu&ed fugar eftates in
the Eaft-Indies; before the abolition of the flave-trade was
44 agitated in parliament, it may be deflrable to knovy that
Of a fuye- fugar of a fuperior quality and inferior price to that in our
ilor qnalit) jqan(js produced in the Eaft-Indies; that the culture of
and at a the canej ^ manufaaure of the fugar and arrack, is, with
thefe material advantages, carried on by free people. China,
Bengal, the coaft of Malabar, all produce quantities of fugar
and fpirits; but as the moft confiderable growth of the cane
is carried on near Batavia, I fhall explain the improved
manner in which fugar eftates are there condufted. The
proprietor of the eftate is generally a wealthy Dutchman,
who has evedled on it fubftantial mills, boiling and curing
houfes. He rents this eftate to a Chinefe, who reftdes on
TT G [ 6* 1 S U G
a little brawn ftg* m wattr, juft trader at Batavia, as the governmentAereis
. ° r- r . ?  T4.
»ovver
jprici;.
45       
How iugar ag a fuperintendant ; and this renter (fuppoiing the eftate
-eftates are to con£^ Gf ,co or more acres) rekts it to freemen in par-
^ativia. at cels of 50 or 60 on thefe conditions: " rr" ‘ rL“n
That they fhall
plant it in canes, and receive fo much per pecul oi I33t
pounds for every pecul of fugar that the canes fhall pro¬
duce.”
When crop time comes on, the fuperintendant collefts a
fufftcient number of perfons frem the adjacent towns -or villa¬
ges, and takes off his crop as follows. To any fet of tradef-
men who bring their carts and buffaloes he agrees to give
fuch a price /vr pecul to cut all his crop of canes, carry them
to the mill and grind them. A fecond to boil them per pecul.
A third to clay them and baflcet them for market per pecul.
So that by this method of conducing a fugar eftate the
renter knows to a certainty what the produce of it will coft
him per pecul. He has not any permanent or unneceffa-
ry expence ; for when the crop is taken oft, the tafkmen
return to their feveral purfuits in the towns and villages
they came from ; and there only remains the cane planters
who are preparing the next year’s crop. I his like all other
complex arts, by being divided into feveral branches, renders
the labour cheaper and the work more perfe&ly done.
Only clayed fugars are made at Batavia; thefe are in quality
iequal to the beft fort from the Weft Indies, and are fold fo
fow from the fugar eftates as eighteen fhillings fterling per
pecul of jjjiiibs. This is not the felling price' to the
fu'mr fubjedtfto duties irripofed at will. The Shabander ex
adts a dollar per pecul on all fugar exported. The price of
common labour is from qd to 1 od per day. By the method
of carrying on the fugar eftates, the tafkmen gain conhder-
ably more than this not only from working extraordinary
hours, but from being confldered artifts in their feveral
branches. They do not make fpirits on the fugar eftates.
The melaffes is fent for fale to Batavia, where one diftillery
may purchafe the produce of an hundred eltates. Here is
a vaft laving and reduftion of the price of fpirits ; not as
in the Weft Indies, a diftillery, for each eftate ; many cen¬
tre in one, and arrack is fold at Batavia from 2 I to 25 nx-
dollars per leaguer of 160 gallons; fay 8 d^w gallon. ^
The Sugar Maple, (the acer faccharinum of Linnaeus), Deft tip
as well as the fugar-cane, produces a great quantity of fugar.
This tree grows in great numbers in the weftern counties ^
of all the middle ftates of the American union. Thofe
which grow in New York and Pennfylvania yield the fugar
in a greater quantity than thofe which grow on the waters
of Ohio—Thefe trees are generally found mixed with the
beech, hemlock, white and water afh, the cucumber-tree,
linden, afpen, butter nut, and wild cherry trees. They
fometimes appear in groves covering five or fix acres in a
body, but they are more commonly interfperfed with fome
or all of the foreft trees which have been mentioned. From ■TmnjS
30 to 50 trees are generally found upon an acre of ground.
They grow only in the richeft foils, and frequently in ftony^"“
ground. Springs of the pureft water abound in their neigh-F^^,
bourhood. Theysare, when fully grown, as tail as the white
and black oaks, and from two to three feet in diameter.
They put forth a beautiful white bloffom in the fpring be¬
fore they fhow a fingle leaf. The colour of the bloffom
diftinguilhes them from the acer rubrqm, or the common
maple, which affords a bloffom of a red colour. The wood
of the fugar maple-tree is extremely inflammable, and is pre¬
ferred upon that account by hunters and furveyors for fire¬
wood. Its fmall branches are fo much impregnated with
fugar as to afford fupport to the cattle, horfes, and fheep ^
oAhe firft fettlers, during the winter, before they are able
to cultivate forage for that purpofe. Its afhes afford a
great quantity of potafh, exceeded by few, or perhaps by
none, of the trees that grow in the woods of the United
States. The tree is fuppoied to arrive at its full growth
in the woods in twenty years.
It is not injured by tapping ; on the contrary, the oftener™^:
it is tapped, the more fyrup is obtained from it. In this|
is tapp
refpedf it follows a law of animal fecretion. A fingle tree^j mii!
had not only furvived, but flourifhed after forty-two tappings fyrup i>
in the fame number of years. The effe<as of a yearly dif-
charge of fap from the tree, in improving and increafing1*’
the lap, are demonftrated from the fuperior excellence of
thofe trees which have been perforated in an hundred places,
by a fmall wood-pecker which feeds upon the fap. The
trees, after having been wounded in this way, diftil the re¬
mains of their juice on the ground, and afterwards acquire
a black colour. The fap of theie trees is much fweeter to
the tafte than that which is obtained from trees which have
not been previoufly wounded, and it affords more fugar.
From twenty-three gallons and one quart of fap, procured
in twenty-four hours from only two of thefe dark coloured
trees, Arthur Noble, Efq; of the ftate of New York, ob-.
tained four pounds and thirteen ounces of good grained 4j
fugar. WhatF
A tree of an ordinary fize yields in a good- feafon from fity
twenty to thirty gallons of lap, from which are made frorn
five to fix pounds of^lugar. To this there are fometimea ,ain qo-
remarkable exceptions. Samuel Lowe, Efq; a juftice oftltyofi
i ‘ peace gar.
S U G
[ 63 1
S U G
Sugar.
peace in Montgomery county, in the ftate of New York, which affords the fugar has ceafed to flow, fo that the ma-
informed Arthur Noble, Efq; that he had made twenty nufadlories of thefe different produfts of the maple-tree,
pounds and one ounce of fu^ar between the 14th and 23d .by fucceeding, do not intertere with each other. The
Sugar
II 1
Suicide,
that had
pr«ng
nonths
of April, in the year 1789, from a fingle tree
been tapped for feveral fucceflive years before,
Thisquan- From the influence which culture has upon forefl: and
tity mipht other trees, it has been fuppofed, that by tranfplanting the
f>y'hCICai fugar maple-tree into a garden, or by defraying fuch other
ture. ^ trees as belter it from the rays of the fun, the quantity of the
fap mi'ht be increafed, and its quality much improved. A
farmer in Northampton county, in the ftate 0: Pennfylvania,
planted a number of thefe trees above twenty years ago in
c| his meadow, from three gallons of the fap of which he ob¬
tains every year a pound of fugar. It was obferved former¬
ly, that it required live or fix gallons of the fap of the trees
jo which grow inthe woods toproduce the famequantity of fugar.
The fap di- The fap diftils from the wood of the tree. Trees which
lie wood ^aVC keen cut ^own *n t^e w*nter for the fupportof the do-
n the>0 meh’c animals of the new fettlers, yield a confiderable quan¬
tity of fap as loon as their trunk? and limbs feel the rays
of the fun in the fpring of the year. It is in confequence
of the fap of thefe trees being equally diffufed through every
part of them, that they live three years after they are
girdled, that is, after a circular incifion is made through the
bark into the fubftance of the tree for the purpofe of de-
ftroying it. It is remarkable that grafs thrives better under
this tree in a meadow, than in fituations expofed to the con-
ftant adfion of the fun. The feafon for tapping the trees
is in hebruary, March, and April, according to the weather
which occurs in thefe months.
increaftd Warm days and frefty nights are moil favourable to a
y warm plentiful difcharge of fap. 1 he quantity obtained in a day
from a tree is from five gallons to a pint, according to the
greater or lefs heat of the air. Mr Lowe informed Arthur
Noble, Efq; that he obtained near three and twenty gallons
ol fap in one day (April 14. 1789.) from the Tingle tree
which was before mentioned. Such inftanees of a profu-
fion of fap in lingle trees are however not very common.
1 here is always a fulpenfion of the difcharge of fap in the
f from the n5llt if -a fu?Ceed a warm The perforation in
cc. trce 13 mac^e with an axe or an auger. The latter is
piefened from experience of its advantages. I he auger is
introduced about three quarters of an inch, and in an afeend-
ing direction (that the fap may not be frozen in a flow cur¬
rent in the mornings or evenings), and is afterwards deepen¬
ed gradually to the extent of two inches. A fpout is in¬
troduced about half an inch into the hole made by this
auger, and projedls from three to twelve inches from the
tr- fyout is generally made of the fumach or elder,
which ufually grows in the neighbourhood of the fiumr
5i
ays ami
ofty
ights.
5*
ow the
tii . r* n ***'■' * O' x cut**, w ii
e tree is -mfl; tapped on the fouth fide ; when the Jerufalem to announce.
trees.
difcharge of its fap begins to leffen, an opening is made on
the north fide, from which an increafed dilcharge takes
place. The fap flows from four to fix weeks, according to
the temperature of the weather. Troughs l?rge enough to
contain three or four gallons made of white pine, or white
afh, or of dried water afh, afpen, linden, poplar, or common
maple, _ are placed under the fpout to receive the fap,
which is earned every day to a large receiver, made of
either of the trees before mentioned. From this receiver it
53 ss conveyed, after being ftrained, to the boiler
reduced We underftand that there are three modes* of reducing
r jar by the fap to fugar ; by evaporation, by freezing, and by boif-
jJes. g ’ . • Which the latter 13 moft g^eral, as being the molt
expeditious. We are farther affured, that the profit of the
agreeable6 ^ iT 10 hs lugar* Jt afford3 moft
geeable melaffes, and an excellent vinegar. The fap
' nch is fuitable for thefc purpofes is obtained after the fap
melaffes may be made to compofe the bafis of a plea-
fant fummer beer. The fap of the maple is moreover ca¬
pable of affording a fpirit; but we hope this precious juice
will never be proftituted to this ignoble purpofe. Should
the ufe of fugar in diet become more general in this coun¬
try (fays Dr Rufh), it may tend to lefien the inclination
or fuppofed necefitty for fpirits, for I have obferved a rehfh
for fugar in diet to be feldqm accompanied by a love for
ftrong drink. J4
There are feveral other vegetables raifed in our own Sugar pro-
countiy which afford fugar; as beet-roots, fldrrets, parfneps, -
potatoes, ecleri, rcd-cabbage ftalks, the young flioots of in- vegeubieL
dian wheat. The fugar is moft readily obtained from thefe,
by making a tindlure of the fubjeft in rectified fpirit of
wine ; which, when faturated by heat, will depofitthe fugar
upon {landing in the cold.
Suga r of Milk. See Sugar of Milk.
Jlculof Sugar. See ChemisiKY-Index.
SUGILLATION, in medicine, an extravafation of
blood in the coats of the eye, which at firft appears of a red-
diftr colour, and afterwards livid or black. If the diforder is
great, bleeding and purging are proper, as are alio difeutients.
SUICIDE, the crime ol felf-murder, or the perfon who
commits it.
We have often wifhed to fee a hiftory of crimes drawn
up by a man of ability and refearch. In this hiilory we
would propofe that the author fhould deferibe the crimes pe¬
culiar to different nations in the different llages of fociety,
and the changes which they undergo in the progrefs of ci¬
vilization. Alter having arranged the hiftorical faefts, he
might, by comparing them with the religion and the know¬
ledge of the people, deduce fome important general conclu-
fions, which would lead to a difeovery of the caufe of crimes*
and of the remedy moft proper to be applied. Some
crimes are peculiar to certain ftages of fociety, iome to cer¬
tain nations, &c.
Suicide is one of thofe crimes which we are led to believe Suicide
not common among favage nations. The firft inftances of among, the¬
ft recorded in the Jewifti hiftory are thofe of Saul and Ahi-Jews’
tophelfor we do not think the death of Samfon a proper
example. We have no realon to fuppofe that it became
common among the Jews till their wars with the Romans,
when multitudes flaughtered themfelves >hat they might not
fall alive into the hands of their enemies. But at this oe-
riod the Jews were a moft defperate and abandoned race" of
men, had corrupted the religion of their fathers, and rejeft-
ed that pure fyftem which their promifed Meffiah came to
When it became remarkable among the Greeks, we have Among th?
not been able to difeover ; but it was forbidden by Pytha-Greeks,
goras, as we learn from Athemeus, by Socrates and Ariftotle,
and by the Theban and> Athenian laws. In the earlieft
ages of the Roman republic it was feldom committed ; but
when luxury and the Epicurean and Stoical philofophy had-
corrupted the fimplicity and virtue of the Roman chara&er,
then they began to feek fhelter in fuieide from their misfor¬
tunes or the effects of their own vices.
The religious principles of the bramins of India led them The Bra.
to admire fuicide on particular occafions as honourable, mms and
Accuflomed to abftinence, mortification, and the contemptGe,lt00SK
of death, they confidered it as a mark of wCaknefs ol mind
to fubmit to the infirmities of old age. We are-informed
that the modern Gentoos, who frill in moft things coiriorrn
to the cufloms of their anceftors, when old and infirm; are
frequently brought to the banks of rivers* particularly to<
thofs.
fMcMt.
Still
linhertfori
tdmerica.
S U I ' £ I t, , .
t^ofe of the Ganges, that they may die in its facred ftreams, “ father of Hang iter
which they believe can wafh away the guilt of their fins.
, But the maxims of the bramins, which have encouraged
TUlRhap. thjs practice, we are aflured by Mr Holwell, are a corrup-
voL »• tion 0f the doarines of the Shaftah, which pofitively forbid
JItlivell's filicide under the fevereft punifhment. The practice which
Jnterefling religion or affeaion has eftablifhed among the Gentoos tor
Events, &c.wol"en at the death of their huibands to burn themfelves
,cl" u alive on the funeral pile, we do not think ought to he con.
fidered as fuicide, as we are not anxious to extend the mean-
ing of the word; for were we to extend it thus far, it would
be as proper to apply it to thofe who choofe rather to die in
battle than make their efcape at the expence of their ho¬
nour. Thus we fhould condemn as filicides the brave Spar¬
tans who died at Thermopylae in defence of their country :
we fhould alfo be obliged to apply the fame difgraceful epi¬
thet to all thofe well-meaning but weak-minded Chriftians
in this ifland, who in the laft centuiy chofe rather to die as
martyrs than comply with commands which were not mo¬
rally wrong. According to the Gentoo laws, “ it is proper
for a woman after her hufband’s death to burn herfelf in
the fire with his corple. Every woman who thus burns
fhall remain in paradife with her hufband three crote and
fifty lacks of years. If file cannot, fhe mull, in that calc
preferve an inviolable chaftity. If fhe remain chaile, fire
goes to paradife ; and if fhe do not preferve her chaility, fhe
4 goes to hell.”
Among the A cuftom fimilar to this prevailed among many nations
Americans. on the contJnent of America. When a chief died, a cer¬
tain number of his wives, of his favourites, and of his flaves,
were put to death, and interred together with him, that he
might appear with the fame dignity in his future ftation,
and be waited upon by the fame attendants. This pei fua-
fion is fo deeply rooted, that many of their retainers offer
themfelves as vidims; and the fame cuftom prevails in many
of the negro nations in Africa.
If we can believe the hiftorians of Japan, voluntary death
is common in that empire. The devotees of the idol A-
mida drown themfelves in his prefence, attended by their re¬
lations and friends, and feveral of the priefts, who all con-
fidei the devoted perfon as a faint who is gone to everlaft-
ing happinefs. Such being the fuppofed honours appio-
--j—j ~j priated to a voluntary death, it is not furprifing that the Ja-
itheEafiand panefe anxioufly cherifh a contempt of life. Accordingly
Wj/l lialies,-s a part of tl)e e(iucation Gf their children “ to repeat
poems in which the virtues of their anceftors are celebrated,
an utter contempt of life is inculcated, and fuicide is fet up
&s the moft heroic of a&ions.”
A notion feems alfo to have prevailed among the an¬
cient Scythian tribes, that it was pufillanimous and ig¬
noble for a man whofe ftrength was wafted with difeafe
or infirmity, fo as to be ufelefs to the community, to con¬
tinue to live. It was reckoned an heroic a&ion volun¬
tarily to feek that death which he had not the good for¬
tune to meet in the field of battle. Perverfion of moral
feeling does not fpring up, we hope, fpontaneoufly in any
nation, but is produced by fome peculiarities of fituation.
A wandering people like the Scythians, who roamed about
from place to place, might often find it impofiible to attend
the fick, or to fupply from their precarious ftore the wants
©f the aged and infirm. The aged and infirm themfelves, no
longer able to fupport the chara&er of warr iors, would find
themfelves unhappy. In this way the pra&ice of putting to
death fuch perfons as were ufelefs to the community might
originate, and afterwards be inculcated as honourable ; but
he who put an end to his infirmities by his owu hand, ob¬
tained a charafter ftill more illuftrious.
The tribes of Scandinavia, which worfhipped Odin the
The Japa-
ficfe, and
jRaynaP t
Jfi/lory of
6
Scythians,,
S U I
- khuv w* were taught, that dying hi the field of Suie’d*,
battle was the moft glorious event that could befal them,
This was a maxim fuited to' a warlike nation. In order to And7San>
eftablifh it more firmly in the mind, all were excluded iromdmavhaj,
Odin’s feafi of heroes who died a natural death. In Afgar-
dia flood the hall of Odin ; where, feated on a throne, he
received the fouls of his departed heroes. This place was
called Valhalla, fignifying “ the hall of thofe who died by
violence,” Natural death being thus deemed inglorious, and
punifhed with exclufion from Valhalla the paradife of Odin,
he who could not enjoy death in the field of battle was led
to feek it by his own hands when ficknefs or old age began
to aTail him. In fuch a nation fuicide muft have been very
common. _ 1 ^ ®
As fuicide prevailed much in the decline of the Roman * prevail,
empire, when luxury, licentioufnefs, profligacy, and
phtlofophy, pervaded the world, fo it continued to prevailof the^
even after Chriftianity was eftablifhed. The Romans, when man em.
they became converts to Chriftianity, did not renounce theirpuc.
ancient prejudices and falfe opinions, but blended them with
the new religion which they embraced. The Gothic na¬
tions alfo, who fubverted the Roman empire, while they re¬
ceived the Chriftian religion, adhered to many of their for¬
mer opinions and manners. Among other criminal pra&ices
which were retained by the Romans and their conquerors,
that of fuicide was one ; but the principles from which it
proceeded were explained, fo as to appear more agreeable
to the new fyftem which They had efpoufed. It was com¬
mitted, either to fecure from the danger of apoftacy, to
procure the honour of martyrdom, or to preferve the crown "
of virginity. 9
When we defeend to modern times, we lament to find foToocom.
many inftances of fuicide among the moft polifhed nations, who
have the belt opportunities of knowing the atrocity of that un-^j't not
natural crime. The Englifh have long been reproached by fo-mo:e(oi
reigners for the frequent commiffion of it; and the “ gloomy E'lgM
month of November” has been ftigmatized as the feafon1^^
when it is moft common. But this difgraceful imputation,
we think, may be juftly attributed, not to the greater fre¬
quency of the crime in England than in other places, but
to the cuftom of publifhing in the newfpapers every inftance
of fuicide which is known. Mr Moore, who lately publifh-
ed a full inquiry into this fubjeft, was at great pains to ob¬
tain accurate information concerning the perpetration of this
crime in different countries. Mercier, who wrote in 1782, pA
fays, that the annual number of filicides in Paris was then 10
about 150. He does not tell us how he came by the in-Thertf
formation ; but we have the authority of the Abbe Fonta-^jf1'
na for afferting, that more perfons put an end to their lives^ Lo:
in Paris than in London. The Abbe had this information
from the lieutenant of the police. Mr Moore was informed' eva,^
by one of the principal magiftrates of Geneva, that in thatacc®^
~ j--o * * - _ _7 to the^
city, which contains about 25,000 inhabitants, the average.
number of filicides is about eight, The average number of
filicides, from what caufe foever, for the laft 28 years, lias
been 32 each year for London, Southwark, and Weftmin-
fler. In Edinburgh, which contains 80,000 inhabitants,
we are convinced the average number of filicides does not
exceed four. Mr Moore found, from the accounts with
which he was favoured by the feveral coroners of the coun¬
ty of Kent, that for the laft. 18 years the number has been
upwards of 32 each year. Kent is fuppofed to contain
2oo,qoo inhabitants, and London 800,000. It is eafy
therefore to fee, that in the metropolis many inftances of
fuicide muft occur which are never the fubjeft of legal in¬
quiry, and confequently never made known to the world.
Whereas in the country towns and villages of Kent it is
fcarcely poflible to conceal fuch an adioa as felf-murder
from
.accost
Suicide.
S U I [ 65 1 S U I
from the knowledge of the whole neighbourhood. The cal- Among the moral caufes which are fuppofed to co ope- Suicde
— iro..*.  <.— |n proc)nCing fuicide in Britain, the freedom of our con-
it
In what
rank and
fituation
fuicide is
moft com
mon.
T»
Phyfical
paufes to
:W hich it
fiat, been
jferibed in
Britain.
JWoore's
Full In¬
quiry into
tie Caufes
of Suicide.
culation therefore refpeciing Kent we may receive as true,
while we muit increaie the average number in London very
confiderably. Mr Moore computes the average number of
filicides in England every year at a thoufand; but the prin¬
ciples on which he founds this opinion are fo imperfedt and
vague, that we do not think it can be depended on as co¬
ming near the truth.
It might lead to fome interefting conclufions to compare
together, not only the number of filicides in different coun¬
tries, but alfo the rank and principles, the fex and age, of
i- thofe unhappy perfons by whom it has been committed.
Mercier fays, that at Paris it was the lower ranks who were
moft commonly guilty of it; that it was moRly committed
in garrets or hired lodgings ; and that it proceeded from po¬
verty and oppteffion. A great many, he fays, wrote letters
to the magiftrates before their death. Mr Moore’s corre-
fpondent from Geneva informed him, that from the year
1777 to 17S7 more than too filicides were committed
in Geneva; that two-thirds of thefe unfortunate perfons
were men ; that few of the clerical order have been kr^wn
to commit it; and that it is not fo much the end of an im¬
moral, irreligious, difiipated life, as the effedt of melancholy
and poverty. By the information obtained from the coro¬
ners of Kent, it appears, that of the 32, three-fourths have
11 —ii’ ina iwivc vapauic ui managing ms woraiy anairs, or maxing a vviil,
e royed themfelves by hanging ; that the proportion of and of difpofing of his property, immediately before his
males to femJllpR Vine v.-w* ^ ~ „ f~4. ^ — L ^ C   J . ..rii* r i 1
rate in producing fuicide in Britain, the freedom o
llitution and laws is reckoned one. That rational liber-^!K, 1,uoraj
ty fhould have any tendency to encourage crimes of anyCa«i*es.
kind, a Chriltian philofopher can never allow ; for fuch an
opinion is totally difcountenanced by enlightened views of
nature. Mercier has aferibed the frequency of fuicide in "
Paris to the opprefiion of the late government. Now it ap¬
pears fomewhat extraordinary, that fuicide 111 one country
fhould be occalioned by liberty, and in another by the want
of it. One of thefe opinions mull be falfe, and it is furely
not difficult to diftinguilh ■which. ,,
Humanity would in moft cafes difpofe us to 1o conclude, Not owing
that fuicide is the effedl ofinfanity, were there not fo rnanyalwajs to
inllances of cool deliberate felf-murder. That filicide is an II^aait) »
unnatural crime, which none but a madman would commit,
compaffion indeed may fuppofe : but the murder of a wife,
a lather, or a child, are alio unnatural; yet compaffion does
not teach us in all cafes to aferibe fuch a crime to madnefs.
Paffion may often arife to fuch a height of outrage as to be
fcarcely diftnguilhable from madnefs in its fymptoms and
its effedfs ; yet we always make a diftindtion between
that madnefs which arifes from difeafe and that which is
owing to a violent perturbation of mind. If a perfon be
capable of managing his wordly affairs, of making a will.
males to females has been about two-thirds of the former;
that no one feafon of the year is more diftinguilhed for this
crime than another ; and that filicide is upon the increafe.
Our accounts refpedting the city of London are very im-
jperfedt ; but we think ourfelves intitled to conclude, that
filicide is more common among the great and wealthy than
among the lower ranks, and that it is ufually the effea of
gaming and diflipation.
Thofe who have inquired into the caufes of fuicide in
Britain have enumerated many phyfical as well as moral
caufes. f hey have aferibed it to the variablenefs of our cli¬
mate, to the great ufe of animal food, to ftrong fpirituous
liquors, to tea, and to the fulphuveous exhalations of the
pn-coal ufed as fuel, which are faid to produce a depreffion
of (pints and nervous affedtions. OF our climate, we have
no caufe to complain, nor have we any' reafon to impute
any of our vices to its influence. 1 'here are many climates
much more unfavourable where fuicide is fcarcely known.
That an exccffive quantity of grofs animal food, or offtron^
liquors, or of tea, will powerfully affedl the human conftt
tution, we wall not deny : but before we confider thefe as
caufes, it muft firft be determined, whether thofe who are
guilty of felf-murder be much addi&ed to them ; and if they
are, whether there be not other caufes much more violent in
their nature which have operated on their mind; for we
ought not rafhly to attribute vicious effedis to any of thofe
things which feem to have been created on purpofe for the
com on or convenience of man. We are rather furprifed to
find that coal isfnentioned even as a diftant caufe of fuicide-
lor it is one of the bleffings of our ifland : and a good coal
death, or after he formed the refolution of dying by his
own hands, fuch a man is not to be conlidered aa in¬
fane.
But though a regard for truth prevents us from aferibing But often
filicide in all cafes to infankyr, we muft aferibe it either toahbto vi-
infanity or to vicious paffion. Thefe two divifions, wtP0118 Pa‘~
imagine, will comprehend every fpecies of it, whether ari-Uon'
fmg from melancholy, tedium ’vita or ennui, difappointment
in ichemes of ambition or love, pride, gaming, or a dtfire to
avoid the fliame of a public execution ; paffions which are of¬
ten increafed by falfe views of God, of man, and of a future
ftate, arifing from deifm and infidelity. If thefe be the caufes
of fuicidc in modern time, what a diigracefiil contrail do they
form to thofe principles which aftuated many of the ancient
philofophers,theGentoos,the Japanefe, and theworflrippers of
Odin? When they committed fuicide, they committed it from
principle, from a belief of its lawfulnefs, and the hope of be¬
ing rewarded for what they judged an honourable facrifice.
But in modern times, we are forry to fay, when it is not
the eflfedl of madnefs, it is the eflfedl of vice : and when it
is the effeft of vice, it proves that the vicious paffions are
then indulged to the highefl degree ; for there is no crime
which a man can commit that is fo flrong a fympton of the vio¬
lence of particular paffions. It is from" not attending to this
cucumftance, that it has been found lo difficult to refute the
arguments in favour of fuicide. If the criminality of fui¬
cide be confined merely to the violent a&ion, many apologies
may be made for it ; but if it be confidered folely as the
eflTev_t of vice, as the llrongefl fymptom of tingoverned paf-
iion, he who undertakes its defence muft. undertake the de¬
fire we have alwavs -nrV, T “uu a Soocl coal 1,on> ne who undertakes its defence muft undt
than lotlem t0 ^ fPlrit8 ^ ^ aU men willlou% -ndemn (a).
Vol. XVIII. Part J. “ 19 unnece^aiT to enter particularly into the argu-
I ments
nus with the following fpeech, when he had loftV ^ ^ ^ the atrocity of filicide. Quintus Curtms introduces Da-
fate: you wonder, perhaps that Idn ^ f ■ hlS emp're : “ 1 Wa,t ^fays the “^tunate monarch) the iflTue of my
than by my own. P P ’ 1 terrainate my own life ; but I choofe rather to die by the crime of another
from Fitzolborn^s^tters*^** Pam^Derfiiaft0^ prefcn^.nS .t0 our readcrf the following beautiful pafiage upon this fubjeft
principle of mere vanity ' It is efte me 1 as (fayS tlhlS;k^nt -nter) this difguft of life is frequendy indulged out of a* r ctf r
7- t emtd as a mark of uncommon refinement, and as placing a man above the ordinary iv,Lmcr
level
Suicide.
S U I [
ments of tWe cafmfls who have undertaken the defpicable
office of advocates for the crime of fuieick. 1 heir tale,ns
might furely have been employed more uferudy to the wor ,
farV to tn- and more honourably to themfelves, than m pleading .or a
ter int') the crime which, if it were committed by every man to whom
arguments their principles would make it lawful, would totally dettioy
forne of the nobleft virtues, fortitude, patience, anf religna-
tion ; nay, would deftroy fociety itfelf, and teach us to
16
Unnecef-
fary to en
of cafu'fts
upon this
fubjedt.
6^5 1 S U 1 ,, r
thek tortures than he won in the battle ,of Cannae ; for to Suicide,
die innocently and heroically is the greateft exertion of hu- —-y-
m Asffiicidtwas deemed a crime by the moft iUuftrious andH™ F-
virtuous of the Greek and Roman philoiophers, it was con-d e Gte^k
fidered as a crime by the laws, and treated with ignomt-CeailS)&(
ny. By the law of Thebes fuicides were to have no ho¬
nours paid to their memory f. The Athenian law oj-dain- fPetitiCm
tio*R ; nay, would dUfoy focfetr itfelf, and teach m to the d£ed t0 be c„t off, and
defpife the opinion that this y/ond is a ilate of PrtA ‘. b d t from the reft of the body. The body was not
for another. “ I came ,nto l.fe w.thout my own confent, ^ ^ . rntomw_ but was itnommioull.
merit, in
Leges /ith
ior anouxci. * - „p.r rnr. u.irmn Ann the ufual folemnities, but was ignommioufl-yc
and may I not quit it at pleafure . _(lay tae aavoc‘ th-own into fame pit. In Cea and Maffilia (the ancient Mar-
fuicide). If, becaufe we came into kfe without our own con rwaa confidered as a crime againil the ftate ; and it
fent, we might quit-it at p|eafure, why may vv. n° p. / ’ f neceffary for thofe who wiffied to deftroy
'7
Its great
denee.
our life alfo as we pleafe ? Why may we not rob and
murder, and commit every kind of crime, it tnere indination
is to be the rule of adion ? Thus upon the principles of
filicide the h’gliwayman and murderer may reafon, and tyei y
man may find a fufficient apology tor any crime which he
is tempted to commit. Or this abfurdity may be otherwile
anfwered ; As we came into life without our own confent,
we muft have come with the confent of feme other being ;
and logic fays, that with the confent of that Being only can
we lawfully quit it. „ . ., .
It is fufficient fhortly to fay, that fmcide is contrary to
; the ftromreft principle of the human conftitution, ied-pre-
'-fervation'; that it is rebellion againft God; that it is cruel¬
ty to the feelings and reputation, and often takes away
the fubfiftence of a wife, a child, or a father ; that it proves
a want of fortitude to brave misfortunes; that it delivers
only from imagined to plunge into real evils. We may
add, that almoft every inftance of filicide of which we have
heard was raft), imprudent, and premature, interrupted a
ufeful life, or prevented a more honourable death. Gad
Ca
fity
"was therefore neceffary for thofe who wiffied to deftroy
themfelves to obtain permiffion from the ma Tifrates. ^ I5jii
taich acquaints us, that an unaccountable paffion for fm- on thl n
cide feized the Milefian virgins; from indulging which '/(t
thev could not be prevented by the tears and entreaties of^-
parents and friends : but what perfuahon and entreaty could ^
not effeTc was accomplifhed by very different means. A
decree was iffued, “ that the body of every young woman
who hanged herfelf ffiould be dragged naked through the
flreets by the fame rone with which (he had committed the
deed.” ' This wife edidt put a complete ftop.tei the extraor¬
dinary frenzy, and filicide was no longer committed by the
virgins of Miletus. . , r T9
In the early part of the Roman hiftory there kerns to By the !
have been feldom occaiion for framing any law - againft fur- Romar
cide, rJ he only^inftar.ce recorded occurs in the reign.ol
Tarquinius Frifcus. The foldiers who were appointed to
make drains and common fewers, thinking themieh.es dit-
graced by inch fervile offices, put themfelves to death in
great numbers. The king ordered the bodies or ad tn-. ivi,-
§ Phltnrc
/o’s piftde^eankte'd him to yield'himfeff to the genero- murderers to be expofed on croffes, and this put an effec
oiclfthL chlaer andkis influence might have con. ,ual iloo to the pva6t.ee. It .a doubttul whether there waa
/ 5 ri*    'inxr •ftntpritnrr mW a 0*^1 111 it
tributed to retard the flavery of his country, which his
death tended to haften. Had Brutus and Caffius not exe¬
cuted the fatal refolution which they had formed, of dying
lay their own hands in cafe of misfortune, the battle of
Philippi might have had a very different iftue. Had Han¬
nibal iuirendered himfelf to the Romans, inllead of fwallow-
ing poifon, he would have gained more glory in braving
any ftanding law againft fuicide during the exiitenee ci the
republic ; but during the reign ok the emperors it was
thought proper to lay it under certain regulations, though
not abfolutely to condemn it as a crime. In Juftinian’s Di- L:b
gefts there is a law, by which it was enaifted, <v that n pci- [ it.:
fons accufed, or who had been found guilty, of any crime pur.,
fhould make away with themfelves, their effefls fhould be
confifcated.”
1 1 nf hiq fnecies to feem fuperior to the vulgar feelings of happinefs. True good fenfe, however, moft. certainly con-
fiiW in defpifm-s but in managing our flock of life to the bell advantage, as a cheerful acquiescence m the meafures
of Providence k one of the ftrongeft Symptoms of a well conitituted mind Self-wearmefs is a c.rcumftance that ever
Stlly . -dto condemn oJbeing U the gremeft. -d indeed .be pecubar ^
o condemn our oemg is rue gicctrcu., emu ,v , , •, /r . i u
ble fentiment which Tally puts into the mouth of Cato, in his Treatife upon old Age ; Aon (fays-that venerable
ntamjqmd multi, et ii dotli, f*pe jecerunt; neque me vixitfe pcenitet : quomam it a vixi, ut non frujra me
Roman) deplorare vitam,
tisfrTthe*power, indeed, of but a very fmall portion of mankind to ad the fame .glorious part that afforded fuch high
fatisfaftion to this diftinguiffied patriot; but the number is yet far more inconfiderable oi thofe vvho cannot, m any fta-
Ton ’ Secure themfelves a fufficienf fund of complacency to render life juftly valuable. Who is it that is placed out o. the
IcnceTihofe1 who are fuppoted to be endowed with a greater delicacy of talk and reafon than ts the nfrud aUotment of
their fellow-creatures, on? may aflt them, whether there ts any fat.ety in the purfmts of uftlul kno'ftd8e - 0
can ever be weary of benefiting mankind ! Will not the fine arts lupply a lall.ng feaft to the mind ! or. can there be
wanting a pleafurable enjoyment, fo long as there remains even one advantageous truth to be ddcovered or confirmed
t„ coi4. that
wbirkhi ciph om hands. But the misfortune is, when a man is fettled rato a habit of receiving till has pltafures from
the mere felfrlh indulgences, he wears out of his mind the relifh of every nobler enjoyment, at the fame time that 1 a
powers of the fenfual kind are growing more languid by each repetition. It is no wonder, therefore, he ftiomd fill up
the meafure of his gratification? long before he has completed the circle of h,s duration; and either wretchedly fit down
the remainder of his days in difeontent; or raftily throw them up in oeipair.. __
S U I
Suit.
20
hid by
liba
'<p, Lih.
. 1'radl.
21
to
an tffcc
al pre-
titive.
co^lfifcated.,, But this punifhment only took place when
confifcation of goods happened to be the penalty appointed
by the law for the crime of which the fell-murderer was
accufed or found guilty, and was not inflicfed for filicide
committed in any other circumltances.
When the Chriftian church had extended its jurifdi&ion
(miliars, iu the Roman empire, it was decreed in the fxth century,
that no commemoration fhould be made in the eucharill for
Inch as deft toyed thernfelves ; neither Ihould their bodies be
carried out to burial with pfalms, nor have the ulual fervice
i'aid over them. This ecclefiaitical law continued till the re-,
formation, when it was admitted into the ftatute code oi Eng¬
land by the authority of parliament. As an additional punilh-
ment, however, confifcation of land and goods feems to have
O' IfT^been adopted from the Danes, as we learn from Bradlon J.
Pre^ent t^e Pu»ilhment confifts in confifcating- all the
perfonal property of a felo de fe for the ufe of the crown,
and in excluding his body from interment in confecrated
ground. The warrant of the coroner requires that the bo¬
dy fhould be buried in fome public highway, and a Hake
driven through it to increafe the ignominy,
uuiuu ru ^'0 inciuire into ^ prevalence and caufes of crimes, in or-
vife apu-der to dTcover themoftjudicious methods of preventing them,
(liment is the duty of the patriot and the Chriftian. Suicide, we
^nc^’ *s a cononoon and an increafing evil: but it is a difficult
matter to find an effeftual remedy; for what motives can
be held out fufficient to influence that man’s mind who
is deaf to the voice of nature Ipeaking within him, and
to the voice of nature’s God declaring that he is fta-
tioned at a poll which it is his duty to maintain? His re¬
putation and property are indeed within the reach of the
laws, his body may be treated with ignominy, and his pro¬
perty confilcated ; but this punifhment will not be a pre¬
ventive, even if it could be always inflidled ; and that it is
feldom inflifted, though the laws have decreed it, is well
known. . I he humanity of the prefent age difpofes us to
fympathife with the relations of the deceafed, inftead of
demanding that the fentence of the law fhould be exe¬
cuted. It is a generally received opinion, and a juft one,
that punilhments decreed by human laws fhould be directed
only againft fuch crimes as are injurious to fociety; but
y. ncu itys hence inferred, that iuicide ought not to be fub-
jedl to tne cognizance of human laws, every rule of logic is
violated. 1 here is no man, however mean in ftation and
in talents, whole life may not, on fome occafions, be ufeful
t0et^erC°n?mUni't^ at klrRe ’ an(^ to conclude, that a perfion
who fancies himfelf ufelefs may therefore lawfully put a
period to his life, is as ialfe reafoning as it would be to
conclude, that by killing a poor man, who lives on the public,
we ihould perform an adtion not only innocent but meritori-
OUQT,TSr^/ho°UlCUherfby freC f°ciety fmm one of''ts burdens.
. , , ’ a ^ree^ writer, according to fome, flourifhed
m the i ith century, under the reign of the Emperor Alexius
Comnenus; according to others, before the loth century.
e wro e in Greek an Hiftorical and Geographical Didtio-
iary oi .exicon,; a work which, though not always ftridt-
y_ ccumte, is neverthelefs rrf great importance, as it con-
tains many thmgs taken from the ancients that are no-
tlrt ofr , The beft edition of Suidas is
^ ^Jf P“^k and Latin» with notes, printed
3 vols fol. which has been much improved by Toup.
^atpJs, ^UILEUb. See Szoine-SrdNE.
!S Ufedjn dhTerent fenfes ; as, r. Suit of court,
his lo^ e’Wh,Cho an attendance the tenant owes to
venanted tCUU(t f 2-.^lu.t'covcnant? where a perfon has co-
cuftom wh° h° ferI1Ce 1U the C°Urt of the lord- 3- Suit'
» inch is where one and his anceftors have owed
f 67 ]
S U I
fait time out of mind. 4. It is ufed for a petition to the S jit.
king or any perfon of dignity, where a lord diftrains his te- " v
nant for fuit, and none is due. In this cafe, the party
may have an attachment againft him to-appear in the king’s
court.
Suit, in law, the fame with adfion. The Romans in¬
troduced pretty early fet forms for adtions and fuits into their
law, after the example of the Greeks ; and made it a rule,
that each injury ftiould be redrefled by its proper remedy
only. “ Aclionn, (fay the Pandebts) compojlta funt quibvs
inter fe homines difeeptarent, quas at Hones ne pop u!ns prout veliet
inflitueret, certas folemnefque ejfe voluerunt.” The forms of
thefe adtions were originally preferved in the books of the
pontifical college as choice and ineftimable fecrets, till one
Cneius Flavius, the fecretary of Appius Claudius, Hole a
copy and publifhed them to the people. The conceal¬
ment was ridiculous : but the eftablifhment of fome ftand-
ard was undoubtedly neceffary to fix the true ftate of a que- Bl.ulf.
ftion of right; left, in a long and arbitrary procefs, it might Comment.
be ftiifted continually, and be at length no longer difeerni-
ble. Or, as Cicero exprefles it, “ funt jura, funt formula,
de omnibus rebus corfhtuta, ne quts aut in genere injur 'ue, aut in
ratione attionis, err are pojfit. Exprejft enim funt ex uniufeu-
jujque damno, dolore, incommodo, calamitate, injuria, public a a
pratore formula, ad quas privata lis accommodatur.” And in
the fame manner Biabton, fpeaking of the original writs
upon which all our abtions are founded, declares them to
be fixed and immutable, unlefs by authority of parliament.
And all the modern legiflators of Europe have found it
expedient, from the fame reafons, to fall into the fame
or a fimilar method. In England, the feveral fuits, or re¬
medial inftruments of juftice, are, from the fubjefl of them,
diftinguifhed into three kinds ; abtions perfonal, real, and
mixed,
Perfonal aftions are fuch whereby a man claims a debt,
or perfonal duty, or damages in lieu thereof; and likewile
whereby a man claims a fatisfablion in damages for fome in¬
jury done to his perfon or property. The former are faid
to be founded upon contrabls, the latter upon torts or
wrongs : and they are the fame which the civil law calls
li atliones in perfonam, qua adverfus eum intenduntur qui ex
contrattu vel delitlo ob/igatus efl ahquid da>e vel concedere.,, Of
the former nature are all adtions upon debt or promifes ; of
the latter are all adlions of trefpaffes, nuifances, affaults, de¬
famatory words, and the like.
Real actions (or, as they are called in the Mirror, feodal
atlionsf which concern real property only, are fuch where¬
by the plaintiff, here called the demandant, claims title to
have any lands or tenements, rents, commons, or other
hereditaments, in fee-iimple, fee-tail, or for term of life.
By thefe actions formerly all difputes concerning real
eftates weie decided; but they are now pretty generally
laid afide in practice, upon account of the great nicety re¬
quired in their management, and the inconvenient length
or their procefs; a much more expeditious method of try¬
ing titles being fince introduced, by other addons petional
and mixed.
Mixed adtions are fuits partaking of the mixture of the
other two, wherein fome real property is demanded, and
alfo perfonal damages for a wrong fuitained. As for in-
fiance, an adtion of wafte: which is brought by him who
hath the inheritance, in remainder or reverfion, againft the
tenant for life, who hath committed wafte therein, "to recover
not only the land wafted, which would make it merely a
•real adtion ; but alfo treble damages, in purfuance of the
fiatute of Gloucefter, which is a perfonal recompenfe ; and
fo both, being joined together, denominate it a mixed atlion,
1 2 The
Kirovan i
Jvl inera-
Hy-
SUL
The orderly parts of a fait are thefe:
writ. 2. The procefs. The pleadings. 4. I he 01 %
demurrer. 5. The trial 6. The judgment( and its >ncl¬
ients. 7. The proceedings m nature of appeals, b. ine
execution. See thefe articles.
SULLY. See Bethune. _
SULPHAT, in the' new chemical nomenclature, de¬
notes a compound of the fulphurie acid with iome other
jubilance. , . . . n
SULPHUR, a well known fubilance, which is yellow,
tallelefs, hard, brittle, and when rubbed becomes elednc.
Its fpecii'tc gravity is from 1,9 to 2,35. According to
Bergman, it gently evaporates at 17c, melts at 185, and
■ flames at 302'of Fahrenheit. It burns with a blue flame,
and a difagreeable fuffocating fmell ; in dole veflclo it su¬
blimes without decompoiition, or only a decompciition pio-
portionable to the quantity of air they contain ; when med-
ed it becomes red, but recovers, its colour on cooling. H
is infoiuble in water, though by long trituration it is laid
water will take up iome of it, but it is rather diffuled than
diflblved in it ; neither can i'pirit of wine unite to it, except
when both are in a vaporous ftate, and then 72 parts ot
fpirit of wine take up 1 of fulphur ; it is foluble in hot oils,
and alfo in fixed alkalis, both in the dry and liquid way •
[ 68 ] SUL
The original fome of the metallic ores in this country abound with it; ^
but from die common mode of purifying them, the fulphur
is diffipated and loft. Dr Watfon has ihown, m a paper on
lead-ore in the Philofophical Tranfadions, that not lefs than
700 tons are. annually diffipated in the various lead-mines ot
England.
It is extraded from pyrites in the following manner in
Saxony and Bohemia. The pyrites is put in tmall pieces
into earthen tubes : one of the tubes is placed on a fur¬
nace, and the other paffies into a fquare veifel of caft iron
containing' water. ri he fulphur is difumted by the heat
from the pyrites, and paifes into the veffcl 3 but it is then
very impure. It is afterwards melted in an iron ladle, when
the earthy and metallic particles are depofited by their
weight, and the fulphur being light riles to the top. It is
then poured off into a copper boiler, where it is farther pu¬
rified*, and afterwards poured into cylindrical moulds of wood,
from which it receives the ihape in which it is uiually fold.
When melted fulphur is gently heated, it flies off m a
yellow powder, which is calledJlowers of fulphur. T. he ope¬
ration is performed in this manner : Common fulphur in
powder is put into an earthen cucurbit, to the top of which
a number of earthen pots inferred in one another is fixed,
known by the name of aludels. The cucurbit is then heat-
Sul
phnr
■: concentrata! nil™ acid’, ed tiU th. fuhj.* becon* l^d : it .hen rifea and attaches
partly decompofed and partly diffolved by the vitriolic and itldf to the Tides ot the aludels. - - - -
J'nurct 0\ .
Cbe/ftijiry,
oxygenated muriatic acid. See Chemis tR.Y-/«ub.v.
Sulphur was formerly fuppofed to confift. of fulphuric acid
and phlogifton, in the proportion of 60 parts of the former
to 40 of' the latter ; but by the new fyftetn which is now
generally adopted, fulphur is reckoned a fimple fubilauct,
and the fulphuric acid a compound of fulphur and oxygene
or vital air. This conclufron is founded on the following
faffs : x. Sulphur does not burn unlefs vital air have accefs
to it. 2. During corabuflion it abforbs vital air from the
atmofphere. 3. The fulphuric produced by the combuftion
of iulphur is equal in weight to the fulphur employed and
the quantity of air that has been confumed.-
Sulphur is found fometimes pure, and fometimes in com¬
bination with other fubftances. Ot' pure fulphur there are
feven varieties. 1. Tranfparent fulphur, in eight-fided cty-
ftals, with two truncated pyramids. It is generally depo-
iited by water on the furface of calcareous fpar. Cadiz
fulphur is of this kind. 2. Tranfparent fulphur in irregular
fragments. Such is the fulphur of Switzerland. 3' Whi-
tifh pulverulent fulphur, depoiVted in hliceous geodes. In
Franche Comptc there are flints full of fulphur, 4. Pul¬
verulent fulphur depofited on the furface of mineral waters,
fuch as thofe of Aix-la-Chapclle. 5. Cryftalline fulphur
that has been fublimed, found in the neighbourhood of
volcanoes. 6. Pulverulent fulphur fublimed from volcanoes,
found in abundance at Solfatara in the vicinity of Naples?.
7. Sulphur in ftalaftites, formed by volcanic fires.
Sulphur is alfo found united with different iubftances, as
with metals, when it is called pyrites ; a ihort account of
which may be feen under the article Pyrites. Sometimes
it is combined with calcareous earth, as in fetid calcareous
jlo'neg and fwine-ftone. It has lately been difeovered, that
fulphur is formed by a natural procefs in animals and vege¬
tables beginning to putrefy. It is found on liable-walls
and in privies. It is alfo extrafted from vegetables, from
dock-root, cochlearia, See. M. Deyeux obtained it from
the white of eggs. It has been alfo procured from horie-
dung.
The fulphur ufed in Great Britain is generally brought
in a pure ftate from volcanic countries, where it abounds in
an krexhauflible quantity. It is well known, however, that
Sulphur combined with an alkali is called hepar fulphurisy
liver of fulphur, becaufe it refembles in colour the liver of
animals. In the French nomenclature it is called fulphure,
and by thofe Britiih chemifts who have adopted the new fyf-
tem fi/phuret.
Water decompofes the fulphuret. The fulphur is preci¬
pitated by acids, when a particular gas is extricated com¬
monly called hepatic gas, or, what is more exprellive oi its
compofition, fulphurated hydrogenous gas. The fetor oi this
gas is infufferable,' and is fatal to animals. It communicates
a green colour to fyrup of violets, and burns with a light-
blue flame. It adts on metals and metallic oxides, efpeebi-
ly thofe oflead and bifmuth, which it foon blackens. It
is decompofed by vital air ; and accordingly, when it comes
into contadl with atmofphei ic air, a portion of the iulphur
is ieparated. For this n-uon fulphureous waters do not,
contain genuine liver of fulphur.
The mineral acids adl differently on fulphur. If the ful-
phurie acid be boiled on fulphur, the acid acquires an am¬
ber colour, and a fulphurepus Imell; the fulphur melts and
fwims like oil. When cooled, it concretes into globules of
a greenifh hue ; but a fmall portion or the fulphur is ddfol-
ved in the acid, which may be precipitated by an alxali.
The flaming red nitrous acid adls powerfully on iulphur.
When poured upon melted fulphur, it oecahons detonation
and inflammation. The common muriatic acid produces no
effeift. upon it ; but the oxygenated muriatic acid a£ls upon
it with force.
Sulphur unites readily with all metallic fubftances, ex¬
cepting gold, platina, and zinc ; at lead wre have not found
the means of uniting it with ttiefe diredlly, and without
fome intermediate jubilance. The degrees of affinity with
which fulphur combines with thole metals to which it may
be readily united arc different ; for it not only unites more
eafily and abundantly with fome than with others, but it aifo
quits thofe wdth which it has a lefs affinity, to unite with
others to which it has a ftronger affinity.
The ailinities of fulphur, according to , Mr Geoffroy’s
table, are, fixed alkali, iron, copper, lead, iilver, regmlus of
antimony, mercury, and gold; and, according to Mr Gel-
lert’s table, they are, iron, copper, tin, lead, filver, biimuth,
regulus
S U L
u’phur.
regulus of antimony, mercury, arfenic, and cobalt : gold and
’ zinc are marked in this tabic as being incapable of uniting
with fulphur.
The compounds formed by fulphur with different metals
are different ; but all of them poffefs a metallic lultre, with¬
out any duftility : thefe combinations of fulphur and ol me
tali are very frequently foiind in a natural ftate. Almolt
all the metals which we dig from the earth are naturally
found combined with fulphur, forming mod of the ores and
metallic minerals.
It is a curious phenomenon, that nitre mixed with fulphur
burns rapidly) even in clofe veffcls; this is eafily explained
by the new fyftem. Nitre, when heat is applied to it, yields
a great quantity of vital air ; and fulphur is a combuitible
body, or, which is the fame thing, has a ft rung attradtiou
for vital air. As vital air is thus fupplied, which is the on¬
ly principle neceffary to combuftion, communication with
the atmofpheric air is imneceffary. The fulphur will burn
till the whole vital air which the nitre fur nifties be confir¬
med. The prod lift 3 obtained by this procefs are different
according to the proportions of nitre and fulplurr which are
employed. If eight parts of fulphur and one of nitre be let
on fire in a clofe veffel, lulphuric acid is produced ; and this
is the method by which oil of vitriol or ftrong fulphurie
acid was formerly made in Great Britain. '1 he veffels in
which the operation was performed were large glafs bal¬
loons, with very large necks, each containing goo or 500
pints. But it was attended with great expence, on account
of the high price and brittlenefs of the balloons.. A few
years ago a cheaper method has been attempted with fuc-
cefs in b ranee. The fulphur is burned on a kind of grid¬
irons, in large apartments lined with lead. As the acid con-
denfes it is conveyed by gutters into a refervoir, and after¬
wards concentrated. It mult be obferved, that the fulphu-
ric acid thus obtained is always combined with a little ful-
phur and fulphat of pot afh, a fmall quantity of aluminous
lulphat and fulphat of lead; but thefe fubftances are in fo
imall a proportion, that for common ufe it is not neceffaty
to feparate them. If nectffary, however, it may eahly be
done by diftilling the acid to drynefs.
Oilnpowder, the terrible effefts of which are owing to
its ftrong tendency to combuftion, is a mixture of fulphur,
nitre, and. charcoal. (8ee Gun powder). But there is
another.mixture of which fulphur is an ingredient ftill more
v.o'lent in its effefts : I his is called fulminating powder, and
is compofed of three parts of nitre, two parts of the carbo¬
nate ot pot-afh, and one of powdered fulphur. Thefe being
clofely united together by trituration in a hot marble mortar,
when expofcd to a flight degree of heat, will melt, and
produce a violent detonation like the report of a cannon.
A diam of this mixture Is fufficient for the experiment.
Sulphur is of great ufe in chemiftry, in medicine,’and
t.ie arts. Sulphur is ufe^ul in making feme fuftons, preci¬
pitations, and. reparations of metals and minerals; but is
particularly ufeful, as. being the fubftance from which the
fulphime acid is obtained. Hepar fulphuris is employed in
chemiftry for making feveral folutions.
Sulphur is employed in medicine both internally and ex¬
ternally. It .s given either in flowers or in lozenges, made
up with fugar, or. joined to magnefia, cryftals of tartar,
manna?.caffia, Ie!ntlve binary, &c. Two or three drams
generally prove laxative ; and it is given in fuch dofes in
cates or piles of uterine, and other hoemorrhagies; becaufe
a difnnfT hmu ane n0rrheat durin^ lts °P«ation, nor leave
refinomT ^ C,olhve"eif’1as rhubarbi aloes, and other hot
mended in geSud0‘ , S;.llphur was formerly much recom-
- .ended in coughs and diieafes of the breaft, but of late its
virtues as a peftoral have been much doubtk When ap!
r ^9 ]
SUL
Sultan.
plied externally, it is mixed with fame unftuous fubflanee, Su>h«r
as hogs lard, butter, &e. and is rubbed ou fueh parts of the "
body as are affefted with eruptions.
Some phyficians and chemifts, conlideiing that fulphur is
infoluble in water, and capable of re ft ft nig the aftion of molt
menllruums, have affirmed, that it can produce no effeft
when taken internally, Angle and unaltered ; but this affer-
tipn feems to be without foundation; for it is certain,
that the Iweat and perlpiration of thofe who take fulphur
internally have a imtll evidently fulphureous. Belides, ful¬
phur is much more foluble than is generally believed, ft is
attacked by all oily and iaponaceous fubilances, and confe-
quently by almoft all animal liquors.
"VVe cannot eafily form a very diftinft and clear idea of
the manner in which fulphur afts internally upon out bo¬
dies ; but, from obfer vat ions made upon its effefts, it ap¬
pears to be dividing, llimulating, and fomewhat heating :
it principally afts upon the perfpirable parts of the body,
the chief of which are the fkin and lungs ; and from this
property it is particularly ufeful rn fome difeafes of thefe
parts.
Sulphur is alfo a powerful repellent, as appears from its
cming feveral kinds of itch, merely by external application,
in form, of ointments and pomatums. Several mineral wa¬
ters, which are drunk or ufed as baths for fome difeaies, owe
their good qualities to lulphur contained in them.
Sulphur is alio ufc-d in leveral arts. By means of it fine
impreffions. of engraved Hones are .taken. Matches are
formed of it and its utility as an ingredient in the prepa¬
ration of gunpowder and fireworks is well known. Laftly,
it is ufed for whitening wool, lilk, and many other matters
expofed to its vapour during its combuftion ; "the colours ami
redntfs of which could not be deftroyed by any other fub¬
ftance, but are quickly effaced by this acid vapour..
SuLPHUk-JVorty in botany. See Peucedanum-.
SULPHURIC-acid, the name adopted by the French
chemifts for the vitriolic acid. It is formed by a combina¬
tion of fulphnr with vital air, as deferibed under the article
Sulphur. When fulphur is binned with a low degree of
heat, it burns with a blue flame, and diffufes a fuffocating
vapour, which, when collefted, is called fulphureous acid.
When fulphur is expoled to ftrong heat it burns rapidly,
and emits a lively white flame, and lias no fmell ; the reii-
dti.e is called fulpburic acid. 1 he fulphureous is a weaker
acid than the fulphuric, owing to its containing a lefs quan¬
tity of oxygeue.
SG-F1 ICIA, an ancient Roman poetefs, who lived un¬
der the reign of Domitian, and has been fo much admired-
as to be termed the Rinnan Sappho. We have nothing,
however, left of her writings but a fatire, or rather ther
fragment of one, againft Domitian, who publifhed a decree
for the banifhment of philofophers from Rome :. which fa-
tire is to be found in Scaliger’s Appendix Virgiliana. She
is. mentioned by Maitial and Sidonius Apollinans ; and is
fin’d to have addreffed a poem on conjugal love to her huf-
band Calenus, a Roman knight.
SULFA.XUS (Severus), an ecclefiaftical writer who '
flounified about the beginning of the 5th century, and was
contemporary with Rufmusand St Jerome. He was the dif-
ciple of St Martin of 1 ours, whole life he has written ; and
the friend of Paulinus biihop of Nola, with whom he held
an intimate correfpondence. The principal of his works
is his Hijloria Sacra, from the creation of the world to the
confulate of Stilicho and Aurelian, about the year 400 ; in
which his ftyle is elegant beyond the age he lived in.
SULTAN, or Soldan, a title or appellation given to
the emperor of the Turks.
Vattier will have the word Turkifh, and to fignify king
, of
SUL
t 7° 1
SUM
0/ lings ; p.dding, tliat it was fir{l given to tlie Turkifh prin-
’ ces Angrolipex and Mafgud, about the year ioj ^ . others
v,-;il have it originally Teihan, alleging, in proof hereof, an
ancient medal of Cofroe ; others derive it {xor<\ fo'danus, quafi
folus domlnus : others from the Hebrew ^,fchalat or Jhehth,
“ to rule, reign.” .
It had its rife under Mahmoud, fon of Sebe&eghin, the
frrft emperor of the dynafly of the Gaznevides, towards the
clofe of the fourth century of the era of the Hegira : when
that prince going to Segellan to reduce Ivalai governor or
that province, who affedted the fovereignty, Kalaf was no
fooner advertifed of his coming than he went out to meet
him, delivered the keys of his fortrefs, and owned him his
Mw, that is, his lord or commander. The title pleafed
Mahmoud fo well, that he affumed it ever afterwards;
and from him it pafled to his defeeudants, and to other Ma¬
hometan princes. It is chiefly confined to tM 1 uiKiih and
Perfian monarchs.
SULZER (M.), a celebrated philofopher, was born at
Winter than, in the canton of Zurich, October 16. 1720.
He was the youngeft of 25 children. Elis early education
did not promife much, tho’ it was by no means negledled,
He had little inclination for what is called in the fchool. the
Rudy of humanity, and made but a fmall pregrefs in the
learned languages, which were to prepare him for the Rudy
of theolooy, for which profeffion his parents defigned him.
At the age of 16, when he went to the academical fchool
of Zurich, he had not the fmalleft notion of the fciences, or
of elegant literature, and confequently no taile for fludy.
The firft incident that developed a hidden germ of philofo-
phical genius, was his meeting with Wolfe s Metaphyfics .
this was the birth of his taRe for fcience ; but he wanted a
guide. The clergyman with whom he lodged was an ig¬
norant man j and the academical prelcdxions were, as \ec,
above the reach of his comprehenfion. On the other hand,
a fedentary life was not the thing he liked, nor to which he
had been accaRomed ; and, moreover, a fociable turn of
mind led Rim often into company, wnere he loR much time
in frivolous amufements, yet without corrupting his morals.
Who, that obferved him at this period, fays Mr Formey in
his Eulogium, would have thought that Sulzer would one
day be numbered among the moR knowing and wife men
of his time ? The learned Gefner was the inftrument of Pro¬
vidence that rendered Sulzer’s inclination to ftudy trium¬
phant over his pafiion for amufement and company. Ani¬
mated by the counfels and example of this vvoithy and leai li¬
ed man, he applied himfelf to philofophy and mathematics
with great ardour, and refuroed the purfuit o; Cjitcian hte-
rature and the Oriental languages. The contemplation of
nature became his noble and favourite pafiion. An ecclefi-
aflical fettlement in a rural feene, that exhibited happy ob-
je&s and occafions for this delightful Rudy, began to render
his days happy and ufeful; anil he publiihed, in I74l>
ral Contemplations of the Works of Nature ; and the year fol¬
lowing an Sic count of a journey he had made through the
Alps ; which fhowed, at the lame time, his knowledge of
natural hiltory, and the tafte and fenfibllity with which he
furveyed the beauties of nature, and the grandeur and good-
nefs of its Author. He afterwards became private tutor
to a young gentleman at Magdeburg. . Ibis procured him
the acquaintance of Meflrs MaufJCrtuis, Euler, and back,
which opened to his merit the path of preferment, and ad¬
vanced him fuccefiively to the place of mathematical ptofef-
for in the King’s College at Berlin, in 1747, and to that of
member of the Royal Academy in i75'-u
In this laR quality he diftinguifhed himfelf in a very emi¬
nent manner, enriched the clafs of fpeculative philolophy
with a sweat number of excellent memoirs, and was juitly
ilzei I
Surriatrl
confidered as one of the firft-rate mctaphyficians in Germa¬
ny. But his genius was not confined to this branch of
fcience. His Univerfal Theory of the Fine Arts is a valu¬
able production. A profound knowledge of the arts and
fciences, and a perfect acquaintance with true taRe, are emi¬
nently dilplayed in this work, and will fecuve to its author
a permanent and difti.nguilhed rank in the republic o-Tet¬
ters. The liril volume of this excellent work was publiih¬
ed in 1771, and the fecond in 1774. We lhall not here
give a catalogue of the writings of 1VI. Sulzer j Out we can¬
not help mentioning his Remarks on the Philofophical EJfays
of the late Mr Hume, as a work of real merit, which does
juitice to the acutenefs, while it often dete&s the fophiftry,
of the Eritilh Bayle." The moral char after of M. Sulzer
was amiable and virtuous : fociabihty and beneficence weie
its charafterulical lines ; and his Virtues were animated by
that facred philofophy that forms the ChriRian, ennobles
man, and is the only fource of that heart-felt ferenity and
fedate fortitude which fupport humanity, when every other
objeft of confidence fails. His dying moments were calm,
humble, and fablime ; and when he expired, the placid and
compofed air of his countenance made his mourning friends
doubt, for fame time, whether it was death or deep that had
fufpended his converfation. Ele had no enemy ; and his friends
were numerous, alfcftionatc, and worthy ot the tender re¬
turns he made them.
The king of Prufiia diRinguifhed him by repeated marks
of munificence and favour. We learn, however, that his
royal prote&or had never feen him before the end of the
year 1777, though he had been member of the academy
from the year 1750. The audience, indeed, though late
vouchfafed, was honourable to M. Sulzer, with whom the
monarch converfed lor a long time with the greatefi affabili¬
ty and condefeenfion.
SUM, fignifies the quantity that arifes from the addi¬
tion of two or more magnitudes, numbers, or quantities to¬
gether.
SUMACH, in botany. See Rhus.
SUMATRA, an illaad of Aha, the mod weftern of
the Sunda Iflands, and conftituting on that fide the boun¬
dary of the Saltern Archipelago. Its general direftion is
nearlytnorth-weft and fouth-eatt. The equator divides it
into almoft equal parts, the one •extremity being in 5. 33.
N. and the other in 5. 56. S. Lat. Acheen Head, at the
north extremity of the illand, is in longitude 9^. 34. eaft.
It lies expofed on the fouth-weil fide to the Indian Ocean ;
the north point ftretches into the bay of Bengal; to the
north eaft it is divided from the peninfula of Malacca by the
ftraits of that name ; to the eaft by the ftraits cl Banca,
from the illand of that name ; to the fouth-eaft by the com¬
mencement of what are called the Ch'mefe Seas ; and on the
fouth by the ftraits ■ of Sunda, which feparate it from the Qszettu
illand of Java. It is about 900 miles in length, but from
100 to 150 only in breadth. No account had been given
of this illand by any Englilhman till the year I7 7§> when
Mr Charles Miller (fon of the late botanical gardener) pub¬
liihed an account of the manners of a particular diltrift, in
the 68th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions. Thele
were the Battas, a people who live in the interior parts,
called the Oaf}}a Country. They differ Irom all the other
inhabitants in language, manners, and cuftoms. They eat
the prifoners whom they take in war, and hang up their
fkulls as trophies in their houfes. He obferves, however,
that human flelh is eaten by them in terrorem, and not as
common food, though they prefer it to all others, and Ipeak
with peculiar raptures of the foies ol the feet and palms of
the hands. They expreffed much futprife that the white
people did not kill, much kfs eat, their prifoners. From
this
SUM [7
imatra. this country the greateft part of the caffia that is fent to
-v— Europe is procured. It abounds alfo with the camphire
trees, which conftitute the common timber in ufe ; and in
thefe trees the camphire is found native, in a concrete form.
It is remarkable, that in this ftate it is fold to the Chineie
at the price of 2501. or 300!, per cwt. but thefe dexterous
artifts contrive to furnifh the Europeans with it at about a
quarter of that price, in 1783, Mr Marfden, who had
been fecretary to the prefident and council of Fort Marl¬
borough, publifhed a Hiftory of Sumatra, with very copi¬
ous particulars of the ifland. He reprefents it as furpaffed
by few in the beautiful indulgences of nature. A chainof high
mountains runs through its whole extent ; the ranges in
many parts being double and treble ; their altitude, though
great, is not fufficient to occairon their being covered with
fnow during any part of the year. Between thefe ridges
are extenfive plains, confrderafcly elevated above the furface
ot the maritime lands. In thefe the air is cool; and from
this advantage they are efteemed the mod eligible portion
ot the country, are the bell inhabited, and the molt cleared
from woods, which elfewhere, in general, throughout Suma¬
tra, cover both hills and valleys with an eternal {hade. Heie
too are found many large and beautiful lakes, that facilitate
much the communication between the different parts. The
heat of the au is far from being fo intenfe as might be ex¬
pected from a country occupying the middle of the ToiVid
Zone ; and it is more temperate than many regions within
tne I topics ; the thermometer at the moft fultry hour,
about two in the afternoon, generally fluctuating between
82 and 85 degrees. Mr Marfden divides the inhabitants
into Malays, Achenefe, Battas, Lampoons, and Rejangs ;
and he takes the latter as his flandard ot defeription, with
refped to the perfons, manners, and cuftoms, of the inhabi-
tants.. They are rather below the middle ftature ; their
bulk m proportion ; their limbs for the molt part flight, but
well fhaped, and particularly fmall at the wrifts and’ancles ;
and,, upon the whole, they are gracefully formed. Their
hair is ftrong, and of a fhining black. The men are beard-
lefs. great pains being taken to render them fo when boys,
by rubbing their chins with a kind of quicklime. Their
complexion is properly yellow, wanting the red tinge that
]
SUM
conftitutes a copper or tawny colour. ^They arc in general
lighter than the Meftees, or half breed, of the reft of India;
thofe of the iuperior ckfs, who are not expofed to the rays
t-i the fun, and particularly their women or rank, approach¬
ing to a degree of fairnefs. If beauty confifted in this one
quality, tome of them would furpals our brunettes in- Eu-
r< pe. The major part of the females are ugly, many of
tnem even to dilguft; yet among them are feme whofe ap¬
pearance is Hrikingly beautiful, whatever compofition of
pcrJon, features, and complexion, that fentiment may be the
refult of. Some of the inhabitants of the hilly parts are
obferved to have the fwelled neck or goitre.; but they at-
nt°r\me<k <or k’ as thefe wens are confiftent with
the higheft health. The rites of marriage among the Su-
mptrans conhft fimply m joining the hands of the parties,
and pronouncing them man and wife without much cere¬
mony, excepting the entertainment which is given upon the
occaiion by the father of the girl. The cuftoms of die 8u-
matrans permit their having as many wives as they can pur¬
chase, of afford to maintain; but it is extremely rare that
anynftance occurs of them having more than one, and that
only among a few or the chiefs. This continence they owe,
iome naeafure, to their poverty. T he diftates of fruga-
anneH6 W,th tl^m than tbe ^regular calls of
thZ \T' 7 ' niake them dedine an ^diligence from which
dren nnt- °es ,not leiu*ain tnem. Mothers carry their chil-
> ‘ on t e arm as our nurfes do, but flraddling on
the hip, and ufually fupported by a cloth which ties in a
knot on the oppofite fhoulder. The children are nurfed
but little ; aie not confined by any fwathing or bandages ;
and being fullered to roll about the floor, foon learn to walk
and fhift for themfelves. When cradles are ufed, they fwing
fufpended from the ceilings of the rooms*
The Sumatrans are fo fond of cock-fighting, that a fa¬
ther on his death-bed has been known to defire his fon to
take the firft opportunity of matching a cock for a fum.
equal to his whole property, under a blind conviction of its
being invulnerable. When a cock is killed, or runs, the
other muft have fufficient fpirit and vigour left to peck at
him three times on his being held up to him for that pur-
pofe, or it becomes a drawn battle ; and fometimes an ex¬
perienced cocker will place the head of his vanquifhed bird
in fuch an uncouth fituation as to terrify the other, and
render him unable to give this proof of victory.
The wild beafls of Sumatra are .tigers, elephants, rhino-
cerofes, bears, and monkeys. The tigers prove to the inha¬
bitants both in their journeys and even their domeflie oc¬
cupations moft deftrudtive enemies. The number of people
annually {lain by thefe rapacious tyrants of the woods is al«
molt incredible. Whole villages have been depopulated
by them ; yet from a fuperftitious prejudice, it is with
difficulty they are prevail.d upon, by a large reward which
the India Company offers, to ufe methods of deftroying
them, till they have fuftained fome particular injury in their
o wn family or kindred. 'I lie iize and fLength o: the fpe-
cies which prevails on this bland is prodigious. They are
laid to break with a ftroke of their fore paw the leg of a
horie or a buffalo ; and the largeft prey they kill is without
difficulty dragged by them into the woods. This they
ufually perform on the fecond night, being fupnofed on the
firft to gratify themfelves with lucking the blood only.
Time is by this delay afforded to prepare for their deftruc-
tion, either by fhooting them, or placing a veffel of water
ftrongly impregnated with arfenic near the carcafe, which
is faflened to a tree to prevent its being carried off. The
tiger having fatiated himfelf with the flefh, is prompted to
affuage his thirfl with the tempting liquor at hand, and pe-
rifhes in the indulgence. Their chief fubfiftence is moft
probably the unfortunate monkeys with which the woods
abound. They are defciibed as alluring them to their fate
by a fafeinating power, fimtlar to what has been fuppofed of
the fnake ; and, fays Mr Maifden, “ I am not incredulous
enough to treat the idea with contempt, having myfelf ob¬
ferved, that when an alligator or a crocodile, in a river,
con es under an overhanging branch of a tree, the monkeys,
in a ftate of alarm and diftraftion, crowd to the extremity,
and, chattering and trembling, approach nearer and nearer
to the amphibious monfler that waits to devour them as they
drop, which their fright and number render almoft unavoid-
able.” I hefe alligators likewife occafion the lofs of many,
inhabitants, frequently deftroying the people as they bathe
in the river, according to their regular cultom, and which
the perpetual evidence of the rifle attending it cannot deter
them from. A fuperftitious idea of their fan&ity alfo pre-
ferves them from moleflation, although, with a hook of fuf¬
ficient llrength, they may betaken without much difficulty.
'I he other animals of Sumatra are buffaloes, a fmall kind of
horfes, goats, hogs, deer, bullocks, and hog-deev. This laft
is an. animal fomewhat larger than a labbit, the head-re-
fembling that of a hog, arid its fhanks and feet like thofe of
the deer. The bezoar-ftone found on this animal has been
valued at 10 times its weight in gold ; it is of. a dark brown
colour, fmooth on the outfide ; and the coat being taken off,
it appears ftill darker, with firings running underneath the
coat: it will fvvim on the top. of the water. If it be infur
3 fed
Sumatra.
SUM
[
Sumatra. fe(l jn any liquid, it makes it extremely bitter : tlie virtues
—v-~w ucua}]y attributed to this (lone are cleanfing the flomach,
creating an appetite, and fweetening the blood.
Of birds they have a greater variety than of bealls. The
coo-ow, or Sumatran pheafant, is a bird of uncommon beau¬
ty. They have (forks of prodigious fize, parrots, dung-hill
fowls, ducks, the larged cocks in the world, wood-pigeons,
doves, and a great variety of (mall birds, different from ours,
and diftinguilhed by the beauty of their colours. Of their
reptiles, they have lizards, flying-lizards, and cameleons.
The ifland fwarms with infedts, and their varieties are no
lets' extraordinary than their numbers. Rice is the only
grain that grows in the country ; they have fugar-canes*
beans, peas, radifhes, yams, potatoes, pumkins, and feveral
kinds of pot-herbs unknown to Europe ; and here are to be
found mod of the fruits to be met with in other parts of the
Eaft Indies, in the greateft perfection. Indigo, Brafil-
wood, two fpecies of the bread-fruit tree, pepper, benjamin,
coffee, and cotton, are likewife the produce of this ifland,
as well as caffia and camphire mentioned above. Here alfo
is the cabbage-tree and filk cotton tree ; and the forell con¬
tains a great variety of valuable fpecies of wood, as ebony,
pine, fandal, eagle or aloes, teek, manchineel, and iron-
wood, and alfo the banyan tree. Gold, tin, iron, copper,
and lead, are found in the count'v ; and the former is lup-
pofed to be as» plentiful here as in Peru or Mexico. The
fineft gold and gold-duff are found in the country of Zh-
movg, immediately contiguous to the prdidency of Fort
Marlborough, to which the merchants repair annually for
the purchafe of opium, and fuch other articles as they may
be in want off, and give for them gold of fa pure a nature
as to contain little or no alloy. The native indolence of
” the Alalay difpoiition prevents them from colle&ing more
than is fufficient to fupply the few and Ample wants of a
race of men as yet unenlightened by civilization and fai¬
ence, and ignorant o( the full extent of the advantages of
the country inhabited by them. The roads leading to this
golden country are almoil impervious ; affording only a fcan-
ty path to a Angle traveller, where whole nights muff be
parted in the open air, expofed to the malignant influence
of a hoftile climate, in a country infefted by the moll fero¬
cious wild beads. Thefe are circumftances that have hi¬
therto checked curiofity ; but perfeverance and ftudied
precaution will furmount the obftacles they furnifh, and fuch
difeoveries might be made as would amply compenfate for
th6 difficulties leading to them. The gold merchants who
come from the neighbouring and lefs rich countries, give us
fuch accounts of the facility of procuring gold as border
nearly on the marvellous, and would be altogether incre¬
dible, if great quantities of that metal produced by them did
not in fome degree evince the certainty of their accounts.
This great abundance of gold in Sumatra induces Mr Marf-
den to fuppofe that ifland to be the Ophir of Solomon ; a
conjefture which, in his opinion, derives no Anall force from
the word Ophir's being really a Malay fubffantive, of a com¬
pound (enle, Agnifying a mountain containing gold. The
natives, he confefl'es, have no oral tradition on the fubjedff ;
and we have elfewhere made it probable, that Ophir was A-
tuated in a different quarter of the world (lee Ophir).
BeAdes the metals and different fpecies of wood which we
have mentioned, Sumatra produces fulphur, arfenic, falt-
pet«e, and bees-wax, with edible birds-neffs, which are there
commodities of great importance (fee BiRDS-Ne/ls).
The Englifh and Dutch have faftories on this ifland j
the principal one of the former being Eort Marlborough,
on the fouth weff coaft. The original natives of Sumatra
are Pagans ; but it is to be obferved, that when the Suma¬
trans, or any of the natives of the eallern Hands, learn to
Afuitlc Fe
fcarcbes)
vol. i.
72 1 SUM
read the Arabic character, and fubmit to circumcifion, they Sumtnar
are faid to become Malays; the term Malay being under- 1!
flood to mean Mujfulman. See Acheen. ‘‘
SUMMARY, in matters of literature. See Abridge-
ment.
SUMMER, the name of one of the feafons of the year,
being one of the quarters when the year is divided into four
quarters, or one hah when the year is divided only into two,
fummer and winter. In the former cafe, fummer is the
quarter during which, in northern climates, the fun is paf-
Ang through the three Agns Cancer, Leo, Virgo, or from
the time of the greateft declination, till the fun come to the
equinoftial again, or have no declination ; which is from
about the 21ft of June till about the 2zd of September. In
the latter cafe, fummer contains the Ax warmer months,
while the fun is on one fide of the equinoctial; and winter
the other Ax months, when the fun is on the other Ade of it.
It is faid that a frofty winter produces a dry fummer, and a
mild winter a wet fummer.
SvMMRR-IJlands. See Bermudas.
Summer Red-Bird. See Muscicapa.
SUMMIT, the top or vertex of any body or Agure, as
of a triangle, cone, pyramid, &c.
SUMMONS, in law, a citing or calling a perfon to any
court, to anfwer a complaint or to give his evidence.
Summons, in war. To furamon a place, is to fend a
drum or trumpet to command the governor to iurrender,
and to declare that if the place be taken by ftorm, all muff
fubmit to the mercy of the conqueror. See Capitulation
and Chamade.
SUMMUM bonum, in ethics, the chief good.
SUMP, in metallurgy, a round pit of (tone, lined with
clay within, for the receiving the metal on its Aril fuAon
from the ore.
Sump, in the Britifh falt-w'orks, where fea-water is boiled
into fait, is the name of a fort of pond, which is made at
fomt diftance from the faltern on the fea-fhore, between full
fea and low water mark. From this pond a pipe is laid,
through which, when the lea is in, the water runs into a
well adjoining to the faltern ; and from this well it is pump¬
ed into troughs, through which it is carried to the cilteras,
in order to be ready to fupply the pans. See Salt.
SUMPH, in mining, denotes a pit funk down in the bot¬
tom of the mine, to cut or prove the lode dill deeper than
before ; and in order to flope and dig it away if neceffary,
and alfo to drive on the lode in depth. The fumph prin¬
cipally ferves as a bafon or refervoir, to colleCt the water of
a mine together, that it may be cleaned out by an engine
or machine.
SUMPTER-horse, is a horfe that carries proviAons and
neeeffaries for a journey.
SUMPTUARY laws (Leges Sumptuarhe), are laws
made to reftrain excels in apparel, coftly furniture, eating,
&c.
Mod ages and nations have had their fumptuary laws ;
and fome retain them (till, as the Venetians, &c. But
it is obferved, that no laws are worfe executed than
fumptuary laws. Political writers have been much divided
in opinion with refpeft.to the utility of thefe laws to a date.
Montefquieu obferves, that luxury is neceffary in monarchies,
as in France, but ruinous to democracies, as in Holland.
With regard to England, whofe government is compounded
of both fpecies, it may dill be a dubious queffion, (ays judge
Blackftone, how far private luxury is a public evil; and as
fuch cognizable by public laws.
The fumptuary laws of that ancient Locrian legiflator
Zaleucus are famous : by thefe it was ordained, that no
woman fhould go attended with more than one maid in
a the
Bim
II
Sunday.
SUN [ 73 ] SUP
tU (l«rt ««pt Ae wcrt drunk; th«t fce AouM r.ot go to fati.fy t1,e law of Mof« and to imitate the apoftle,, uAo SuoveMu.
out or the city m the night, ijnlefs me went to commit for. ufed to meet too-ether on the firft day ril *
nication ; that the (hould not wear any gold or embroidered By Conftantine’e laws, made in 321, it was decreed, that «
apparel, unleis (he propofed to be a common ftrumpet; and for the future the Sunday (hould be kept a day of reft ;niuPcrficiM*
that men^fhould not wear rings or tiffues except when they all cities and towns ; but he allowed the countiy people to
follow their work. T j n ^
went a whoring, &c.
Among the Romans, the fumptuary laws were very nu¬
merous : By the Lex Orckiay the number of guefts at feaits
was limited, though without any limitation of the charges :
by the Fannianlaw, made 2 2 years afterwards, it was enact¬
ed, that more than 10 ajfes (hould not be fpent at any ordi¬
nary feaft: for the folemn feafts, as the Saturnalia, &c. an
hundred afles were allowed ; ten of which, Gellius informs
us, was the price of a (heep, and a hundred of an ox. By
the Didian law, which was preferred 18 years after, it was
decreed, that the former fumptuary laws (hould be in force,
not only in Rome, but throughout all Italy ; and that for
every tranfgreffion, not only the mailer of the feaft, but all
the guefts too, (hould be liable to the penalty.
The Englilh have had their (hare of fumptuary laws,
chiefly made in the reigns of Edw. III. Edw. IV. and Hen¬
ry \ III. againft (hoes with long points, (hort doublets, and
long coats; though all repealed by ftatute i Jae. I. c. 25.
As to excels in diet, there remains ftill one law unrepealed.
Under King Henry IV. Camden tells us, pride was got
fo nmch into the foot, that it was proclaimed, that no man
fhould wear (hoes above fix inches broad at the toes. And
their other garments were fo (hort, that it was enaacd,
25 Edw. IV. that no perfon, under the condition of a lord,
. . 53^> the council of Orleans prohi¬
bited country labour; but becaufe there were ftill many*
Jews in Gaul, and the people fell into many fuperfti-
tious ufages in the celebration of the new Sabbath, like
thofe of the Jews among that of the old, the council de¬
clares, that to hold it unlawful to travel with horfes, cattle,
and carriages, to prepare food, or to do any thing neccffa-
ry to the cleanlinefs and decency of houfes or perfons, fa*
vours more of Judaifm than of Chriftianity. See Sabbajf^
Breaking*
Sun day-Schools. See Sunday-Schools.
SUOVE FAURILIA, an ancient Roman facrifice, fo
called becaufe it confided of a pig {fusj, a (heep or rather
ram (ov/j), and a hull (taurus). They were all males, to
denote the mafculine courage of the Roman people. It was
hkewife called folitaurilia, becaule the animals offered up
were always fo/ida, whole or uncut.
SUPERCARGO, a perfon employed by merchants to
go a voyage, and overfee their cargo or lading, and difpofe
of it to the beft advantage.
SUPERCILIUM, in anatomy, the eye brow. See A-
NATOMY, n° I 42.
SUPEREROGATION, in theology, what a man does
beyond his duty, or more than he is commanded to do.
foch length that" (UnV^" ^ T g°Wn’ U‘iIefs The Romanitts upTrenuoufl/for workTof ffjpe^To-
member, and buttocks 8 Upng ^11 C°,Cr '”8 pmy a,!d mainta‘“that th' obferrance of evangelicaUoun.
SUN, Sol G) in fin. . 1 • 1. , T.,s ruch' B5r meaas hereof, a (lock of merit is laid up,
enlightens the world, anTbv i’ts oXce ZftU "d »I>'ch the church has the dlfpofal of, and which (he diltri.
See AsraoNOMvS* X P l>«es in mdulgences to fuch as need.
Moik-Sus. See Parhelion.
SuN-Fifh of the Ir'fh. See Squalus.
,n botany. See He li a nth us.
m botany. See Drosera.
Sun-FIowc
Sun- Dew,
In f^V^AnSLANDu’ a Sen«aTname for a clufter of idands
hr! d °fiCoean’ lftw"en 93^ and I2ofJ ofeaft longitude,
and between 8 north and 8" fouth latitude. The particu-
iL”T"c ie ands irc B°rnco'Suma,ra' Ba,'s'
0r 'heeLeTS'DAri * fol'm" MW obfer.
our ^ ™S “r" ,heAft‘da)r week, in memory
® our Saviours refurreftion. See Sabbath *
^ the fierft"d'La"d °;!£r0&™ with Sundays
I'his abfurd dodrine was firft invented towards the clofe
of the 12th century, and modified and embelliflied by St
ihomas in the 13th: according to which, it was pretended
that there actually exifted an immenfe treafure of merit,
compofed of the pious deeds and virtuous actions which the
(aints had performed beyond what was neceffary for their
own fid vat ion, and which were therefore applicable to the
benefit of others ; that the guardian and difpenfer of this
precious treafure was the Roman pontiff; and that of con-
(equence he was empowered to affion to fuch as he thought
proper a portion of this inexhauftible fource of merit, fuit-
able to their refpe&ive guilt, and fufficient to deliver them
from the punifhment due to their crimes.
The reformed church do not allow of any work of fupe-
rer^pation; but hold with the apofiles, that when we have
of the firft and fecond clafs Thofe nf -ft 1 r
conceives of a latter coition ; lo that (he bears at once two
particular name which 4a, taken flVSt
the ATocaTyptTt" chat,the L-d'»day, mentioned in
unlike to ours. ‘ 1 the day1101 much
But it was Conftantine the Great who Cvft i r c
tile proper obietvation of Sunday • 'nd S "j?" for
I-ufebius. annninr-^ft u /i—u i } ’ ,an? ^bo, according
out
loetules ot unequal age and bulk, and is delivered of them
at different times. We meet with inftances of fuperfetations
,!1 Hippocrates, iVnftotle, Du Laurens, See. i but they are
fafd to be much more frequent in hares and fvvine.
SUPERFICIES, or Surtace, in geometry, the out-
fide or exterior face of any body. ThiVis confidered as ha¬
ving the two dimenfions of length and breadth only, but no
thicknefs ; and therefore it makes no part of the fubftance
or folid content or matter of the body.
The terms, or bounds, or extremities, of a fuperficies, are
lines; and fuperficies may be coniidered as generated by the
ebrus, appointed it (hould b- ‘lcc°r)cnn£ lines. 5 and iuperhcies may be coniidered as generated by the
the Roman empire. Before him ^ J e through- motions of lines. Superficies are either redlilinear, curvili-
.''kf— . , " ’ o f, ’ a"d even in his time, near, plane, concave, or convex. A teftilinear fuperficies is
ur ueiore t
Vox.. XVIII.6Part'? "Sab!jatil as weli 33 Sunday; both
that which is bounded by right lines.
K
Curvilinear fuperfi-
ciea
1
fiuperfti-
tion.
s u
Superfine cies is bounded by curve lines.
which has no inequality in it, nor rifings, nor finkings, but
lies evenly arjd ftraight throughout, fo that a right line may
wholly coincide with it in all parts and directions. Com
vex fuperficies is that which is curved and riles outwards.
Concave fuperficies is curved and finks inward. See Geo¬
metry.
SUPERFINE, in the manufactories, a term ufed to ex-
prefs the fuperlative finenefs of a ftuff: thus a cloth, a cam-
blet, &c. are faid to be fuperfine when made of the finefl;
wool, &c. or when they are the lineft that can be made.
SUPERFLUOUS interval, in naufic, is one that ex¬
ceeds a true diatonic interval by a femitone minor. See
Interval.
SUPERINTEND ANT, denotes an ecclefiaftical fupe*
rior in feveral reformed churches where epifcopacy is not
admitted: particularly among the Lutherans in Germany,
and the Calvinifts in fome other places.
The fuperintendant is fimilar to a bilhop ; only his
power is fomewhat more reftrained than that of our dio-
cefan bilhops. He is the chief pallor, and has the direc¬
tion of all the inferior pallors within his dillriCt or diocefe.
In Germany they had formerly fuperintendants general, who
were fuperior to the ordinary fuperintendants. Thefe, in
reality, were archbilhops ; but the dignity is funk into dif-
ufe ; and at prefent none but the fuperintendant of Wirtem-
berg alfumes the quality of fuperintendant general.
SUPERIOR, a perfon raifed above another in rank, of¬
fice, or talents.
Superior, in Scots law. See Law, N5 clxiv. 3. clxv. 2.
& clxvi.
SUPERLATIVE, in grammar, one of the three de¬
grees of comparifon, being that inflexion of adjeClive nouns
that ferves to augment and heighten their fignificadon,
and Ihows the quality of the thing denoted to be in the
lu’ghell degree. See Grammar.
SUPERNUMERARY, fomething over and above a fix¬
ed number. In feveral of the offices are fupernumerary clerks,
to be ready on extraordinary occafions.
SUPERPARTICULAR proportion, or Ratio, is
that in which the greater term exceeds the lei's by unit or 1.
As the ratio of 1 to 2, or 2 to 3, or 3 to 4, &c.
SUPERPARTIENT proportion, or Ratio, is when
the greater term contains the lefs term once, and leaves fome
number greater than 1 remaining. As the ratio
of 3 to 5, which is equal to that of 1 to ;
of 7 to 10, which is equal to that of I to l y, &c.
SUPERSEDEAS, in law, a writ iffued in divers cafes,
importing in general a command to Hay or forbear fome or-
- dinary proceedings in law, which in appearance ought to be
done or purfued, were it not for the eaufe whereon this
writ is granted.
Thus a man regularly is to have a furety of peace againll
him of whom he will fwear he is afraid ; and the jullice re¬
quired hereunto cannot deny it him: yet, if the party be
formerly bound to the peace, either in chancery or elfewheie,
this writ lies to Hay the jullice from doing that which other-
wife he ought not to deny.
SUPERSTITION, a word that has been ufed fo inde¬
finitely, that it is difficult to determine its precile meaning.
From its refemblance in found to the Latin word fuperjles,
a furvivor,” it is evidently derived from it, and difterent
attempts have been made to trace their connexion in figni-
fication. Balbus, in the dialogue De Natura Deorum ol Ci¬
cero, fays, that they who prayed and facrificed whole days
that their children might furvive them, were called fuper-
tLitious. Laitantius cenfureg this etymology, and fays
P [ 74 1 sup
Plane funerficies is that they were not called fuperftitious who wifhed that their chil- Superftk
dren might furvive them (for this we all wilh), but becaufe
they who furvived their parents worlhipped their images.
Others again fay, that fuperllition is derived from fuperjles,
becaufe it confilled in conlidering the dead as if they were
alive. But thefe etymologies are folely conjedlural; and we
confider conjedlures as abfurd in philology as we do in fcience;
they may millead, but are feldom of any benefit. The ulual
meaning affixed to the word Juperjlition, both in the Latin
and Englilh languages, is fo different from fuperjies, that its
change of meaning mull be owing to fome accident which
it is m vain to inquire after. If we had not known that
the word paganvs “ a pagan” was derived from pagus “ a
village,” becaufe the heathens in a certain period of the
Chriftian hillory lived in villages, the whims and fancies of
etymologills would not have thrown much light on the fub-
je£t.
Without labouring, from the aid of etymology, to define
fuperllition, which is a word of a very extenlive lignifica-
tion, we will confider to what obje&s it is applied ; and
then, by obferving what is common to them all, we fhall be
enabled to fix with fome degree of precilion the meaning of
the term. We apply it to the idolatry of the heathens ;
we apply it alfo to the Jews, who made the will of
God of no effesff by their traditions, and fubllituted cere¬
monies in place of the religion of their fathers. We fay al¬
fo that Chrillians are guilty of fuperllition ; the Roman
Catholics, who believe in tranfubftantiation and in the ef¬
ficacy of prayers to faints ; and thofe Proteftants who efteem
baptifm and the Lord’s fupper, and the punftual perform¬
ance of other ceremonies, without regard to morality, as
fufficient to enfure falvation. Thofe perfons alfo are rec¬
koned fuperftitious who believe, without any evidence, that
prophecies are ftill uttered by the divine infpiration, and
that miracles are ilill performed. The word is alfo extend¬
ed to thofe who believe in witchcraft, magic, and appari¬
tions, or that the divine will is declared by omens or au¬
gury ; that the fortune of individuals can be affefled by
things indifferent, by things deemed lucky or unlucky, or
that difeafes can be cured by words, charms, and inca*ta-
tions.
Through all the particulars which we have enumerated,
there runs one general idea, the belief of what is falfe and
contrary to reafon. From this, however, we mull not fuppofe
that whatever is falfe and contrary to reafon may be deno¬
minated fuperftition. We think that it is falfe and irratio¬
nal to fuppofe that there ever lived on earth a race of men
who walked on one leg, and had their eyes in their bread;
or that there were giants 90 feet high : yet we do not call
the philofopher who believes thefe chimeras fuperftitious, but
credulous. Superftition has always a reference to God, to
religion, or to beings fuperior to man. We do not however
diftinguiih all falfe and irrational opinions in religion by the
name of fuperftition. We do not, for inftance, apply this
name to the opinions which fome of the ancients entertained,
that God is the foul of the world, and that men are only
portions of him feparated for a time, or that the foul after
death lives fucceffively in different bodies. If we examine
the fubjedl with more attention, we fhall difeover that the
foundation of fuperftition is ignorance of the moral attri¬
butes of God ; for we never fay a man is fuperftitious for en¬
tertaining erroneous opinions of the natural attributes of
God. Some of the Socinians have denied the prefcience of
God; and a French philofopher has not only rejefted
the belief that He is a fpirit, but has prefumed to fay
that he is compofed of a fpecies of cryftals. The firffc
of thefe opinions difeovers very imperfedl ideas of God, and
the fecond is the height of impiety and abiurdity; yet the
5 So-
S UP [ 7
gHperfti- Socfmans have not been accufed of fuperftluon, nor can this
tiou. French philofopher be fufpected of it. We do not call every
falfe opinion concerning, the unity or moral attributes of God
by the name of fuperftition, as, for inftance, the opinion which
fome fceptics have fupported, that God is not good ; for, as
was mentioned before, fuperftition always involves the idea
of credulity. It does not confift in falfely denying that God
poffeffes any particular moral attributes, but in believing more
than what is true concerning them; in forming mean, un¬
worthy ideas of them; in fuppoling that he is guided by
blind paffion like mankind, and enjoins upon his creatures
commandments which are irrational and abfurd.
As fuperftition arifes from ignorance and credulity in the
underftanding, fo it has alfo a feat in the paffions. Fear
has been commonly confidered as the paflion of the hu¬
man mind from which it chiefly derives its origin; and there
is no doubt that more fuperftition has arifen from fear united
with ignorance and credulity than from any other paflion.
Yet it would certainly be improper to exclude all other paf-
i"-ons. We cannot account for the fuperftition of the Egyp¬
tians, without luppofing that much of it arofe from gratitude.
They worfliipped the Nile, becaufe it diftributed fertility and
abundance over the land of Ekjypt ; and they worfhipped
fome animals, merely becaufe they prevented the increafe of
other animals which were noxious. Thus they adored the
ibis, becaufe it deftroyed the eggs of the crocodile.
Having thus endeavoured to analyze the ideas compre¬
hended under the word iuperltition, we may fum them up
in a few words. It refpefts God and beings fuperior to
man, and extends to our religious opinions, worftiip, and
practices; and may be defined abfurd opinions and aSions
ari/ingfrom mean and defeSive ideas of the moral attributes of God.
Eet us apply this definition to the different fpecies of fuper-
ilition already mentioned.
But before entering upon this application, it may be pro¬
per to obferve, that fuperftition involves the idea of a blame-
able inattention to reafon, or a credulity arifing from an in¬
dolence of underftanding. We generally make a diftinftion
between the imperfed opinions which a favage, from the
neceffary effe&s of hip fituation, forms of the attributes
r u ’ rand th0‘e vvhlc^ civilized nations entertain. We
iay the favage is ignorant, and we aferibe his ignorance
to his fituation; but we call the Roman Catholic fuperfti-
■ tious, and we blame him for not having thofe juft ideas
of God which he might have obtained by opening his Bi-
ble, or by the exercife of his underftanding in the favour¬
able fituation m which he is placed. Superrtition then docs
not originate fo much from the natural weaknefs of the hu-
ofk |l^erftandlnS’ as from a mifapplication or a negleft
nfrlrT "Ith any Pr°Pn'ety app'y 'h= name
fiP'Mon to polytheifm m general; for what all ihe ancient
phi ofophers after much Hudy and refleftion, concluded to
frlT!?. f™m.credulity and inattention.
whence If -7 Foper,;: however,
ItO-
ra/h
SeTnotanf? ^ °f fnpnrTS,3
Th”" fd3 1fool,'ft, things
fuperftitious mantp
fprinUM hS ,S,re W"0’,havin« «(hed his hands, and
" leat ht r,! f ATi 'h' “"-Pk with a laurel
in Ht'o vi , • ; , ° ‘•llt '-vmpie with a laurel
Or, if a weafel fh "iV W le about the whole day.
Hep till he ha- tfi°U ^ S r0ad’ n,ot advance a
1 thrown three ftones over the road. If he finds
U)W
sl SUP
a ferpent in his houfe, he rears a place of devotion on the Superfti-
fpot. He purifies his houfe often, will not fit upon a grave, tiolF
nor touch a dead perfon. He is anxious about the interpre- ‘ ^
tation of his dreams, will not offer a facrifice unlefs his wife
go along with him, or, if fhe is engaged, he takes the nurfe
and the little children. He purifies himfelf with onions ;
and when he fees a mad or an epileptic perfon, he fpits in
their bofom. 8uch was the charatfer of fuperftition in the
days of 1 heophraftus. All thefe whimfical ceremonies were
done to prevent mifehief, and to avert the wrath of the gods;
and therefore perfectly correfpond with the definition given
above.
It is only neceffary to confider a little the fuperftitious
opinions and pra&ices among Jews and Chriltians, to be fen-
fible that they have all arifen from mean and abfurd ideas of
the moral attributes of God ; for they have generally enter¬
tained noble opinions of his natural attributes. The Jews
confidered God as a partial Being, who had a predilection
for their nation in preference to all others, and preferred ex¬
ternal homage and ceremony to moral purity. If the Ro¬
man Catholics think confidently, they muft efteem God as
a Being who can be prevailed upon by the importunity of
one dead man to afllft another, or as a Being whofe patience
would be fatigued with hearing prayers conftantly. Hence
their practice of praying to faints. They in effeft believe,
however they may deceive themfelves, that God is unjuft, or
they could not believe tranfubftantiation; for it fuppofes that
God can give commands diredtly contrary to thofe principles
of belief with which he has endued the human mind. They
confider a ftridt adherence to a variety of ceremonies, to
forms, to pomp, and fhow, as effential to the worftiip of
God : this is treating God as a vainglorious Being. They
thought it their duty to extirpate heretics: this was fup-
pofing God a cruel and revengeful Being. Even among
Protellants, we are forry to fay, a great deal of fuperftition
remains: we have not yet learned to confider God as a fpi-
nt, who is to be worfhiped in fpirit and in truth, as a pure
moral benevolent Being ; and hence arifes all the fuperfti-
tious practices which prevail among us.
Befides thofe fuperftitious opinions and practices which
entirely refpedt our duty to God, there are others which may
be termed vulgar fuperjlitions. Thefe alfo arife from imper-
fe£t and mean ideas of the moral attributes of God. To be¬
lieve vulgar prophecies, which are always the effufions of mad-
nefs or knavery, is to fuppofe that God, who has drawn a
veil over futurity, and only delivers prophecies to accomplifti
fome great moral purpofe, fometimes gives them for no pur-
pofe at all, or to gratify idle curiofity, or to difclofe fuch a
knowledge of what is to happen as is inconfiftent with the
free agency of man and the moral adminiftration of the
world. Nor is it lefs fuperftitious to believe in vulgar mi¬
racles. To believe in them, is to believe that God fufpends
the laws of nature for the moft trivial purpofes, or to
countenance fraud and worldly ambition : it is to receive
the moft extraordinary fads upon the moft unfatisfaftory
evidence. The belief witchcraft, of apparitions, and the
fecond fight, may be refolved into the fame principle. To
tuppofe that God would communicate the power of doing
mifehief, and of controuling his laws, to any being merely
for gratifying their own paflions, is unworthy of God. The
beliet of apparitions is equally inconiiftent with the good-
neis of God (fee Spectre). The fame obje&ion rifes
againft the fecond light as againft the belief of vulgar
prophecies, and may alfo be extended to omens, to aftrolo-
gy, to things lucky and unlucky, to fortune-telling, &c.
As to the different devices and charms for preventing and
curing diforders, they refemble in every refpeef falfe miracles.
K 2 A
do not pretend to fay that this is the fenfe in which fuperftition is always uled, becaufe it is often ufed improperly.
r
Superfti-
tion.
SUP
A judicious hiftory of fuperfUtion would be a curious
and entertaining work, and would exhibit the human cha-
ra&er in a remarkable point of view. Superltition is moil
prevalent among men of weak and uncultivated minds ; it is
more frequent in the female fex than among men; and
abounds more in the rude than in the refined Itages of fo-
ciety. The general features of it have been the fame in all
but it affuir.es certain peculiarities according to the
Tranjac
tions,
stol. in.
diverfity of chara&er of different nations. It gained adrnifi
fion into the fcience of medicine at an early period. He who
was endowed with fuperior genius and knowledge was rec¬
koned a magician. I)r Bartolo was feized by the inquifition
at Rome in the laft century, becaufe he unexpectedly cured a
f Tancbefter nobleman of the gout. Hifeafes were imputed to fatcina-
tion, and hundreds of poor wretches were dragged to the
Hake for being acceffaiy to them. Mercatus, phylician to
Philip II. of Spain, a writer of uncommon accuracy and
information, appears ftrongly inclined to deny the exiitence
of fafcinatory difeafes : but he is conffrained to acknow¬
ledge them for two realons ; \J2, Becauie the inquifition had
decided in favour of their reality; 2d/y, Becaufe he had
feen a very beautiful woman break a fteel mirror to pieces,
and blaff fome trees by a fingle glance of her eyes.
As the opinions concerning the caufe or dileafes were
fuperffitious, thofe concerning the method of curing tlrem
were not lefs fo. In the Odyffey we read of a cure per¬
formed by a fong. Jofephua relates, that he faw a certain
Jew, named Eleazar, draw the devil out of an old woman’s
uoftrils by the application of Solomon’s leal to her nofe in
prefence of the Emperor Vefpalian. Many different kinds
Flaiiella-
"Memoir
tf Sully,
Supper.
76 ] SUP
name of alhajls', and the predictions of Rice IS vans hm * Jjmifar
been fupported io the prefent century by the celebrated
names of iVarburton an&Jortin. Dr Hoffman, the father of the
Modern Theory and Practice of Medicine, in a difiertation
publiftied in the large edition of his works in 1747, fays,
that the devil can raife ftorms, produce infers, and aft upon
the animal fpirits and imagination ; and, in fine, that he is
an excellent optician and natural philofopber on account of his-
long experience. Dr Johnfun, the leviathan of literature, is
fuppofed to have believed the lecond light.
With reipedt to the effefts of fuperftition on the human,
mind, they are indeed deplorable. It chains down the un-
derllanding, and links it into the molt abjeift and fordid
ftate, and keeps it under the dominion ot fear, and fome-
times. of cruelty. Where once it takes poffelfion, it has a .
tendency to become extreme, and generally becomes fo in¬
tolerable, that men of refleftion and learning confpire its
dellrmftion. The Ghriftiaju religion gave a violent Ihock to
| Ibid.
I Tiayle,
>Vrt. Ma-
y/».
of applications were ufed for expelling the devil,
tion fometimes fucceeded admirably ; purgatives and anti-
fpafmodics were other modes ot difcharging him. Dr Myn-
jlight cured feveral bewitched perlons with a plafter of affa-
fcetida. How the affafcetida was fo efficacious, was much
difputed. Some thought the devil might confider fo vile
an application as an infult, and run off in a paffion ; but
others very fagely obferved, that as devils are luppofed to have
eyes and ears, it is probable they may have noles too.
Nor was it only in medicine thele fuperftitious opinions
were entertained ; they prevailed alio in natural philofo-
phy. The pernicious effeifts in mines, which we now know
are occafioned by noxious air, were confidently imputed to
the demons of the mine. Even Van Helmont, Bodinus,
Strozza, and Luther, attributed thunder and meteors to
the devil. Chemilts were employed lor centuries in fearch
of the philofopher’s ftone, with which they were to do
miracles. It was a common quellion among philofo-
phers in the lall century, whether the imagination could move
external objeifts ? A queftion generally decided in the af¬
firmative.
Though fuperftition be generally the mark of a weak
smind, fuch is the infirmity of human nature, that we find
many inftances of it among men of the moft fnblime ge¬
nius and moft enlightened minds. Socrates believed that
lie was guided by a demon. Eord Bacon believed in
witchcraft ; and relates that he was cured of warts by rub¬
bing them with a piece of,lard with the Ikin on, and then
nailing it with the fat towards the fun on the poll of a
chamber window facing the fun. Henry TV. one of the
moft illuftrious of monarchs, was very uneafy before, his al-
r iaffination on account of fome prophecies Sully de¬
clares, that one of the confiderations that kept him faith¬
ful to his mafter in the moft unpromifing ftate of his af¬
fairs, was a predi&ion of La Broffe, that Henry would,
make his fortune f. The aftrologer Morin directed Car-
dinal Richelieu’s motions in fome of his journeys J. ft he
enlightened Cudworth defended prophecies in general, and
called thefe who oppofed the belief of witchcraft by the
the heathen fuperftition ; the reformation in a great mea-
fme demohfhed the fuperftitLon of the church of Rome;
and the iuperftiLion which remained among Proteftants after
their feparation from that church has been gradually yield¬
ing to the influence of enlightened reafon, or to the bold
and daring attacks of infidelity and deilm. We behold the
profpe<ft of its ruins with pleafure, and thank the deiils
for their zeal; but it is from the firm hope that the religion
of Jefus will arife in all its beauty and limple majeity, and
be admired and refpeefted as it deferves : for mean and
contemptible as fuperftition certainly is, we would rather
fee men do what they reckon their duty from fuperftitious
principles, than fee anarchy and vice prevail, even though
attended with all the kuowledge and liberality of. fentimeat.
which deifm and infidelity can infpire.
SUPERVISOR, a furveyor or overfeer..
SUPINATION, in anatomy, the atftion of a fupinator
mufcle, or the motion whereby it turns -the baud fo as that
the palm is lifted up towards heaven.
SUPINE, in Latin grammar, part of the conjugation
of a verb, being a verbal fubftantive of the fingular num¬
ber and the fourth declenfiom.
There are two kinds of fupines: One, called the jitj}
fupine, ending in um ot the accuiative caie, which is always of
an aeftive ligniheation, and follows a verb of motion ; as abut
deambulatum. The other, called the lajl fupine> and ending
in u of the ablative cafe, is of apaffive fignification, and is go¬
verned by fubftantives or adje&ives ; ^facile di3u, &c.
They have their name, fays Probus, and after himVoffius5
quod ad injlar iupinorum & atioforum hominum omnia babent
confufa : or, according to Prifcian, quod nafeantur a partici-
piis pajjivis) qua fupina appeiiata Junt, quia in injimo loco Jita$
totam conjugatioms molem Jufcipiant.
SUPPER, the evening lepail,— Suppers that are heavy
fliould be avoided, becaufe the ftomach is more oppreffed
with the fame quantity of food in an horizontal pofture than
an ere<ft one, and becauie digeftion goes on more flowly
when we fleep than when we are awake. They fhould be
eaten long enough before bed-time, that they may be nearly
digefted before going to fleep; and then a draught of pure
water will.dilute that which remains in the ftomach. j
Supper of the Lord., otherwiie called the Eucharijl, is Definite
a facrament ordained by Chrift in. his church, of which
the outward part is bread and wine, and the inward part
or thing lignified the body and blood of Chrift, which the
majority ot Chriftians believe to be in fome fenfe or other
taken and received by the faithful communicants. See
Sacrament.
There is no ordinance of the gofpel which has been the
fubjeift of more violent controverlies between different
churches, and even between different divines of the fame
5 church.
Surr*1'1
Comrover
lies about
the out-
^ ExoJ.
Xii. 15, 19
sup r
cKufch, than this facrament; and though all confefs that
one purpofe of its inftitation was to be a bond of love and
union among Chriflians, it has, by the perverfenefs of man¬
kind, been too often converted into an occalion of hatred.
The outward and vifible hgn, and the inward and fpiritual
vifibl 3f/ grace> have equally afforded matter of dilputation to angry
^"’controvertiils. Many members of the church of Rome
condemn the Greek church and the Proteftants for ufxng
leavened bread in the Lord’s Supper, contrary to the ex¬
ample fet them by our Saviour ; whilfl the Greek church
in general, and fome Proteftant focieties in particular, unite
with the church of Rome in cenfuring all churches which
mix not the wine with water, as deviating improperly from
primitive praftice. See Eucharist.
That it was unleavened bread which our Lord blefled
and brake a-nd gave to his difciples as his body, cannot be
queftioned ; for at the time of the paffover, when this oi--
dinance was inflituted, there was no leavened bread to be
found in Jerufalem*. For the mixed cup, the evidence is
not fo decifive. It is indeed true, as we have obferved un¬
der the article Eucharist, that the primitive Chriftians
ufed wine diluted with water; and if we may believe Mai-
f Tn Mijb monidesf, it was the general cuftom of the Jews, as well
nam. at the paflover as at their ordinary meals, to add a little
water to their wine on account of its great flrength ; but
that this was always done, or that it was done by our Sa-
•viour in particular, there is no clear evidence. Origen in-
in Hu re- ^ ^eec^ a®rmsi> that our Lord adminiftered in wine unmix-
nium. ’ an<^ was 1}ot a man to hazard fuch an affirmation,
had there been in his days any certain tradition, or fo
much as a general opinion, to the contrary. On this ac-
count w'e have often heard with wonder the neceffity of
the mixed cup infifted on by thofe who without hefitation
make ufe of leavened bread ; for if it be effential to the fa-
crament that* the very fame elements be employed by us
that were employed by our Saviour, the neceffity of un¬
leavened bread is certainly equal to that of wine diluted
by water.
But the mixed cup is faid to be emblematical of the
blood and water which flowed from the fide of our Lord
when pierced by the fpear of the Roman foldier, .while the .
a ence of leaven is emblematical of no particular circum-
ance in His paffion. This argument for the, mixture is
as old as the era of St Cyprian, and has fmee been fre¬
quently urged with triumph by thofe who furely perceived ,
not its weakuefs. The flowing of the blood and water
bom our Saviour’s fide was the confequence either of the
pear s ia\mg pieiced the pericardium, or more probably of
^in^l Z }ylro'i°rax’ oceafioned by his cruel and ling-
Lsgthtr\(f%MTC1NE’ n° 342.’ But whatever
au^ lt;> how can the mixing of wine with wa-
ter m the facrament be emblematical of the fWim, 0£
77 1 SUP
blood and water feparately ? Such a mixture furely bears Supper.
a more linking refemblance to the reunion of the Jerum and  V f
crajfamentum, after they had been feparated by whatever
caufe. See Blood.
We urge not thefe obje&ions to the mixed cup from
any diffike that we have to the praaice. It is unquef-
tionably harmlefs and primitive ; and we wifh that greater
regard were paid to primitive praaices than the generality 3
of Chriltians feem to think they can claim : but let the frivolous*
advocates for antiquity be confittent ; let them either re-
ftore, together with tne mixed cup, the ufe of unleavened
bread, or acknowledge that neither the one nor the other
is eiTential to the facrament. This lafl acknowledgment
mull indeed be made, if they would not involve themfelves
in difficulties from which they cannot be extricated. If
either the mixed cup or unleavened bread be abfolutely
neceffary to the validity of the facrament, why not wine
made from the grapes of Judaea ? why not that particular
kind of wine which was ufed by our Saviour? and where
is that wine to be found? 4
But the controverfies refpc&ing the outward part or About the"
fign of the Lord’s Supper are of "little importance when th”^. fiK-
compared with thofe which have been agitated rdpe&ing nitlcd’
the inward part or thing fignified ; and of thefe we haften
to give as compreheniive a view as the limits preferibed
to fuch articles will admit.
Our Blefled Lord, in the fame night that he was be¬
trayed, “ took bread, and blefled it, and brake :Sy and
ga\e it to the difciples, and hud, Take, eat; this is my
body. And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave
it to them, faying, Drink ye all of it; for this is my blood
of the new teftament, which is {bed for many for the re-
million of fins.” Such was the Jnftitution of the Lord’s
Supper as it is recorded in the gofpel by St Matthew ;
and we have the fame account of it, jn almoil the very
fame words, .by three other infpired writers, St Paul,
St Mark, and St Luke., That it was the bread which
ChriiLblefled and brake that is here called his body, and
the wine over which he gave thanks that he ftyies his
blood of the new teftament, will admit of no reafonable
doubt (a); but in what fenfe they became fo, has been
the fubjedt of many controverfies. ^ .
. The church of Rome; which holds, that after oonlecra-Prcftrine
turn, Jefus Cbrill, God and man, is really, truly, and fub-of tile
flantially, contained under the outward appearances of thechurch
biead and wine, informs us, tnat about the middle .01 the oir'e
mafs, when the. prieft, taking into his hand, firft the bread
and then the wine, pronounces over, each feparately the
facred words- of confecration, the fubllance of thefe ele¬
ments is immediately- changed by the, almighty power of
God into the body and blood of Chrill ; but that all the
outward appearances of the bread and wine, and all their
fien-
elements, together -Hthile 11 (r co"fccrated bread and wine, but thofe
»"!? the bread and wine to the ddc pies tbt ft,, ,7 ,"t°, h,S,ha,"d8’ bleffing them breaking the bread, and diilribu-
upon no better foundation than a v„, cMdl o V ' n ^ , ]> "ovJ xpmion refta
to the djfciples, faying, i„ the origiLl, '"d bra^“g t,‘* it
gender, can never agree with the anteoeden, « ■ ! • , r. , , T ? W’ OUr ^'Ics> the neuter
taken together, and confidered as one oomnl ? " 10 'lie mafcul’ne’ But muft refer to all the circumilances of the afiion
Jotes ^at could be eaten ,• and to Wofe tH , comPlcx or limple, certainly de-
human reafoa as any doHrine of the church ofR ^ b^f^dfred^ls aP9ftles to eat a8ionsr is as repugnant to
article than a demonftrative pronoun fee GrImZ n u \ 7 ^ ^ P^periya definite
Saviour held In his hand and gave to \he dife ’ V ?' I.L);,refeirsdireaiy to thing, whatever it was, which our
this/uljance, is m h()d Tg I10d‘ P|j;s i a“d clauie, when completed, is .v ; this beinv,
that it might be f ° nece^ty for charaaenhng that fubftance by any analogy to fex in ordS
Matter. “ ^mgmlhed from cry other fubllana ; for theSaPoftl£s could not but fe it fn Jc ha^d M th!S ■
S U P
pprf. fenfilile qualities remain. This more than
'V"—' change is called transubstantiation ; and is founded
on the philofophy of Ariftotle, which refolves all bodies
into matter and form (fee Metaphysics, n° 142—150.);
<for it is only the matter or imperceptible fub(lance which
-fupports the forms or fenfible qualities of bread and wine,
that is changed into the fubjlance or matter of the body
I 73 1 SUP 
miraculous the ftomach of each communicant—is it credible, is it pof-
fible, that the high and lofty One, who inhabiteth eternity,'
and whom the oracles of truth aflure us that even the hea¬
ven of heavens cannot contain, (hould be fibjlantially re¬
ceived whole and entire into a finite fpirit like the human
foul, or into a body fo limited as the human ilomach ?
Our author fays it is ; declaring that, “ by the blefled pre-
Suppe?;
and blood of Chrift, fo that this divine matter, coming into fence of Jefus Chrift, whole and entire within us, are com
the place of the former earthly matter, fupports the fame
identical forms which it fupported. Hence we are told,
4< that Jefus Chrift, now prefent inftead of the bread and
•wine, exhibits himfelf to us under thofe very fame outward
forms or appearances which the bredft and wine had before
.the change.”
Could this dodlrine be true, it would be abundantly my-
fterious ; but to add to the myftery, we are farther in¬
formed, that under each kind is contained Jefus Chrift
•whole and entire, his body and blood, his foul and divinity;
.fo that when a man eats wrhat has the appearance of a wa¬
fer, he really and truly eats the body and blood, the foul
and divinity, of Jefus Chrift; and when he afterwards
drinks what has the appearance of wine, he drinks the ve¬
ry fame body and blood, foul and divinity, which not a
minute perhaps before he had wholly and entirely eaten !
The ingenious author from w^hofe wrork we have taken
this account of the Romilh dodtrine concerning the real
.prefence, may perhaps reiebl our inference that the or¬
thodox members of his church muft believe the foul and
divinity of Chrift to be eaten and drunk in the Lord’s Sup¬
per ; but he cannot deny that, accoi'ding to his ftatement
of the Catholic faith, the foul and divinity are both re-
.ceived whole and entire into the ftomach of each commu¬
nicant. He fays indeed, that “ communion confifts in re¬
ceiving Jefus Chrift whole and entire, his faci'ed body, his
precious blood, his bleffed foul, and his adorable divinity,
into our folds but that which was formerly bread and
wine unqueftionably goes into theJlomachs of the commu¬
nicants ; and fince, according to him, it is now the body
and blood of Chrift, the foul and divinity muft go thither
with it, for thefe four cannot be feparated. This our au¬
thor himfelf grants. “ The Scripture (fays he) pofitively
declares, that Chrift rifing again from the dead, dieth no more ;
death fhall no more have dominion over him (Rom. vi. 9.)
Confequently his body, his blood, and his foul, (hall never
more be feparated from one another ; and as the union of
his divine and human natures can never more be broken, fo
neither can thefe, his two natures, united in his divine per-
fon, be ever feparated. From this it neceffarily follows,
that wherever the body of Chrift is, there alfo his blood,
his foul, and his divinity, muft of necefiity be in like man¬
ner.”
Now, whether we fuppofe, with our author, that the
foul and divinity ot Chrift direftly carry his body and
blood with them into the human foul, or, trufting in fome
degree to the evidence of fenfe, believe that the body and
.blood carry the foul and divinity with them diredlly into
municated to our fouls all the heavenly graces which are
the effedls of the holy communion : fuch as the famftifica-
tion of the foul by an increafe of juftifying grace; the ren¬
dering of it more pure, more holy, more beautiful, more
agreeable, in the eyes of God ; the cleanfing of the foul
from all thofe venial fins and imperfections of which we re¬
pent, and preferving us from falling into mortal fins ; the
uniting of us in a moft intimate manner with Jefus Chrift,
who comes to us in this holy facrament on purpofe to
dwell in our fouls and abide with us ; and the giving us a
pledge and earneft of a glorious immortality, to the enjoy¬
ment of which it brings us at laft, if we perfevere to the
end in the grace of God.”
The conlequence of the doCtrine of tranfuhftantiation
is the facriftce of the mafs, by which, it is faid, God’s ac¬
ceptance of Chrift’s faci'ifice on the crofs is obtained for
the adlual benefit of thofe perfons in particular for whom
the mafs is offered. In the wrork fo often quoted, we are
told, that “ Jefus Chrift our redeemer, wdio is both our
high-prieft and our viftim, who, in order to perfect the
wrork of our redemption, and reconcile man with his offend¬
ed Creator, offered himfelf once in a bloody manner upon
the crofs, in order to communicate and apply to the fouls
of individuals thofe graces, which, by his death, he merited
for mankind in general, continues to offer himfelf daily
upon the altar in an unbloody manner, by the miniftry of
his priefts, in the mafs. The facrilice of the crofs and that
of the mafs are both one and the fame facrifice, becaufe in
both the vi&im is the fame and the high prieft the fame,
viz. Jefus Chrift. The only difference is in the manner of
ofi’ering. On the crofs he offered himfelf in a bloody man¬
ner and actually died ; whereas on the altar he is offered
up to God in an unbloody manner, not aftually df&A, but
under the appearance of death ;” fo that the communicants
not only eat the man Jefus Chrift, but even eat him alive
!.
It is knowm to all our readers that this doclrine of tran-
fubftantiation was one caufe of the breach between the
church of Rome and thofe various focieties wdiich call
themfelves reformed churches. The real and fubftantial
change of the bread and wine into the body and blood of
our Lord is rejefted by every reformer as a change con¬
tradictory and impoffible, and fraught with the moft im¬
pious confequences ; and volumes have been written to ex-
pofe the weaknefs of thofe arguments which have fo often $
been vainly urged in its fupport. It has been (hown tO[mpli£i.
imply numberlefs abfurdities, fuch as, that the fame thing nunib'riil
can be in a million of different places, whole and entire, at c:3Iltl
^ the11005'
trail1'
(b) This whole account of the Romifh doftrine refpe&ing the facrament of the Lord’s Supper is taken from a work
in two fmall volumes, called The Sincere Chriftian inftruRed in the Faith of Chrift, from the Written Word. Its author is a
man of learning, and great perfonal worth ; and as he fills a high ftation in the church of Rome, we cannot doubt but
that he has given a fair view of the do&rine of that church refpeCting this and every other article of which he treats.
We are furry however that his zeal (hould have impelled him, in a popular work, to write in the manner that he has
done of the falvation of thofe who are not members of his church, or who cannot embrace all his opinions ; for if his
doftrine on this (abject be implicitly received by thofe “ over whom he has the rule, and for whofe fouls he is ap¬
pointed to watch,” they muft neceffarily look upon the majority of their fellow-citizens as reprobates doomed to
Sternal perdition. Let this be our apology for treating fome of thofe opinions, which he thinks fo abfolutely
neceffary
Supper.
s u p [ 79 ] SUP
the fame mflant of time j that it is near 1800 years old, pear glorified on the altar as he appeared on the mount at his
and yet may be not more than one minute; that form, or transfiguration, the words « ei « muft be interpreted
fenfible qualities are real things independent of their fub. figuratively. Had the apoftles underftood their Mafter’s
jea and the fentient beings who perceive them, that the words in the fenfe in which they are underftood by the
infinite and eternal God, who created and fufta.ns the urn- church of Rome, they would have rendered them into
verfe, is hlmfelf wholly and fubftantially comprehended by Greek, not r™l, „ ova. o this ;8 my l,,,!, <• blIt
Supper*
' J    J V* V
the human foul; and that the half, or fourth, or tenth
part of the body of Chrift, is equal to the whole of that
body. . That thefe are neceffary confequences of tranfub-
jiantiation has been fo completely proved in various works
(c) to which every reader may have accefs, that it is need-
kfs for us to repeat arguments fo hackneyed ; but there are
two objections to that doCtrine, which, as we do not re¬
member to have met with them elfewhere, and as they ap¬
pear to us abfolutely conclufive, it may be worth while to
Hate in this place.
The advocates for the real prefence in the Lord’s Sup¬
per contend, that every word relating to that ordinance
is to be taken in the ftrifteft and molt literal fenfe, and they
arieci to triumph over the Proteftants, becaufe their notions
T.7' ” ^ “ this is the matter of my body.” In
like manner, when St John relates || that Jefus faid, “ Who- l| Chap, vb
10 eateth my flelh and drinketh my blood, hath eternal verfe 54,
hfe, and I.will raife him up at the laft day,” had he un¬
derftood his adorable Mafter to fpeak of his flefh and blood
in the Eucharift in the fenfe in which they are taught to
be there by the church of Rome, he would have reprefent-
ed him as faying, not O' ^\> Ttiv aapica, xai TThiov piov to
but o' rpuyov r»)i( v\nv pov rwf oxpx.oc, xai TTivav rwv uAfU pujv
row diuctfoc, “ whofo eateth the matter of my flelh, and
drinketh the matter of my blood, hath eternal life, and I
will raife him up at the laft day.”
Rut further, fuppofing this Angular converfion poflible
_r*i " , V , —vu.wu dWLiw.io in itfelf, it cannot be rendered credible, however ftated in
™ r ™wcnt ca"not be fupported without having re- any language that ever was or ever will be fpoken by man 8
courfe to figure and metaphor. Ihis however is a very At firlt light it may appear paradoxical ^affirm ^hat aAndLa-
vam triumph ; for we^helitate not to affirm, that fuppofmg poffible faft cannot be lo related as to obtain credit • butPab!eof
rnof that tranfubftantiation, if poffible, is fuch a will bePr0°f*
apparent on the llighteft conlideration.
I he relation that fublifts between things and words is
arbitrary ; fo that what is termed loe/y in Englilh, is
in Greek, and corpus in Latin ; and the fame thing might
with equal propriety (had the authors of thefe languages
fo pleafed) have been exprefled in the firft by/01//, in the
fecond by -w, and in the third by anima. (See Language
n 3, &c.) The confequences of this are, that there is m>
univerfal language fpoken ; that the natives of one country
underhand not the fpeech of thofe of another; and that dif-
” r-; >, * '■vx.i-ci.i. nut lg ctmrrn, mat luppoixng
tranfubftantiation poffible, and even capable of proof, there
is not in the whole New Teftament a Angle woid or a Angle
phrafe which, if interpreted literally, gives the Aightefl
countenance to that wonderful doctrine. The reader will
remember, that tranfubftantiation, as we have ftated it from
a dignitary of the Romilh church, and as it is in fact ftated
by the council of Trent (d), con Alts in a change of the
matter, imperceptible fufjlance, or fub ft ratum of the bread and
wme into the matter, imperceptible fulftance, or fubjlratum of
Chrift s body and blood ; for all parties agree that the
ienftble qualities of the bread and wine remain, and, accord-
b contrary notlun„
o Scrip- - -- 0
:ure.
ing to the Romanift are after o.nf. V r \ ^laemano not the Ipeech of thofe of another; and that dif-
by the matter of Chrift’s body and blooVorimnfrT"1'1 tt‘e,'.t„me1'nnguage are perpetually liable
«hi„g. But the pl,rafevl;rr:i’Z f SeeT": °1 ™mearg' LBet^eCnfi,e>^toof
the literal We, cannot ooffiblv denote ,l,e r c oodles and then/njM/e gaa/tlm, there is a relation founded
fuch a change as tlfis t for e“L .erfo,! a, " /'n"''tl f° ** ^ fe"fibfe *Wch indicate the
with the Greek language, efneckiUy the |ail,r“b(ljnct'to w.h'c.h ‘toy belong, to he gold, for inftance, in
Peripatetic fchool, knows that v.ram f/;iies,/,he try" ““'’'ft.’."u!!3'r,be famf tb,ng. in.mrl oth^ conn-
- - -   -r -,— ligniAes, 1101 me
matter or fubjlratum of my body divefted of its fenlible qua-
Iftas ; but the body of me in its natural ftate, confifting of
matter and qualities, or matter 'ami form united. Unlefs there¬
fore the fenfible qualities, as well as the matter of the bread
and wine, give place to the fen Able qualities as well as the
matter of our Saviour’s body and blood, and unlefs he ap-
try, and have done fo from the beginning of time. The
fenlible appearances of bodies therefore are an univerfal
language, the language of the Author of Nature, by which
he declares to his creature man, that though the vpu'ly.
or primary matter of all bodies, may be the fame kind of fub!
ftance ; yet the wo Gf cne body, or the internal
combination of its primary parts, differs from that of ano¬
ther !
our damnation for not having it in our power to emh '\ fWd ]iav.e don!> had he Id's poAtively pronounced
virtuous heathens, though they never faw die New Teft unent ^*1 ^fh "0t 'n.deed fmuch lefs fevere on the moll
perhaps this feverity may be occaAoned bv the All .ament’ ?r he^rd the Joannes of his church preached. But
^imus, genere no's quidemTrlnis'ut ^ ^ ' “ Cnm ; vinum, LI
catur, deum credat effe ?” tie Nature, Deorum, Lib. 3 C^p 16. TAM AMENT1:M Putas> ^ ^d, quo vef-
Dr Abernethy Drummond, abo^t tSty^yelrs ago ffid^ f^' ^ fma11 traa Publ]'ffied by
that treatife, together with a defence nf it ' 1U 1 ^ ’ ta,e ^°.rm of ^ Dialogue between Philalethes and Benevclus In
Chrfticin Injlru3ed: “ If any man ffialHaf th^blelffidT11011 ^ th^S,tra^at,cd b>' the author of ^ Sincere
and wine remains along with the body and blood of our ^ nEn nhanil the fubftanGe ^ tbe bread
converAon of the whole fubftance of the bread intn Z k A ] T c Z ^ de^ that wond^ful and Angular
the appearances of the bread and wine only •1 th / i7, ar'd the fubftance of the wine into the blood
hm be anathema.’’ C onIy rcmi*<“ing. which converfion the Catholic Church calls tratfalj/amatlofkb
I
SUP t 8(
Pnpfer. tliev ; that gold, for inftance, has a difTerent fuljlratum or
u~''— i,f,s from iron, lead, or filver ; that the internal organiza¬
tion or ftructure of the body of an ox is different from that
of a horfe ; and that the internalfubjlarue or fuljlratum which
exhibits the appearances of bread and wine is different
from that which fupports the fenfible qualities of flelh and
blood (fee Metaphysics, Part I. Chap. I. and Part II.
Chap. I. and It.). Suppofmg therefore the do&rine of
tranfubftsntiation to be poilible and even true, it would ftill
be impoffible, by any ftatement of it in human language,
or by any argument urged in its fupport, to render that
dodtrine an objedt of rational belief; for if it be laid that
the words toi/7'* tod* ro were fpoken bya divine perfon,
who could neither be deceived himfelf nor intend to de¬
ceive us, it may be replied, that the fenfible appearances of
bread and wine, which are confeffed to remain, are like-
wife the language of a divine perfon, even of the Creator
and Governor of heaven and earth; that this language
addreffed to the light, the tafte, the touch, and the fmell, is
equally intelligible to all nations ; that fmce the creation
of the world its meaning has never been miftaken by the
fcholar or the clown, the fage or the favage, except in this
dingle inftance of our Lord’s flelh and blood exhibiting
the fenfible appearances of bread and wine ; and that it is
therefore infinitely more probable that the members of the
-church of Rome fliould miftake the meaning of the words
t?u7« tch TO' eset/.a ,uov, which, though fpoken by Chrift, are
part ofthe language of men, and liable to all its ambiguities,
than that all mankind fliould miftake the language of God
himfelf, which is liable to no ambiguities, and which w-as
never in any other inftance mifunderftood by a fingle in¬
dividual. Should tranfubftantiation therefore be really
true, its truth can never be proved or rendered probable,
'but by an immediate operation of the fpirit of God on the
mind of man ; and he who is confcious of no fuch opera¬
tion on his own mind, may reft affured that the Father of
mercies, who knows whereof he is made, will never bring
upon him, for his incredulity in this inftance, any of the
anathemas denounced by the church of Rome upon thofe
who place implicit confidence in the univerfal language of
Him who created them, in oppofition to her figurative and
contradictory interpretations of the written word. Of the
tranfubftantiation of the elements a vifible miracle would
afford no proof. Had the water been changed into wine
at the marriage in Cana of Galilee, for the exprefs pur-
pofe ofbearing teftimony to this lingular converfion, what
muft have been the confequence on the minds of thofe who
witneffed that miracle ? Nothing, we think, but feepti-
cifm or a diitruft of their own faculties ; for they would
have had the very fame evidence that no fubftantial change
was wrought on the elements, as that the water was aflual-
ly turned into wine.
Though the reformed churches unanimoufly reject the
doctrine of tranfubftantiation, and of courfe the facrifice of
the mafs, its infeparable confequence, they are far from be-
ing agreed among themfelves refpeCting the nature of the
Lord’s Supper; and the notions of this ordinance enter-
tained by fome of them appear to us as untenable as any
Doftrine part of the doctrine of the church of Rome, ft he Luthe-
of the Lu- rans believe, that the body and blood of Chnft are really
, ’n' and fubftantially prefent with the bread and wine ; that
the body is really and truly eaten, and the blood really and
truly drunk, by the communicants; and that whatever mo-
f t!"on or a<^on bread has, the body has the fame$. Ac-
4oc* (jer 'cording to them, therefore, the fame fenfible appearances
lard in Loc. are exhibited by two fubftances united in fome inexplicable
¥keol de manner, which is neither a perfonal union, nor incorpora-
Sacra Cana. nor tjie hiclofuve of the body within the bread j nor
> ] SUP
does it laft longer than while the facrament is celebrating. Supper.
This union is generally called con substantiation ; butv-W
they reject the term, contenting themfelves with afferting
the real prefence, without prefuming to define the mode by
which the body and blood of Chrift are united to the fa-
cramental elements.
It would be fuperfluous to wafte time in replying to this
doCtrme. Everv reader fees that it implies the pofiibihty
of the fame thing’s being whole and entire in a million of
places at one and the fame inftant of time, which has been
fo often urged as an unanfwerable objeClion to the Romifli
(brCLmc ; and it is fraught "with this additional abfurdity
peculiar to itfelf, that two bodily fubftances may at once
occupy the fame place, which is dirqdly contrary to our
notions of fohdity. It may be obferved too, that whate¬
ver be the real fenfe of our Saviour’s words, be fays ex-
prefsly, “This is my body”—this thing which I give you,
and \vhich you fee and feel; whereas, had he meant what
Luther and his followers teach, he would furely have faid,
“ With this bread receive my body, with this cup receive
my blood.” nr J0
The notions of fome of the early Calvinifts refpeChngO™*
the Lord’s Supper are very myfterious, and expreffed in ^ ''
language of which wre are not lure that we underftand the
meaning. In the year 1561 an attempt was made in France
to bring the Catholics and Proteftants to an uniformity of
doftrine on this great topic of controverfy ; and deputies
were appointed by both parties to meet at Poify, and de¬
bate the queftion in a friendly manner. The principal ma¬
nagers on the fide of the Catholics were the cardinals of
Lorraine and Lournon; thofe on the fide of the Proteftants
were Bcza and Peter Martyr. After feveral meetings,
difputes, and violent feparations, the Proteftant deputies
declared their faith in the following words: “ We confefs,
that Jefus Chrift, in the Supper, does truly give and exhi¬
bit to us the fubftance of his body and blood by the efficacy
of his Holy Spirit; and that we do receive and eat fpiri-
tually, and by faith, that very body which was offered and
immolated for as, fo as to be bone of his bone and fleffi of
his flefh, to the end that we may be enlivened thereby, and
receive what is conducive to our falvation. And becaufe
faith, fupported by the word of God, makes thofe things
prefent, wftiich it apprehends, and by that faith we do in
deed and reality receive the true natural body and blood of
Chrift, by the power of the Holy Spirit ; by this means,
we confefs and acknowledge the prefence of his body and
blood in the Supper.” One of the Catholic delegates ex-
preffing his diflike of this laft claufe, the Proteftant mini-
fters gave the following explanation of their fentiments:
“ No diftance of place can hinder us from communicating
of the body and blood of Chrift, for the Lord’s Supper is
a heavenly thing ; and though on earth ive receive with
our mouths bread and wine, wrhich are the true figns of his
body and blood, yet by faith, and the efficacy of the Holy
Ghoft, our minds, which are fed with this food, are rapt
up into heaven, and enjoy the prefence of the body and
blood; and that by this means it maybe faid that the body
is truly joined to the bread, and the blood to the wine ;
but after the manner of a facrament, and not at all accord- #
ing to place or natural pofition lib,
If the reader can difeover the precife meaning of see alfo
thefe paffages, his fagacity exceeds ours. That the Pro-
teftant deputies believed, or profeffed to believe, that the
natural body and blood of Chrift are by the faithful recei-v^ ,,
ved in the Lord’s Supper, is indeed evident; but their no¬
tions refpe&ing the manner of this reception ai-e very un- _ ^
intelligible, if not contradictory. In the former quotation,
they confefs that Chrift’s body and blood are really prefent 8‘
in
SUP
r
Ti
Of the
in the facrament; that they are made preftjnt hy faith (we
-'fuppofe the faith of the communicants); and that the wrv
body which was offered and immolated for us is eaten fpiri¬
tually and by faith. In the latter quotation, they ieem to
fay that Chrift’s body and blood are in heaven, at a great
diftance from the true iigns of them; that on earth the com¬
municants receive onlythefefigne,which are bread and wine;
but that, by faith and th# efficacy of the Holy Spirit, their
minds, during aftual communion, are rapt .up into heaven,
where they enjoy the prefence of the body and blood ; and
that by this means the body and blood are truly joined to
the bread and wine throuorh the medium of the mind of
the communicant, which is at once prefent both to the fign
and to the thing figniiied. To this myfierious doclrine it
is needlefs to urge obje£Hons. Every man who is accuf-
tomed to think, and to ufe words with fome determinate
meaning, will at once perceive that the authors of this de¬
claration muft have had very confufed notions of the fub-
jeft, and have pleafed themfelves with found inftead of fenfe,
fatisfied that they could not be wrong if they did not fym-
bolize with the Lutherans or the Council of Trent.
The churches of England and Scotland, in their efla-
churchesof blifhed doftrines refpedfing the Lord’s Supper, appear to be
Britain. Calviniftical; but the compilers of the Thirty-nine Articles
and of the Confeffion of Faith mult have been much more
rational divines than Beza and Peter Martyr. They agree
in condemning the dodtrine of tranfubftantiation as contra¬
ry to common fenfe, and not founded in the word of God;
they teach, that to fuch as rightly, worthily, and with faith,
receive the facrament, the bread which we break is a par¬
taking of the body of Ohrid, and the cup of bleffing a
partaking of the blood of Chrift ; and they add, that the
bo,dy and blood of Chi'ift are eaten and drunk, not corpo¬
rally or carnally, but only after a heavenly and fpiritual
manner, by which the communicants are made partakers
tnhe(’burcb°^ ^iie benefits of his death *. In one important cir-
\f England, c.um^ance two churches feem to differ. The Confef-
Arc. %>h. f10n of Faith, as we underhand it affirms, that in the
and Confef- Lord’s Supper there is no facrifice made at all. The thir-
fi;'ilartn;de of!he cllurch of England likewife condemns
PChap. jo.tae ' °P1^1 iaeiiiice or the mafs as a blafphemous fable and
5 j. ... dangerous deceit ; but in the order for the adminijlralian of the
Lord's Supper or Holy Communion, the celebrator “ befeech-
es God moft mercifully to accept the alms and oblations of
the congregation,” and again “ to accept their facrifice of
fraife and thankfgiving: ’ from.which petitions manv have
inferred that, in the Lord’s Supper, that church offers a
commemorative and euchariftical facrifice. This inference
meins not to be wholly without foundation. In the order
for the adminirtration of the Lord’s Supper, according to
tue form of the Book of Common Prayer fet forth by aft
of parliament in the fecund and third years of king Edward
the Sixtn, the elements were folemnly offered to God as a
lacrifice of praife and thankfgiving; and though the prayer
containmg that oblation was, at the review of the liturgy
fome years afterwards, removed from the prayer of confe-
cration, to which it was originally joined, and placed where
it now Hands in the poll communion fervice ; yet the very
aft of parliament winch authorized that alteration, calls
kmg Edward s “ a very godly order, agreeable to the
word of God and the primitive church, and very comfort-
ItLm’’" g°Cd pe°pIe ddlrin^ to live Chriftiaa conver-
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
supper.
13
Si 1 SUP
The EHglifh church, however, has not nofitivdy deter¬
mined any thing refpefting this great queftion ; and whilft ~
file condemns the doftrine of the real prefence, with all it3Some
dangerous confequences, ihe allows her members to enter-Hfli divines
tain very different notions of this holy ordinance, and to ho d the
publifh thefe notions to the world. Accordingly, many sp’uP"
her mold eminent divines (e) have maintained that, in the3^^
celebration of the Lord’s Supper, the elements of bread nltical fa-
and wine are offered to God as a facrifice commemorative orifice,
of Chrift’s one facrifice for the fins of the whole world ;
that thefe elements, though they undergo no fubftantial
change, yet receive fuch a divine virtue by the defeent of
the Holy Ghoit, as to convey to the worthy communicant
all the benefits of Chrift’s paffion ; that they are therefore
called his body and blood, becaufe being, after their obla¬
tion, eaten and drunk in remembrance of Him, they i'upply
the place of his body and blood in the fcaft upon his facri¬
fice ; and that it is cuftomary with our Saviour to give to
any thing the name of another of which it completely fup-
plies the place, as when he calls himfelf the door * of the * St John
fiicep, becaufe there is no entrance into the church or king-Xi 7*
dom of God but by faith in him. They obferve, that the
Eucharifl’s being commemorative, no more hinders it from
being a proper facVifice, than the typical and figurative fa-
crifices of the old law hindered them from being proper fa-
crifices: for as to be a type doth not deitroy the nature and
notion of a legal facnfice, fo to be reprefentative and com¬
memorative doth not deftroy the nature of an evangelical ia-
crifice. To prove that, in the celebration of the Lord’s
Supper, there is a real facrifice offered to God as well as a
facrament received by the communicants, they appeal to
St Paul, who lays exprefsly j-, that “ Chriftians have an t Heb. xiil.
altar, whereof they have no right to eat who ferve the ta-10,
bcrnacle,” and who by contrafting the cup of the Lord
with the cup of devils, and the table of the Lord with the
table of devils fj, teaches plainly, that thofe cups and thofef 1 Cor. x.
tables had the lame fpecific nature. That the table of nfc-l6> ^!•c•
mils fpoken of by the apoftle was the Pagan altars, and the
cup of devils the wine poured out in libations to the Pagan
divinities, will admit of no difpute ; and therefore, fay the
advocates for the euchariftical facrifice, the table of the
Lord muft be the Chriftian altar, and the cup of the Lord
the wine offered to God as the reprefentative of the blood
of Chrift ; othenvife there would not be that abfurdiiy
which the apoftle fuppofes, in the fame perfon drinking the
cup of the Lord and the cup of devils, and partaking of
the Lord’s table and the table of devils. They obferve
farther, that in all the ancient liturgies extant there is a
fojemn form of oblation of the facramental elements, and
that all the Chriftian writers from the fecond century down¬
wards treat of the Lord’s Supper as a facrifice as well as
'facrificial feaft, having indeed no value in itfelf, but accep¬
table to God as reprefeuting Chrift’s one facrifice for the
fins of the world. Our limits will not permit us to give
even an abftraft of their arguments ; but the reader who
fiiall attentively perufe ffohnfon’s unbloody Sacrifice and
Altar unveiled andfupported, will difeover that their notions
are better founded than probably he fuppofes, and that
they are totally irreconcileable with the doftrine of tran-
fubftantiatiqn and the Popifti facrifice of the wafs.
Other Englifh divines of great learning, with the cele-Qthert a
brated Hoadley bilhop of Winclrefter at the head of them, mere me.
contend ftrenuoufly that the Lord’s Supper, fo far fromn'0ml;
E beintr
CribiIndW,-iMrffrLpUd ,andXYa.ke/ bifhops Poynet, Andrews, Bull, and Patrick; the Boftors Hickes,
* m ’ Meffis Eingham, Johnfon, Mede, Wheatly, Scandaret, Bowyer, kc-
SUP
[ 82 1
SUP
facrifice of any kind, is nothing more than bread facrifice, and was fuppofed to convey to the partakers of Supper.
^ ^ 1 • 1 _ *4 ^ 1 1.   4- V> ^ -ToNTri'ixr T Pine (ianr tnPtr 1 t  
Supper, being a  ,
and wine reverently eaten and drunk, in remembrance
that Chriit’s body was broken and his blood ftied in proof
of his Father’s and his own love to mankind ; that nothing
is effential to the facrament but this remembrance, and a
ferious defire to honour and obey our Saviour as our head;
that the facrament might be celebrated without uttering
one prayer or thankfgiving, merely by a fociety of Chri-
{Uans, whether fmall or great, jointly eating bread and
drinking wine with a ferious remembrance of Chnft’s
death ; that St Paul enjoins a man to examine himfelf be¬
fore he eat of that bread and drink of that cup, not to
difcover what have been the tins of his pall life in order
to repent of them, but only that he may be fure or his
remembering Chrift’s body broken and his blood fired ;
that, however, it is his duty in that as in every other in-
ftance of religious worfhip to refolve to obey from the
heart every precept of the gofpel, whether moral or pofi-
tive ; and that to partake worthily of the Lord’s Supper
is acceptable to God, becaufe it is paying obedience to
one of thefe precepts ; but that no particular benefits or
privileges are annexed to it more than to any other in-
ftance of duty. Bifhop Hoadley acknowledges, that when
St Paul fays *, “ The cup of bleffing which we blefs, is it
not the communion of the blood of Chrift ? The b ead
which wre break, is it not the communion of the body of
Chrift ?” he has been fuppofed by many learned men to
affirm, that all the benefits of Chrift’s paffion are in the
Lord’s Supper conveyed to the ■worthy communicant ;
but this (fays he) is an idea which the apoftle could not
have in his thoughts as at all proper for his argument.
The Greek word and the Englifh communion figni-
fy only a partaking of fomething in common with others
of the fame fociety ; and the apoftle’s meaning (he fays)
can be nothing more, than that in the Lord’s Supper we
do not eat bread and drink wine as at an ordinary meal,
but as memorials of the body and blood of Chrift, in ho¬
nour to him as the head of that body of which we are all
members. That the word is not meant to denote
any inward or fpiritual part of the Lord’s Supper, he
thinks evident, becaufe the fame word is ufed with regard
to the cup and the'table of idols, where no fpiritual part
could he thought of, and in an argument which fuppoies
$ A Tl’i” an idol to be nothing §.
'Account of To this view of the nature and end of the Lord’s Snp-
the bJature muA appear no fmall objeflion, that “ he who eat-
Lord'0/ eti1 and drinketh unworthily is faid to be gui/ty of the
Now Jefus (fay they),
the crofs ft
I Car. 7.
i<5.
Svfper. body and blood of the Lord, anil to eat and drink a judge¬
ment to him ft f, not difcern'tng the Lord's body” No doubt
it would be linful to eat and drink a mere memorial of
Chrift’s death without ferious difpofitions ; but we cannot
conceive how a little wandering of the theughts, which is
all the unworthinefs which the author thinks there can be
on fuch an occafion, fhould be a fin of fo deep a dye as to
be properly compared with the guilt of thofe who mur¬
dered the Lord of life. Other divines therefore, feeling
the force of this and fimilar objections, fteer a midale
^ CQurfe between the mere memoriaiift and the advocate for a
And others,real facrifice in the holy Eucharift, and infift that this rite,
a feaft upon though no facrifice itfelf, is yet a feaft upon the one facri-
our’ffieri ^ce °^'ered ^7 Chrift and fiain upon the crofs. The molt
fice.& iCn" eminent patrons of this opinion have been Dr Cudworth,
bifhop Warburton, and the prefent bifhop of Cbefter ; and
they fupport it by fuch arguments as the following:
“ In thofe ages of the world when victims made lo
great a part of the religion both of Jews and Gentiles, the
facrifice was always followed by a religious feafting on the
thing offered ; which was called the fead ufen, or after the
it the benefits of the facrifice.
about to offer himfelf a facrifice
demption, did, in conformity to general praCtice, inftitute
the lajl /upper, under the idea of a feaji after the facrifice ;
and the circumftances attending its inftitution were fuch,
they think, that the apoftles could not poffibly miftake
his meaning. It was juft before his paffion, and while he
was eating the pafchal fupper, which was a Jewifh feaji
upon the facrifice, that our bleffed Lord inftituted this rite ;
and as it was his general cuftom to allude, in his adions and
expreffions, to what paffed before his eyes, or prefented it¬
felf to his obfervation, who can doubt, when, in the very
form of celebration, we fee all the marks of a facrifi-
tial/upper, but that the divine inftitutor intended it ihould
bear the fame relation to his facrifice on the crofs which the
pafchal [upper then celebrating bore to the oblation of the
pafchal lamb ? If this was not his purpofe, and if nothing
more was intended than a general memorial of a dead be-
nefaClor, why was this xnftant of time preferred for the
inftitution to all others throughout the courfe of his mini-
ftry, any one of which would have been equally commodi¬
ous ? Indeed any other time would have been more com¬
modious for the inftitution of a mere memorial ; for the
pafchal lamb and unleavened bread were certainly a facri-
fi ce ; and the words ufed by our Saviour, when he gave
the bread and wine to the apoftles, were Inch as muft ne-
ceffarily have led them to confider that bread and wine as
bearing the iame relation to his facrifice that the paichal
fupper bore to the pafchal facrifice. At that Jewifh feaft, it
was the cuftom of every father of a family to break the un¬
leavened bread, and to give to every gueft a portion, faying,
“ This is the bread of affliCtion, which our fathers did eat
in the land of Egypt a cuftom which, we may be lure,
that Chrift, as father of his family, would religioufly ob-
ferve. The apoftles knew well that they were not eat¬
ing the identical bread which their fathers did eat in
Egypt, but the feaft upon the facrificc then offered in
commemoration of their redemption from Egyptian bon¬
dage ; and therefore when they law their Mailer after fi ri¬
per break the bread again and give it to each of.them,
with thefe remarkable words, “ This is my body which is
given for you, do this in remembrance of me,” they muft
have concluded, that his meaning was to inftitute a rit*
which fhould to the end of the world bear the lame rela¬
tion to his facrifice that the pafchal fupper bore to the
facrifice of the paffovtr.
This inference, from the circumftances attending the in¬
ftitution, bifhop Warburton thinks confirmed by St Paul’s
mode of arguing with the Corinthians, on their impiety
and abfurdity in partaking both of the Lord’s table and
the table of devils ; for “ what (fays he) had the eaters cf
the facrifices to do with the partakers of the bread and
wine in the Lord’s Supper, if the Lord’s Supper was not
a feaft of the fame kind with their feafts ? If the three
feafts, Jewiflr, Pagan, and Chriftian, had not one common
nature, how could the apoftle have inferred that this in¬
tercommunity was inconiiftent ? Te cannot (fays he)
drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of devils ; ye cannot
be partakers of the Lord's table and the table of devils. Ecu*
though there might be impiety in the promifeuous ufe of
Pagan and Chriftian rites of any kind, yet the inconfjlency
arifes from their having a common natuie, and confequent-
ly, as they had oppoftte originals, from their deftroying
one another’s effects in the very celebration. Sacrifices^
and feafts upon facrifices, were univerfally confidered as fe~
dtral rites ; and therefore the Lord’s table and the table of
devils being both federal rites, the fame man could no more
8 fee
Slipper,
Supple¬
ment.
SUP [ 83 1 SUP
be partaker of both, than be could at once engage to ferve SUPPORTED, In heraldry, a term applied to the up-
both God and the devil. This is the apoftle’s argument permoft quarters of a fhield when divided into fevcral quar¬
to the wife men, to whom he appeals ; and we fee that it ters, thefe feeming as it were fupported or fuilained by thofe
turns altogether upon this poftulatum,that theChriftian and below. The chief is faid to be fupported when it is of two3
Pagan feafts had the fame fpecific nature, or were both colours, and the upper colour takes up two-thirds of it. In u
feafts upon facrifices. If this be admitted, it is eafy to fee this cafe it is fupported by the colour underneath.
Supple*
meut
I!
pral apfa-
mns.
I   *••****. -w   J
why St Paul deemed thofe who ate and drank unworthily
guilty of the body and blood of the Lord ; for if the
Lord’s Supper be a feall upon his facrifice, it mufl have
been confidered as the means of conveying to the commu¬
nicants all the benefits of his death and pafiion ; and the
profanation of fuch a rite, by rendering his deatli ineffec¬
tual, might be fitly compared and jultly equalled to the
enormous guilt of thofe by whom his blood was fhed.”
In reply to bifhop Hoadley’s remarks upon the word
xoivaviaj his brother bifliop obferves, that “ had the apoftle
meant what the learned writer makes him to mean, he
would doubtlefs have faid \ju&v aq ra (Tu/Actj 4 your
communion in the body—your eating it jointly.’ St Paul
(continues he) knew how to exprefs himfelf properly, as
appears from a paffage in his epiftle to the Philippians,
where, pro feffedly fpeakingof the joint participation of a blef-
fing, he ufes thefe words, xoivwhoc n<- to eua^xiov ‘your
communion sn the gofpel.’ d o tne other remark, that
no fpiritual part could be thought of in the table of idols,
becaufe an idol is faid by the apoftle to be nothing, bifhop
Warburton replies, “ that by St Paul the Gentiles are faid
to have facriliced to devils, and thofe who ate of fuch fa¬
crifices to have had communion with devils : now the de¬
vil (continues his Lordfhip) was in St Paul’s opinion
Jometbing.” But the inference which the apoftle draws
fi-nm fiL oM.™ in 1 . V I , ^ T1- 'a’cl'vs LUC mmol moue, men me concord is called the fupetfiuous
Which wc t ki"d “’,whe.n «*>? found is a
SUPPORTERS, in heraldry, figures in an atchieve-
ment placed by the fide of the fhield, and feeming to fup-
port or hold up the fame. Supporters are chiefly figures
of beafts : figures of human creatures for the like purpofe
are called tenants. r
SUPI OSII ION, in mufic, is when one of the parts
dwells on a note, while another part makes two or more
leffer notes equivalent to it, by conjoint degrees.
Suppofitioa is defined by a late author the ufing of two
fucceffive notes, of the fame value as to time ; the one where¬
of, being a difcord, fuppofes the other a concord.
The harmony, Mr Malcolm obferves, is always to be full
on the accented parts of the bar or meafure ; 'but, on the
unaccented, difcords may tranfiently pafs, without any of¬
fence to the ear. This tranftent ufe of difcords, followed by
concords, make what we, after the French, call>^yfrw«.
Concords by fuppofition are thofe where the continued
bafs adds or fuppofes a new found below the fundamental
bals ; whence fuch concords always exceed the extent of the
o(Slave. Of thefe concords there are three forts, all which
are concords of the feventh : the firft, when the added found
is a third below the fundamental found ; fuch is the con¬
cord of the ninth ; and if the concord of the ninth is
formed by the mediant, added below the fenfible concord
in the minor mode, then the concord is called the fuperjluous
t Car, x.
which we blefs is the communion of the blood of Chrift,
and the bread which we break the communion of the bo-
dy of Chnft, puts his meaning, our author thinks, be¬
yond all doubt. He fays f, that the partaking of one
bread makes the receivers of many to become one body.
, Llft 'inference, if this rite be of the nature of a fea/1 upon
toe inn-ihrp • fnv tVipn   • . .r .I 1 1 1 11 ,
fifth below the fundamental found, as in the concord of the
fourth or eleventh ; and if the concord is fenfible, and the
tonic be fuppofed, this concord is called the fuperjluous fe¬
venth. The third kind is that where the fuppofed found is
below a concord of the diminifhed feventh : if it is a fifth
below, e. if the fuppofed found be the mediant, the con-
the .i • r r V , uruu u(-iuvv> e- 11 Iae xuppoicQ lounq be tne mediant, the con-
cf 4R thettTt°lthRr'f ..
i • J vjujr unii uiuuu UJ
6/jri/^umtes the receivers into one body by an equal dif-
tnbution of one common benefit. But if it be only a ge¬
neral commemoration of a deceafed benefador, it leaves
tne receivers as it found them, not one body, but many fe-
parate prof jfors of one common faith.
1 bus have we given fuch a view as our limits would
permit us to give, of the principal opinions that have been
held refpethng the nature and end of the Lord’s Supper,
derftood. It is an ordinance which feems not to be generally under-
hood ; though, being intended to fhow forth the Lord’s
Jeata till he come, it is furely of fufficient importance to
engage the attention of every ferious ChriflianL The mofl:
conliderable Proteftant divines who have exprefsly written
unon it are. U' rr 11 , « . L 1
16
le ordx-
nce not
nerally
unon it are TnW™ i • tt u , “ written as nave an averiion to the taking of cly
i., his DifiJ/i LerJdeS fud,WOr‘h not thereof.
in Vile Viaf r • ^ VvUawort
in his Difcourfe concerning the true Nature of the Lord’s
hd Rad J ^ m Account; and Warburton in
* Rational Account. The notions of Cudworth and War-
fiTiZt perhaPS th<7 "Ot fo much
if it is a feventh below, i. e. if the fuppofM found be’Vtie
tonic, the concord is called the lejfer fxth and Juperfluous fe¬
venth. J
SUPPOSITORY, a kind of medicated cone or ball,
which is introduced into the anus for opening the belly.
It is ufually compofed of common honey, mixed up with
either foap 01 oil, and formed into pieces of the length and
thicknefs of the little finger, only pyramidal. To the coin-
pofition is fornetimes alfo added powder of fcammony, eu-
phorbium, colocynthis, fait, aloes, &c. according to the cafe
of the patient.
The fuppofitory was invented for the convenience of fuch
as have an averfion to the taking of clyfters ; or to be ufed
SUPPRESSION, in medicine, is generally ufed to figni-
fy a retention of urine or of the menfes.
SUPPU RA ITON, the fecond way wherein an inflam¬
mation terminates; being a converfion of the infpiffated
from thofe of Johnfon as many reaSs Tem t • ^ ' TT a converfion of the infpiffated
At any rate, the arguments bv wht-h Wa K 7^™’ b 0°d a"d ‘ ' firllgdJa“nt Parts> the veflels and fat into
his dofirine tnuft hare feme force ii', b> ?"TT;rtS P“s ot matter ; wlt'ch dtforder, when it has not yet found
See Table of the
Hoadk^hhnLlf^cknowL^6 ^ is faId that an °Penin&> ,’s generally called an abfeefs
abL if h TlfT TT T W°uld be unanfwer- SUPRACOSTALES, in anatomy
real facrifice P 31 ^ death of Chrift was a Anatomv. 7
SUPPLEMENT in Ifteratnrp ^ j r i , ^UP^^L^PSARIANS, in theology, perfons who
what is wanting in a book Xoks of va^ T" f 7 i G°d’ wlthr°f any regard to the good or evil
fuch an appendao-e • but nnT T °f ^ari0lls kl^s require works of men, has refolved, by an eternal decree, fufira lat-
arts and fciencesVhich from tbs mUch as a dictionary of fum, antecedently to any knowledge of the fall of Adam,
fcnl fcience, C0“* °f -<*-"^Pendently of it to fare foR and to damn otherTl
P without it. or, in other words, that God intended to glorify his juftice
L 2 in
S IT R
t 84 1
S U R
flspnfpi*
jiatus
0
Surat.
in the condemnation of fome, as well as his mercy in the fal-
vation of others; and for that purpofe decreed that Adam
fhould neceffarily fall, and by that fall bring himfclt and all
his offspring into a date of ever kiting condemnation.
Thefe are alfo called antAapfaries, and are oppofed to fub.
lapfaries and infralapfaries. _ . r j n-
According to the fupralapfarians, the objeft of predelti-
nation is, homo creabilis et labilis ; and, according to the
fublapfarians and infralapfarians, homo crcatus et lapfus.
SUPRASPINATUS, in anatomy. See Table of the
Mo fries in Anatomy.
SUPREMACY, the fuperiority or fovereignty of the
Skinr. See Sovereignty.
SUR, or Shur (anc. geog.), a defert of Arabia Petrsea,
extending between Paleftine and the Arabian Gulph ; into
which the Ifraelites, after marching through the Red Sea,
firft came (Exod. xv. 22.) Again (Numb, xxxiii. 8.), it is
faid, that from the lea they went three days journey into the
Wildernefs of Etham ; whence feme conclude that Etham
and Shur are the fame wildernefs ; or only differ as a part
from the whole, Shur being the general name, and Etham
that part of it lying neared to the place of encampment of
the fame name. ' We know fo little of the geography of thefe
places that there is more room for difputation than for deci-
fion. As to the route which the Ifraelites followed in their
paflage through the Red bea, Mr Bryant, we think, has
given the moll fatisfaftory account in his late work on the
Plagues of Egypt. — Shur is now called
SURAT, a city of Indotlan, belonging to Britain, on
the wtftern coaft of the peninlula, a little to the northward
of Bombay, and about 16 miles up the river Tappee. It is
but of modern date, and is a molt remarkable inltance of
the power of trade to bring wealth and population to any
fpot where it can be brought to fettle. Towards the mid¬
dle of the hit century this place was only the retort of a
few merchants, who, under the Ihelter of an old infignincant
caftle, kid the firft foundations of a city now almoft as large
and fully as populous as London within the walls, and con¬
taining many fine buildings of Indian architedilure, which
is partly Gentoo and partly Morifquc. Thole of the great-^
ell note are fo contrived, that the gateway is defenfible
againll any fudden irruption of a few armed men. The pri¬
vate apaitments lie backwards for the conveniency of the
women, of whom the Moors are remarkably jealous. They
are fond of having one room, in the midll ot which a foun¬
tain keeps playing, and which, by its noiie, lulls them to
fleep, and refrelhes the room by its coolnefs; but thus a
damp is produced, which would be very dangerous to Euro¬
peans. They have all® generally a faloon with fountains
playing in it, which, with the variegated flower-beds, in
which they are very curious, makes a beautiful profpeft.
During the intenfe heats of fummer they have country re¬
tirements a little way out of town, where they refide, or go
in parties to amufe themfelves. The ftreets are irregularly
laid out ; but have one property which renders it agreeable
to walk in them, viz. that a competent width being left at
bottom, the upper ftories of the houfes projeft over one an¬
other in fuch a manner, that people may with eafe convcrfe
from them ; by which means the ftreet is agreeably fnaded,
at the fame time that a proper ventilation is not impeded,
but rather promoted. The Ihops, notwithllanding the vail
trade carried on in this great and populous city, have a
very mean appearance, owing to the dealers keeping their
goods in warehoufes, and felling by famples.
No place is better fupplied with provifions than the city
of Surat while its communication with the country remains
open. Eefides the unbounded importation, by which every
article is brought here in great abundance, the natural pro* Sant,
du£lions of the fod are excellent, though lets cheap than in T'
other parts of India, as at Bengal efpecially ; yet in that
place, though the cattle ‘and poultry are bought originally
at a very low rate, they turn out very dear by the time they
are fed for the table. Here, however, all kinds of eatables
may be had at a reafonable price, ready for immediate ufe,
and as good as can be found anywhere, i he wheat of bu*
rat is famous all over India for its fingular fubflance, white*
nefs, and tafle ; and its ialkds and roots are like wife of an
excellent quality. There are alfo many kinds of wild-fowl
and other game to be had at an eafy rate ; but for .wines
and fpirituous liquors they depend moftly on importation. .
Surat was furrounded with a wall in a fhort time alter it
had affumed the form of a town. The fortification, how¬
ever, wras meant only to prevent the incurfiors of the Mah-
rattas, who had twice pillaged it; fo that the place was by
no means capable of (landing any regular fiege. Even the
caflle appears but a poor defence, being mounted with can¬
non here and there, without any order, or without any
thing like an attempt towards military architecture.
In this city, before the Eafl India company became in*
veiled with the poffeflion of Bombay , was the preiidency of
their affairs on the weflern coafl. For this vmrpofe they
had a fa&ory eflablifhed there with great privileges by the
Mogul government; and even after the prefidency was efla-
bhfhed at Bombay, they continued a fadtory here at one of
the befl houfes in the city ; which yet not being fpacious
enough to contain their effects, they hired another at fome
diilance from it, and nearer the water-fide, which was called
the new fadlory. In the mean time, the city flourifhed, and
became the centre of all the Indian trade, being much more
frequented for the fake of foreign merchandize tlian for ei¬
ther the natural productions or manufactures of the country,
though they alio made a confiderable part of its commerce.
In fhort, there was fcarce any article of merchandize but
what was to be found at all times in Surat, ahnoft as readily
as in London itfelf. While the Mogul government was in
its vigour, there was fuch a fhow of juftice kept up, as in-
. duced merchants of all religions and denominations to take
up their residence in the city. The Gentoos efpecially re-
forted thither, in order to avoid the oppreffions ot their own
government. Great care indeed was taken that no very fla¬
grant adts of oppreffion fhould be committed ; fo that, in
what fometimes happened, appearances were at Jeafl kept
up ; and the oppreffions of government were chiefly owing
to the animofities and rivalfhip of the merchants themfelves.
As an inilance of the great extent to which commerce was
pufhed in Surat, we (hall here quote from Mr Grofe, what
is faid by Captain Hamilton of a merchant named Abdulga-
four, viz. “ That he drove a trade equal to the Eafl India
company: for he had known him fit out in a year above
20 fail of (hips, between 300 and 800 tons, none of which
had lefs of his own flock than L. 20,000, and fome of them
L. 25,000. After that foreign flock was fent away, it
behoved him to have as much more of an inland dock for
the following year’s market.” On the deceafe of this mer¬
chant, the government feized on a million of his money; and
his grandfon was not only deprived of all that he poffeffed,
but barbaroufly murdered through the envy and treachery of
his brother-merchants, and the rapacity of the governor.
The city of Surat was taken and ruined by the Portu-
guefe in 152c ; and it was not till after this misfortune
that it became fuch a celebrated emporium. All the In¬
dian merchants who had been accuftomed to trade thither
contributed to re-eftablifh it; but it was not till near a cen¬
tury after that it became the general ftiple of Indian and
Europeaa
' S U R [85
Sunt, European merchandize ; when the Dutch appearing in the
c!iargc' Indian ocean, Jiad deprived the Portuguefe of all their con.
' queds on that coaft, and almoil entirely ruined their trade.
The Englifh eftahlilhed a factory here in 1609, the Dutch in
1616, and the French in 1665. procefs of time, the
Indian feas being greatly infelted by pirates, a naval officer The furcoat is properly a loofe thin taffetv coaf with
was appointed by the Mogul to keep them in awe. This arms embroidered or painted on it. Such al is worn bv
officer was named StcMn(K) Mujoot, who had been chief of heralds, anciently alfo ufed by military men ove- their ar^
an Ethiopian colony fettled at Rajapore. Here he had col- mour to diftinguifh themfelves bv. ^
Jcfted feme veffiels ot confiderable force, and carried on fome .
1 S u R
SLRCINGLE^ a girdle wherewith the clergy of the Surcingle
church of England ufually tie their caflbcks. See Gir¬
dle.
SURCOAI, a coat of arms, to be worn over body ar-
Surf.
mour.
trade, till he was difpofleffed by the Mahrattas; upon which
he repaired to Bombay, and afterwards to Surat, where he
was appointed admiral on that flation to the Mogul, with a
yearly revenue of about L. 36,000 Sterling. Though he
had no power, independent of the marine, he feized on
the caflle, encroached on the town, and appropriated to
himfelf a third part of its revenues, under pretence of ar¬
rears due in his appointed revenue. Another third was paid
to the Mahrattas, to prevent their depredations upon trade
in the open country ; but they, not fatisfied with this ftj-
pillation, watched an opportunity to plunder the town,
which was kept in fubje&ion by Siddee Muffoot till his
death, which happened in 1756.
Siddee Muffoot was fucceeded by his fon, who foon ren¬
dered himfelf very difagreeable to the inhabitants. In 17 ;;8
the Englifh factory was greatly oppreffed by him, and the
black merchants treated (fill worfe ; on which the latter ap¬
plied to Mr Ellis the Englifh chief at that time, defiring
him to recommend it to the prehdency of Bombay to take
the caftle by force out of the hands of the ufurper. This
propofal proving agreeable, Admiral Pococke, who was then
with his Icjuadron at Bombay, readily concurred in fuppoit-
ing the expedition. The enterprise was conduced with the
ulual fuccefs attending the Britifh arms; and Captain Mait¬
land the condu&or took poffeffion of the caftle w ith its re¬
venue in name of the Eaft India company, who were con¬
firmed in the government by grants from the Mogul.
SUkCHARGE of the borest, is when a commoner
puts more beafts in the foreft than he has a right to. See
Surchjrgf. of Common, is a difturbance of common of
pafture, by putting m0re cattle therein than the pafture and
herbage will fuftain, or the party hath a right to do. This
injury can only happen where the common is appendant or
appurtenant, and of courfe limitable by law ; or where
when in grofs, it is exprefsly limited and certain; for where
a man hath common in grofs, yW non.bre, or without Hint,
be cannot be a furcharge. In this cafe indeed there mull
be left iufficieRt for the lord’s own beafts.
. Yie^alarem(:dies for furcharging the common are by
the lords diftrammg the furplus number, or by his bring¬
ing an addon of trelpafs, or by a fpecial aftion on the caff,
Lft S a yf °mTnf ?ay be Plaintiff* The
palW Pr°C"dinS “ ^ °f adm-
Aht Pa“Ure hath the
2a the'eb, r “di STLuteT"0" agt ’
tdiftl.f ndh n;hhii i” baf
nd d he has, he (hall then forfeit to the king the ffmenm
;S.ClttlC put in, and alf0 „ pay d^f0CT^
SURD, in arithmetic and algebra, denotes any number
or quantity that is incommenlurable to unity : otherwifu-
cdled an irrational number or quantity. See Algebra
Part I. Chap. IV. " * 51
SURETY, in law, generally ftgnifles the fame with
Bail.
SURF, is a term ufed by feamen to exprefs a peculiar
fwell and breaking of the fea upon the ffiorc. It fometimes
forms but a ftngle range along the fhore, and at others three
or four behind one another extending perhaps half a mile
out to fea. The furf begins to affume its form at fome di-
ftance from the place where it breaks, gradually accumula¬
ting as it moves forward till it gain, not uncommonly, in
places within the limits of the trade-winds, a height of 15
or 20 feet, when it overhangs at top, and falls like a cafcade
with gieat force and a prodigious noife. Countries where
furfs prevail require boats of a particular con ft ruction very
different from the greater part of tbofe which are built in
Europe. In fome places furfs are great at high, and in
cthei s at low water; but we believe they are uniformly molt
violent during the fpring-tides.
It is not eafy to affign the caufc of furfs. That they are
affected by the winds can hardly be queftioned ; but that
they do not proceed from the immediate operation of the
wind in the places where they happen, is evident from this
ci’cumftance, that the furf is often highelt and moft violent
wheie there is leaft wind, and vice •oerfa. On- the coaft of
Sumatra the higheft are expeiienced during the fouth-eaft
moriloon, which is never attended with fuch gales as the
north-weft. As they are moft general in the tropical lati¬
tudes, Mr Marfden, who feems to have paid much attention
to the fubjeCt, attributes them to the trade-winds which
prevail at a diftance from fhore between the parallels of 30
degiees north and fouth, whofe uniform and invariable ac¬
tion cauies a long and contlant fwell, that exifts even in the
calmeft weather, about the line, towards which its di reft ion
tends from either fide. This fwell, when a fquall happens
or the wind frelhens up, will for the time have other fub~
iidiary waves on the extent of its furface, breaking often in a
direction contrary to it, and which will again iubfide as a
Cfl^^xi.rCtU^nS, w^tbout havi'ng'produced on it any perceptible
effect. Sumatra, though not continually expofed to the
fouth-eaft trade-wind, is not lo diftant but that its influence
may be prefumed to extend to it; and accordingly at Poolo
1 eiang, near the fouthem extremity of the ifland, a conftant
foutherly fea is obferved, even after a ftrong north-weft wind,
i h.s mceffant and powerful fvvell rolling in from an ocean,
open even to the pole, feems an agent adequate to the pro¬
digious effects produced on the coaft ; whilft its very fize
contributes to its being overlooked. It reoouciiesalmoftall
the difficulties which the phenomena feem to prefent, and in
particular it accounts for the decreafe of the iurf during the
north-weft m^nfoon, the local wind then counteracting the
operation of the general one ; and it is corroborated by an
obieivation, that the furfs on the Sumatran coaft ever begin
to
( ) When the Abyffiman flaves are promoted to any office under the Mogul government, they are called Siddm,
S U 11 [86
Surface, to break at their fouthern extreme, the motion of the fwell
Surfeit. not being- perpendicular to the direftion of the (hore. This
explanation of the phenomena is certainly plaufible ; but, as
the author candidly acknowledges, objections may be urged
to it. The trade-winds and the fwell occafioned by them
are remarkably fteady and uniform ; but the furls are much
the reverfe. How then comes an uniform caufe to pioduce
unfteady effe&s ?
In the opinion of our author it produces no uniteady ef-
fefts. The irregularity of the furfs, he fays, is perceived
only within the remoter limits of the trade-winds. But the
equatorial parts of the earth performing their diurnal revolu¬
tion with greater velocity than the reft, a larger circle being
deferibed in the fame time, the waters thereabout, from the
ftronger centrifugal force, may be fuppoled more buoyant;
to feel lefs reftraint from the fluggiih principle of matter;
to have lefs gravity ; and therefore to be more obedient to
external impulfes of every kind, whether from the winds or
any other caufe.
SURFACE. See Superficies.
SURFEIT, in medicine, a licknefs with a fenfation of a
load at the Ifomach, ufually proceeding from fome error in
diet, either with regard to the quantity or quality of the
food taken. Sometimes, however, a furfeit is only a ple¬
thora from indolence and full but improper feeding ; in
which cafe perfpiration is defedive;, and eruptions form
themfelves on the Ikin.
A furfeit from animal food, as mufcles, putrid flefh, See.
is beft remedied by the ufe of vegetable acids, which may
be taken diluted with water, a vomit being premifed, and
this even though a vomiting and purging both attend.
When an excefs of feeding is the caufe, the prirr.ae vise
Being evacuated, and the nature of the plethora attended to,
that the load may be properly evacuated, the indication of
cure will be, to recover the perfpiratory difeharge, conftftent
with which diuretics may be ufed in preference to medicines
which produce any other evacuation.
] s U R
Surfeit, in farriery. See FarrieRy, § xix. Surfjit
SURGE, in the fea-language, the fame with a wave. s II
See Wave. ' r
SURGEON, or Chirurgeon, one that profeffes the art
of Surgery.
In England there are two diftindb companies of furgeons
now occupying the fciefice or faculty of furgery ; the one
company called barbers, the other furgeons, which latter are
not incorporated.—The two are united to iue, and be fued,
by the names of mafters or governors and commonalty of
the myftery of barbers and furgeons of London. 3 2 H. VIII.
c. 42.
No perfon ufmg any barbery or fhaving in London, (hall
occupy any furgery, letting of blood, or other matter;
drawing of teeth only excepted. And no perfon uling the
myftery or craft of furgery (hall occupy or exercife the feat
or craft of barbary, or (having, neither by himi'elf, nor
any other for his ufe. 32 VIIL c. 42.
By the fame ftatute, furgeons are obliged to have fxgns at
their doors.
The French chirurgeons being refufed to be admitted in¬
to the univerfities (notwithftanding that their art makes a
branch of medicine), on pretence or its bordering a little on I
butchery or cruelty, aftociated themfelves into a brother¬
hood, under the protedion of S. Cofmus and S. Damian:
on which account, according to the laws of their inftitution,
they are obliged to drefs and look to wounds the firft
Monday of each month.
They diftinguilh between a chirurgeon of the long robe
and a barber-chirurgeon. The firft has ftudied phyfic, and
is allowed to wear a gown. The (kill of the other, beftdes
what relates to the management of the beard, is fuppofed to
be confined to the more fimple and eafy operations in chi-
rurgy ; as bleeding, tooth-drawing, &c.
They were formerly diftinguiftied by badges : thofe of
the long gown bore a cafe of inftruments ; the barber, a
bafon. *
SURGERY,
THAT part of medicine which treats of difeafes to be
cured or alleviated by the hand, by inftruments, or
by external applications.
Ch A p. I. iffbary of Surgery.
That forgery was coeval with the other branches of
medicine, or perhaps antecedent to any of them, will not
admit of doubt. The wars and contentions which have
taken place among mankind almoft ever fince their creation,
1 aeceflarily imply that there would be occafion for furgeons
Surgery at. a very early period ; and probably thefe external injuries
tifed' *>IaC~ would for fome time be the only difeafes for which a cure
would be attempted, or perhaps thought practicable.—In
the facred writings we find much mention of balfams, parti¬
cularly the balm of Gilead, as excellent in the cure of wounds;
though at the fame time we are informed that there were
iome wounds which this baliam could not heal.
„ Concerning the furgery praCtifed among the Egyptians,
Hiftory of Jews, and Afiatic nations, we know little or nothing. The
it among Greeks were thofe from whom the art defeended to us,
the Greeks, though they confefledly received it from the eaftern nations.
The firft Greek furgeons on record are iEfculapius and his
fons Podalirius and Machaon. iEfculapius flouridied about
50 years before the Trojan war; and his two fons diftin¬
guiftied themfelves in that war both by their valour and (kill Hite';
in cming wounds. This indeed is the whole of the medical
(kill attributed to them by Homer ; for in the plague which
broke out in the Grecian camp, he does not mention their
being at all confulted. Nay, what is ftill more ftrange, tho*
he fometimes mentions his heroes having their bones broke,
he never takes notice of their being reduced or cured by any
other than fupernatural means ; as in the cafe of iEneas,
whofe thigh-bone was broken by a (lone caft at him by Dio-
med. The methods which thefe two famous furgeons ufed
in curing the wounds of their fellow-foldiers feems to have
been the extrafting or cutting out the darts which inflided
them, and applying emollient fomentations or ftyptics to
them when necefiary : and to thefe they undoubtedly attri¬
buted much more virtue than they could poflibly poflefs;
as appears from the following lines, where Homer deferibes
Eurypylus as wounded and under the hands of Patroclus,
who would certainly pradfife according to the dire&ions of
the furgeons.
Patioclus cut the forky fteel away ;
Then in his hands a bitter root he bruis’d,
The wound he wafh’d, the ftyptic juice infus’d.
The clojing fl.Jh that inftant ceas’d to glow ;
The wound to torture, and the blood to flow.
TiU
'hap. I. SU RGERY. g
Hiftory. Till the day? of Hippocrate? we know very little of what are to be applied, and the fra&ured member fomented with Hiftory.
*" v was the praftice of the Greek fur^eons. From him, how- warm vannnr. ^nrlnnr ~v—
'1 3
" -— r    n—  — *   7 — •
ever, we learn, that the praftice of blood-letting, cupping,
and fcarification, was known to them ; alfo the ufe of warm
and emollient fomentations, iffues made with hot irons, pef-
faries, injeftions, fumigations, &c. Hippocrates alfo gives
dirt<ftions with regard to fraflurcs, luxations, ulcers, fiftulas.
He direfts the exteniion, reduftion, bandages, and fplints,
proper to be ufed in tracftures and luxations of different
bones, with feveral machines to increafe the extenfion when
neceffary. He directs the laxity and tightnefs of the ban¬
dages ; the intervals for unlooling and binding them on
again ; the pofition and repofe of the fra&ured member, and
the proper regimen ; and he mentions the time when a cal¬
lus is ufually formed. He treats alio of fraitures of the
fkull, and the method of applyingthe trepan. In his treat¬
ment of ulcers, he fpeaks of reducing fungous flefli by means
of efcharotics, fome of which aie alum, nitre, verdigrife,
quicklime, &c.
In the time of Ptolemy Philopater of Egypt, medicine,
all the branches of which had hitherto been praftifed by
the fame perfon, was now divided into three, viz. the diete¬
tic, pharmaceutic, and furgical ; from which time to the
prefent, furgery has continued to be reckoned a diftinft pro-
fefTion from medicine, though very improperly, in the opi¬
nion of the belt authors,
mong the Surgery appears not to have exifted in Rome, notwith-
oniaiiS’ landing the warlike genius of the people, for more than
500 years. Archagathus, a Greek, was the firft profeffor of
that art in the city; and fo frequently employed the knife, hot
irons, aad other cruel methods of cure, that he was brand¬
ed with the opprobrious title of carnijex, and expelled the
city, where no phyikian orfurgeon of eminence again made
his appearance for 180 years. At this time Afclepiades
undertook the proftffion of medicine; but feems to have
dealt little in furgery. Neither have we any thing of im-
portapce on that fubjeft till the time of Celfus, who ilourilh-
ed during the reigns of Auguflus and Tiberius.—In his
furgery, all the improvements from Hippocrates to his own
days are collected ; the molt minute and trifling difeafes are
not omitted. An eminent furgeon, of the moderns, em¬
phatically exhorts every perfon in that profeffion “ to keep
Celfus in his hands by day and by night ” He defcribes
the fignsof a fradured /kull, the method of examining for
the fracuire, of laying the fkull bare by an incifion in the form
of the letter X, and afterwards of cutting away the angles
and of applying the trepan, with the figns of danger and of
recovery. He obferved, that fometimes, though very rare-
ly, a fatal concuffion of the brain might happen, the blood-
vefitls within the fkull being built, yet the bone remaining
entire. After the operation of the trepan, fponges and
cloths wetted with vinegar, and feveral other applications-
were made to the head ; and, throughout, fevere abftinence
^as enjoined In violent fraftures of the ribs, he ordered
venefedion ; low diet; to guard againft all agitation of the
xmnd, loud ipeaking, motion, and every thing that might
excite coughing or fneezmg. Cloths wetted with wine, roles
and od, and othm- applications, were laid over the frafture
i fre cure of fradures m the upper and lower extremities
he *aid were nearly alike ; that fraftures differ in degree of
violence and danger, in being Ample or compound, that is
di .ointW1 He'd-T"I0''11" rdh’ a"d W-ar to
MaC the Lp t L lXtrHfl0n °f the men-lber ab
tured boaes in^0”’ ^ the, hands,, of the frac-
- into their natural fituation ; and to bind the
warm vapour, efpeeially during the inflammation. Splints,
if neceffary, are to be applied, to retain the bones in a fixed
pofition. The fradured arm is to be fufpended in a broad
fling hung round the neck : the fradured leg is to be in-
clofed in a kind of cafe, reaching above the ham, and ac¬
commodated likewife with a fupport to the foot, and with
ft raps at the fide, to keep the leg fteady : in the fradured
thigh-bone, the cafe is to extend from the top of the hip to
the foot. He deferibes the method of treating compound
fradures, and of removing fmall fragments of fplinters ot
bones ; and the manner of extrading darts. In luxations
of the {boulder, he mentions feveral methods of giving force
to the extenfion, and of replacing the diflocated bone.
One method fimilar to that of Hippocrates was, to fufpend
the patient by the arm; the fore-part of the fhoulder,
at the lame time, refling upon the top of a door, or any
other fuch firm fulcrum. Another method was to lay
the patient fnpine, fome afiiflants retaining the body in
a fixed pofition, and others expending the arm in the con¬
trary diredion; the furgeon, in the mean time, attempting,,
by his hands, forcibly to reduce the bone into its former place.
If a large inflammation was expeded to enfue after a
wound, it was fuffered to bleed for i'ome time, and blood
was drawn from the arm. To wounds accompanied with
confiderable hsemorrhagy', he applied a fponge wet in vine¬
gar, and conflant preffure : If neceffary, on account of the
violence of the haemorrhagy, ligatures were made round the
veflels, and fometimes the bleeding orifice was feared ud
with the point of a hot iron. On the third day frefli dref-
fings were applied. In confiderable contufions, with a
fmall wound of the flefli, if neither blood-veffels nor nerves
prevented, the wound was to be enlarged. Abftinence and
low diet, upon all fuch accidents, were preferibed; cloths wet
with vinegar, and feveral other applications, were to be ap¬
plied to the inflamed part. He obferves, that frefh wounds
may be healed without compound applications. In ex¬
ternal gangrene, he out into the found flefh; and when the
difeafe, in Ipite of every effort, fpread, he advifed amputa¬
tion of the member. After cutting to the bone, the fiefh
was then feparated from it, and drawn back,, in order to
fave as much flefli as poffible to cover the extremity of the.
bone. Celfus, though extremely diffufe in the deferiptiou
of furgical difeafes, and of various remedies and external ap¬
plications, treats flightly of the method of amputating ;
from which, comparing, his treat ife with the modern fyftems,
we might infer that the operacion was then feldomer prac-
tiled than at prefent. He defcribes the fymptoms of that
dangerous inflammation the carbuncle, and diredts,. immedi¬
ately to burn, or to corrode the gangrened part. To pro¬
mote the fuppuration. of abfeeftes, he orders poultices of
barley-meal, or of marfhmallows, or the feeds of linfeed and
fenugreek. He alfo mentions the compofitions of feveral
repellent cataplafms. In the eryfpelas, he applies cerufe,
mixed with the juice of folanum or nightfhade. Sal ammo,
niac was fometirnes mixed with his platters.
Pie is very minute in deferibing difeafes of the eyes, ears,
and teeth, and in preferibing a multitude of. remedies and
applications. In inflammation of the eyes, he enjoined ah-
flinence and low diet, reft, and a dark room : if the inflam¬
mation was violent, with great pain, he ordered venefedlion,
and a purgative ; a iinall poultice of fine flower, faffron,
and the white of an egg, to be laid to the forehead to fup-
prefs the flow of pituita ; the fa!t infide of warm wheat
bread dipped in wine, to be laid to the eye; poppy and
fradured oart k n c T/r U°n,; and to b‘nd tbe bread dipped in wine, to be laid to the eye; poppy and
dipped i/wineTd oihT were alfo added to his collyriums, and various ingre.
. on t e third day frefli bandages clients too tedious to enumerate. In chronic watery deflu*
iuons..
Hiftory,
S U R G
xtons of (lie eyes, he applied aftringents, cupped the tem¬
ples, and burnt the veins over the temple and forehead.
He couched cataracts by deprefhng the cryifaliine lens to
the bottom of the orbit. Teeth, loolened by any accident,
he directs, after the example of Hippocrates, to be fatlened
with a g-old thread to thofe adjoining bn each tide. Pie-
vious to drawing a tooth, he ordered the gum to be cut
round its neck ; and if the tooth was hollow, it was to be
Hied with lead be ore extra&ion, to prevent its breaking by
the forceps. He deferibes not only the inflammation, but
Jikewiie the elongation, of the uvula : he alio delcribes the
polypus, and fome other difeafes affe&ing the nole.
He defenbes icveral fpecics cf hernue or rupture, and the
manual affilfance required in th.ofe complaints. After the
return of the inteftines into the abdomen, a firm comprels
was applied to that part of the groin through which they
protruded, and was fecured by a bandage round the loins.
In fome cafes, after the return of inteifinal ruptures, he di*
minifhed the quantity of loofe flein, and formed a cicatrix,
fo as to contrail over the part, to render it more ligid and
capable of refilling. He deferibes various d leales of the
genital parts, the hydrocele or dropfy of the ferotum, a
difficulty of urine, and the manner of drawing off the
water by a catheter; the figns of ftone in the bladder,
and the method of founding or teeling for that ftone.
Lithotomy was at that time performed by introducing two
fingers into the anus ; the ftone was then preffed forward
to the perinaeum, and a cut made into the bladder ; and by
the finger or by a fcoop the ftone was extracted. He de-
icribes the manner of performing this operation on both the
fexes, of treating the patient, and the ligns of recovery and
of danger.
Celfus directed various covrofive applications and injec¬
tions to fiftulas ; and, in the laft extremity, opened them to
the bottom with a knife, cutting upon a grooved inftrument
or conduftor. In old callous ulcers, he made a new wound,
by either cutting away the hard edges, or corroding them
with verdigrife, quicklime, alum, nitre, and with fome
vegetable efcbarotics. He mentions the fymptoms of caries
in the bone ; directs the bone to be laid bare, and to be
pierced with feveral holes, or to be burnt or rafped, in order
to promote an exfoliation of the corrupted part; afterwards
to apply nitre and feveral other ingredients. One of his
applications to a cancer was auripigmentum or arfenic. He
direefts the manner of tapping the abdomen in afeites, and
of drawing blood by the lancet and cupping-glaffes. , His
cupping-glaffes feem not to have been fo convenient as the
modern : they were made either of brafs or horn, and were
unprovided with a pump. He cured varicofe veins by
uftion or by incifion. He gives directions lor extratling
the dead foetus from the womb, in whatever pofition it
fhould prefent; and, after delivery, to apply to the private
parts foft cloths wet in an infufion of vinegar and rofes. In
Celfus’s wotks there is a great redundance and luperfluity
of plaflers, ointments, efcharotics, collyriums, of fiippurating
and diicutient cataplafms, and external applications of every
kind, both Ample and compound : Perhaps, amongft the
multitude, there arc a few ufelul remedies now laid afide and
jiegleCted.
The laft writer of confequence who fiouriflied at Rome
was Galen, phyfician to the emperor Marcus Aurehus. His
works are for the moil part purely medicinal; although
be wrote alfo on furgery, and made Commentaries on the
Surgery of Hippocrates. He opened the jugular veins,
and performed arteiiotomy at the temples ; directed leeches,
fcarification, and cupping-glaffes, to draw blood. He alio
deferibed with accuracy the different ipecies ot hernise or
ruptures.
E R Y.
In the year JCO flourifhed AH I us, in whofe works we Hlftog
meet with many obfervations omitted by Celfus and Ga-
len, particularly on the furgical operations, the difeafes of
women, the caufes of difficult labours, and modes of delivery.,
He alfo takes notice of the dracunculus, or Guinea' worm.
Aetius, however, is greatly excelled by Paulus Egineta,
who flourilhedin 640; whofe treatifeon furgery is foperior
to that of all the other ancients. He diroCls how to extract
darts; to perform the operation fometimes required in
dangerous cafes of rupture or hernia. He treats alfo of
aneuriftn. Galen, Paulus, and all the ancients, fpeak only of
one fpecies of aneurifm, and define it to be “ a tumor
ariiing from arterial blood extravafated from a ruptured
artery.” The aneurifm from a dilatation of the artery is a
difeoverv of the modems. In violent inflammations of the
throat, where immediate danger of fuffocauon was threaten¬
ed, Paulus performed the operation of bronchotomy. In
obftinate defluxions upon the eyes, lie opened the jugular
veins. He deferibes the manner of opening the arteries be¬
hind the ears in chronic pains of the head. He wrote alfo
upon midwifery. Fabricius ab Aquapendente, a celebrated
furgeon of the i’6th century, has followed Celius and Paulus
as text books. 4
From the time of Paulas Egineta to the year 900, noAmnfi!
writer of any confequence, either on medicine or forgery,^*1
appeared. At this time the Arabian phylicians Rhazes
and Avicenna revived in the call the medical art, which,
as well as others, was almolt entirely extinguilhed in the
weft. Avicenna's Canon Mcdhince, or General Syftem of
Medicine and Sutgeiy, was for many ages celebrated t hrough
all the fchools of phyfle. It was principally compiled from
the writings of Galen and Rhazes. The latter had correct¬
ly deferibed the ipina ventofa, accompanied with an enlarge¬
ment of the bone, caries, and acute pain. In difficult la¬
bours, he recommends the fillet to affift in the extraction ot
the foetus ; and for the fame purpofe, Avicenna recommends
the torceps. He deferibes the compolition of feveral
cofmetics to polilh the fit in, and make the hair grow, or
fall off. _
Notwithftanding this, however, it was not till the time of
Albucafis that furgery came into repute among the Ara¬
bians. Rhazes complains of their grols ignorance, and that
the manual operations were performed by the phyficians
fervants. Albucafis enumerates a tremendous lift of opera¬
tions, lufficient to fill us with horror. The hot iron and
cauteries were favourite remedies of the Arabians; and, in
inveterate pains, they repofed, like the Egyptians and
eallern Afiatics, great confidence in burning the part. He
deferibes accurately the manner of tapping in afeites ; men¬
tions feveral kinds of inflxuments for drawing blood ; and
has left a more ample and correct delineation of furgical in*
llruments than any of the ancients- He gives various ob-
ftetrical directions for extracting the feetus in cafes of diffi¬
cult labour. He mentions the bronchocele, or prominent
tumor on the neck, which, he tells us, was moft frequent
among the female lex. We are alfo informed by this
writer, that the delicacy of the Arabian women did not
permit male furgeons to perform lithotomy on females;
but when necefiary, it was executed by one of their own
fex.
From the 11th century to the middle of the 14th, the
hiftory of furgery- affords nothing remarkable except the
importation of that naufeous difeale the leprofy into Europe*
Towards the end of the 15th century the venereal difeafe is
faid to have been imported from America by the firil dii*
coverers of that continent.
At the beginning of the 16th century, furgery-was held
in contempt in this ifland, and was praCtiied indifciiminatety
7 by
EL. Q-
Chap. II. S U R
Hiftory. by barbers, farriers, afid fow-gdders. Barbers and furgeons
continued, ior ZCQ years' after, to be incorporated in one
company both in London and Paris. In Holland and fome
parts of Germany, even at this day, barbers exereife the
razor and lancet alternately.
It is within the laft three centuries that we have any con-
ftderable improvement in furgery ; nor do we know of any
eminent Britifh furgical writers until within the laft I 30
years. “ In Germany (fays Heifter) all the different fur¬
gical operations, at the beginning even of the 18th century,
were left to empirics ; while regular practitioners were con¬
tented to cure a wound, open a vein or an abfcefs, return a
fradtured or luxated bone ; but they ftldom or never ventu¬
red to perform any of the difficult operations.” He alfo
j. fpeaks of their grofs ignorance of the Latin language.
Writers on The firff furgical work of the 16th century worthy of
lurgtry in notice is that of J. Carpus. F. ab Aquapendente, an Ita-
‘.<>e 1<5c|l h’an, publifhed a Syftem of Surgery, containing a defcription
u'^’ ofthe various difeafes, accidents, and operations. Boerhaave
paysthis authorthe followingcompliment: ///efuperavit omnest
et nemo Mi banc difputal gloriam ; omnibus points quam hccce
car ere pojfumus. About the fame period, A. Parey, a French-
man, made feveial important additions to furgery, particular¬
ly in his collection of cafes of wounds, fra ft u res, and other
accidents which occur during war. The ancients, who
were ignorant of powder and fire-arms, are defective in this
part of military furgery. Parey pretends to have lirft in¬
vented the method of tying with a needle and ftrong lilk-
thread waxed the extremities of large arteries, after the
amputation of a member. The ligature of the blood-
veffels is, however, merely a revival of the ancient practice,
which had tallen into dilufe : Throughout the dark ages,
the hot iron, cauteries, and ftrong aftrinpents, were fubfti-
tuted in its place. B. Maggius and L. Botallus wrote on
the cure of gunfhot wounds. J. A. Cruce wrote a fyftem
g of furgery.
Fn the 17th In the 17th century, furgery was enriched with feve-
«.entury. j-jJ fyftems, and with detached or mifecllaneous obferva-
G E R Y.
ced, and the miferable patient is thrown alive into the fca,
upon the furgeon’s declaring his wound to be mortal.
There are, befides, many inftances on record, where wounds
have healed, which the moft Ikilful furgeons have deemed
mortal. The following wounds may be reckoned mortal. _ 7
1. Thole which penetrate the cavities of the'heart, and Wounds
all thofe wounds of the vifeera where the large blood-veffels are
are opened ; becaufe their fituation will not admit of pro-^^11^
per applications to reftrain the flux of blood.
2. Thole which obftruCl or entirely cut off the paffage
of the nervous influence through the body. Such are
wounds of the brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and
fpinal marrow; though the brain is fometimes injured,
and yet the patient recovers. Wounds like wife of the
fmall blood-veffcls within the brain are attended with great
danger, from the effufed fluids prefling upon the brain.
Nor is there lefs danger where the nerves which tend to the
heart are wounded, or entirely divided ; for, affer this, it is
impoflible for the heart to continue its motion.
3. All wounds which entirely deprive the animal of the
faculty of breathing.
4. Thofe wounds wdiich interrupt the courfe of the chyle
to the heart ; fuch are w'ounds of the receptacle of the chyle,
thoracic du£i, and larger laSeals, See.
5. There are other wounds which prove fatal if negletffed
and left to nature : fuch are wounds of the larger external
blood velfels, w'hich might be remedied by ligature. ^
In examining woynds, the next conftderation is, whether gvniprom,
the parts injured are fuch as may be fuppofed to induce dan-of wounds
gerous fymptoms, either immediately or in fome time during 'n different
the courfe of the cure. In order to proceed with any ^
degree of certainty, it is neceffafy to be well acquainted ^
with thofe fymptoms which attend injuries of the different
parts of the body. If the fkin only and part of the cellular
fubftance is divided, the hi ll confequence is an effufion of
blood ; the lips of the wound retract, become tumefied,
red and inflamed, leaving a gap of conliderable wddenefs
according to the length and deepnefs of the wound. Be-0f w<?)Unr!3
fides, if a very confiderable portion of Ik in and cellular-fub-0; theikia
v°!r* principal authors are, M. A. Severinus, V. i. a p^tLiou mm tmu ccimiar iuo-oi the Jkir
Vidius, K. Wifeman, Le Clerc, J. Scultetus, J. Mangetus, ftance is divided, a flight fever feizes the patient; the effufion and cellu.
C. Magatus, Spigellius, F. Flildanus, T. Bartholin, P. de of blood in the mean time flops, and the wmiind is partly fill-'ar fuh*
Since the commencement of the prefent century, furgety
has been enriched with many valuable and important improve¬
ments, of the greateft part of which we have availed ourfelves
in the covirfe of the following treaiife. But as it would far
exceed the limits of a work of this nature to enumerate the
names and writings of fuch authors as have lived within the
above period, and befides, as it appears very unimportant to
do fo, we lhall at once proceed to the next part of our fubjeet.
Chap*. II
Sect. I.
Of Wounds.
Of Simple Wounds.
The. fir ft thing to be confidered in the infpeaion of a
wound is, whether it is likely to prove mortal or not. This
Knowledge can only be had from anatomy, by which the
fiirgeon will be able to determine what parts are in¬
jured; and, from the offices which thefe parts are cal¬
culated to perform, whether the human frame can fubfift
uncer Inch injunes. It is not, however, eafv for the moft
expert anatomift always to progn.ofticate the event with
* • ’ ^>u*: ^1S ri^e he ought always to lay dawn to
, to drdw the moft favourable prognofis the cafe will
^ear, or even more than the rules of his art will allow.
partt,cularly incumbent on him in fea-engagements,
“teria £xec“cd as
ed up with a cake of coagulated blood. Below this cake,ft&nce*
the finall veffels pour forth a clear liquor, which in a ftiort
time is converted into pus (fee the articles Pus and Mu¬
cus). Below this pus granulations of new flefh arife, the
cake of coagulated blood loofens, a uew {kin covers the
place where the wound was, and the whole is healed up ;
only there remains a mark, called a cicatrix or /ear, {bowing
where the injury had been received. I9
All wounds are accompanied with a confiderable degree Of the muf#
of pain, elpecially when the inflammation comes on, though^5*
the divifion reaches no farther than the fion and cellular
fubftance. If the mufcular fibres are divided, the pain is
much greater, becaufe the found part of the muicle is
ftretched by the contra&ion of the divided part and the ac¬
tion of the antagonift mufcle, which it is now lefs fitted to
bear. The wound alfo gaps much more than where the
cellular fubftance only is divided, infomuch that, if left to
itfelf, the fkin will cover the mufcular fibres, without any
intervention of cellular fubftance; and not only a very un-
fightly cicatrix remains, but the ufe of the mufcle is in fome
meafure loft.—If the mufcle happens to be totally divided,
its parts retraft to a very confiderable diftahee ; and unlefs
proper methods be taken, the ufe of it is certainly loft ever
afterwards. .
. If by a wound any confiderable artery happens to be di-Oft”ar*
vided, the blood flows out with gieat velocity, and by Series.
flares; the patient foon becomes faint with lofs of blood ;
M no;- *
9°
Simple
Wounds.
S U R G
nor does the haernorrhagy flop until he faints away altoge¬
ther, when the ends of the divided veffel clofe by their na-
—turaj contraftility ; and if as much vis vita ftill remains as
is fufficient to renew the operations of life, he recovers after
fome time, and the wound heals up as ufual. The part of
the artery which is below the wound in the mean time be¬
comes ufelefs, and its Tides collapfe, fo that all the in¬
ferior part of the limb would be deprived of blood, were
it not that the fmall branches fent off from the artery above
the wounded place become enlarged, and capable of carry-
ing on the circulation. Nature alfo, after a wonderful man¬
ner, often produces new vefiels from the fuperior extremity
of the divided artery, by which the circulation is carried on
as formerly. However, the confequences of fuch a profufe
hsemorrhagy may be very dangerous to the patient, by in¬
ducing extreme debility, polypous concretions in the heart
and large veflels, or an univerfal dropfy. Ihis happens
efpecially where the artery is partially divided ; becaufe
then the vefiel cannot contract in fuch a manner as to clofe
the orifice : however, if the wound is but fmall, the blood
gets into the cellular fubftance, fwelling up the member to
an extreme degree, forming what is called a' diff'ufed anewifm.
Thus the hsemorrhagy foon flops externally, but great mif-
chief is apt to flow from the confinement of the extravafa-
ted blood, which is found to have the power of diflblving
not only the fldhy parts, but alfo the bones themfelves ; and
thus not only the ufe of the limb is entirely loft, but the
patient is brought into great danger of his life, if proper
ia affiftance be not obtained in a fhort time.
O1' the li- Wounds of the ligaments, nerves, and tendons, are like-
g^ments w;fe attended with bad confequences. When a nerve is en-
itridwis tirely divided, the pain is but trifling, though the confe-
quences are often dangerous. If the nerve is large, all the
parts to which it is diftributed below the wound immediately
lofe the power of motion and fenfation ; nor is it uncom¬
mon, in fuch cafes, for them to be feized with a gangrene.
This, however, takes place only when all or the greateft
part of the nerves belonging to a particular part are divided.
If the fpinal marrow, for inftance, be divided near the head,
the parts below foon lofe their a&ion irrecoverably; or if
the bundle of nerves pafling out of the axilla be divided or
tied, fenfation in the greateft part of the arm below will
probably be loft. But though a nerve ftiould be divided, and
a temporary pally be produced, it may again reunite, and
perform its former functions. If a nerve be wounded only,
inftead of being divided, the worft fymptoms frequently
^ „ enfue.
Of the tho- Wounds which penetrate the cavities of the thorax are
rax. and the always exceedingly'dangerous, becaufe there is fcarce a pof-
•vi.ceva fibility of all the vifeera efcaping unhurt. A wound is
whit . it Hicwn to have penetrated the cavity of the thorax princi¬
pally by the difeharge of air from it at each infpiration of
the patient, by an extreme difficulty ofbreathing, coughing
up blood, &c. Such wounds, however, are not always mor¬
tal ; the lungs have frequently been wounded, and yet the
patient has recovered.—Wounds of the diaphragm are al-
moft always mortal, either by inducing fatal convulfions
immediately, or by the afeent of the ftomach, which the
preflure of the abdominal mufcles forces up through the
wound into the cavity of the thorax; of this Van Swieten
gives feveral inftances. — Even though the wound does not
penetrate into the cavity of the thorax, the very worft fymp¬
toms may follow. For if the wound defeends deeply among
the mufcles, and its orifice lies higher, the exuavafated hu¬
mours will be therein colle&ed, ftagnate, and corrupt in fuoh
a manner as to form various finufes ; and after having ero¬
ded the pleura, it may at length pafs into the cavity of the
thorax. The matter having once found a vent into -this.cavity,
contains.
E R Y. Chap. If,
will be continually augmenting from the difeharge of the ft- pimple
nuous ulcer, and the lungs will at laft fuffer by the furrounding
matter. If, in cafes of wounds in the thorax, the ribs or'^Y^J
fternum happen to become carious, the cure will be extreme¬
ly tedious and difficult. Galen relates the cafe of a lad who
received a blow upon his fternum in the field of exercife :
it was fir ft negletfed, and afterwards badly healed-, but,
four months afterwards, matter appealed in the pai t which
had received the blow. A phyfician made an inciiion into
the part, and it was foon after cicatrized : but in a fhort
time a new colle&ion of matter made its appearance, and
upon a fecond incifion the wound refufed to heal. Galen
found the fternum carious ; and having cut off the difeafed
part, the pericardium itfelf was obferved to be corroded, fo
that the heart could he feen quite naked ; notwithftanding
which, the wound was cured in no very long time.
There is fometimes difficulty in determining whether the
wound has really penetrated into the thorax or the abdo¬
men ; for the former defeends much farther towards the
fides than at the middle. But as the lungs are almoft al¬
ways wounded when the cavity of the thorax is penetrated,
the fymptoms arifing from thence can fcarcely be miftaken.
—Another fymptom which frequently, though not always,
attends wounds of the thorax, is an emphyfema. This is
occafioned by the air efcaping from the wounded lungs, and
infinuating itfelf into the cellular fubftance; which being
pervious to it over the whole body, the tumour paffes from
ope part to another, till at laft every part is inflated to a fur-
prifing degree. An inftance is given in the Memoirs of
the Royal Academy, of a tumour of this kind, which on the
thorax was eleven inches thick, on the abdomen nine, on the
neck fix, and on the reft of the body four ; the eyes were in
a great meafure thruft out of their orbits by the inflation of
the cellular fubftance; and the patient died the fifth day.
This was occafioned by a ftab with a fword. ,4
Wounds of the abdomen are not lefsr dangerous thanoftheal'
thofe of the thorax, on account of the importance of the domenarJ
vifeera which are lodged there. When the wound does notlts Vlfar!
penetrate the cavity, there is fome danger of an hernia hew¬
ing formed by the protrufion of the peritonaeum through
the weakened integuments, and the danger is greater the
larger the wound is. Thofe wounds which run obliquely
betwixt the interflices of the mufcles often produce finuous
ulcers of a bad kind. For as there is always a large quantity
of fat interpofed everywhere betwixt the mufcles of the ab¬
domen, if a wound happens to run between them, the ex-
travafated humours, or matter there colledled, not meeting
with free egrefs through the mouth of the wound, often
makes its way in a furprifing manner through the cellular
fubftance, and forms deep finuofities between the mufcles ;
in which cafe the cure is always difficult, and fometimes
impoffible.
If a large wound penetrates the cavity of the abdomen-,
fome of the vifeera will certainly be protruded through it
or if the wound is but fmall, and clofed up with fat io that
none of the inteftines can be protruded, we may know that
the cavity of the abdomen is pierced, and probably iome of
the vifeera wounded, by the acute pain and fever, palenefs,
anxiety, faintings, hickcough, cold fweats, and weakened
pulfe, all of which accompany injuries of the internal parts.
The mifehiefs which attend wounds of this kind proceed not
only from the injury done to the vifeera themfelves, but
from the extravafation of blood and the difeharge of the
contents of the inteftines into the cavity of the abdomen.;
which, being of a very putrefeent nature, foon bring on the
moft violent diforders. Hence wounds of the abdominal
vifeera are very often mortal. This, however, is not always
the cafe? lot the fmall inteftines have been totally divided,
and
Chap. IT. S U R
and yet t’ne patient has- recovered. Wounds both of the
fmall and large inteftines have healed fpontaneoufly, even
when they were of fuch magnitude that the contents of the
inteftine was freely difcharged through the wound in it,
and after part of the inteftine itfelf has been protruded
through the wound of the integuments.
When the mefentery is injured, the danger is extreme,
on account of the numerous veflels and nerves fituated there.
Wounds of the liver, fpleen, and pancreas, are alfo exceed¬
ingly dangerous, although there are fome inftances of the
fpleen being cut out of living animals without any conftder-
able injury.
From the preceding account of the fymptoms attending
wounds in the different parts of the body, the furgeon may
be enabled to judge in fome meafure of the event; though
it muft always be remembered, that wounds, even thofe
which feemed to be of the fiighteft nature, have, contrary
to all expeftation, proved mortal, chiefly by inducing con-
vulfions, or a locked jaw; fo that no certain prognoftic can
be drawn on fight of recent wounds. We fhall now, how-
r j ever, proceed to confider their treatment.
Treatment For the cure of wounds, it has been already obferved,
of wounds, that the ancients imagined balfams, the juice of herbs, See.
to be a kind of fpecifics. In after-ages, and in countries
where balfams are not eafily to be procured, falves have been
fubftituted in their place ; and even at this day there are ma¬
ny who reckon a falve or ointment eflentially neceftary for
healing the flighteft cut. It. is certain, however, that the
cure of wounds cannot be efFefted, nay, not even forwarded
in the leaft, by ointments, unlefs in particular cafes or by
accident. Tl hat power which the human frame has of re-
pan ing the injuries done to itfelf, which by phyficians is
called v/s medicatrix natufXy is the foie agent in curing ex¬
ternal injuries ; and without this the moft celebrated balfams
would prove ineffe&ual. When a wound has been made
with a fharp inftrument, and is not extenfive, if it be imme¬
diately cleaned, and all the extravafated blood fucked (a)
out, it will almoft always heal by the firft intention in a very
ftiort time. Indeed the cures performed by this fimple pro-
cefs are fo fuvprifing, that they would be incredible were we
Hot afttired of their reality By eye-witneffes. When this pro-
cefs is either negleaed or proves unfuccefsf ul, there are three
ftages to be obferved in the cure of a wound: the firft, called
digejlion, takes place when the ends of the wounded veffels con-
ttaa themfelves, and pour out the liquor which is converted
mto pus. As foon as this appears, the fecond fjage, in which
the flefh begins to grow up, takes place ; and as this pro¬
ceeds, the edges of the wound acquire a fine bluifh or pearl
colour, which is that of the new Hun beginning to cover the
wound as far as the flefh has filled it uP. This procefs con¬
tinues, and the fkm advances from all fides towards the
centre, which is called the cicatrizing of the wound. For
t ie promoting of each of thefe procelfes, feveral ointments
were formerly much in vogue. But it is now found, that
no ointment whatever is capable of promoting them ; and
that it is only neceffary to keep the wound clean, and to
prevent the air from having accefs to it. This, indeed, na¬
ture takes care to go, by covering the wound with a cake
of coagulated blood ; but if a wound of any confiderable
• magnitude fhould be left entirely to nature, the pus would
form celow the cruft of coagulated blood in fuch quantity,
that it would moft probably corrupt, and the wound dege-
««ate into a corroding ulcer. It is neceffary, therefore, to
G E R Y.
cleanfe the wound frequently ; and for this purpofe it will
be proper to apply a little ointment fpread on foft feraped  
hnt. For the firft drefiing, dry lint is ufually applied, and
ought to be allowed to remain for two or three days, till the
pus is perfeftly formed ; after which the ointment may be
applied as juft now diredted ; and, in a healthy body, the
wound will heal without further trouble. As to the oint¬
ment employed, it is almoft; indifferent what it be, provided
it has no acrid or ftimulating ingredient in its compofition.
But though, in general, wounds thus eafily admit of a
cure, there are feveral circumftances which require a diffe¬
rent treatment, even in fimple divifions of the flefhy parts,
when neither the membianous nor tendinous parts are in¬
jured. i'hefe are, i. Where the wound is large, and gapes
very much, fo that, if allowed to heal in the natural way,
the patient might be greatly disfigured by the fear. It
is proper to bring the lips of the wound near to each
other, and to join them either by adhefive plafter or by-
future, as the wound is more fuperficial, or lies deeper.
2. When foreign bodies are lodged in the wound, as when
a cut is given by glafs, &c. it is neceffary by all means to
extrafl them, before the wound is dreffed ; for it will never
heal until they are difcharged. When thefe bodies are fitu¬
ated in fuch a manner as not to be capable ot being ex-
traded without lacerating the adjacent parts, which would
occaiion violent pain and other bad fymptoms, it is neceffa-
ry to enlarge the wound, fo that thefe offending bodies may
be eafily removed. This treatment, however, Ts chiefly ne«
ceffary in gunfhot wounds, of which we fhall treat in the
next fe&ion. 3. When the wound is made in fuch a man¬
ner that it runs for fome length below the fkin, and the bot¬
tom is much lower than the orifice, the matter colle&ed
from all parts of the wound will be lodged in the bottom
of it, where, corrupting by the heat, it will degenerate into
a fiftulous ulcer. To prevent this, we muft ufe compreffes,
applied fo that the bottom of the wound may fuffer a more
confiderable preffure than the upper part of it. Thus the
matter formed at the bottom will be gradually forced up¬
wards, and that formed at the upper part will he incapable
of defeending by its weight; the divided parts, in the mean
time, eafily uniting when brought clofe together. Indeed,
the power which nature has of uniting different parts of
the human body is very furprifing ; for, according to au¬
thors of credit, even if a piece of flefh be totally cut out,
and applied in a fhort time afterwards to the place from
whence it was cut, the two will unite. That a part cut
out of a living body does not entirely lofe its vital power for
fome time, is evident from the modern praftice of tranf-
planting teeth ; and from an experiment of Mr Hunter’s at
London, he put the teflicle of a cock into the bellv of a
living hen, which adhered to the liver, and became con-
nccied to it by means of blood-veffels *. We have there * c
fore the greateft reafon to hope, that the divided parts of5/4
the human body, when clofely applied to each other, willn0ly-
cohere without leaving any finus or cavity between them.
However, if this method fhould fail, and matter ftill be col-
kaed in the depending part of the wound, it will be necef¬
fary to make an opening in that part in order to let it out
after which the wound may he cured in the common way!
4. During the courfe of the cure, it fometimes happens
that the wound, initead of filling up with flefhy granula¬
tions of a florid colour, fhoots up into a glafly-like fubftance
which nfes above the level of the furroundino- fkin, while
M 2 ° at
91
Simple
Wounds.
^ 00 Bee an account of the method of fuck;
wounds in Mr John Bell’s Difcourfes on Wounds, Part I. Difcourfe v<
9 2
Simple
Wounds.
T5
Of the re-
gimen of
patients in
wounds.
*7
Of hemo:
rha^ies
from
V ouuds.
S U R G
at the fame time, inftead of laudable pus, a thin ill-coloured
and fetid ichor is difchar>;ed. In this cafe the lips of the
wound lofe their beautiful pearl colour, and become callous
and white, nor does the cicatrizing of the wound at all ad¬
vance. When this happens in a healthy patient, it general¬
ly proceeds from fome improper management, efpecially the
making ufe of too many emollient and relaxing jnedieines,
an immoderate ufe of balfams and ointments. Frequently
nothing more is requifite for taking down this, fungus
than drefling with dry lint; at other times deficcative pow¬
ders, fuch as calamine, tutty, calcined alum, &c. will be ne-
celfary ; and fometimes red precipitate _ mercury mull be
fifed. This laft, however, is apt to give great pain, if
fprinkled in its dry Hate upon the wound ; it is therefore
moil proper to grind it with fome yellow bahheon ointment,
which makes a much more gentle, though at the lame time
an efficacious efcharotic. I ouching the overgrown parts
with blue vitriol is alfo found very effe£hial.
Hitherto we have confidered the wounded patient as
otherwife in a date of perfeft health ; but it mull be obfer-
ved, that a large wound is capable of dilordering the fyftem
to a great degree, and inducing dangerous diieaies which
did not before exift. —If the patient is ftrong and vigorous,
and the pain and inflammation of the fvound t reat, a confr-
derable degree of fever may arife, which it will be neceffary
to check by bleeding, low diet, and other parts of the anti-
phlogiilic regimen, at the fame that the inflamed lips of the
wound and parts adjacent are to be treated with emollient
fomentations or cataplafms till the pain and fwellin? abate.
On the other hand, it may happen, when the patient rs of a
weak and lax habit, that the vis vitae may not be fufficrent
to excite fuch an inflammation in the wound as is abfolutely
neceffarv for rts cure. In this cafe, the edges of the wound
look pale and foft ; the wound itfelf ichorous and bloody,
■without any flgne of flefhy granulations ; or if any new fk-fli
jfhoots up, it is of the fungous glaffy kind above-mentioned.
To fuch wounds ail external applications are vain ; it is ne-
ceffary to ftrengthen the patient by proper internal reme¬
dies, among which the bark has a principal place, until tire
wound begins to alter its appearance. In fuch perfons, too,
there is fome danger of a heftic fever by the abforption of
matter into the body when the wound is large ; and this
will take place during the courfe of the cure, even when the
appearances have been at firll as favourable as could be
wifned. This happens generally when the wound is large,
and a great quantity oi matter formed : for byr this drl-
charge the patient is weakened ; fo that tne pus is no fooner
formed, than it is by the abforbent veflels re-conveyed into
the body, and feverifh heats immediately affedl the patient.
For this the beft remedy is to exhibit the bark copieufly,
at the fame time fupporting the patient by proper cordiais
and nourifhing diet. Indeed, in general, it will be found,
that, in the cafe of wounds of any conflderable magnitude,
a more full and nouriftiing regimen is required than the pa¬
tient, even in health, has been accullomed to; for the dif-
charge of pus alone, where the quantity is conflderable,
proves very debilitating, if the patient is not ftrengthened by
■proper diet. And it is conftantly found, that the cure of
fuch fores goes on much more ealily when the patient is
kept in his ufual habit of body, than when his lyftem is
much emaciated by a very low allowance ; and, for the lame
reafon, purgatives, and whatever elfe tends to weaken the
conftitution, are improper in the cure of wounds.
Hsmorrhagies very frequently happen in wounds, either
from a divifion of one large artery, or of a number of Imall
ones. In this cafe, the firft kep to be taken by the furgeon
is to efiedl a temporary ftoppage of the blood by means of
.Simple
Wounds,
E R Y. Chap. II,
compreffion. He is then to tie up all the veffels in the
manner to be afterwards defcribed. . ^
When the principal arteries of a wound have been tied,
and a little blood continues to be difeharged, but appears
to come from fundry Imall veffels only, an experienced fur¬
geon is induced to think, that the neceffary compreffion
of the bandages will in all probability effect a total flop*
page of the haemorrhagy. In a general oozing of a fmall
quantity of blood from the whole furface of a fore, and
when no particular veffel can be diflinguifhed, there is a
neceffity for trailing to this remedy ; but whenever an
artery can be difcovered, of whatever fize it may be, it
ought unqueilionably to be fecured by a ligature. Tut
it frequently happens, that conflderable quantities of blood
are diicharged, not from any particular veffel, but .lorn
all the fmall arteries over the furface of the fore.^ In
wounds of great extent, particularly after the extirpation of
cancerous breafts, and in other operations where exteniive
fores are left, this fpecies of haemorrhagy often proves very
troublefome by being exceedingly difficult to fupprefs.
Bleedings of this" kind feem evidently to proceed from
two very different and oppofite caufes. 1'Eitlier from
too great a quantity of blood contained in the veffels, or
from an over-degree of tone in the veffels themfelves or,
perhaps, from a combination of both thefe cauies. But,
fecondiy. Such evacuations undoubtedly happen moft fre¬
quency in fuch conflitutions as are very relaxed and de¬
bilitated ; either from a particular {late of the blood, or from
a want of tone in the containing veffels, or, in fome inffances*
from a concurrence of both.
In conftitutions perfedly healthy, on the occurrence of
wounds even of the moil exteniive" nature, as foon as the
larger arteries are fecured, ail the fmall veffels which have
been divided are diminifhed, not only in their diameters,
but alio in their length ; in confequence of which, they re¬
cede conffderably within the furface of the furrounding parts.
This caufe of itfelf would probably, in the gfeateil number
of inffances, prove fufficient for reltraining all lofs o( blood,
from the fmaller arteries. Another very powerful agent how¬
ever is provided by nature for producing the fame effect..
From the 'extremities of the divided veffels which at firft dif¬
eharged red blood only, there now, in their contracted ifate,
oozes out a more thin, though vifeid fluid, containing a great
proportion of the coagulable parts of the blood ; and thia
being equally diftributed over the furface of the wound, by
its baifamic agglutinating powers has a very conftderabie in¬
fluence in reftraining all fuch hsemorrhagies.
When a tedious oozing occurs in a patient young and vi¬
gorous, and where the tone of the mufcular fibres is evident¬
ly great, the rrofl effe&ual means of putting a ftop to the
difeharge is to relax the vafcular fyftem, either by opening
a vein in fome other part, or, what gives ftill mote immedi¬
ate relief, by untying the ligature on one of the principal ar¬
teries of the part, fo as to allow it to bleed freely: thofe vio¬
lent fpafmodic twitchings too, fo frequent after operations
on any of the extremities, whefi they do not depend on a
nerve being included in the ligature with the artery, are in
this manner more -effeClually relieved than by any other
means.
By the fame means the patient, from being in a febrile
heat and much confuied, foon becomes very tranquil: the
violent pulfation of the heart and larger arteries abates, and
the blood not being propelled with fuch impetuofity into the
fmaller veffels of the part, they are thereby left at more li¬
berty to retrad. In the mean time the patient ought to be
kept exceedingly cool; wine and other cordials fhould be ri¬
gidly avoided; cold water, acidulated either with the mine-
Chap. II. S U R G
Simple ral or vegetable acids, ought to be the only drink ; motion
Wound*. 0f every kind, particularly of the part affefted, fhould be
 guarded againft ; and the wound being gently covered with
fcft charpie, ought to be tied up with a bandage fo applied
as to produce a moderate degree of preflure on the extremi¬
ties of the divided parts.
As foon as a fufficient quantity of blood has been dif-
charged, the wound being dreffed, and the patient laid to
reit, a dofe of opium proportioned to the violence of the
fymptoms ought to be immediately exhibited. It ought
to be remarked, however, that in all fuch circumftances,
much larger doles of the remedy are neceflary than in or¬
dinary cates requiring the life of opiates. Small dofes, in-
ftead of anfwering any good purpofe, feem frequently rather
to aggravate the various fymptoms ; fo that whenever they
are here had recourfe to, they ought always to be given in
quantities fufficient for the intended effect.
But htemorrhagies of this nature happen much more fre¬
quently in relaxed enfeebled habits, where the folids have
loll part of their natural firmnefs, and the fluids have ac¬
quired a morbid tenuity. In this cafe a moderate ufe of
generous wine ought to be immediately prefcribed; for
nothing tends fo much, in fuch circumftances, to reftrain
lisemorrhagies, as a well dire&ed ufe of proper cordials.
By tending to invigorate and brace the folids, they enable
the arterial fyftem to give a due refiftance to the contained
fluids ; and have alfo a conliderable influence in reftoring
to the fluids that vifcidity of texture, of which in all iuch
inftances we fuppofe them to be deprived.
A nourilhing diet alfo becomes proper ; the patient
ought to be kept cool; and the mineral acids, from their
known utility in every fpeciesof hsemorrhagy, ought alfo to
be prefcribed. Reft of body is here alfo proper ; and opi¬
ates, when indicated either by pain or fpafmodic affedlions
of the mufcJes, ought never to be omitted.
Together with thefe remedies adapted to the general
fyftem, particular dreffings, appropriated to the Hate of the
parts to which they are to be applied, have been found very
beneficial. In healthy conftitutions, foon after the dif-
charge of blood is over, the parts are covered with a vif-
cid coagulable effufion from the mouths of the now retrac¬
ted arteries ; but in conftitutions of an oppoftte nature,
where the iolids are much relaxed, the blood in general is
found in fuch an attenuated ftate as to afford no fecretion
of this nature.
To fupply as much as poffible the deficiency of this na¬
tural balfam, difterent artificial applications have been invent¬
ed. Dulling tne part with ftarch or wheat-flour has fome-
times been found of ufe, and gum arabic in fine powder
has been known to anfwer when thefe failed.
Applications of this kind, indeed, have been ufed with
fuccefs in all iuen hsemorrhagies, with whatever habit of
body they happen to be connefted; but they have always
proved more particularly ferviceable in relaxed conftitutions,
attended with an attenuated ftate of the blood and an en¬
feebled mufcular fyftem. Alcohol, or any other ardent fpi-
rits, impregnated with as great a quantity as they can dif-
iolve of mirrii, or any other of the heating vifeid rums, may
be here ufed with freedom, though in conftitutions of an
oppofite nature they ought never to be employed. The
baliamum traumaticum of the (hops, a remedy of this na¬
ture, has long been famous for its influence in fuch cafes:
whi h lind,lfcrim’nate Ufe °f thJs and fimilar applications
donhtm i°ng Preva,!cd Wlth ft>me Petitioners, has un-
ve.v |HmyiC ,n e mUch harm ; f°r as lhey are aft pofftffed of
fve'rv fvm g Powers, they of courfe tend to aggravate
, ) ptom m wounds connected with a tenfe Rate of
E n Y. 93
fibres, when much pain, and efpccialiy when fpafmodic mui- Simple
cular affe&ions prevail. , ^ ot‘n,is’,
By a due perfeverancc in one or other of the plans here
pointed out, it will feldom happen that hsemorrhagies of
this nature are not at laft put a flop to : but when the con¬
trary does occur, when, notwith(landing the ufe of the re¬
medies recommended, a difeharge of blood ftill continues; to¬
gether with the means already advifed, an equal mode¬
rate preffure ought to be applied over the whole furface of
the fore, to be continued as long as the neceffity of the cafe
feems to indicate.
In finiffiing the dreffings of fuch wounds, after the char-
pie and compreffes have been applied, a bandage properly
adapted to the part ought to conclude the whole, and in
fuch a manner as to produce as equal a degree of preffure
over the furface of the fore as polfible. But it now and
then happens that no bandage whatever can be fo applied
as to produce the defired effedt; and in fuch cafes the hand
of an affiftant is the only refource ; which being firmly ap¬
plied over the dreffings, fo as to produce a very equal degree
of preffure, will commonly luccecd when no other remedy is
found to have much influence.
Wounds of the nerves, tendons, and ligaments, are at-symptom*
tended with much more violent fymptoms than thofe where which
even coniiderable arteries are divided, and frequently re-4 nietime®
fill every method of cure propofed by the molt fltilful prac-^^; ^
titioners. In the Ample procefs of blood-letting, it fre-unjra
quently happens that the tendinous expanfion called the
aponeurofis of the biceps mufcle is wounded, or even the
tendon of that mufcle itfelf is pundlured, by the point of the
lancet; or fometimes a nerve which happens to lie in the
neighbourhood is partially divided. Any one of thefe
wounds, though they are the fmallell we can well iuppofe
to be given, are frequently very dangerous and difficult of
cure. It fometimes immediately happens on the introduc¬
tion of the lancet, that the patient complains of a moll ex-
quifite degree of pain ; and when this occurs, we may reil
allured that either a nerve or tendon has been wounded.
On fome occafions, by proper management, fuch as evacu¬
ating a confiderable quantity ©f blood at the orifice newly
made, by keeping the part at perfe£l reft, and preferving
the patient in as cool a ftate as poffible, the pain at firlt
complained of will gradually abate, and at laft go off en¬
tirely, without any bad confequence whatever. At other
times, however, this pain which occurs inftantaneoufly on
the introdudiion of the lancet, inftead of abating, begins foon
to increafe ; a fullnefs, or fmall degree of fwelling, takes
place in the parts contiguous to the wound ; the lips of the
fore become fomewhat hard and inflaraed ; and, in the
courfe of 24 hours or fo from the operation, a thin watery
ferum begins to be difeharged at the orifice.
If, by the means employed, relief is not foon obtained,,
thefe fymptoms generally continue in nearly the fame ftate-
for two or perhaps three days longer. At this time the
violent pain which at firft took place becomes ftifl more di-
ftreffing ; but inftead of being ftarp and acute as before,
it is now attended with tlie fenfation of a burning heat,
which ftill goes on to increafe, and proves, during the
whole courfe of the ailment, a fource of conftant diftrefs to
the patient. The fullnefs and hardnels in the lips of the
wound begin to increafe, and the fwelling in the neighbouring
parts gradually extends over the whole members. The
parts at laft become exceedingly tenfe and hard; an eryfipe-
latous inflammatory colour frequently appears over the
whole member; the pulfe by this time has generally be¬
come very hard and quick; the pain is now intente, the
patient exceedingly reftiefs; twitchiugs of the tendons ©c>
our
Simple
'Wound*
T9
Opinion*
about the
caufes of
thefe fymp
toms.
Mr John
Hunter’s
opinion
<U
J$ot jufi,
IReally ow.
ing to the
partial
wounding
of a nerve
©r tendon.
S U R
cw to a greater or leiTer degree ; on feme occafions, a lock-
ed jaw and other eonvulfive afFe^ons fupervene; and all
thefe fvniDtoms continuing to increate, it moll frequently
hannens that the torture under which the patient has been
groaning is at laft terminated by death.
Different opinions have prevailed refpecting the came
of thefe fvmptoms. By fome they have been imputed to
wounds of the tendons. By others the tendons are fuppo-
fed to be fo entirely deftitute of fenlibility, as to be quite
incapable of producing fo much diftrefs ; fo that wounds o
the nerves they conlider, on all fuch occafions, as the true
caufe of the various fymptoms we have mentioned.
One or other of thefe ideas continued to dc tne oniy fource
for explaining the various phenomena found to occur in
this malady, till a different opinion was fuggefted by the
late ingenious Mr John Iffunter of Imndon. Mr Hunter
fuppofes, that all the dreadful fymptoms found now and
then to be induced by the operation of blood-letting, ra?.y
be more readily accounted for from an inflamed liate ot the
internal furface of the vein, than from any other caufe.
Such a Hate of the vein he has often traced in hones that
have died of fuch fymptoms from venefe&ion, and the fame
appearances have fometimes occurred alfo in the human bo¬
dy! And on other occafions, inflammation having m this
manner been once excited, has been known to terminate in
iuppuiation; and the matter thus produced being in the
courfe of circulation carried to the heart, Mr Huntei fup¬
pofes that in fuch cafes death may have been induced by that
Ca ThereTan be no reafon to doubt the faft held forth by
Mr Hunter, that in fuch inftances the vein in which the
orifice has been made has frequently after death been found
greatly inflamed : but however ingenious his arguments may
be for concluding that the ftate of the vein is the original
caufe of all the bad fymptoms enumerated, and although
we muff allow that fuch an inflammatory affeftion of a vein
muff have a confiderable influence in aggravating the vari¬
ous fymptoms previoufly induced by other caufes ; yet we
may very fairly conclude, that it could not probably in any
one inftance be able to account with fatisfadion for their
firft produ&ion. #
In many inftances the patient, at the very inftant or the
operation, feels a very unufual degree of pain. In fome
cafes, the violence of the pain is almoft unfupportable. Now
this we can never fuppofe to have been produced by the
mere punfture of a vein ; for although the coats of veins
are not perhaps entirely deftitute of feeling, yet we know
well that they are not endowed with fuch a degree of fenfi-
bility as to render it probable fuch intenfe pain could ever
be induced by their being punftured in any way whatever.
This inflamed ftate of the veins therefore, as dete&ed by
Mr Hunter after death, muff be confidered rather as being
produced by, than as being produftive of, fuch affedions ;
and that fuch ailments ffiould frequently produce an inflam¬
mation of the contiguous veins, is a very probable conjec¬
ture. In the courfe of 48 hours or fo from the operation,
when the febrile fymptoms are juft commencing, fuch a de¬
gree cf hardnefs and evident inflammation is induced over all
the parts contiguous to the orifice, that it would be furpn-
fing indeed if the vein, which is thus perhaps entirely furround-
ed with parts highly inflamed, fhould efcape altogether. We
•{hall therefore proceed upon the fuppofition of this inflamed
ftate of the veins being a confequence rather than the caule
of fuch ailments; and of courfe we now revert to one or
other of the opinions long ago adopted on this fuDject, that
all the train of bad fymptoms found on fome occafions to
fucceed venefedion, proceeds either from the wound of a
nerve or of a tendon.
G E R V- Chap. 11,
That a partial wound of a nerve will now and then pro- simple
duce very dillreffing fymptoms, no praditioner will den> :
but it has been attempted to be fhown, that tendons are al- ^
moft totally deftitute of fenfibility ; and it has therefore been
fuppofed, that their being wounded can never account for
the various fymptoms known to occur in fuch cafes, i here
is great reafon however to think, that in different inftances
the fame train of fymptoms have been 'induced by different -
caufes ; that in one inftance a wounded nerve, and 111 others
prick's of the tendons, have given rife to them, as we have al-
ready fuppofed. , , f ^ ij
In order to prevent as much as poiuole the conlequcnt ^jj^jj
inflammation and other fymptoms which ufually enfue, a con-obvia^
liderable quantity of blood ihould be immediately difcharged^H
at the orifice juft made : the limb, for feveral days at leait,^.^
ought to be kept in a ftate of perfed reft, care being at theW0UDi
fame time taken to keep the mufcles of the part in as re.
laxed a ftate as poffible : the patient Ihould be kept cool;
on a low diet; and, if neceffary, gentle laxatives ought to
be adminiftered.
When, notwithftanding thefe means, the fymptoms, m-
ftead of diminifning, rather become more violent ; if the
lips of the orifice turn hard and more inflamed, it the pain
becomes more confiderable, and efpeciahy if the fwelling
begins to fpread, other remedies come then to be indica-
ted. In this ftate of the complaint, topical blood-letting,
by means of leeches applied as near as pofiible to the lips of
the wound, frequently affords much relief; and when
the pulfe is full and quick, it even becomes neceffary to
evacuate large quantities of blood by opening a vein in fome
other part. -
The external applications ufually employed in this Itate
of the complaint are warm emollient lomentations and
poultices. In fimilar affedions of other parts no remedies
with which we are acquainted would probably be found
more fuccefsful; but in the complaint now under confidera-
tion, all fuch applications, inftead of being produdive of
any advantage, rather do harm. The heat of the part is
here one of the moft diftreffing fymptoms ; and warm emol¬
lient applications rather tend to augment this fource of un-
eafinefs. The lips of the wound alfo are rendered ftill more
hard, fwelled, and of courfe more painful ; and the fwelling
of the contiguous parts is increafed. The heft external re¬
medies are cooling aftringents, efpecially the faturnine ap¬
plications. The parts chiefly affeded being alternately co-
vered over with cloths wet with a folution of faccharum fa-
turni, and pledgits fpread with Goulard’s cerate, are kept
more cool and eafy than by any other remedy hitherto ufed.
The febrile fymptoms wdiich occur muft at the / fame time
be attended to, by keeping the patient cool, on a low diet,
preferving a lax ttate of the bowels ; and, if neceffary, far¬
ther quantities of blood ought to be evacuated..
On account of the violence of the pain, which is fome¬
times fo exceffive as to deftroy entirely the patient’s reft,
opiates ought to* be freely exhibited ; and when twitchings
of the tendons and other convulfive fymptoms fuperveiae,
medicines of this kind become ftill more neceffary. In or¬
der, however, to have a proper influence in this ftate of the
complaint, opiates ought to be given in very full dofes;
otherwife, inftead of anfwering any good purpofe, they
conftantly tend to aggravate the different fymptoms, not only
by increafing the heat and reftleffnefs, but by having an evi¬
dent influence in rendering the fyftem more fufceptible than
it was before of the pain and other diftrefiing effedls produ¬
ced upon it by the wround.
It often happens, however, either frdm negkifting the wound
or from improper treatment, that all thefe remedies are had io-
courfe to without any advantage whatever; the fever, pain»
- and
'hap II. 5 U,R
Simple and fwelling of the parts continuing, convulfive afFedions of
Wound'. the mufcles at laft occur, all tending to indicate the moll
 1 imminent danger. In this fituation of matters, if we have
not immediate recourfe to fome effedlual means, the patient
will foon fall a victim to the diforder ; and the only reme¬
dy from which much real advantage is to be expected,.is a
free and extenfxve divifion of the parts in which the orifice
producing all the mifchief was at firft made. We know
well, from the repeated experience of ages, that much more
pain and diftrefs of every kind is commonly produced by
the partial divificn either of a nerve or of a tendon, than
from any of thefe parts being at once cut entirely acrofs.
Now the intention of the operation here recommended, is
to produce a complete divifion of the nerve or tendon we
fuppofe to have been wounded by the point of the lancet,
and which we confider as the foie caufe of all the fubfequent
dittrefs.
This operation being attended with a good deal of pain,
and being put in practice for the removal of fymptoms
from which it is perhaps difficult to perfuade the patient
that much danger can occur, all the remedies we have men¬
tioned ffiould be firll made trial of before it is propofed :
but at the fame time, care ought to be taken that the dif¬
order is not allowed to proceed too far before we have re¬
courfe to it; for if the patient ffiould be previoufly much
weakened by the feveriffi fymptoms having continued vio¬
lent for any length of time, neither this remedy nor any
other with which we are acquainted would probably have
much influence. So foon therefore as the courfe already
preferibed has been fairly tried, and is found to be inade¬
quate to the effects expe&ed from it, we ought immediately
to have recourfe to a free divifion. of the parts chiefly af-
54 fefted.
Treatment Wherever a wounded or ruptured tendon maybe fituated,
if wounded the limb fliould be placed in fuch a manner as will moll
,r r ,!,ni readily admit of the retraced ends of the tendon being
brought nearly together ; and when in this fituation, the
mufcles of the whole limb in which the ^injury has happened
mult be tied down with a roller, fo as to prevent them from
all kinds of exertion during the cure, endeavouring at the
fame time to keep the parts eafy and relaxed. Thus in
a wound or "rupture of the tendon of the redlus mufcle of
the thigh, the patient’s /eg ffiould be kept as much as pof-
Able firetched out during the cure, while the thigh ffiould
be in fome degree bent, to relax the mufcle itfeif as far as
poffible.
In fimilar affeftions of the tendo Achillis, the knee fhould
be kept conftantly bent to relax the mufcles of the leg, and
the foot Ihould be ftretched out to admit of the ends of
the ruptured tendon being brought nearly into contad. A
roller fliould be applied with a firmnefs quite fufficient for
fecuring the mufcles and tendons in this fituation ; but care
mull be taken to prevent it from impeding the circulation.
With this view, fine foft flannel ffiould be preferred either
to linen or cotton ; for being more elallic, it more readily
yields to any fwelling with which the limb may be attacked.
fl lie late X)r blonro was tne firll who gave any accurate
diredions for the treatment of rupture in the large tendons;
and it is perhaps given with more precifion, from his having
himfelf experienced the effeds of this misfortune in the
tendo Achillis.
He ufed a foot-fock or flipper, made of double quilt¬
ed ticking, and left open at the toe ; f-. the heel of
which a llrap went up above the calf of ti:e L .. A firong
piece of the fame materials went round the calf, and
was faftened with a lace. On the back part of this was a
buckle, through which the llrap of the foot-fock was paired,
>r rupcu
ed tec
Ions.
G E R Y. 95
by which the calf could be brought down, and the foot ex-
tended at pleafure. Befides there was a piece of tin ap-, ^ ‘ ,
plied to the fore part of the leg, to prevent the foot from
getting into any improper pollure during fleep. Alter
propofing to walk, he put on a Ihoe with a heel two inches
deep ; and it was not till the expiration of five months that
he ventured to lay afide the tin plate ; and he continued the
ufe of the high heeled ffioe for two years. The whole ap¬
paratus is reprefented Plate CCCCXC1I. fig. 124.
From this treatment a knowledge may be formed of the
treatment neceflary to be followed in the laceration of ten¬
dons of other parts of the body. _
In wounds of the thorax, even though none of the vifeera Wounds of
Ihould be wounded, we may yet reafonably expeft that a the thorax,
confiderable quantity of blood will be extravafated ; and
this, if very large, mull be evacuated if poffible. However,
it ought to be particularly obferved, that this extravafated
blood fliould not be difeharged before we are aflured that
the wounded veflels have done bleeding. When the pulfe
appears fufficiently ftrong and equal, the extremities are
warm, no hickup or convulfion appears, and the patient’s
ftrength continues, we may then know that the internal
hasmorrhagy has ceafed, and that the means for difeharging
the blood may now be fafely ufed. Matter, water, blood,
&c. have fometimes vaniffied from the cavities of the thorax,
and been afterwards difeharged by fweat, urine, &c. Yet
this but feldom happens ; and if we were to trull to nature
only in thefe cafes, it is certain that many would perilh
from a deltru&ion of the vital vifeera by the extravafated
and putrid blood, who by an artificial extraction of the fame
blood might have been fared.
Wounds of the abdomen mull be clofed as foon as poffible,
and then treated as fimple wounds; only they ought to be dref-
fed as feldom and expeditioufly as may be. A fpare diet, with
other parts of the antiphlogillic regimen, is here abfolutely 26
neceffary. It fometimes happens, that, thro’ a large wound Wou^s
of the abdominal integuments, the intelline comes out with-^na
out being injured ; yet, if it remains for any time expofed to
the air, the cafe is commonly very dangerous. The moll
certain method, in all fuch cafes, is to return the protruded
part as foon as poffible ; for although writers in general
formerly recommended warm fomentations, &c. to be pre-
vioully applied, the lateft authors upon this fubjeft confider
the moil natural and proper fomentation to be that which
is produced by the heat and moillure of the patient’s belly,
and that therefore the inteftines, if no mortification has taken
place, are to be cleared from extraneous matter, and imme¬
diately returned.
When the wound of the abdomen is large, the intellines -
ealily prolapfe, but are as eaiily returned. But when part
of an- intelline has been forced through a narrow wound,
the diforder is much more dangerous. For the prolapfed
inteftine being diitended by flatus, or the ingelled aliments
driven thither by the perillaltic motion, it will be inflamed,
tumefied, and incapable of being returned through the llric-
ture of the wound ; whence a lloppage of the circulation
and gangrene will foon follow. In this cafe the utniolk
care is to be taken to reduce the intelline to its natural fize.
When this cannot be accompliffied by other means, fome
pra&itioners of great eminence have even advifed the punc¬
turing of the intelline in different places in. order to dif-
charge the flatus. This pra£lice has alfo been recommend¬
ed in an incarcerated hernia, but is exceedingly difapproved
of by Mr Pott and later writers ; and it feems to be very
dubious whether any good can poffibly arife from it. To
punfture any part that is already inflamed, mult undoubted¬
ly add to the inflammation j and it is very improbable that
the.
o.'mp’e
Wuinuif.
* Part IT-
XUfcourfe
4th and
5 th.
tlie dJfcli&rgc of flatus procured by the punfturcs would at
all be a recompenfe for the bad confequences produced by
the increafed inflammation. The method of Celius is much
more elieible : It is to dilate the wound fo as to reduce the
intettine with eafe. Sometimes part of the inteftine is loft
either by fuppuration or gangrene. In this cafe, all that can
be done is to ftrike a fingle ftitch through the wounded
bowel, and to fix it to the external wound by paffing the
future alfo through the fides of the wound. The ends of
the inteftine may perhaps adhere ; or at any rate the wound
■will continue to perform the office of an anus, out ot which
the fasces will continue to be difeharged during life. The
directions given by fome furgeons about inierting' the upper
end of the gut into the lower, and Hitching them together,
are perfectly impra&icable, as Mr John Bell has fhown in
his important Difcourfes on Wounds*; and even it they
■were praCicable, would certainly produce new mortification,
which could not but be fatal.
When the omentum appears prolapfed, the fame general
treatment is to be obferved ; only that, when it is dry and
mortified, the dead part may fafely be extirpated.—W7e
ffiall conclude the article of abdominal wounds with a cafe
from the memoirs of the academy of fciences lor the year
1705, which (hows that we ought not to defpair, even
though the moft defperate fymptoms flrould take place, as
long as any vis vita; remains. A madman wounded himfelt
in i8 different places of the abdomen. Eight of thefe pe¬
netrated the cavity, and injured the contained vifeera ; he
had a diarrhoea, naufea, and vomiting, tenfion of the abdo¬
men, with difficult refpiration and violent fever, fo that his
life was defpaircd of. During the firft four days he was
blooded feven times ; and during the greateft part of the
cure his diet confifted almoft entirely of flefh-broths, with
the addition of fome mild vegetables. By thefe means he
was not only cured of his wounds, but reftored to his right
fenfes. Seventeen months after, he went mad again, and
threw himfelf over a precipice, by which he was inftantly
killed : on opening the body, the wounds were found to
have penetrated the middle lobe of the liver, the inteftinum
jejunum, and the colon.
Such extraordinary cures are to be imputed, according
to the fatisfadfory explanation of Mr J. Bell, to the abdo¬
men being perfedftly full, and conftantly fubjefted to ftrong
preffure between the diaphragm and abdominal mufcles ;
which keeps the parts contiguous to a wound clofely ap¬
plied to it, prevents the difeharge of faeces or even of blood
in fome meafure, and gives an opportunity for a very fpeedy
adhefion between the parts.
Wounds of In wounds of the head, where the cellular membrane
(the head. Gnly is affe&ed, and the aponeurofis and pericranium un¬
touched, phlebotomy, lenient purges, and the ule of the
common febrifuge medicines, particularly thofe of the neutral
tenfe the pain fo great, and the fymptomatie fever fo high, Cwtufcd
that by waiting for the (low eflha of foeh means the
tient runs a rifle from the continuance of the fever ; or elfe , ^
the injured aponeurofis and pericranium, becoming floughy,
produce an abfeefs, and render the calc both tedious and
troublefome. A diviiion of the wounded part, by a fimple
jncifion down to the bone, about half an inch or an inch in
length, will moft commonly remove all the bad fymptoms;
and if’it be done in time, will render every thing elfe un-
neceffary. , . • r i • • j , 28
The wounds penetrating into the cavities of the joints do Woundssj
not feem at firft alarming ; yet, by expofure to the air, thethei®
lining membrane of fuch cavities acquire fuch a degree of
feniibility as to endanger life when they are large. _ As
foon therefore as any extraneous body, pufhed into the joint,
is removed, the admiffion of the external air is to be guarded
againft as much as poffible. If the wound be not too large,
this may be done by pulling the fkin over the wound of the
joint; and, to prevent its retradlion, rather adhelive plafter,
with proper bandaging, is to be uied. But when inflam¬
mation is come on, repeated and copious blood-letting, to-
.■> ether with fomentations, become neceffary; and as the
pain, in thefe cafes, is apt to be violent, opiates mutt
be adminiftered ; but fhould matter be formed in the cavity
of the joint, free vent muft be give to it.
Sect. II.
Of contufed and lacerated Wounds.
When the fmall veffels arc broken by a blow with any
hard inftrament without penetrating the fkin, at the fame
time that the folid fibres of the part are crufhed, the in-
jury is termed a contufwn: and when at the lame time
the fkin is broken, it is termed a contufed and lacerated
wound; becaufe in this cafe the parts are not fairly di¬
vided as with a knife, but torn afunder or violently
ftretched.
Every contufion therefore, whether the fkin is broken or Symg
not, may properly be reckoned a wound; for where the3
of CO#
47
kind, generally remove all the threatening fymptoms. When
the inflammation is gone off, it leaves on the fkin a yellowifh
tint and a dry feurf, which continue until perfpiration takes
them away ; and upon the removal of the difeaie, the wound
immediately recovers a healthy afpedl, and foon heals with¬
out further trouble. But in the worft kind of theie wounds,
that is, where a fmall wound paffes through the tela cellu-
lofa and aponeurofis to the pericranium, the patient will
admit ef more free evacuations by phlebotomy than in the
former. In both, the ufe of warm fomentations is required;
but an emollient cataplafm, which is generally forbid in the
eryfipelatous fwellings, may in this latter cafe be ufed to
great advantage. Where the fymptoms are not very prei-
ling, nor the habit very inflammable, this method will prove
Sufficient j but it fome time 3 happens that the fcalp is fo
injury is fo flight that none of the contents of the fmall flonl
veffels are extravafated, it fcarce deferves to be mentioned.
The immediate confequence of a contuiion, therefore, is a
fweUing, by reafon of the extravaiation juft mentioned ; and
the fkin becomes difcoloured by the blood ftagnating under
it: but as this fluid, even though covered by the fkin, can¬
not long remain in its natural ftate, it thence happens, that
the contufed part foon lofes its florid red colour, and be¬
comes blue or black ; the thinner parts being in the mean
time gradually taken up by the abforbent veffels, which at
laft happens to the blood itfelf; the blue difappears, and is
fucceeded by a yellowifh colour, fhowing that the blood is
now diffolved ; after which the part recovers its former ap¬
pearance, and the rupturqd veffels appear to have united as
though nothing had happened. «
Thefe are the fymptoms which attend the flightefl kind
of contufions ; but it is evident, that where the blow is fo
violent as to rupture or crufh fome of the large nerves, ot
blood-veffels, all the bad confequences which attend Ample
wounds of thofe parts will enfue, and they will not at all be
alleviated by' the circumftance of the fkin being whole.
Hence it is eafy to fee how a contufion may produce ulcers
of the worft kind, gangrene, fphacelus, carious bones, &c.;
and if it happens to be on a glandular part, a feinhus or
cancer is very frequently found to enfue. Even the viicera
themfelves, efpecially of the abdomen, maybe injured by
contufions to fuch a degree as to produce an inflammation,
gangrene, or feirrhus* nay inftaut death, without rupturing
the fkin.
Sect.
CVtap.
Cun-fhot
Wov.nds.
30
Extiidtion
of the ball
or other fo¬
reign bo¬
dies.
^ 3t
Dilatation
of the
Wound.
3*
Advantage
®f bleeding
II. . S U R
Sect. III. Of Gun-Jhot IVounds.
* Gun-shot wounds can be confidered in no other light
than contufed wounds. In thofe made by a mulket or pdtol
ball, the moil immediate confiderations are, to extr'fl the
ball, or any other extraneous body which may have lodged
in the wounded part; and to (top the hemorrhagy, it there
is an effuiion of blood from the rupture of fome conhderable
artery.
It is frequently neceflary to enlarge the wound in order
to ext raft the ball; and it it has gone quite through, (pro¬
vided the iituation of the part wounded will admit oi its
being done withfafety), the wound is to be laid freely open
through its whole length ; by which means any extraneous
body will be more readily removed, and the cure facili¬
tated.
In order to get at the ball, or any other foreign matter,
probing is to be ufed as fparingly as poffible : and this muft.
evidently appear to any one who will only confider the na¬
ture of the fymptoms attendant on penetrating wounds of
the bread or belly, either From a bullet or lharp inilrument;
the thruding in a probe to parts under fuch circumdances
being unavoidably a fredr dab on every repetition of iuch
praftice. Wherever probing is neceflary, the finger is to
be preferred as the bed and trued; probe, where it can be
ufed.
If a ball, or any other foreign body, happens t© be lodged
near the orifice, or can be perceived by the finger to lie un¬
der the dein, though at fome didance from the mouth of
the wound, we fhould cut upon it and take it out: but
v-ben it is funk deep, and lies abfolutely beyond the reach
of the finger, it mutt appear evident, upon the leaft redec-
tion, that thruding, firft a long probe in qued of the bullet,
and then, as has been piaftifed likewife, a longer pair of
forceps, either with or v/ithout teeth, Into a wound of that
kind, though with a fort of certainty to extraft it, mud ei¬
ther contufe, or irritate and inflame, the parts to a great de¬
gree; and confequently do as much, or more mifehief, than
the ball did at firft by forcing its paffage fuch a length of
way. And fhould they at the fame time lay hold of any
confiderable artery or nerve along with the ball (which can
fcarce ever fail of being the cafe), what (hocking confequen-
ces would attend fuch a proceeding ! Nor would attempts
of this fort be lefs injurious in cafe a bullet fhould happen to
be lodged in the cavity ®f the belly or bread:. Such at¬
tempts are the lefs neceffary, becaufe a great number of in-
llances have occurred, where balls have been quietly lodged
in feverai parts of the body, till after many years they have
worked themfelves a paffage towards the furface, and were
very eafily extrafted ; and many where balls have been en¬
tirely left behind.
In cafe the wound be occafioned by a mulket or piftol
(hot, and of courfe but fmall, it will be neceflary to dilate
it without delay, provided the nature of the part will admit
of this witu faiety : for in wounds near a ioint, or in very
membranous or tendinous parts, the knife, as well as forceps,
fhould be-put under fome redraint ; nor fhould any more
opening be made than what is abfolutely requifite for the
free difeharge of the matter lodged within.
Where the wounded perfon has not fuffered any great lofs
blood, and this is generally the cafe, it will be advifable to
open a vern immediately, and take from the arm a large
quantity ; and to repeat bleeding as circumftances may
jequire, the fecond, and even the third day. Repeated
the beSinm’n2 dr2* after them many advan-
.tirvn le'7 P’even.t a £ood deal °f pain and inflamma-
ru 1 ’ r6-? any feyenlh afiaults, forward the digeftion, and
Vo,. XVntparVr111*””3110”5' ^ 3 l0“g trai'1 °f
33
Regimen,
34
G E R Y. 97
complicated fymptoms which are wont other wife to ‘inter- Oun.lhot
rupt the cure, miferably harafs the poor patient, and too oun ^
often endanger his life ; and even where the feverifh fymp¬
toms run high, and there is almoft a certainty that matter
is forming, bleeding, in that ftate, is very frequently of great
advantage.
For the firft 12 days it will be proper to obferve a cool¬
ing regimen, Froth in refpeft of the medicines that may be
preforibed, and the diet requifite for the fupport of nature.
It is abfolutely neceflary likewife that the body be con-
flantly kept open. Unlefs, therefore, nature does this office
of herfelf, a ftool fhould be every day procured, either by
emollient clytters, or fome gentle laxative taken at the
mouth ; and whenever there is much pain in the wounded
parts, immediate recourfe muft be had to opium.
As to external applications, whatever is of a hot fpi-
rituous nature is remarkably injurious on thefe occafions,
and what no wounded part can in any degree bear. F he
wound may be drefled with pledgits of any emollient oint- External
merit ; the whole being covered with a common poultice, 3i’r‘lcatlons
or, in fome cafes, the preparations of lead may be ufed. An
opiate fhould now be adminiftered ; and the part affefted
being placed in the eafieft and moft convenient potture, the
patient fhould be laid to reft. The formation of matter, in
every contuled wound, is an objeft of the firft importance ;
for, till this takes place, there is often reafon to fufpeft that
gangrene may happen. With a view to haften fuppuration,
the warm poultices fhould be frequently renewed, and they
fhould be continued till the teniion and fw^eiling, with which
wounds of this kind are ufually attended, be removed, and
till the fore has acquired a red, healthy, granulating appear¬
ance, when it is to be treated like a common ulcer.
Gun (hot w'ounds are commonly covered from the begin¬
ning with deep floughs, and various remedies are recom¬
mended for removing them. Every appearance, however,
of this kind with which they are attended proceeds entire¬
ly irom contufion ; and, excepting the injury be extenfive,
the flough is not often perceptible, or it is io thin as to come
away along wdth the matter at the firft or fecond drtffing.
Although emollient poultices be extremely,uftful, they
ought to be no longer continued than till the effefts already
mentioned are produced; otherwife'they will not only relax
the parts, but alfo produce too copious a difeharge of mat¬
ter, which is fometimes attended wdth great danger. A too
copious flow of matter may proceed from different caufes ;
but in whatever way it may have been produced, the prac¬
tice to be adopted muft be nearly the fame. Every-collec-
tion which appears muft have a free outlet, and the limb
laid in that pofture which will moil readily admit of its run¬
ning off. In fuch circumftances, nourifhing diet and Peru¬
vian bark in confiderable quantities are highly ufeful. When
the difeharge continues copious, in fpite of every effort to
check it, detached pieces of bone or fome extraneous matter
are probably the caufe. In fuch a fituation nothing will
leflen the quantity of matter till fuch fubflances be removed.
The wound ought therefore again to be examined, and loofe
bodies removed. Pieces of cloth have been known to be
removed by fetons, wflien that method was prafticable, after
every other method had failed. Opi-um likewufe is frequent¬
ly ufeful in checking an exceffive difeharge, when it happens
to be kept up by irritation.
Although no confiderable hemorrhagy may happen at
firft hi gun-fhot wmiinds; yet after the floughs commonly
produced upon fuch occafions have come off, fome confi¬
derable arteries may be expofed, and then a dangerous he¬
morrhagy may enfue. The hemorrhagy is often preceded
by a great heat in the injured parts, and with a throbbing
pulfatory pain. At this period it may frequently be pre-
N vented
9 8
Poifoncd
Wounds.
35
Scarifying
improper,
S IT R
venteS by plentiful blood-lettincf, particularly local,
if the hemorrhagy has fairly taken place, and from arteries
of confiderable hze, nothing will do but the proper apphca
tion of ligatures. As the difcharge in thefe cafes would
often prove dangerous before the furgeon. could be procu¬
red, the attendants fhould be furnifbed with a tourniquet,
with directions to apply it, upon the firlt appearance ot
bI°Till of late years the fcarifying of gun-fhot wounds was
a praftice which prevailed very univerfally among furgeons;
and it was expefted by this, that the Houghs with which
wounds are fometimes covered would fooner feparate, and
that the cure would thereby be more readily performed.
3?
JiiTordfica*
tion.
It is now, however, known, that this pra&tce, inftead .of
being ufeful, very generally does harm by increafing the in¬
flammation. It fhould therefore be laid entirely afu.e.
When a gun-fhot wound cannot eafily or fafely be laid open
from one end to the other, perhaps it mriy be proper to in¬
troduce a cord through the fiuus. This, however, fhould
not be attempted till the firft or inflammatory {fate of the
wound is over : but when a cord cannot be properly intro¬
duced, on account of the fituation or direftion 6f the wound,
eomprefiion may prove equally ufeful here as in cafes of
punftured wounds. , . , ,
Mortification happening after gun-flvot wounds, is to be
treated in the fame manner as if it had arifen from any other
caufe, only bark is not to be promifcuoufly ufed; as, in ple¬
thoric habits, it may prove hurtful, though in debilitated re¬
laxed habits it will be extremely ufeful;. but even in fuch it
fhould never be given while much pain and tenlion con¬
tinue..
G E R Y. Chap, in,
But cautery ; which, together with a plentiful fuppuration, has, tnflamtrja.
in different in fiances, appeared to anfwer the purpofe tffec-^nand
tually ; at leaft, patients treated in this manner have eica-tioii
ped, while others bit at the fame time .by the fame animal ^
have frrffered. The fooner the operation is performed, the
more effeaual it is likely to prove ; but it ought not to be
omitted, even though fome time has elapfed from the time
that the wound was infliaed; for there is reafon to iuppofe
that this poifon does not enter the fyftem. fo quickly as fe-
veral others are obferved to do. Sea-bathing has been much
recommended in all ages as a preventive ; but there are
few well attefted cafes of its being attended with advantage.
Many praaitioners depend much on mercury ; and as it can
be ufed along with any other plan of treatment, it ought
not to be negkaed. . t
When wounds are poifoned by the application ot matter
from certain fores, as thofe of the venereal or cancerous
kinds, or from any of the vegetable poifons, it is better to
remove the part affeaed immediately, than to undergo a
courfe of medicines generally flow and often doubtful in
their operations. '
The metallic poifons do not fall to be confidered in this
place ; for however deleterious they may be when taken in¬
to the ftomach, they feldom appear to be otherwife hurtful,
when applied to wounds, than by irritating or corroding the
parts with which they come in contaa.
CHAP. III. Inflammation and its Confequences*.
Sect. I. Of Inflammation and Suppuration.
Sect. IV. Of Poifoned Wounds.
37
O, PoiSON may be introduced into the fyftem various ways.
Treatment The effeag of the ;fon introduced by the ftmgs ot iniedts
13 f, may frequently be prevented by applying Immed.ately vme-
by .he bit/ gar or ardent fpirits. After inflammation has come on, the
©f animals. moft effeaual remedy is the wafhing the parts with cola
water. The bite of a viper is not always dangerous ; but
as we can never judge with certainty whether.the wound be
poifoned or not, and as the poifon of this animal aaS very
fpeedily upon the fyftem, its bad effeas ought to be pre¬
vented bv every poffible means. The injured part ought
either to f>e cut out immediately, or deftroyed with the ac¬
tual or potential cautery.
Formerly fuaion was much employed, and frequently
with fuccefs: it fhould not, however, prevent the removal
of the part. After the part has been removed, we fhould
endeavour to produce a plentiful fuppuration. When the
poifon appears to have entered the fyftem, the application
of warm oil over the whole body has been extolled ; and it
has been faid that advantage has been derived from the in¬
ternal ufe of it. From fome late obfervations, however, the
efficacy of this remedy is much to be doubted. . Perhaps a
plentiful fweat, kept up for a conliderable time, is the. molt
certain method yet difeovered. Small dofes of volatile a-
kali frequently repeated is more to be depended on for pro¬
ducing this effeft than any other icmedy. . ,.
The bite of a mad animal occafions the moft formidable
Irom tne poifoned wound known in this country. In thefe wounds hy-
bireof mad drophobia indeed does not always enfue ; but when it does,
animals. death is almoft certainly the confcquence. A variety o no-
ftrums for preventing and curing this difeale have been mad
forth to the public ; but there is fcarcely any. well attefted
faft of any one of them proving ufeful. Nothing yet known
can be depended upon but the immediate removal ot the in¬
jured part, either with the fcalpel or the actual or potential
3*
Wounds
from the
Inflammation of any part is accompanied with increa-
fed heat, rednefs, and painful tenfion. For the remote and
proximate caufes of inflammation, together with the treat¬
ment of inflammatory difeafes, fee Phlegmafue, article Me.- 3?
dicine. Inflammation is commonly divided into, two {pmnnflaau
cies, the phlegmonic and erytbematic. The firft is diftinguiflt-
ed by confiderable fwelling, throbbing pain, and circumfcri-
bed bright red colour. The fecond by fuperficial fwelling,
burning pain, dull red colour, apt to fpread, difappeanng
when preffed, and quickly returning ; the part affetted is
Frequently covered with fmall veficles. The comequences^^
of inflammation are fuppuration and gangrene, unlefs the^uei,ce.:
inflammation be checked and terminated by refolution.—f^punt
That an inflammation will terminate in fuppuration may beamU
known from the length of time it has continued, from theS
remiffion of the pain and hardnefs, the greater elevatipn of
the fkin in the middle part, a change of colour from red to
bluifh or livid, a flight fever with fhivering, and from a fluc¬
tuation of matter perceived on handling the part. 4,
During the firft ftage of the inflammation, however, wewhe,rtfr
ought, for the moft part, to endeavour to refolve it, or pre-iuton
vent the fuppuration. Yet fome cafes muft be excepted, i'® .
For inftance, thefe inflammatory fwellings which fometimes
occur in fevers, or fucceed to them, ought always to be
brought to fuppuration ; and it might be very dangerous to
attempt a refolution of them. In fwellings of a fcrophulous
nature, it is perhaps heft to do nothing at all, either with a
view to refolve or fuppurate. Thus it might be dangerous
to make ufe of repellent applications, at the fame time that
it is by no means advifable to promote their fuppuratior.;
the cure of fuch fwellings, when opened, proving always
very troublefome ; while at the fame time it is known, that
fuch fwellings may remain for a very long time without any
rifle to the patient. In the lues venerea, too., as we are
pofieffed of a certain antidote for the diforder, it is heft not
to,attempt the fuppuration. of any buboes which may ap*
Chap. III.
S U R
fcion,
inflamma- ^r? as the cure of thffCi, when opened, very often prove,
tirm and cxtremely troublefome ; and as their being opened cannot
Suppura- contT;bute any thing towards their cure. ^
Von-  , Where the inflammation is but beginning, and the fymp-
^ toms are not fo violent as to affek the general fyftem, to-
Method of p;cal remedies, with a due attention to regimen, Oiten an-
refo’.viiur fwer ;n refolving them. The firft thing to be attended to
in^nuna- care 0f every inflammation, is the removal of the ex-
-citing caufes, which ejther have brought on the inflamma¬
tion originally, or which may continue it after it is begun.
-Such are extraneous bodies in wounds, pieces of fiadtured
bones, luxations, &c, Ot all the various applications for an
inflamed part, thofe of a fedative nature are chiefly to be de¬
pended upon ; and, next to thefe, emollients. Of the for¬
mer kind we may confider all the different preparations of
lead diflblved in vinegar; together with vinegar itfelf, which
generally adfs alfe as a fedative. Among the latter w^e may
place the mild expreffed oils, as alfo the foft ointments made
wuth thefe oils and pure wax.
When we fpeak of fedative medicines, however, it mull
not be underflood that all of that clafs are to be ufed indif-
criminately. Thus opium, though one of the moft powerful
of all fedatives, yet as its application, externally, to the hu¬
man body, is always attended with feme degree of irritation,
however ufeful it may at times be found in home particular
fpecies of inflammatory diforders, udll never, probably, as an
external application, become of general ufe in thefe cafes.
Warm emollient fomentations alfo, though powerful leda-
tives, as tending more effedtually to remove tenfion and pain
than perhaps any other remedy, are conftantly found to be
improper where a refolution is to be wifhed for. Their
conftant effedf is, either to bring the twelling to a fuppura-
tion, or to relax the parts in fuch a manner as to render the
removal of the diforder always exceedingly tedious.
Mr Bell recommends the preparations of lead as proper
applications, in cafes of external inflammation, win re we wifh
for a refolution. The belt method of applying it, he fays,
is in the form of a watery folution ; and he gives the fol¬
lowing fotmula: w 1^. Sacchar. faturn. ^fs.; folve in acet.
pur.- $iv. ; et adde aq. fontan. diflillat. tbij. The addition
of vinegar renders the folution much more complete than it
otherwife would be ; and without it indeed a very confider-
able proportion of the lead generally feparates and falls to
the bottom.
In making ufe of this folution in cafes of inflammation,
as it is of confequence to have the parts affefted kept con
llantly moift with it, cataplafms prepared with it and crumb
of bread in general anfwer that intention exceedingly well.
But when the inflamed part is fo tender and painful as not
eafily to bear the weight of a poultice, which is frequently
the cafe, pieces of foft linen moiltened with the folution an
fwer the purpofe tolerably well. Both fhould be applied
cold, or at leall with no greater warmth than is merely necef-
iary tor preventing pain or uneafinefs to the patient: they
fhould be kept almoft conilantly at the part, and renewed
always before turning ftiff or hard.
\V hen the tenfion and irritation on the fkm are confider-
able, emollients are often attended with very great advan¬
tage : the parts affe&ed being, in fuch a ftate of the difor¬
der, gently rubbed over with any of the mild expreffed oils
two or three times a-day, the tenfion, irritation, and pain-
are often very much relieved, and the difeufiion of the tu,
mor thereby greatly promoted.
. ln everY cafe of inflammation, indeed, emollient applica¬
tions would afford feme relief. But as the preparations of
lead, already recommended, prove in all inch diforders ft ill
more advantageous; and as unguents of every kind tend
conuderably to blunt the action of lead ; theie two lets of
G E R Y. 99
remedies flrould as feidom as poffible be allowed to interfere^frm ma
with one another ; and emollients fhould accordingly never
be preferibed, but when the circumftances already mention- t;0ln>
ed, of irritation, tenfion, and pain, are fo confiderable as to -—f-*-*
render their application altogether neceffary..
When the part affedfed with inflammation is not very ten-
der, or lies deep, applications of vinegar are often had re-
courfe to with confiderable advantage ; the moft tfftdlual
form of ufing it feems to be by way of cataplafm, made with
the ftrongeft vinegar and crumb of bread. In fuch cafes,
an alternate ufe of this remedy, with the faturnine folution,
has produced more beneficial effefts than are commonly ob-
ferved from a continued courfe ot any one of them.
At the fame time that thefe applications are continued,
blooding with leeches, or cupping and Scarifying, as
near as pofflble to the part affe&ed, is generally of very
great fervice ; and in no cafe of local inflammation fhould
ever be omitted. In all fuch cafes, the whole body, but
jnore efpecially the difeafed part, fhould be preferved as free
as pofiible from every kind of motion ; and, for the fame
reafon, the necefiity of a low cooling diet, in every inflam¬
matory diforder, appears obvious, as does alfo a total abfti-
nence from fpirituous and fermented liquors. ^
In flight cafes of inflammation, a due perfeverance of the Blnrd-'et-
feveral articles taken notice of will, in general, be found ting, when
fufficient for every purpofe. But when there is likewife a : r.°Pcr ,or
full, hard, or quick pulfe, with other fymptoms of fever, ge- ^ !mr'
neral blood-letting becomes neceflary; the quantity of blood
taken away being always to be determined by the violence
of the diforder, and by the age and ftrength of the patient.
Evacuation, however, fhould never be carried to a greater
height than what is merely neceflary for moderating the fe¬
brile fymptoms ; for if fuppuration fhould take place after
the fy ftem is too much reduced, its progrefs is thereby ren¬
dered much more flow and uncertain, nor will the patient be
fo able to bear the difeharge that mufl enfue upon opening
the abfeefs. The ufe of gentle laxatives, together with cool¬
ing diaphoretic medicines, are alfo attended with very good
effedfs.
Thefe different evacuations being premifed, the next ob-
jedf of coniequence is to procure eafe and quietnefs to the
patient ; which is often, in inflammatory cafes, of more real
fervice than any other circumftance whatever. The moft
effedfual remedy for this purpofe is opium; which, when
pain and irritation are confiderable, as in extenfive inflamma¬
tions very frequently happens, fhould never be omitted. In
large wounds,' efpecially after amputations and other capital
operations, alfo in pundlures of all kinds, large doies of opium
are always attended with remarkable good effedts. In all
fuch cafes, however, opium, in order to have a proper in¬
fluence, fhould, as was obferved, be adminiflered in very
.large dofes; otherwife, inftead of proving ferviceable, it
feems rather to have the contrary effcdl; a circumftance
which is perhaps the chief reafon for opiates in general ha¬
ving been very unjuftly condemned in every cafe of inflam¬
mation.
By a proper attention to the different circumftances taken
notice of, in the courfe of three or four days, and fome-
times in a fhorter fpace of time, refolution of the tumor will
in general begin to take place ; at leaft before the end of
that period it may, for the moft part, be known how the
diforder is to terminate. If the heat, pain, and other at¬
tending fymptoms abate, and efpecially if the tumor begins
to decreafe, without the occcurrence of any gangrenous ap¬
pearances, we may then be almoft certain that by a continu¬
ance of the fame plan a total refolution will in time be ef-
fedfed.
But, on the contrary, if all the different fymptoms rather
N 2 increafe;
I GO
Irflarnma-
tion ard
Suppura¬
tion.
44
Method of
prompt'ng
fu^ pura-
tion.
45
Dry cup¬
ping.
S U R G
increafe ; and efpeciafly if the tumor turns larger, and fome-
M'hat foft, with an increafe of throbbing pain; we may then
■with tolerable certainty conclude, that fuppuration will take
place ; and fhould therefore immediately defift from fuch
applications as were judged proper while a cure was thought
praclicable by refolution, and endeavour to affift nature as
much as pofilble in the formation of pus, or what is called
maturation of the tumor. For this purpofe there is nothing
better than to preferve a proper degree of heat in the parts.
This is commonly done by the means of warm fomentations
and cataplafms ; and when thefe are regularly and frequent¬
ly renewed, nothing, it is probable, could more effebfually
a.nfwer the purpofe. But in the ordinary manner in which
they are applied, by the' cataplafms being renewed only
once, or at moft twice a day, they mull always, it is ima¬
gined, do more harm than good. I'or fo foon as the degree
of heat they were at firft podelfed of is diffipated, the moii-
ture kept up by them, with the confequent evaporation
which enfues, muft always render the part a great deal cold¬
er than if it had been merely wrapped in flannel without the
ufe of any fuch application.
In order to receive all the advantages of fuch remedies,
the part affeded fliould be well fomented with flannels pref-
fed out of any warm emollient dec@dton, applied as warm
ss the patient can eafily bear them, continued at leaft half
an hour at once, and repeated four times a day.
Immediately after the fomentation is over, a lar.^e emol¬
lient poultice fhould likewife be applied warm, and renewed
every fecond or third hour at fartheft. Of all the forms re¬
commended for emollient cataplafms, a common milk and-
bread poultice, with a proportion of butter or oil, is perhaps
the moll eligible ; as it not only pofleffes all the advantages
of the others, but can at all times be more eafily ob¬
tained.
Roafted onions, garlic, and other acrid fubftances, are
frequently made ufe of as additions to maturating cataplafms.
When there is not a due degree of inflarnmation in the tu¬
mor, and when it appears probable that the fuppuration
would be quickened by having the inflammatory fymptoms
fomewhat increaled, the addition of fuch fubitances may
then be of fervice ; but when ftimulants are neceffary in
fuch cafes, a fmall proportion of drained galbanum, or of
any of the warm gums, diflblved in the yolk of an egg, and
added to the poultices, is a more certain form of applying
them. Whenever the inflammation, however, takes place
to a proper degree, fuch ftimulating fubftances never can be
neceffary ; and in many cafes, it is apprehended, they may
even do mifehief.
In fuch tumors as, from their being poffefTed of little or
no inflammation, are commonly faid to be ot a cold nature,
as they are generally indolent, and proceed very flowly to
fuppuration, plafters compofed of the warm gums are often
had recourfe to with confiderable advantage. In fuch cafes,
they are not only of ufe by the ftimulus and irritation they'
occaflon, but by the heat which they tend to preferve in the
part. They become particularly necefiary when the patient,
by being obliged to go abroad, cannot have cataplafms fre¬
quently enough renewed, or fo conveniently applied ; but
when fome fuch objection does not occur, the latter, for
very obvious realons, fhould always be preferred.
Dry cupping, as it is termed, that is, cupping without
the ule of the fcarificator, upon or as near as pofuble to the
part affefted, is frequently had recourfe to with advantage
in promoting the fuppuration of tumors. It is only, how¬
ever, in fuch as thefe laft mentioned, where there feems to
be a deficiency of inflammation, that it can ever either be
neceflary or ufeful; but in all tumors of a real indolent na-
E R Y. _ Chap. Ill,
ture, and where there is ftill fome probability of a fuppu->rfl»mm».
ration, no remedy is more efte&ual. _ _ g101' ^
Thefe different applications, under the reftriftions taken
notice of, being continued for a longer or fhorter time, ac- 
cording to the fize of tire tumor, its fituation, and other cir-
cumftances, a thorough fuppuration may in general at lail
be expebfed. _ ^
Matter being fully formed in a tumor, is known by a ’-'e-gj,n, ^
miffion of all the fymptoms taking place; the throbbing ou-ter»
pain, which before was frequent, now goes off, and the pa-formed,
tient complains of a more dull, conftant, heavy pain : the
tumor points at fome particular part, generally near to its
middle; where, if the matter is not encylted, or deep feated,
a whitifh yellow appearance is obferved, inftead of a deep
red that formerly took place ; and -fluctuation ot a fluid un¬
derneath is, upon preffure, very evidently difeovered. Some¬
times, indeed, when an abfeefs is thickly covered with muf-
cular and other parts, though, from concurring circumftan-
ces, there can be little doubt of there being even a very
confiderable collection of matter, yet the fluctuation cannot
be readily diftinguifhed : it does not, however, often hap¬
pen, that matter is fo very deeply lodged as not to be dif¬
eovered upon proper examination.
This, however, is a circumftance of the greatefl: confe-
Qiience in praCtice, and deferves more attention than ia
commonly given to it. In no part of the furgeon’s em¬
ployment is experience in former fimilar cafes of greater
ufe to him than in the prefent ; and however Ample it
may appear, yet nothing, it is certain, more readily di-
ftinguiflies a man of obfervation and extenfive praCtice,.
than his being able eafily to deleft colleftions of deep-feat-
ed matter ; whilft nothing, on the contrary, fo material¬
ly affefts the charafter of a furgeon, as his having, in fuch
cafes, given an inaccurate or unjuft, prognofts; as the
event, in diforders of that nature, comes generally at laft to
be clearly demonftrated to all concerned.
Together with the feveral local fymptoms of the prefence
of pus already enumerated, may be mentioned the frequent
fhiverings to which patients are liable on its firft formation:
thefe, however, feldom occur fo as to be diftinftly obferved,
unlefs the collef.ion is confiderable, or feated internally in
lome of the vifeera. 4.7
After the matter is fully formed, and the abfeefs brought Of o,
to maturity, the only remedy is to open it, and give vent toabkA
the pus it contains. In many cafes, indeed, nature will do
the work, and abfeeftes, when fuperficially ieated. will cer¬
tainly burft of themfelves : but where the matter lies deep,
we are by no means to wait for this fpontaneous opening ; i s
the pus will acquire an acrimony before it can break through
the integuments, which may prove very prejudicial to
health. However, it is a general rule not to open abfcefles
, till a thorough fuppuration has taken place ; lor, when laid
open long before that period, and while any confiderable
hardnefs remains, they commonly prove more troublefome,
and feldom heal fo kindly.
In fome cafes, however, it is neceflary to deviate from
this general rule, and to open them a good deal fooner ;
particularly in all fuch critical abicefies as occur in malignant
fevers. Inlike manner, in the plague, we are commonly adviled
to open fuch tumors, fo foon as they are at all tolerably ad¬
vanced, and not to wait till they are fully maturated ; as,
from experience in thefe diforders, it is found to be of more
confequence, for the removal of the original difeale, to have
a quick difeharge of matter produced, than any harm the
patient can ever fuffer from having a fwelling fomewhat pre¬
maturely laid open.
In abfeeffes, alfo, fituated ou any of the joints, or upon
either
1 Chap.
1 Inflamma
,d '
tiou a
^ tiu[ pura-
I10P-
43 _
5)’ cauftic,
49
the
nife.
, So
sy a feton.
III. S U R
• cither o-f t!ie larre cavkiefl of the breaft ^nd abdomen, and
more efpecially when they feem to run deep, they fhould al¬
ways be opened as foon as the leafl fluctuation of matter is
„ difeovered. For, when the refiftance is on every fide equal,
they juft as readily point inwardly as outwardly : and the
confequence of a larpe abfeefs burfting into either of the
large cavities, is well known moft frequently to prove fatal:
An inftance of which, in the following cafe, with very little
attention, might have been prevented. A furgeon of emi¬
nence, and of very extenfive pradvfice, was applied to by
a young healthy-1 oking man, with a large abfeefs upon
the left fide of his chtil. A fludfuation of a fluid was,
upon preffure, very evidently difeovered; and it was agreed,
by other two practitioners who were prefent, that an open¬
ing fhould be made to give vent to the matter. But the
operator, being much engaged in bufinefs, could not fix
on an earlier period for doing it than the third day from
the patient’s applying to hirn : unluckily, however, the oa-
tient died fuddenly in his bed the night before the abfeefs
was to have been opened. On examining the body, the
tumor had difappeared entirely, without any external open¬
ing being obfervable ; and, on opening the thorax, it was
found to have burft inwardly upon the lungs, and produced
immediate luffocation.
In every other circumftance, however, except in the cafes
alluded to, the rule in opening abfeeffes is, as was already
remarked, lo allow a thorough fuppuration to take place,
before any vent whatever be given to the matter ; and it
being then determined to lay the colleftion open, the next
queftion that occurs, is with refpedl to the manner of do¬
ing it.
I Here are three ways of opening an abfeefs fo as to fdve
an outlet to the matter; by cauftic, by incifion, or by the
introduction or a feton. 1 he firft is more agreeable to ti-
nnd patients, who are afraid of the pain of incifion, but is
attended with fome inconveniences which render the method
of incifion much preferable. Cauftic acds ftowly, and pro-
c-uces a long continued pain ; befides, no kind of cauftic has
yet been invented, the effeds of which can be confined to
a certain determinate extent ; hence the patient is liable to
fuffer much unneceffary pain, as the cauttics commonly
empJoyed are either the lapis infcrnalis or lunar cauftic.
1 he abfeefs is to have a flip of adhefive plafter applied to it
with a flit cut in it of a fixe fomewhat lefs than the opening is
intended to be. This flit is to be filled with cauftic redu¬
ced into a powder, and wetted to make it ad more quickly
A is then to be covered over with a plafter, and the whole
is fecured with a firm eomprefs and bandage. The time
neceflary for the cauftic to make a fufficient opening will
depend upon the thicknefs of the fldn and ilrength of the
cam ic ; but generally it requires feveral hours. When we
firm that an etehar is made, it k to be foftened with any
emolhen ointment until it can be readily feparated • alter
id afont 0^'hVS 10 V dilcharScd> “<1 .bfedi treat-
eu^as one opened by mcihon.
an cf abfCen'ra hr k',ife is- to make
an .ncidon of fuel, a frre as to give free vent to the matter
Ihe openmg ,s to be made-in the under part of the iumoi
quelttly “jl ';Z' 'hat> ^ f«on, is „0w fre-
with lit tie pam, tntvin .I'1' of being attended
*P : g vtu abfcefo m a gradual manner*
G E R Y. i oi
and completely preventing the accefs of the air, which, in Gangrene^
the other two methods, is often attended with bad confe-
quences; and it frequently performs a cure in a much flutt¬
er time.
There are various inftruments for introducing the feton: it
may even frequently be done by a lancet and common probe ;
but the inftruments reprefented in Plate CCCCLXXXV1L
fig. i. and 2. are more frequently employed. One of thefe
being threaded with glover’s foft lilk, is to be introduced
through the upper part of the tumor ; but if the blunt one
(fig. 2.) be employed, it will be necefifary to have the aflat-
ance of a lancet ; the inftrument is then to be brought out
at the under part of the tumor, and in this way the matter
will be allowed to run gradually oft.
.The ufual mode of drefiing an abfeefs the firft time is
with dry lint. In the courfe of drefling, it will be proper
to have regard to the fituation of the abfeefs, and as much
as poffible to make the patient favour the difeharge by his
ordinary pofture : and to this end alio, the difeharge muft:
be alfifted by cornpreis and bandage : the comprefs may be
made of foft old linen, applied according to the nature of
the part and the feafon of the year. The frequency of
drefling will depend on the quantity of difeharge : once ii>
24 hours is ordinarily fufficient; but fometimes twice, or
perhaps three times, is necefl’ary.
Sect. II. Of Gangrene.
The other confequence of inflammation is gangrene,
which may terminate in mortification. When the colour
of an inflamed part changes to a dark red, when blifters
arife on it containing an ichorous fluid, we know that it
has become gangrenous. When it becomes black, flaccid,
and infen Able, when it lofes heat, and acquires a putrid
fmell, it has proceeded to complete mortification. A gan¬
grene feldom affe&s thole who enjoy a good habit of body,
tl.dugh, even in them, it may be brought on accidentally
by whatever deftroys the texture of a part ; as contufion,
long continued prefFure, or whatever deprives a part of its
nourifitment. In like manner, cold, by putting a ftop to
the circulation, may produce gangrene, and frequently does-
fo in cold climates. I'his comes on fuddenly, without any
pain or previous inflammation ; and the patient himlelfis fre¬
quently mfenfible of it, till he is informed of his fituation by
fome other perfon.
A deleft in the circulation, in extreme old age, frequently
occafions mortification in the extremities.
. "1 htre are fome inftances of what is called dry gangrene^ Dry gan-
m which the parts continue totally mortified for a greatgreue.
length of time, without either turning very flaccid, or
running into diffolution. But fuch cafes never occur from
inflammation; they happen commonly from the flow of
blood to inch parts being put a ftop to by compreffion of
one kind or another, as tumors, ligatures, or other fimilar
caufes, obftrufting the principal arteries which ufed to fun-
ply them; which, when the ftoppage of the circulation ‘is
complete, always occafions a very flow, tedious, mortifica¬
tion ; and as the parts in fuch inftances are no longer fuppli-
ed with frefh quantities of fluids, while a confiderable evauo-
ration muft ftill be going on, fuch a degree of humidity
cannot therefore pofiibly occur as does in other cafes of
gangrene. So that fpecies of the diforder has, perhaps,
with propriety Enough, been termed the dry gangrene. ‘
There is another variety of the difeafe termed white gan-
grene; m which the parts fuppofed mortified do not turnWhlt€ g
black, but retain nearly their former colour, &e. Whether^116
fuch a complaint, however, can with propriety be denomina¬
ted gangrene or not, may properly be doubted: but as it is
chiefly that fpecies of the diforder which fucceeds inflam¬
mation*
gam
IV,
5i
Prognofis.
10 2 ^
Gangrene, nation tnat id here particularly, treated of, and in which no
^—  ' fuch varieties are ever obfevved, it is not neceflary to cairy
the inquiry farther. . , , r .
The orognofis in every cafe of gangrene is doubtful
at fivft, as, even in the flighteft cafes, the patient may fuller
from the fpreading of the difeafe; but flight cafes, from ex¬
ternal inniries, are more favourable than thofe which anie
from internal caufes, though no perfon can be conflckred
fafe till the difeafed parts are feparated, and even entirely
caft off. When inflammation happens round a mortified
part, more efpecially if pus be formed, we may pretty cer-
tatnly pronounce that the mortified part will be thrown od.
Means ot When there is reafon to fufpeft from the violence of tne
preventing fever and qreat heat oi the inflamed part, that it will teimi-
pangrene ra1;e jn pan„rene? blood-letting, and whatever may have a
anfr phom . d moderate the inflammation, may check its pro-
mflamnia- . . • r..n ...r. r—ant
O E R v.
Chap, IV,
54
Means of
ti<m.
55
Arifing
from cold.
5«
Scarifka-
tions atulex
teraa ap-
plica'inn ti
m rr.fied
part- im¬
proper.
grefs. But as the patient, in fuch cafes, is fometimes apt
to fink afterwards, nothing more ought to be done than is
merely neceffary to moderate ;he prefent fymptoms. If an
inflamed furface put on a gangrenous appearance when the
patient is weak, and the pulie low, we mull have recourie
to whatever may invigorate the fyftem, viz. a nounlhing
diet, with the free ufe of wine. Peruvian banc bkewiie is
to be given in as great quantities as the ftomach of the pa¬
tient will permit. When the ftomach cannot bear enough
in fubftance, which is the heft form of exhibiting it, it may
be given either in form of tin&ure or joined with aromatics.
External applications, fuch as are of a ftimulaung nature,
may likewife be ufcful. ± a
In the cafe of gangrene arifing from cold, the part mint
be immerfed in very cold water, or rubbed with fnow ; for
if any thing warm be applied, or the patient brought near
a fire, it certainly mortifies. If the whole body has become
torpid with cold, the fame pradice mu ft be followed ; the
very cold water ftiould be afterwards changed for fome that
is a little warmer, and the patient gradually brought t* a
proper degree of heat. Rubbing with fait is fometimes
found ufeful. If the whole body be benumbed, cordials are
not to be adminiftered too luddenly. A glafs of cold wine
fhould firft be given, afterwards warm wine by itielf, or
with fpices. If ftronger cordials be required, ardent fpints
may be employed. Notwithftanding the greateft attention,
however, *a mortification fometimes takes place, and in fome
in fiances very fuddenly ; as in the cafe of carbuncle, where,
after an inflammation has continued for fcarcely 24 hours,
the parts become black, and end in real mortification.
In the treatment of mortified parts, a variety of exter¬
nal applications have been pointed out, and particularly
thole of the antifeptic kind ; luch as all the warm gums and
ballams, ardent fpirits, and even alcohol: and to admit of
their nearer application to the found parts, with a view to
the prefervation of thefe from putrefa&ion, deep fcanfica-
tions through the difeafed, and into the found parts, have
been generally recommended. But although iuch articles
may be o1 ufe in preferving dead animal-fubftances from cor¬
ruption ; yet that they will always prove ferviceable m
the fame manner in living bodies, is probably very much to
be doubted. And it is even apprehended, by the ftrong ir¬
ritation they always occafion when applied to a living fibre,
that, in fuch cafes as the prefent, they may rather do mtf-
chief; it being only a very flight degree of inflammation
that is reauiied to bring on a fuppuration. . I he incmons,
when carried into the found parts, with a view to facilitate
the operation of fuch remedies, may likewife do harm ; not
only from the rifle of wounding the blood-veflels, nerves, and
tendons, that lie in the way, but alfo by allowing a hee and
farther entrance of the putrefeent fluids into the parts not
yet afte&ed : and unlefs they are carried fa deep as freely to
reach the found parts, applications of the antifeptic kind
can never have any effedt in anfwering the purpofe for which
they were intended.
All the advantages commonly obferved from the great
variety of applications recommended for gangrene, are ob¬
tained with more eafe, and generally with more certainty,
from the ufe of any gentle ftimulating embrocation ; which,
by exciting a flight irritation upon the futface, and elpeci-
ally when aflifted by a free ufe of the bark, at laft common-
ly produces fuch a degree of inflammation as is w^fhed for.
With this view, a weak folution ot fal ammoniac in vinegar
and v/ater has been known to anfwer exceedingly well: a
dram of the fait to two ounces of vinegar and fix ot water,
forms a mixture of a very proper ftrength for every putpofe
of this kind ; but the degree of ftimulus can be eaiily either
increafed or diminifhed. according to circumilances, by ufing
a larger or fmaller proportion of the fait. _ ,
Although, for the reafons formerly advanced, incifions
may not in general be proper; yet in luch cafes where the
mortification runs very deep, it is fometimes of iervice to
make fcarifications into the diteaied parts, fo as to remove
part of them ; which, by taking off a confiderable load per¬
haps of putrid flefh, not only leffens the fetor, which m fuch
cafes is always confiderable, but often renders it moie ealy
for the found parts to tree themfelves horn the remainder.
When with this view, however, incilions are had recourfe to,
care ftiould always be taken that they be not carried the
length of the found parts.
When by the ufe of external or internal remedies, a re¬
paration of the mortified part has been effected, and a dii-
charge of pus produced, the remaining fore is then to be
confidered merely as a Ample purulent ulcer, and may be
treated in the lame manner.
Ulcers,
CHAP. IV. Of Ulcers, JVhite Swellings, Cancers,
and Burns.
Sect. I. Of Ulcers.
A solution of continuity in any of the foftei parts of
the body, difeharging either pus, fanies, or any other viti¬
ated matter, is termed ulcer ; and when the fame circum-
ftances happen to the bones, the term caries or carious ulcer
is adopted. . }1
Ulcers are diftinguiflied by their particular diforders, Differtfi
though it feldom happens that the affeaions are not compli-ki.iT
cated ; and when we lay down rules for the management
one fpecies of ulcer, it is generally requifite to apply them to
almoit all others. However, the chara&ers of moil eminence
are, the callous ulcer, the finuous ulcer, and the ulcer with
caries of the adjacent bone : befides this there is the putrid,
the conofive, the varicole ulcers, See. ; but'as they have ac¬
quired their names from fome particular afteftion, we ftiall
fpeak of the treatment of them under the general head of
ulcers.
It will be often in vain to purfue the beft means of cure
by topical application, unlefs we are aflifted by internal re¬
medies ; for as many ulcers are the effedls of a particular in-
difpofition of body, it will be difficult to bring them in*
to order while the caufe of them remains. 1 hole which
are cancerous and fcrophulous feem to gain the leaft advan¬
tage from phyfic ; for if in their beginnings they have iome-
times been very much relieved, or cured, by ialivation, or
any other evacuation, they are alfo often irritated and made ^
worfe by them. - (jlloii
When an ulcer becomes foul, and difeharges a naity
thin ichor, the edges of it, in procefs ot time, tuck in, and,
growing fkinned and hard, give it the name of a callous ul-
Chap. IV. S U R G
U'ce/s. cer; which, as long as the edges continue in that Hate, mull
v '■ ' neceflarily be prevented from healing. But we are not im¬
mediately to detlroy the lips of it, in expeftation ol a fud-
den cure; for while the malignity of the ulcer remains which
was the occafion of the callofity, the new lips will be fubjeft
to a relapfe of the fame kind, however orten the external
furface of them be deftroyed: we are to endeavour to bring
the body of the ulcer into a difpofition to recover by other
methods. It fometimes happens to poor laborious people,
who have not been able to afford themfelves reft, that lying
a-bed will in a ftiort time give a diverfion to the humours
of the part, and the callous edges, foftening, will without
any great affiftance (hoot out a cicatrix, when the ulcer is
grown clean and filled with good flefh. The effeft of a fa-
livation is generally the fame ; and even an ifliie fometimes
difpofes a neighbouring ulcer to heal. But though callofi-
ties be frequently foftened by thefe means, yet when the
furface of the ulcer begins to yield thick matter and little
granulations of red flefh fhoot up, it will be proper to
quicken nature by deftroying the edges of it, if they re¬
main hard. The manner of doing this, is by touching them
a few days with the lunar cauftic, or /apis inf emails. Some
choofe to cut them off with a kni'e : but this is very pain¬
ful, and not more efficacious. When the lips do not tuck
down clofe to the ulcer, but hang loofe over it, as in fome
venereal buboes, the eaiieft method is to cut them off with
the fciffars.
To digeft the ulcer, or to procure good matter from it
when in a putrid ftate, there are an infinity of ointments in¬
vented ; but the bafilico flavum, alone, or foftened down
fometimes with Uupentines, and fometimes mixed up with
different proportions of red precipitate, feems to ferve the
purpole of bringing an ulcer to cicatrization as well as any
of the others. When the ulcer is incarned, the cure may
be finiffied as in other wounds ; or if it do not cicatrife
kindly, it may be wafhed with aq. calcis, or aq. phag. or
dreffed with a pledgit dipt in tindb. myrrhse : and if excori¬
ations are fpread round the ulcer, they may be anointed with
fperna. cet. ointment, or any other foft ointment.
The red precipitate has of late years acquired the credit
it deferves for the cure of ulcers ; but, by falling into gene-
ral ufe’ is veiT oft™ unfitilfully applied : when mixed with
the bafilicon, or, what is nearer, a cerate of wax and oil, it
is moft certainly a digeftive, fince it hardly ever fails to
make the ulcer yield a thick matter in 24 hours, which dif-
59 charged a thin one before the application of it.
i» funoreus , ^ t^.e u,cer Pr°duces a fpongy flefh, fprouting very high
Jh. g at!ove tlie furFace> 11 wdl be neceffary to deftroy it by fome
of the efcharotics, or the knife. This fungus differs, very
much from that belonging to healing wounds, being more
eminent and lax, and generally in one mafs ; whereas the
other is in littlediftina protuberances. It approaches often to-
wards a cancerous complexion, and when it rifes upon fome
glands fometimes aaually degenerates into a cancer. When
t loe excreicences have arifen in venereal ulcers, efcharotics
(hould be applied. Ihofe m ufe, are the vitriol, the knar
caultic, the lapis infernal,s, and moie generally the red ore-
cipitate powder. ' v
It IS but feldora that thde inveterate fimtrufes apoear on
rTfe T‘h ‘11 r T ,'fuJal f°r thofe of a “Mer Wnd to
nfcjS 71 7 r* t0 fuM,de br Pre'r“re ^d the
ale of mild rfcharotics : however, if the afpeft of the fore
a ,hf a”<J rm'>oth’.as happens in nlcers accompanied with
will ask, a“J 0ftSn i" y°ung wornen with obllrudlions, it
conftitutiori •r'° pUV“f' “ 'va,le the excrofcences. until the
Witho it nVaE?' 7C", m0* ,rba^ thel "i11
bone is can'™! 1 “lc:rs alf°. “'here the fubjacent
canons, g,Cat quantities of loofe flabby flelh will
3
E R Y. 103
grow up above the level of the fkin : but as the caries is the Ulcers,
caufe of the diforder, it will be in vain to expeft a cure of J
the excrefcence until the rotten part of the bone be remo¬
ved ; and every attempt with efcharotics will be only a re¬
petition of pain to the patient, without any advantage.
When the pain and inflammation are exceffive, bleeding
and other evacuations will often be ferviceable ; and above all
things, reft and a horizontal pofition; which laft circum-
ftance is of fo great importance to the cure of ulcers of the
legs, that unlefs the patient will conform to it ftrictly, the
fkill of the furgeon will often avail nothing : for as the indif-
pofition of thefe fores is in fome meafure owing to the gra¬
vitation of the humours downwards, it will be much more
beneficial to lie along than fit upright, though the leg
be laid on a chair ; fince even in this pofture they will de-
Icend with more force than if the body was reclined.
la ulcers of the legs, accompanied with varices or dila-Ulcers ac-
tations of the veins, the method of treatment will depend ‘gmpanied^
upon the other circumftances of the fore ; for the varix can
only be affifted by the application of bandage, which muft
be continued a confiderable time after the cure. The neateft
bandage is the laced ftocking, which is particularly fervice¬
able in this cafe ; though alfo, if the legs be cedematous, or ’
if, alter the healing of the ulcers, they fwell when the pa¬
tient quits his bed, it may be worn with fafety and advan¬
tage. There are inftances of one vein only being varicous;
which, when it happens, may be deftroyed by tying it a-
bove and below the dilatation, as in an aneurifm ; but this,
operation fhould only be praftiied where the varix i^ large
and painful. ^
Ulcers of many years Handing are very difficult of cure ; Cure of old
and in old people the cure is often dangerous, frequently ulcers dau--
exciting an afthma, a diarrhoea, or a fever, which deftroys*»erokls*
the patient, unlefs the fore break out again : fo that it is not
altogether advifable to attempt theabfolute cure in fuch cafes;
but only the redudh’on of them into better order, and lefs
compafs, which, if they be not malignant, is generally done
with reft and proper care- The cure of thofe in young
people may he undertaken with more fafety ; and in all cafes
of ftubborn ulcers, the bark, very copioufly given, will be
found of the utmoft fervice.
When an ulcer or abfeefs has any finufes or c^anne^sQf {^,uous»
openipg and difeharging themfelves into the fore, they areuiccrSs
called f/nuous ulcers. Thefe finufes, if they continue to drain
a great while, grow hard in the furface of their cavity, and
then are termed and the ulcer a JiJlulous ulcer; alfo,
if matter be diicharged from any cavity, as thofe of the
joints, abdomen, &.c. the opening is called aftnuous ulcer or
a fijlu/a.
i he treatment of thefe ulcers depends upon a variety of
circumftances. If the matter of the finus be thick, ftri6t
bandage and comprefs will fometimes bring the oppofite
fides of the finus to a reunion : if the finus grow turgid in ^3
any part, and the fkin thinner, fhowing a difpofition to 1 reatment»-
break, the matter muft be made to pufh more againft that
part, by plugging it up with- a tent '; and then a counter
opening muft be made, which proves often fufficient for the
whole ablcefs, if it be not afterwards too much tented,
which locks up the matter and prevents, the healing ; or too
little, which will have the fame effedl ; for dreffing quite fu-
perficially does fometimes prove as mifehievous as tents,
and for nearly the fame rearifon ; fince fuffering the external
wound to contract into a narrow orifice before the internal
one be incarned, does almoft as effedtually lock up the mat¬
ter as a tent. i o preferve, then, a medium in thefe cafes,- a
hollow tent of lead or filver may be kept in the orifice,,
which, at the fame time that it keeps it open, gives vent to
the matter. The abiceffes where the counter opening is
made
Of carious
alcers.
65
Treatment.
S U R c
made mod frequently are tliofe of compound fradfures, and
the bread : but the latter do oftener well without dilatation
than the former ; though it mud be performed in both, if
pra&icable, the whole length of the abfcels, when after
home trial the matter does not leffen in quantity, and the
(idea of it grow thinner ; and if the finufes be fidulous, no
cure need be expe&ed without dilatation.
When an ulcer with loofe rotten flelh difcharges more
than the iize of it ilrould yield, and the dilcharge is oily
and dinking, in all probability the bone is carious ; which
may eafily be didinguilhed by running the probe through
the flefh : and if fo, it is called a carious ulcer. The cure
of thefe ulcers depends principally upon the removal of the
rotten part of the bone, without which it cannot heal.
Thofe caries which happen from the matter of abfcefies ly¬
ing too long upon the bone, are mod likely to recover :
thole of lues venerea very often do well, becaufe that dif-
temper fixes ordinarily upon the middle and outfide of the
denied bones, which admit of exfoliation ; but thofe produ¬
ced by fcrophula, where the whole extremities of the fpongy
parts of the bone are affedted, are exceedin dy dangerous.
All enlarged bones are not necefiarily carious ; and there
are ulcers fometimes on the fkin which covers them, which
do not communicate with the bone, and confequently do
well without exfoliation : nay, it fometimes happens, though
the cafe be rare, that, in young fubjedls particularly, the
bones will be carious to fuch a degree, as to admit a probe
ahnoft through the whole fubftance of them; and yet
afterwards admit of a cure, without any notable exfoliation.
The method of treating an ulcer with caries, is by apply¬
ing a cauftic of the fixe of the fcale of the bone which is to
be exfoliated; and after having laid it bare, to wait till the
carious part can without violence be feparated, and then
heal the wound. In order to quicken the exfoliation, there
have been feveral applications devifed ; but that which has
been mofl ufed in all ages, is the attual cautery, with which
furgeons burn the naked bone every day, or every other
day, to dry up, as they fay, the moifture, and by that
means procure the reparation : but as this pradlice is never
of great fervice, and always cruel and painful, it is now
pretty much exploded. Indeed, from confidering the ap¬
pearance of a wound, when a fcale of bone is taken out of
it, there is little doubt that burning retards rather than ha-
ftens the feparation ; for as every fcale of a carious bone is
flung off by new flefh generated between it and the found
bone, whatever would prevent the growth of thefe granula¬
tions would alfo in a degree prevent the exfoliation ; which
muft certainly be the effeft ot a red-hot iron applied fo clofe
to it.
Some caries of the bones are fo very (hallow, that they
crumble infenfibly away, and the wound fills up ; but when
the bone will neither exfoliate nor admit of granulations, it
will be proper to ferape it with a rugine, or perforate it in
many points with a convenient inllrumervt down to the
quick. In fcrophulous cafes, the bones of the carpus and
tarfus are often affedled ; and from their fponginefs they
are feldom cured : (o that when thefe, or indeed the extremi¬
ties of any of the bones, arc carious through their iubftance,
it is advifable to amputate ; though there are inftances in the
fcrophula, but more efpecially in critical abfeefles, where,
after long drefling down, the fplinters, and fometimes the
whole iubftance, of the fmall bones, have worked away,
and a healthy habit of body coming on, the ulcer has
healed ; but thefe are fo rare, that no great dependence is
to be laid on fuch an event. The drefiings of carious bones,
if they are (linking, may be doffils dipped in the tindlure of
snyrrh j otherwife thofe of dry lint are tafieft, and keep
E R ^ • Chap. ]}
down the edges of the ulcer better than any other gentle ' win,
applications. Swcllin,
Sect. If. 0/ White Swellings.
There are two fpecies of white fwellings, Mr Benjamin
Bell obferves; the one of a mild nature, and frequently admit¬
ting of a cure ; which the other never does. The former,
named by our author the rheumatic fpecies ofwhite fwelling,
begins with an acute pain, feemingly difiufed over the whole
joint, and frequently extending along the tendinous aponeu- ^
roles of the mulcles which communicate with it. There Rkwi
is, from the beginning, an uniform {welling of the whole whitefc
furrounding integuments. Gieattenfion generally .prevails; %'
but at fir ft there is feldom any external change of colour.
From the commencement of the difeafe the motion of the
joint is attended with exquiiite pain, and the patient keeps
it conftantly in a relaxed pofture, rinding that the eafieft.
Hence the tendons become extremely (lift' and rigid, till at
laft the joints have the appearance of complete and real an-
chylofes. The fwelling now begins to augment, till the
joint has acquired three or four times its natural fize ; the
cuticular veins become turgid and varicofe ; at the fame
time that the mufcular fubftance of the limb below decays,
though it frequently acquires an equality in fize by beco¬
ming cedematous ; the pain becomes intolerable, efpecially
when the perfon is warm in bed or otherwife heated ; ab¬
fcefies iorm in different parts, which, either breaking of
themfdves, or by being laid open, difeharge confiderable
quantities of matter, but without any remarkable effedl in
reducing the fize of the fwelling. The pus difeharged
from theie is at firft of a tolerably good confidence, but
foon degenerates into a thin ill-conditioned fanieg. How¬
ever, the orifices (rom whence it flows foon heal up, unlefs
they are kept open by art ; and new collections breaking
out, they burft and heal up as before ; fo that in long-con¬
tinued diforders of this kmd, the furrounding integuments
are often entirely covered with cicatrices.
In the mean time, the health of the patient gradually de¬
clines, from the violence 0! the pain, and the abforption of
matter into the fyftem, which takes place in fome degree
from its firft formation in the different abfeefles ; but which
never appears fo evidently till the different abfeeffes have
been laid open ; after which a quick pulfe, night-fweats, and
a weakening diarrhoea, are fare to occur, which generally
carry off the patient, it the member is not either amputa¬
ted, or the difeafe cured fome other way.
On differing limbs which have been amputated for white :
fwellings, the origfnal difeafe appears to have been a mor-0f k*1-
bid thickening of the furrounding ligaments, without anytc&J
other aifedion of the joint whatever ; the bones and carti-°.n '
lages always remaining perfectly found, as likewife the
iynovia both in quantity and confidence. In the'more ad¬
vanced llages of the diforder, the thicknefs of the ligaments
is more confiderable, and is generally attenclecjkwith an ef-
fuiion, into the furrounding cellular fubftance, q/ a thick
glairy matter, which gives to fwellings of th?ijund an elaftic
Ipringy feel, independent of the colledions of matter the
fluduation of which may alio be perceived. Through this
glairy matter the colledions of pus run in various direc¬
tions, without feeming, however, to mix with it. In fome
inftances alto a great many fmall hydatides are obferved ;
all which form a confuied mafs, incapable of further diffec-
tion.
All the above-mentioned appearances have been obferved
without $ny affedion of the bones or cartilages. But
when, by a very long continuance of the diforder the liga¬
ments come to be corroded by the different colledions of
4 matt r
/
CHap,
8w<-i|'rgs
IV.
iTmUer, the carttlasref
s u
G
68
Scrophu-
jou- white
fw tiling.
69
Appearan¬
ces on dif-
fedion.
70
Gaufes of
Shis difeafe
R
and in confeqwcnce th'-rnof the
bongs, fpon begin to fiiffer. The teodon? of the flexor
" mufclgs, though very ftiff and contrafted, do not, upon dif-
fedion, fhow any figns of difeafe,
The above is an hiilory of the mildefi; fpecies of white
fwelling ; the more inveterate kind our author names the
fcrophulous white five!ling. In this the pain is commonly
very violent; more acute than in the former ; and, inftead
of being diffufed, is confined to a particular fpot, commonly
the very middle of the joint. The fwelling is commonly
inconfiderable at firll ; infomuch that, on fome occafions,
even when the pain has been very violent, little difference
in point of fize could be obferved between the difeafed and
the found joint. The motion of the joint is attended with
very great pain, and the tendons become ftiff. As the dif-
order advances, the pain becomes more violent, and the
fwelling increafes, with an evident enlargement of the ends
of the bones The fame elaftic feel, together with fimilar
abfceffes, occur in this as in the laft: but upon opening
them they commonly difcharge a thin fetid fluff; the bones
are found to be carious, and pieces of them are frequently
difcharged at the openings.
By the continuance of the diforder, the conftitution fuf-
fers, as in the firft fpecie11 of the dffeafe ; and a diarrhcea
with night-fweats commencing, the patient is foon reduced
to little more than fkin and bone.
_ Upon fuch joints being diffedled in the firft ftages of the
diforder, the foft parts feem very little affedted: but there
is conftantly obferved an enlargement either of the whole
ends of the bones, or of their epiphyfes ; frequently of thofe
on one fide of the joint only ; in others, again, the bones
on both fides have been affe&ed.
_ -This enlargement fometimes occurs without any other
evident difeafe: but in general, and always in a more ad¬
vanced ftate of the complaint, the fo't fpongy parts of fuch
bones appear diffolved into a thin, fluid, fetid matter ; and
that too, in fome cafes, without the cartilages which fur-
round them feeming much affe&ed. In proceis of time the
cartilages are likewife diffolved ; and then the matter of
the bones and fofter parts mixing together, fuch iwellings
exhibit in that Hate a ftill more confuted colledlion than is
generally obferved even In the worft ftages of the other
Ipecies of the diforder.
_ In the farther progrefs of this difeafe the furrounding
j PLaitS 'k5wlfe Puffer : h-aments become thickened,
and the contiguous cellular membrane is fluffed witli the
vifcid glairy matter obferved in the other fpecies of the
duorder.
We come now to the confideration of the different caufes
, which tend to produce this difeafe. That the ligaments of
the joints only are firft affeded in this diforder is rendered
evident by diffedion. The thick glairy effufions into the
^oned by an exudation
• n thf Veffr 8 l th°fe ll^aments that have been originally
inflamed, as fuch parts never furnifii a proper fluid for the
hXT0nKr PrrUr Cnt ma'ter: In the courle of thc ^ifeale,
indeed abfceffes containing real pus always appear ; buJ
round^ lnfl^mR1^on has been communicated to the fur-
X"XgfPX3, f C?ldude‘ therefore’ tha^ the firft
fpecies of white fwelhng is always occafioned by an infl,m.
12 or rheumatic affeQion of the ligaments of fuch joints as
caufe fuch ori-
M 3^,Wr/PK“S °f tht diforder to be orignaUy
only if he, 0CeE! ‘he '‘'grounding M parts coming
tteaion with ‘,"1 St"‘ thcfed,{‘fhi-ri’arft fr,f-eC°nf f'6’ thelie cafcs’ muclt l'“Pe™r to leeches, be.
white fu elling generally begin, „ithont .kf y fp i, • f Ca’/k “ 13 more expeditious, and becaufe of the fwellmg oc-
Vci. XVIII. Part l S W th0Ut th- P*™1 bE“S by ‘be application of any coofiderable numter of
0 thefe
toe
White
e n y.
In the lead able to account for it: and from the effeds
which it produces on the bones attacked, appears to be a
fpecies of fpina ventofa { a difeafe of the bones probably of
the fame nature as fcrophtila is of the foft parts. Indeed,
the appearances of the two diforders, after making allow¬
ance for their different fituations, are exceedingly fimilar :
they both begin with confiderable enlargements or fwellings
of the parts, which generally end in ulcerations ; they both
likewiie frequently occur in the fame perfon at the fame time.
This fpecies of white fwelling is generally either attend¬
ed with other evident fymptoms of fcrophula ; or the pa¬
tient, in an early period of life, has been fubjeft to that
difeale ; or, which is nearly the fame, he is deicended from
fcrophulous parents, and probably has the feeds of that difeafe
lurking in his conftitution. From all thefe circumftances,
it may with probability be concluded, that this fpecies of
white fwelling is of a fcrophulous nature: and fince the other
fpecies of the diforder is to be coniidered as an inflamma¬
tory affe&ion, a thorough diftin&ion between them is of
very great importance ; it will not be improper therefore
to give a ftrort enumeration of the feveral diagnoftic or molt
chara&eriftic fymptoms of each.
The pain in the firft fpecies is always, from the begin-
ning, diffufed over the whole joint, and fometimes extends
a confiderable way along the mufcles that are attached to
it: in the other fpecics it is always at firft, and fometimes
even when the complaint has been of confiderable {landing,
confined to a very fmall circumfcribed fpace. In the for¬
mer, the fwelling is always confined to the foft parts, and is
from the beginning exceedingly evident : but in the latter, it
is generally for fome time hardly perceptible ; and when it
appears the bones are the parts chiefly affefted, the fur¬
rounding teguments coming only to fuffer on a farther
progrefs of the difeafe. Thefe are the chief local differences
of the two fpecies of this disorder; but fome afliftance in
the diftinftion may likewife be obtained from the general
h ibit of the patient, and from the manner in which the
complaint may feem to have been produced. Thus, when
fuch fwellings occur in young, ftrong, plethoric, people,
efpecially in inch as have formerly been fubjeft to rheu-
matifm, they moll probably will always prove of the mildeft
or rheumatic fpecies of the diforder: But when they appear
in patients of fcrophulous difpofitions, we need be under
very little doubt in concluding them to be of a fcrophulous
nature.
1 he great utility of prope-ly diftinguilhing the two dif¬
ferent fpecies of white fwtllings appears in no circumftaa.ee
jo evident as in the treatment. In the pne, there being
iome chance, by proper remedies, of being ferviceable to
the patient ; whereas in the other, viz. the fcrophuloits,
.t is not probable that art will ever be able to afford much
alintance.
In the rheumatic white fwelling, as it is always at firft Treatment
evidently of an inflammatory nature, confiderable advantages>0 he
are commonly obtained by a due attention to a proper cooL?1st'f white
ini; courfe. The firft remedy which, with this view, Ihould
be put in practice, is blood letting immediately from the part
afteCled. Cupping and fcarifying is here a principal remedy
i he inftrument Ihould be applied to each fide of the difea-
led joint ; on each fide of the rotula, for inllance, when the
T' 13 th5 Part af'eae<1' 31 right o. ten ounces
Of blood difcharged ; and this to be repeated at proper in-
tervals, once, twice, or oftener, according to the violence
of the fymptoms and ftate of the patient’s ftrength at the
io6 S U R C
White thcfe animals proves frequently very troublefome, and fome-
Swellings. timeg interrupts for a time the ufe of other remedies.
 1 -jjpon the anterior part of the joint, where the cupping-
claffes have not been placed, a fmallblilter fhould be direft-
ly applied, and the part kept open with iffue-ointment, till
the wounds from the fcarificator are fo far healed that a
veficatory may likewife be laid on one fide of the joint ; and
fo foon as that is nearly healed, the other fide fhould be alfo
bliftered. By thus alternately applying them, firft to the
one fide and then to the other, almoft a conftant ftimulus
is kept up ; wh;ch, in deep feated inflammations, feems to .
have fully a greater influence than all the difcharge occafion-
ed by blifters. Gentle cooling laxatives at proper intervals
are alfo of ufe ; and the patient fhould, in every refpea,
be kept upon a ftrid antiphlogiftic c.ourfe, both as to diet
and every other circumftance.
It is in the firft ftages only of the difeafe that fuch a
courfe can be of much fervice ; and in fuch it has f requently
been a means of curing diforders which otherwife might
have proceeded to the laft ftages of white fwellings.
The original inflammatory affe&ion being once over,
thefe fort of drains feem to have little or no influence, and
ought not then to be long perflfted in, as they prevent the
ufe of other remedies, which, in an advanced flate of the
difeafe, are commonly more efficacious.
The inflammation being moftly gone, and while there
are yet no appearances of the formation of matter, mercury
lias fometimes been known of ufe ; not given fo as to fah-
vate, but merely to affeft the mouth gently, and to keep it
fomewhat fore for a few weeks.
The heft form of ufmg it is by_ way of unftion, as it
allows, at the fame time, the application of friftion ; which,
in all fuch fwellings, may of itfelf be in fome meafure con-
fidered as a remedy. For this purpofe, an ointment of
quickfilver and hog’s lard fhould be prepared ; but with fo
ffnall a proportion of the former, that the patient may admit
of two drams of the ointment being tubbed in three times
a-day. In order to rub that quantity of the medicine in
with gentle friftion, an hour each time is at leaft neceffary ;
for in the ordinary way of continuing fridfion for a few mi¬
nutes only, it can feldom have much influence.
By Le Dran, and other French wi iters, falls of warm
water on fwellings of this nature are much recommended;
and there is no doubt, that a long continued and reiterated
application of that remedy may, in the firft ftages of inch com¬
plaints, be often attended with very good effefts. By a proper
ufe of thefe different applications, viz. of the feveral topical
remedies in the firft or inflammatory ftate of the difeaie,
and afterwards (ftill, however, beiore the formation oi mat-
' ter) of mercurials, frkftion, &c. many affe&ions of this na¬
ture have been entirely removed.
It frequently happens, by the bent pofition the limb has
been for a long time kept in. that the ule of the joint comes
to be entirely loft, having often acquired fuch a degree of
ftiffnefs, that any attempts to move it are commonly attend¬
ed with very great pain. 'Ibis has been conllantly attribu¬
ted to one or other of two different caules, which aie both
in their nature incurable, viz. either to the ends of fuch
bones as compofe the joints having run into one another, fo
as to become firmly conjoined in confequence of the (ur-
rounding cartilages being abraded ; or to the infpiffation,
as it is termed, of the fynovia of the joints, whereby their
cavities aie entirely filled up, and no fpaccleft for the tutuie
motion of the bones.
Both thefe opinions, however, are in general very ill
founded : as the ftiffnefs almoft always proceeds from a con-
traftion of the mufcles and tendons. It may often be cured
by a long continued ufe of emollients.
E R Y. Chap. IV,
The heft emollient that can be ufed is pure olive oil White
applied warm ; -as much of it as can be eafily rubbed in by 3Wellin6^
an hour’s gentle friaion ffiould be regularly done at leaft ^
three times a-day ; and inftead of confining the friaion al-
toTether to the rigid tendons, it fhould be extended over
the whole mufcles, even to the infertions of their other ex¬
tremities ; but more efpecially on their flefhy mufcular parts,
where the principal caufe of the continuance of fuch com¬
plaints is probably leated.
" The web or omentum of a new-killed fheep, 'or ot any
other animal, applied over all the difeafed parts direftly on
being cut out of the animal, is fometimes attended with ad¬
vantage. The application fhould be renewed as frequently
as poffible, once a day at leaft, or oftener when it can be
done ; for on being more than four or five hours applied it
becomes difagreeable ; and after that time, indeed, as it com¬
monly turns ftiff, it cannot then probably be of much fer-
vice. r >
The diforder has hitherto been fuppofed not to be io Bell's Sir.
far advanced as to have occafioned the formation of matter ;ir-r>
for when come that length, no confiderable advantages can
be expe&ed from any of the remedies as yet recommended :
but even in that ftate of the complaint, it the patient s health ^
does not abfolutely require it, amputation of the member when an
fhould not be immediately had recourfe to. For by opening pntation
the different abfeeffes foon after their formation, the mat-
ter may be prevented from deftroying the captular ligaments
of the joints, which, if once effefted, would no doubt lender
that operation neceffary. Even in point of fuccefs from the
operation, it ought never to be advifed till the complaint is
pretty far advanced For in this diforder, efpecially, a greater
proportion of patients have recovered after amputation, who
have previoufly been confiderably reduced by diarrhoeas and
other weakening fymptoms, than of fuch as have ftill re¬
mained in a full plethoric habit of body.”
All the different obfervations hitherto made upon the
treatment, relate particularly to the rheumatic fpecies of the
diforder ; and when had recourfe to in time, and duly per-
fifted in, they will frequently be found of fervice : but when
the difeafe is fo far advanced as to have deftroyed the capfu-
lar ligaments of the joint, and perhaps even tne cartilages
and bones themfelves, amputation of the member is then no
doubt the only refource. _
In the fcrophulous white fwellings, when jthe oueaiei*
parts of the bone begin to call off, a cure may in that way,
by affifting the efforts of nature, be fometimes obtained in
the imall joints; but in all the large joints, as the knee,
ankle, &c. it is not probable that any other vefource than
amputation will ever afford much relief. And even the tf-
fedts of that operation can feldom be depended on as lair¬
ing j for when the general fcrophulous taint ttill fubiifis in
the conffitution, the diforder will moft probably appea?r
again in fome other pail; which, however, in the advanced
ftages of the difeafe, it is fometimes neceffary to run the
rifle of, the pain, being often fo tormenting as to make it
more eligible to fubmit to any hazard rather than to bear it
longer.
When, however, for fome reafon or other, amputation is
determined againft, as there being almoft a certainty of the
complaint foon returning, from the fcrophulous difpofitkm
appearing very ftrong in the fyftem, it then becomes necef¬
fary to have recourfe to palliatives, fo as to render the com¬
plaint as tolerable as poffible : and with this view, opiates
in large dofes, by moderating the pain and procuring reft
to the patient, will in general be found the principal remedy.
In other refpe&s, all fuch medicines and articles of regi*
men as are found beneficial in fcrophula, may be had re«
C0Urfc t9- gfCT.
€hap.
Cancer*
IV.
S U R O
^ 73
^kppdrsfi1
ces of an
nicerated
cancer.
74
Caufes of
cancer.
^ 75
Cure.
Sect. ill. Of Cancers.
Cancers mofl commonly arife in the glandular parts of
the body, where they are occafioned by any bruife or con-
tufion, fometimes a very {light one: and hence they are
more common in the lips, and in the breafts of women, than
in any other parts of the body. Cancers have been gene¬
rally dhlingudhed into occult and open. By the former are
meant fuch hard fcirrhous fwellings as are attended with
frequent /hooting pains, and which at laft generally termi¬
nate in the latter.
By the open cancerous ulcer, is underflood that fpecies of
fore which commonly fiicceeds to hard fwellings of the
glands; although in fome inftances it occurs without any
previous hardnefs. The edges of the ulcer are hard, rag¬
ged, and unequal, very painful, and reverfe in different
ways, being fometimes turned upwards and backwards, and
on other occafions inwards. The whole furface of the fore
is commonly very unequal, there being in fome parts con-
fiderable rifings, and in others deep excavations. The dif-
charge, for the mod part, is a thin dark-coloured fetid ichor j
and is often pofTeffed of fuch a degree of acrimony as to ex¬
coriate, and even deilroy, the neighbouring parts. In the
more advanced ftages ©f the difeale, by the erofion of blood-
veflels which occurs, conflderable quantities of pure blood
are fometimes alfo difcharged.
Patients labouring under real cancerous affeftions uni-
verfally complain of a burning heat over the whole ulcerated
furface; which, in general, is the mod tormenting fymptom
that attends the diforder ; and thofe {hooting lancinating
pains, which were troublefome in the more occult date of
the complaint, become now a great deal more fo.
fheCe are the mod frequent fymptoms which attend
an ulcerated cancer; but the appearances of fuch fores are
fo various, that it is almod impoifible in any defcription to
comprehend every one. When two, three, or more, how¬
ever, of thofe enumerated, concur together in the fame
ulcer, we may always be pretty certain of its being of the
cancerous kind.
Concerning the caufes of cancers, there have been a great
many conjeftures, but without any folid foundation. It is
of fome moment, however, to deterpine whether they arife
from fome general diforder in the fydem, or whether they
are. only to be accounted local difeafes. Many of the mod
eminent practitioners have been of opinion that they arife
from a general diforder of the fydem ; and hence cqnfider
them as totally incurable even, by extirpation, as the latent
feeds of the difeafe, in their opinion, will not fail to bring
on a return of it fomewhere or other. Of this opinion the
late Dr Monro appears to have been; and in a paper on
this fubjea in the Edinburgh Medical EfTays, declares, that
. ot near 60 cancers which he had been prefent at the ex¬
tirpation of, only four patients remained free of the difeafe
at the end of two years.” From this bad fuccefs, and the
viu ent progrefs of the difeafe, he finally concludes againd
the extirpation of cancers, and propofes only the palliative
met io o cure. Lut later praClitioners have been a great
deal more fiiccefsfuland a late publication by Mr Hill,
lurgeon at Dumfries, has put the ufefulnefs of extirpation
beyond a coubt, when .the operation is performed in time:
°ug a.ter lue difeaie has continued long, and the virus
een a or ed, the whole fydem acquires a cancerous difpo-
'T 1 tc difeafe almo.d. certainly' recurs in forne other
-j • ' • I?ra lnteiriai medicines we can expedt little or no-
do nn"!, ^ Ui''rure cancers ; and external applications can
from tp‘°le 1 J,au Pa^ate< Great expectations were formed
verfallv ^ an^ extra& cicuta; but it has fo uni-
> “ ledJ that few put much confidence in it at pre-
E R Y. ro7
fent. However, it has fometimes been of fervice in cafes of Cancers,
a fimple indurated gland ; and even where the difeafe has "r~» ^
been farther advanced, it has produced a better difeharge,
and diminifhed the fetor of the fore ; but as it cannot be
depended upon for a radical cure, a delay of the operation
is never to be recommended.
No part of the body is more fybjedl to cancer than theCancer of
breafts of women. Cancer of the mamma may arife at any1*16 mam-
period of life, though it feldom appears till about the time ma*
the menfes ufually difappear. Tumors arifing in the breaft;
previous to this period have been confidered by fome prac¬
titioners as being only of a fcrophulous nature ; and it is
probably owing to that circumftance that feveral cures have
been of lats years made on tumors of the breaft: by mercu¬
rial fri&ions and other remedies. >jy
Scirrhus and cancer of the; breafts are diftinguifhed byrts fymp*
the following marks: When the tumor is firft obferved, ittom3*
is commonly in form of a fmall hard knot in the glandular
part of the mamma, while the fkin at the fame time is free
from inflammation. It frequently continues in this flate
for feveral months : by degrees, however, it increafes con-
fideiably in fize, and at laft a fharp pain is felt {hooting to¬
wards the axilla. The lymphatic glands at the under edge
ol the pedloral mufcle and in the axilla are often enlarged,
and an occult cancer is now formed. By degrees the inte*
guments over this part of the tumor in the mamma become
difcoloured, and at laft an ulceration or open cancer breaks
out. Violent hemorrhagies now frequently enfue ; the pain
becomes ftill more excruciating ; and, unlefs proper aftiftance
be given, the patient is generally cut off in not many months
after the breaking out of the cancer.
In early' ftages, the difeafe in general may be confidered
as entirely a local affedlion, and a radical cure may be of
courfe expe&ed; but in proportion as the fkin fhall after¬
wards be found diieafed and adhering to the gland, and that
to the pedforal mufcle, and the lymphatic glands near the
mamma and in the arm-pit fwelled, the chance of a cure be¬
comes more doubtful, as the cancerous matter may have been
abforbed, and part of it carried into the fyrftein. The molt
unfavourable ftate for an operation is when there are ulce¬
rations in the breaft, large, deep, and of long {landing ; and
particularly if thefe are attended with great pain, when the
arm of the aftedled fide has become oedematous, and the
health of the patient is much impaired. In this laft ftate
veryr little is to be expelled from a furgical operation.
In extirpating the mamma, which we fhall firft fuppofeMethod of
is to be done where the flein is found, and where the tumorext'rPatingi
lias no uncommon adhefion to the pectoral mufcle, the pa-1^16 mam“
tient ought to be placed horizontally in a bed, or upon a
table covered with a mattrefs, &c. The operator is to be
feated, and to have proper affiftants. A longitudinal incifion
is then to be made with a common fcalpel through the {kin
and cellular fubftance along the whole extent of the tumor,
and at a little diitance from the nipple, which is to be laved.
When the longeft diameter of the tumor is acrofs the body,
i a Head of a longitudinal incifion, a tranfverie one is to be
made. 1 he integuments being diffcbted from the mamma
on both Tides of the inciiion, the patient’s arm is to be ex¬
tended to fave the pt&oral mufcle ; and the whole glandu¬
lar part is to be detached from the mufcle, though a {mail
portion only fhould be difeaitd, beginning at the upper
fide, and feparating downwards. If there be any indurated
glands, they are to be carefully removed. If the patient
he faint, a glafs of wine, or Tome other- cordial, is to be
given. After the difeafed parts are removed, the wound is
to be cleaned with a Iponge wrung out of warm water,
which will generally render the fmall bleeding veffels more
conipicuaus. Th e integuments are next to be clofely ap-
0 2 plied
S U R
plied to the parts underneath, and retained there by the
twifted future, and likewife by a few adhefive itraps. A
laive pled'Tit of fimple ointment is now to be laid over the
■whole; and this is to be covered with a thick compels of
lint, tow, or iott linen ; and the dreflings to be kept in
their place, and moderate predure made by the napkin and
jcapulary bandage.
By this method the integuments will generally loon ad¬
here, and a cure will be performed by the hill intention.
But it does not often happen that the operation is perform¬
ed while this favourable mode of pradliixng it will anfwer.
In gener?.l, before extirpation of a bread is recommended
by the iurgeon, or fubmitted to by the patient, a coniidtr-
able portion oi the external integuments are fo much ditea-
fed as to render it neceffary to feparate them along with the
glandular part of the mamma. It feme times happens like-
•wife that the tumor adheres to the pectoral mutcle, and
that again to the ribs. In either of theie cafes it becomes
peceffaVy to remove all the dileafed parts. For this purpoie,
two incilions of an oval form, with fharp extremities, of a
fufficient fize to include the whole of the affected parts, be¬
come neceffary. It again it be found, that betides the du-
eafe of the bread, the lymphatic glands in the neighbour¬
hood are indurated, or otherwife dileafed, the fhii incifion
ought to extend at once over thefe ; and after the other
parts have been removed, and the veffels iecured, the whole
of the dileafed glands are to be extirpated ; and in pei form-
in" this part ot the operation, conliderable alfitiance may
be given by fupporting them with a hook, or a ligatuie
palled through them, till they are entirely removed. When
they lie deep in the axilla, the points of the fingers, or the
end of the handle, will fometimes be lafer than the edge of
the knife. After having removed all the glands which ate
in the fmalleft degree affe&ed, the cut edges of the fkin are
to be brought as near to each other as the nature of the
cafe will allow, fo as to heal as much as poffible by the firit
intention. After the wound is nearly, or perhaps entirely
healed, an iffue, inlevted into the arm of the oppofite tide,
will be the belt means-of preventing a relapfe-
Chapi IV,
Bums.
Sect. IV Burn:.
19
Cbnfequen
So
Cure.
1U01UC4UC11- The immediate confequence of burns is a greater or lefs
tcaofBurn?.0f inflammation; and the danger attending fuch ac¬
cidents is in proportion to the extent of the injury. Burns
which irritate the fkin only, without delfroying the cuticle,
aft nearly in the way of a common hliftering plafler. When
the cuticle is deliroyed, no bliller takes place ; a mortified
Hough is obferved ; and when this leparates, an ulcer is
left. Where the cuticle is not deftroyed, relief may be pro¬
cured by holding the part affe&ed a coniiderable time in
very cold water, or fometimes by plunging it two or three
times into water a little below the boiling point. Solu¬
tions of faccharum faturni, and other preparations of lead,
have been recommended, as in the cafe ot other inflamma¬
tions. Vinegar is found a very effe&ual application, whe¬
ther the fkin be found or buffered. i he part may be en¬
tirely immerfed in. it, or linen rags dipt in the vinegar
may be applied, and the parts kept conffantly moift, till
the pain be removed. The fame application is uieful, where
the fkin is rubbed off, or otherwiie deftroyed. In this cafe,
indeed, the vinegar is apt to give additional pain on its nr ft
application ; but this foon ceafes, and the part becomes
much cooler and eafier. If the patient will not luffer the
vinegar to be applied immediately to the furface of the foie,
a linen rag foaked in olive-oil may be previoufly laid on the
part, covering the whole with the cloths dipped in vinegar ;
and thefe applications are to be occaiiunally repeated, till
g E R Y- r ,
the pain and inflammation be entirely removed 5 after which  
the parts are to be dreffed in the fame manner as in the cate v-w
of a common blilter. In extenfive burns, where the irrita¬
tion is great, along with external applications, opium fhould
be preferibed, in dofes adequate to the degree of pain.
Even that ftupor with which patients in this fituatioii are
fometimes attacked, is found to be more readily removed by
opium than by any other remedy. With refpeft to the bhftcrs
which arife upon burns, it has been difputed whether they
ought to be opened, or allowed to remain till they dry np
of °themfelves. But, according to the opinions or the lateit
authors, they ought to be opened as foon as any con tide ra-
ble quantity of fluid is found in them. Alter the ferum is
dilcharged, a thin liniment of wax and oil, with a little lac
charum faturni, fhotild be applied to the part.
In cafes of very fevere burns, where, notwithftandmg the
above treatment, there is danger of a violent inflammation
being induced, blood-letting, cooling purgatives, and other
remedies adapted to the peculiar fymptoms, muff be uiecr.
When, again, bums are from the firft attended with hffs of
fubftance, as commonly happens after the application o o
metallic bodies, we ought to have recourie to the vinegar,
as already mentioned, or to a liniment which ts now in very
common ufe for fuch purpofes, made of equal parts o. hnt-
feed oil and lime-water, which, when fhaken together,
forms a thick white fubftance, which often gives fpeedy re¬
lief ; and it may be readily applied by daubing the parts ^
" frequently over with a loft pencil well ioaked in it.
Though this has been conlidered as one of the beft applica¬
tions in burns, yet, in fome cafes, more immediate relief has
been procured from the application of Goulard’s cerate, or
the unguentirm nucritum ; and a weak folution of faccharum
faturni has fometimes been of fervice. gj
When burns are occalioned by the explofton of gm*-Burns oca-
powder, fome of the grains of the powder are apt to befionedby
forced into the fkin. At firft they produce much irnta-
tion ; and if they are not removed, they commonly leave
marks which remain during life. They fhould, therefore,,
be picked out as foon as poffible after the accident; and to
prevent inflammation, as well as to diffolve any power
which may remain, the parts afflifted fhould be covered, tor
a day or two, with emollient poultices. In other refpects,
injuries of this fort are to be treated like any other kind of
burns.—When burnt parts are contiguous to each other,
they are apt to adhere. To prevent this, pledgits covered
with any proper dreffing ought-to be inferted between
them during the courle of the cure. Ulcers ariflng from
burns are apt to become foft and fungous, and to rile
above their natural level. When this is obferved, the emo -
lient ointments, which may have been previoufly ufed, fhould
be laid atide, and thofe of a moderately allringent nature
applied. Gentle compreffion with a roller is alio of parti¬
cular fervice. Advantage is likewife derived from latur-
nine wafhes, &c. One of the beft ointments, m luch
cafes, is the common calamine cerate. 1 hele will com¬
monly anfwer the purpofe ; but when they prove infuffB
cient, burnt alum, blue vitriol, or even lunar cauftic, may be
neceffary.
Chap. V. Of Inflammatory Tumors.
Inflammatory Tumors are fuch as are quick in their
progrefs when compared with thofe of the indolent kind, and
are attended with confidei able pain and other fymptoms of
inflammation. We have here mentioned fuch only wliofe
treatment more properly belongs to the province of the fur-
geon,. and which are placed according to their fituations m
the different parts oi the body.
DECT.
Chap V.
Jnftamma
tory
Tumors.
SURGERY. log
_ , - , n ;■ ur gins about the top of the os facrum, and is feated in the Inflamma-
Sict. I. hJUmuum W Af“fi °f li* Bnafi of Mm*. * cinity of the pfoas mufc!e. to,.
This difoider occurs moft frequently in nurfes by the The fymptoras begin with pain anil tenfron about the Tum°"
jjoppage of the milk, which is always occafioned by hidden, loins, (hooting upwards to the fpine and downwards to the gf
o’- imorudent exnofure to cold. thigh. The diieafe has 1’ometimes a llrong reiemblance to -Sympto
or imprudent expofure to cold
In the early itages of the affe6lion, refolution is always
to be attempted, unlefs the (welling appears to have an
evident tendency towards fuppuration. The remedies ufed
in inflammation, iu general, ieem uieful in every cafe cf in-
flammation of the breafts. When the patient happens to
be nurhng, a hidden evacuation ot blood is apt to diminilh
the quantity of milk: In luch cafes, therefore, blood is to other cale, the matter
be extra&ed in fmall quantities at a time. The application o-rnm anrl lomf-nmes
of cooling faturnine poultices is advifable. When fuppura¬
tion kas taken place, the matter is to be diicharged by
making an incifion in the moll depending part of the
tumor.
Sect. II. Inflammation of the Tejliclts.
This difeafe is often owing to expofure to cold, violent
exercife, &c. ; but molt trequently to gonorrhoea virulenta,
and never to matter falling down upon the teftes, as was
fuppofed by thofe who gave it the name of hernia humora/is.
Inflammation here rarely terminates in fuppuration.
The belt method tor difcuffing the inflammation is by
tbe application of leeches; after which the penis ought to be
kept conftantly moiftened with a folution of faecharum fa-
turni, and the fcrotum and teftes fupported by a proper
bandage. The bowels fbould be kept moderately open ;
the patient fhould ufe a low diet, and keep as much as poffible
in an horizontal pofture. If lues venerea be prefent, a cure
cannot be expected without mercury. If the dfteafe is
owing to a ludden ftoppage of the difcharge in gonorrhoea,
the running ought to be reftored, and promoted by bathing
the penis in warm water, injedfing warm oil, an 1 the uie of
bougies. Thefe means will generally difcufs the ififlamma-
tion. If matter iorm, it muit be difcharged.
Sect. III. Of Venereal Buboes..
A swelling of any of the lymphatic glands of the body
is called a bubo ; and when fuch a iwelling proceeds rrom
venereal poilbn, it is termed venereal bubo. They feidom or
never appear except in the lymphatic glands ot the groin,
arm-pit, or extremities, and much more frequently in the
groin than anywhere die.
In the treatment of buboes, a ftriA antiphlogiftic regimen
is to be ufed to promote a reft lution ; the application of
leeches to the hardened gland is particularly proper, in dticuft
fing venereal buboes, the application of mercurial ointment
has a coniiderable effedl. Alter fuppuration is completely
formed, the application of cauftic to open the bubo is dange-
ious, left it fhould corrode iome ot the coniiderable blood-
vcdels, which generally lie contiguous to the bubo. Buboes,
when opened by the knife, are. laid to heal with more diffi¬
culty, and generally to leave a fear behind them. To al¬
low them to burft of themfelves, is therefore for the molt
part proper, except when the colledion is fo conflderable'
as to preis upon the neighbouring blood- veflels. In luch a
cafe,a imall incifton maybe made bytlft lancet,taking as much
care as polfible to prevent the admiffion ot the external air
into the wound. _ When the edges of the opening grow cal-
ous, the application of lunar cauftic to them becomes necef-
wiJk ■UunnS lhe remainingpart of the cure, mercury ioined
with opium is to be ufed. 3 J
faEcx, IV. Lumbar Abfcefs.
in The'S/^fttS' b,e aP?1*? ,0 everJr nbfeefs fated
> out that which is here meant is fuch as be-
thigh. The diieafe has fometimes a itrong reiemblance to -Symptoms
nephritic affections, and is fometimes miltakeil for lumbago. °f lumbar
After luppuratiou takes place, fthvering fits come on ; and3'J^cc^*
the pain now becoming dull, the patient imagines himielf
better, till matter points at the lide of the anus, or in the
groin. The hril cafe is rare ; and when it does occur, the
tumor burits, or is opened as a common abfcefs. In the
is feated behind the iafeia of the
groin, and lomttimes defeends as tar as the knee. The
teguments commonly retain their natural appearance. Fluc¬
tuation is evident, eipecially when the patient is in an up¬
right pofture. It is often miftaken for crural hernia ; but
may be eahly diltinguilhed from it, by its flow’ progreis, by
pain in the lumbar region at the commencement of the dif-
ceafe, by the patient allowing tiie tumor to be handled
freely, by fluctuation being evident, by the tumor beco¬
ming flaccid when the patient is in an horizontal lituation,
and by the abience of all the (ymptoms by which hernia is
diitinguilhed. Both difeafes may occur at once ; but this is
very rare, and a diftin&ion is ftill to be made. s
It is difeovered that this diieafe has, in general, been in- Ci'ift ofcbi$ ■
duced by coniiderable injury being done to the imall of the difeafe,
back or loins, either by twills, or fevere bruifes, or by Bid¬
den expofure to cold alter the heat occafioned by fevere
exerciie, particularly in fcrophulous habits. Were accidents
of this nature immediately treated with that attention
which their importance deferves, the difeafe might frequently
be prevented.
In the treatment the ftridleft antiphlogiftic regimen Treatm«n«
ought to be oblerved. Blood-letting ought immediately to
be performed, by fcarifying deeply and leeching the injured
part: neither are bliiters, opiates, gentle purgatives, and
other remedies uferul in inflammations, to be.neglected.
Authors have an idea that little advantage can be derived
from laying, open the abfcefs, on account oi the great.danger
which may enme from the admifiion of air. Mr Benjamin
Bell, however, is of an oppoiite opinion, and has always gi¬
ven-vent to matter here as eifewhere, and no bad confequences
have been obferved. The matter, when long lodged, has
been found to deitroy the (oft parts and bones,. and. fome¬
times to make its w’ay into the cavity of the abdoiten ; all of
which might be prevented by an early evacuation. For this
purpofe atrocarihould .be ufed,. which was tried by Mr
Bell m one cale with complete iuccefs.
Some other caies are lately narrated by authors, where,
by the introduction of a feton, and drawing off the matter
by flow degrees, and then by uling pomp refs, and fometimes
injections of gently irritating fluids, a cure has been per¬
formed m the courfe ot a.few months. If the cafe is doubt¬
ful, an opening Ihould be.made with the knife in the fame -
manner as in hernia, lithe flow of matter continue con¬
iiderable tor the ipace of two or three weeks, injections of a
weak folution of iaccharum faturni, lime water, or other
gentle aftringeats, may be employed.
Sect. V. Paronychia or Whltloc, and Chilblains.
Whitloe is a painful and inflammatory fweliing at the Of whuloci
extremities ot the ringers under the nails, terminating in an
effulion ot clear ierum below the, (kin, which is iometimes
1° acrid as to corrode the periolleum, and render, the bones
carious. At other times the iflammation runs fo high that
the whole of the arm fwells, particularly the lymphatics,
and lo me times even the glands in the axilla.
Vv hen this afteClion arilea from external violence, the re-
intdies
J f o
liiflamma-
tory
Tumor!i.
S U R G
medies employed for mSammatlon, in general, will be of fer-
.• \TTUpn j,r;reR from unknown caufes, ardent Ipirits
86
Chilblains,
87
Symptoms
of contu-
fions and
fpraifis.
88
Treatment
vice When it arifes from unknown caufes, ardent fpints
and'aftringents have been found ufeful, particularly when
topical and general bleedings have been previoully uied.
When an effufion of a ferous matter takes place, it is im¬
mediately to be difcharged, as it is almofl impoffible to con¬
vert it into proper pus. When this ferum has continued fo
long as to render the bone carious, a removal of the whole
bone, or of the carious portion, becomes neceffary, m order
to effeft a complete cure.
Chilblains are inflammatory fwcllings, or a purple colour,
chiefly affeaing the heels, and fometimes alio the fingers,
toes, arms, hands, or feet, or even the tips of the note and
ears, attended with a flinging pain, and a degree of itching.
The fwelling fometimes cracks, and difcharges an acrid le-
rum: fometimes a mortification takes place, and an ulcer
follows very difficult to heal. f . r ,,
This diforder is owing to the weaker adtion of the imaii
veffels moft remote from the heart, occafioned by cold or
dampnefs, and occurs moil frequently in people of a delicate
conftitution. . r j *
When the patient has been for fome time expoled to the
cold, and the parts are froft bitten, they ought to be plunged
into the coldeft water and rubbed with fait; when they are
only benumbed, rubbing them with camphorated fpint ot
wine will anfwer equally well: but when cracks take place,
and an oozing of acrid matter enfues, poultices may be ap¬
plied, but not long, as they are apt to give rife to fungous
excrefcences.
Sect. VI. Of Contufions and Sprains.
Contusions of the integuments and mufcles produce
pain, fwelling, and inflammation, and thele, in fome cafes,
may extend to a confiderable degree ; but in general they
are lefs violent than what take place in cafes of fprains of
ligaments or tendons; for in thefe there is frequently a to¬
tal lofs of motion for many weeks, and fometimes for jears,
if proper attention be not paid. An effufion of fluids al¬
ways fucceeds the injury, which feems to be, for the moll
part, of a ferous nature, as the fkin ufually retains its na¬
tural colour ; fometimes the tumefied parts are of a deep
red, or leaden colour, owing to a rupture of fome veflels
conveying red blood.
In the treatment of contufions and fprains, two circum-
ftances n^iuire attention. 1. i o endeavour to pi event the
fwelling as far as is practicable ; 2. To employ thofe remedies
afterwards which are known to be molt powerful in pie¬
venting or removing inflammation. In contufions of the
cellular fubflance, and even of the mufcles, the effufed fluids
are commonly foon abforbed ; but in fprains .of the tendons
or ligaments, a very troublefome, painful thicknefs of the
injured parts is apt to continue for a great length of time,
and in fome inftances even for life.
It is neceffary, therefore, to obviate thefe fymptoms as
foon as poffible ; and for this purpofe, cold aflringent appli¬
cations, as water, vinegar, 6tc, are moft commonly uted.
Others again, with a view to relax the parts fully, make ufe
of water as hot as the patient can bear it. By immerfing
the injured part in thefe immediately atter the injury is re¬
ceived, the effufion wall at leail be fomewhat obviated.
When the pain is exceffive, opiates become necefiai y..
After blood has been freely difcharged, a repetition of
the remedies already mentioned wrll be found to give great
relief; care fhould be taken, at the fame time, that the in-
. jiired parts be kept in a relaxed and ealy poiture.
Chap. VI
E R Y, Chap. VI,
continue for a long time without being attended with either indolent
pain or inflammation ; though occaficnally almoll all of
them maybe inflamed, and fome of them, in that flate, ^
attended with confiderable pain. They are of differentDifferent
bind<5 according to the nature of their contents, andkindsofin.
appear in various parts of the body. They are foted^tw.
in the adipofe and cellular membrane ; whence it oken hap¬
pens that they take place in the vifeera themfelves, where
they are frequently mortal. Sometimes they are filled with a
fubfiance of the confidence of honey, and are -thence called
meliceratous tumors ; fometimes they are filled with an harder
fubdance, and are then called atheromatous tumors ; at other
times they are filled with a fubftance of the confidence of
fat, and are then calledJlcatomatous. Sometimes, however,
they are found to be repleniffied with a fluid lymph coagu-
lableby heat, and are then called hydatids. One fet are filled
with matter like the fynovia of the joints, and get the name
of zanxlions. . „. . „ , - ,, HnJL
Tumors of this kind are eafily didinguifhed from all^.J
others, as having neither heat, pain, nor pulfation, as is to^jy
be obferved in thofe which incline to fuppurate ; and they trum otk
are'didinguifhed from each other, before they are laid open.u™'^
1 n r\ 1 •  I.‘1in tKp mplirpris? tm
by fluctuation being readily perceived in the melicensthe^®
atheroma is foft and compreffible, but has no fluctuation ;
while the deatoma is commonly firm and rolls under the
fkin. But thefe rules are liable to confiderable exceptions.
The mehcens and atheroma are mod commonly found upon
the head, and the deatoma upon the other parts of the
body ; while ganglions are fituated over the tendons of the 9>
mufcles. Thefe tumors mud be either extirpated entirely,lre,!iw'
or laid open fo as to difpofe the cyd to dough off or granu¬
late. If the matter be fluid, we may evacuate it by an
opening made with a lancet, or by means of a feton ; but
as the matter is apt to colleft again, it is better to remove
the fac entirely. If large veflels or nerves prevent this
from being done, then it is to be laid freely open and ex-
pofed to the air, fo that the bag may granulate, or be
thrown off. When the tumor is to be extirpated, a longi¬
tudinal jncifion is to be made through the integuments ;
after which the tumor may be frequently removed by the
point of the finger, or by the end of a fpatula, replacing the
integuments with a view to heal by the firfl intention. In
eveiy pendulous tumor of this kind, with a narrow neck,
we ought to divide the teguments near the bottom of the
tumor, in an oval form, fo that the wound may be afterwards
properly covered with the remaining integuments. After
the tumor is removed, the fkin is to be replaced over the
wound, and fixed with adhtfive flraps, covering it with a
pledgit of cerate, a fmall comprefs of linen, with a bandage
above all, to make a gentle preffure on the parts.
Bect. I. OfSteatomatous and Sarcomatous Tumors.
Of .Indolent lumors.
Th.f.se are fuch as are flow in their progrefs, and may
Steatomatous tumors have been ranked by authorsSteato®*’
among thofe of the encyfled kind but they have no other tomt“
cyfl containing them than the common cellular fubflance,
fomewhat condeqfed ; and the particles of fat compofing
them are found of the fame lize with thofe in a found part
of the body.
Authors formerly afl,vifed the difeuffion of fleatoms, or
the prevention ot their growth, by the application of pref¬
fure ; but by Inch means the growth is rather promoted
than retarded, nor have internal remedies been of any ad¬
vantage- They can be removed therefore by an operation
which is the fame with that for the extiipation of encyfled
tumors. 7.
Sarcomatous tumors have nearly the fame external ap-garcoi113'
pearance with thofe of the lleatomatous kind. The termt u^tu
has been applied, in a general way, to feirrhi of the giandsj010
but
9i
Chap. vr.
U R
:ofai.
94
Ganglions, but farcomatous tumors are likevvife found in various other
. parts of the body, and are diftinguifhed from fteatoma by
1 Burfx firmer t0 the touch ; internally they are found of a
redder colour, or approaching that of mufcles, in confequence
1 of the greater number of veffels entering into their fubltance.
Thefe are to be treated in the fame manner as fteatoms ;
but the operation ought to be performed early, as they are
more apt to degenerate into cancer.
Sect. II. Of Ganglions, or Swellings of the 'Bufe Mucoft.
Ganglions of the tendons are likewife tumors of the
eneyfted kind, feated in the burfae mucofse, or (heaths of
the tendons which belong to tha extremities. They are
moft frequently met with over the tendons upon the back
of the wrift, and often likewife about thofe of the ankle and
other parts of the extremities. When preffed, they are found
to poffefs a confiderable degree of elalticity, from which,
and from their fituation, they may generally be diftinguifhed
from other eneyfted tumors. They feldom arrive at any
great bulk, are pot often attended with pain, and common
ly the (kin retains its natural appearance. On being laid
open, they are found to contain a tough, vifeid, tranfparent
fluid, refembling the glaire of an egg.
They are generally produced by fprains, or contufions of
the joints, or by rheumatilm. In many inftances, they go
off infenfibly, without any afiillance from art ; but as this
* 0ften n°t the cafe, means ought to be ufed for removing
,f them. For this purpofe, moderate friction frequently re¬
ins. peated, or gentle compreiTion applied to them by means of
thin plates of lead, See. fometimes remove them. In fome
inftances they have been removed by the application of
blliters; but the moft. certain method is, to make a fmail
pundture into the fac, and to draw a cord through it; or,
after the pundture is made, to prefs out the contents, and
then mjeft fome gently ftimulating fluid, as port wine and
water heated blood-warm. Sometimes, in tumors of this
kind, bodies of a cartilaginous nature, and of different fliapes
and fizes, are found ; fome quite fmooth, others with pedun¬
cles; by which they are fuppofed by Dr Monro, in his
work upon the burl® mucofe, to have been attached to the
bur!*. As thefe cannot be removed by any remedy with
which we are yet acquainted, it is found necceffary to dif-
charge them. But as the parts may fometimes buffer from
inflammation when the tumor is laid fully open, it may be
pumffured at each end; and, after prefling out the contents,
a fmail cord may be introduced ; after which gentle pref-
iure may be applied with a comprefs and bandage over the
tUm°r‘ rhe CG,rd however fhould not be
continued fo long as to induce any great degree of inflam
aTS th“ a of this
SECT>-. «
Collections here may conf,ft ofterum, blood, or pus and
fynova combmed. They are moft Irequfmly met S in
the jomt of the knee, and maybe produced eftber by inter!
Hell or external caufes. Xhete kinds of J
95 general be diftmguilhed from each othe/ '' "*
IropM , W-7 eilufto rm°nly CM ^/rnl f„elK„„ „f
wellir.gs J ‘ aide chiefly in confequence of fevere rhem-natiV
'f the complaints; and when the tumor is not very laro-e ib ■c’
aat, ^on of rhe fluid may be felt by preffmZ
, , , 0n, aPPears immediately after a violent bruife ft ’ ^
at,^ir“:tcl!itof £Iood:
and fivelling, • w,th |r'at P*. inflammation,
s’ terminating m an effiifion, there is every rea-
G E R Y. nn
fon to think that the contain«d fluid confifts of pus mixed Collection*
with fynovia. within the
Swellings of the joints are mofl apt to be confounded
with colledtions in the burfas mucofe, or with matter effu-0f j0intSj
fed in the adjacent cellular fubftance. From the firft; of &c.
thefe they are generally diftinguifhed by the contained fluid v-—
paffmg readily from one fide of the joint to the other, and from
its being diffufed over the whole of it ; whereas, when it is tl..gifted
contained in the burfe, the tumor is confined to a particu-lrom other
lar part, and is feldom attended with much pain. afft&ions.
When Inch colledtions can fafely be allowed to remain, prea^er^
the caplular ligament ought never to be opened, as they can
often be removed by difeutients. Even confiderable collec¬
tions arifing from rheumatifm may comm inly be difeuffed by
fridtion, fomenting the parts with warm vapour, keeping
them conftantly moift with faturnine folutions, covering
them properly with flannel, and applying bliflers. When
thefe fail, fupporting the part with a laced flocking, or
with a roller, has frequently been of fervice. But whether
a rheumatic tumor can be difeuffed or not, it ought not
to be opened ; for the inconvenience attending it is more in¬
tolerable than the pain and inflammation which may enfue.
But when the matter would do mifehief by lodging, ic
fhould be difeharged. Effufed blood and matter which
fucceed high degrees of inflammation are of this kind.
Blood is frequently extravafated among foft parts without
much detriment; but wdien in contadf with cartilage or bone,
it foon hurts them materially. The matter ought to be dif- Method of
charged fo as moft effedtually to prevent the admiffion ofdifcIiarKinS
air into the cavity of the joint. For this purpoie the open-the matter"
ing fhould be made with a trocar; and the fkin, previoufly
drawn tight to the upper part of the tumor, fhould be pul¬
led down immediately on withdrawing the canula. A piece
of adhefive plafter fliould be dire&ly laid over the opening,
and the whole joint fhould be firmly fupported by a flannel
roller properly applied. If the patient be plethoric, he
fhould be blooded to fuch au extent as his ttrength will
bear ; he fhould be put upon a ftridt antiphlogiftic regi¬
men, and in every refpetft fhould be managed with caution;
for inflammation being very apt to eniue, we cannot too
much guard againft. it.
Joints are fometimes rendered pairfful and ftiff by the for- Concre-
mation of different fubitances within the capfular ligaments, i1?118 in t5v5
Thefe are fometimes loofe, and as firm as cartilage ; and^1*5
fometimes of a foft membranous nature, iimilar to thofe al¬
ready obferved in treating of iwellmgs of the burfe mu¬
cofe.
In fome cafes thefe fubflances, efpecially the laft fpecies,
retain nearly the lame fituation, without being much af-
fe&ed either by preffure or by the motion ot the joint : in
that cafe the pain is conftant, but feldom fevere. The firft
fpecies, however, is commonly very moveable ; and on being
touched, they flip with fuch facility that it is difficult to fix
them even with the fingers., 1 heie are only painful in par¬
ticular fituations.
Where thefe concretions appear, upon examination, to be Whiter-
perfectly loole and detached, if the pain which they excitefectly loof*
is very fevere,, we fhould venture in a cautious manner to may l)e vx-
take them out, by making an inciiion into the joint. ButtradGd*
if there is reafon to fuipeft that they are conne&ed with
any part of the joint, the patient ought to be adviled to
fubmit to the pain they induce, which in general will be
rendered moderate by fhunning exercife ; biit if, notwith-
handing this, it becomes infupportabk, amputation is the
only relource.
The limb being firmly fecured by afliflants, in that pof-Man” of
Uire which admits of the body to be taken out beinn felt ex£radti»M:
‘ & them.
moii
within dv
Caijhilav
Id^ament
nf Joints,
f'-C,
ti* S U Tl G
Co'lcdtic®* mod the furgeon fhouid endeavour to fix it with
' ‘ ’ his Hauers towards the upper part of the joint, atter an at-
fillant has drawn the Hein as much as pofiible upwards from
the part where the inciiion is to be made. The operator
with" a icaloel is now to make an irrcifion through the tegu¬
ments and.capfular ligament, direaiy upon the fab dance it-
felf, of fuch a fize as will admit of its being eahly taken
out s which may be done either with the finger or with the
end of a blunt probe. If it is found to be connected by
any fmali filaments either to the capfulat ligament or to the
cartilage,s-of the joint, they fiiould be cautionflydivided, either
with a probe pointed biftoury, or probe-pointed Iciltars, a,-
ter drawing the fubftance itfelf as far out as it can be got.
When move concretions than one are found, they (hould all
be taken out at the fame opening, when this can be done ;
but when it cannot, it will be better to allow the firft inci-
uon to heal before attempting the fecond, fii as to avoid as
much as poffible the exciting of inflammation.
After the concretion is removed, the fkm fhould -,e im¬
mediately drawn over rhe wound in the capfular ligament;
and the lips of the opening in the flan being laid together,
they fliouid be fecured in this fituation by pieces of adheiive
plaller, fo as to prevent the air from finding accels to the
cavity of the joint. Till the wound be completely healed,
the patient fhould not only be confined to bed, but the
limb fhpuld be kept as much as pofiible in one potture, and
.a flridt antiphlogiftic regimen fhould be preierved.
Sect. IV. Of Spina B]fida.
Spina pitida, is a tumor which fometimes appears upon
the lower part of the fpine in new-born children.^ A fluc¬
tuation ie dtfiinClly perceived in it, and the fluid it contains
can in feme meaiure,be prefled in at an opening between
the Vertebrae. In fome cafes this opening is owing to a na¬
tural deficiency of bone 5 in others, to the feparation of the
f pi nous procefies of the vertebra. _ <
The difeafe proceeds from ferum collefted within the co¬
verings of the fpinal marrow. It is always fatal. Children
E It Y. ('hi'P VI
on the tlrarsx or aWorofn, or any of Ok large joint*, free go hu,
on uie WMieA , ^ laus
vent ought always to be given to the matter to prevent it, ^
burltino into thefe cavities; and when the ebfcefs is large,
this llwuld be done with a trocar, or by paffing a cord thto
it in order to exclude the external air. When the tumor,
are not f,mated upon great cavities, it is better lo allow
them to break of themCdves, as the lores commonly heal
more readily, and the fear is pretty hnular it. both, the
rroit proper applications to fcrophulous foies teem to be
thofe of the faturnine kind, as they dimuufli inflammation,
and in fome meafure prevent the fore from fpreadmg
When the bones become carious, they are to be treated like
carious bones from other caufes; but amputation cannot
here be attended with advantage, as the d.feafe proceeds
from a fault in the eonflitution. After the fores are healed
up, the introduction of an iffue may afllft in preventing their
IC Tumors of a fcrophulous nature are_ fometimes apt to How J
be miftaken for thofe of the feirrhous kmd, and thus may f o£
be improperly extirpated. Scrophulous tumors ueeply leat- ^^,
cd commonly have a degree of firmnefs, which, if they hap- a,on,
pen to be feated near a fufpicious part, as clofe by the tide
of a woman's breaft, may give occafion to fuch a miflake.
Bu*' they may generally be diftingmflied by the foftnew
even of the firmeft kind of them, when compared with
feirrhus. They have always a fmooth equal furface ;
whereas fclrrhus -is fomewhat unequal or knotty, and feat¬
ed in the real fubftance of the gland; and a ftiooting pain is
commonly felt in it from time to time, even from its hr ft
appearance. They are generally accompanied, too, with
other fymptoms of fcrophula, which is not necdianly the
cafe with feirrhus.
Sect. V. Of Bronchocele.
This is a tumor on the fore-part of the neck, feated be¬
tween the trachea and flun, termed in French goitre. In
this country it is very' rare ; but it is frequent among the in¬
habitants of the Alps, and other mountainous countries.
W been known .ogive fov.woov ^ ^
years ; but, in general, they linger and die in a few weeks
All that art has been able to do "is to fupport the tumor by
gentle preffure with a proper bandage. When a tumor of
this kind is laid open or burfts, the child dies in a few hours.
A tumor nearly of the fame nature with this is fonie-
times met with upon different parts of the head in new¬
born children : it is formed by a fluid lodged beneath the
membranes of the brain, which have been forced out at fome
unofTified part of the fknil. What we have laid with reipedt
to the former is exactly applicable to this.
Sect. V. Of Scropbulous 'Tumors.
We ftiall here only mention the furgical treatment of
fcrophulous tumors, having fpoken of fcrophula in general
under the article Medicine. Some praftitioners have re¬
commended poultices, &c. to bring fcrophulous tumors to
fuppuration ; but the bell praftitioners have laid them afide,
becaufe they increafe the foft and ipongy ftate of the paits,
ioi b7 they are prevented from healing..
Treatment As external applications are ineffectual, it is better toat-
of (crophu- low fcrophulous tumors to be as much expofed as poflible,
as this frequently renders the fubfequent ulcer more eafily
cured. The other methods recommended for difeufling
thefe tumors are, the internal ufe of cicuta, burnt fponge,
xnuriated barytes, a long continued ufe of the cold bath, par¬
ticularly of fea-bathing, and drinking mineral or fea-water.
Thefe, to produce any effedt, fliouid be^begun early, while
the tumors are fmall, and long perfifted in. When the tu-
tnors come to a ftate of fuppuration, it they are leated up-
1 cafes
is leareu iulhl 1 ... -.-j 0 > • -n j
examined by Mr Benjamin Bell this gland was dimmifhed
from the compreflion of the tumor, which was chiefly form¬
ed of condenfed cellular fubftance, with effufions in different
parts of it of a vifeid brown matter. Dr Proffer confiders
bronchocele as a dropfical affeClion of the thyroid gland;
and in confirmation of this, he gives an account of a diffcc-
tion of a difeafed gland of this kind by Dr Hunter, who
found in it a great number of capfules filled with water.
The fwelling is at firft foft, without pain or any evident^
- • " ‘ ■ - 1   ■ but
fluftuation, and the fkin retains its natural appearance ^
lous tu
mors.
as the tumor advances in fize, it becomes unequally haid;
the fkm acquires a copper colour, and the veins of the neck
become varicofe ; the face becomes fiufhed, and the patient
complains of frequent headachs, as well as of flinging pains
through the body of the tumor. fL
Calcined egg-fhells have been recommended by. authors It
as a fpecific for this difeafe ; but little dependence is to be
placed on fuch a remedy. Frequent frictions are found ufe*
ful, efpecially when employed early ; faponaceous and mer¬
curial plafters, too, have in fome cafes proved ferviceable,
and repeated blifters have been known to retard its progrefs.
In the enlarged ftate of the tumor no remedy yet known
powerful enough to difculs it. When the difeaie is far a-
vanced, the removal of the tumor by an operation muft be
attended with great danger, on account of the enlarge
ftate of the arteries, as well as its vicinity to the common
carotids. It is therefore thought by fome of the molt ex¬
perienced practitioners, that in fuch a fituation it woul no^
Chap,
ro5
N.xvi ma-
tcnii.
sSs.
to8
Warts
VI. S U R
be advifaMe to attempt extirpation, and that the patient
fhould rather trutt to the common palliative treatment.
When the tumor, however, is not much increafed, if other
remedies have failed, and the difeafe is advancing, a furgeon
might be warranted in attempting its extirpation.
Sect. VI. Of Navi Materni, Corns, and Warts.
N^evi maternt are thofe marks which frequently appear
upon the bodies of children at birth, and which are fuppo-
fed to originate from imprefiions made on the mind of the
mother during pregnancy. They are of various forms ;
their colour is likewife various ; though moft frequently re-
fembling that of claret or red port-wine. Many bf thefe
marks are perfectly flat, and never tife above the level of the
fkin : thefe do not require the affiftance of furgery ; but in
fome cales they appear in the form of fmall protuberances,
which frequently increafe to a great flxe in thc'courfe of a
few months. They appear to he fnm and flefhy. They
fometimes hang by flender attachments to the contiguous
parts, but more generally they, are fixed by broad bafes.
They may be removed with as little danger as any other tu-
mor of the farcomatous kind. They are fupplied indeed
mote plentifully with blood than moft other tumors are ;
and even fometimes they appear to be entirely formed by a
congeries of fmajl blood-vefftls ; but the arteries which flip,
ply them may, for the mod part, cafily be fecured by liga¬
ture. The operation fhould never be long delayed ; f<
or as
the five of the vefiels correfponds with that of the tumor,
they fometimes are fo large as to throw out a good deal of
blood berime they can be fecured. In performing it, the
tumor is to be cut out, the arteries taken up, and the re-
maimno fkm brought as well together as the nature of the
part will allow, and kept fo by adhefive plafter or future.
When the tumor is pendulous, and connefted only by a nar¬
row neck, it Ihould be extirpated by ligature.
Corns are fmall hard tubercles, commonly fituated on
the toes or other parts of the feet, and fometimes on the
? hey are a horny nature- They proceed from
a diieafed ftate of the cuticle, occafioned by preflure. The
part becomes hard and thickened, with a fmall white fub-
itance in the centre, which has a difpofition to become pro¬
minent. It likewife forms a depreffioti in the fubjacent cu-
tls vera’ and fometimes is faid to penetrate it. When corns
sre fituated on parts much expofed to preffure, they irritate
the fkm, and produce an increafed fenfibility of the part
and thus occalion much pain. The belt preventative of
corns is the wearing of wide Ihoes, and avoiding every kind
dlfTfr; aildfUnlrf3 thls be attended to> ‘t will be'found
mSd’d f° uP ‘ree fr°m them‘ Various temedies are recom-
Se oart aT tYT of co”ls- One is to bathe
tl.e part about half an hour in warm water, then to pare as
much oft them as polhbie without giving pain, and to
apply over them any emollient ointment. If this treatment
e requently repeated, while prefture from Ihoes is prevent
ed they generally fall off, and do not return i p e^r be
aftenvards avoided. Another method is to allow them to
prZZ feeureb’JfN^0'1^ pieCeS °f Perforated ^er,
S .r td V™p avir'Tv'r’and af:
the moft part be ea% ^7^ v,h,ch they m?y (c.
7?1 thr -.bbtrw^
^ting the cuticle from the cutis thp mi n a -r j
aldmr ^ tfie corn will be raifed
a fcaV hr S ^ and may then be r^h removed by
-Si”, fC' ,'7 "f tlle being now
blfflered. “ b' 1,ke “r »th“ pntt that has been
fnrftceTappTtf: Vff ‘'nd°lent ,"mors' wl,h a tough
Vol. XVlllTart i rcnl 1>artsof the body,chiefly the
IO9
G E R Y.
hands and face, and more commonly in young people.
When they appear in advanced life they are apt to degene¬
rate .into cancer, efpecially when of a livid colour and with
a fmeoth furface. If they do not prove troublefome, no¬
thing fhonld be done to them, as they generaly either fall
oft or wafte gradually away. When from their fixe or fitu-
ation they require to be removed, this, if they are pendu¬
lous or have narrow necks, is eafdy done by ligature ; but
if their bafes be broad, the fcalpel or efcharetic applications
will be neceffary. As few, however, will fubmit to the for¬
mer, the latter are generally employed. Eicharotics of 3
nvid nature give leaf! pain, and are leaf! apt to excite in¬
flammation, which in thele cafes it is difficult to remove,
and are found to be quite fufficient for the purpofe. One of
the belt of thefe is crude fal ammoniac : it fhould firft be
moiftened in water, and then well rubbed upon the warts
two or three times a-day. Iriquid fait of tartar, and fome¬
times fpint of hartfhorn, has anfwered the fame purpofe:
fome recommend alfo the juice of onions. "
Warts appearing on the penis as a fymptom of venereal^31”*8 on
infe&ion, are of the fame nature, and to be cured by thetheptms'
fame means. Mercury is of no advantage here, aqd com¬
monly indeed does harm. When every other part of the
difeafe is eradicated, the warts may generally be removed by
wafhing them morning and evening in lime-water, or in a
weak folution of faccharum faturni. They may be remo¬
ved alfo by the knife, and the parts from whence they are
cut afterwards touched with lunar cauftic, to prevent them
from returning : but when this method is pra&ifed, the ope¬
rator ought to be certain that he has removed the wart en¬
tirely, for where part has been left the moft formidable
fymptoms have fometimes enfued.
Sect. VII. Of Polypi.
Polyp? are pendulous, flefhy, indolent tumors, fo called
from their fuppofed refembiance to the animal of that name,
ihey may be found in different cavities of the body, and
originate from the lining membrane ; but thofe which come
under furgical treatment are found in the nofe, mouth,
throat, and outer paffage of the ear, and in the vagina and iro
rectum. They are divided into two claffes ; the one foft Polypi di-
and compreffible, the other extremely firm. Both of them ’ed 'lM(*
bleed on being fretted or roughly handled. The foft kindtW° kind8’
fhriveis and contrafts in a dry atmofphere, (this is particu¬
larly the cafe with thofe of the nofe) ; but the firm are not
affected by the influence of the weather. Their colour is
commonly pale and tranfparent, and fometimes a deep red.
. d be Pa,n at tbe commencement of the diforder is always
inconsiderable ; but increafes in thofe of a hard nature as
they increafe in fize. Sometimes polypi of this kind be¬
come unequal, and form ulcers over the whole furface dif-
charging fetid matter in confiderable quantity. They are
apt at this time, unlefs extirpated, to degenerate into
cancer.
Moft frequently they arife from local injury, or whatever Thd/*
tends to produce and lupport an inflamed ftate of the part. Caufe*
Scrophula and lues venerea, though confidered by fome au¬
thors as frequently giving rife to them, feem onlv to be ex¬
citing caufes; for in lues venerea in particular, polypi when
prelent remain after the difeafe is cured.
The prognofi, mift depend much upon their fituatidn and I'rJnuaj.
their confidence. 1 he foft kind being- fddom painful, may
be removed at any period with little danger; but the hard
kind are generally not only painful, but more apt to dege¬
nerate into cancer, pr to return after being removed. The
loft kind therefore may be removed in general with fuccefs*
but when polypi of a harder nature exift, the prognofis will
be much more unfavourable. °
With
,r4 . S U R G
Polypi. With refpea to the treatment —As long as they remain
 ftationary, they are not to be touched ; but when they con-
113 tinue to trrow, we ought to ufe aftrmgent remedies, efpeci-
Treatment. ^ f0lution of alum, a deeoaion of ohk: bark, vi¬
negar, ardent fpirits, &c. The fofter kinds of_ polypi may
frequently be prevented for a long tune from mcreahng in
fize, and fometimes they even become confidetably fmaller.
Mercury has been found rather to make them worle;
cauftic and other corroding applications have been of ufe in
the fofter kind, though they have not produced a cure, be-
tons have likewife been ufed with little advantage. It is
therefore found neceffary to have recourfe to a more effec¬
tual pra&ice; and with this view the knife, fciffars, forceps,
or limature, are more generally recommended. 1 he kmte
and fciffars may be ufed when the roots of the tumor can
be readily come at; but polypi are feldom fo htuated as to
render excifion practicable ; and. even when they are, the
hemorrhagy maybe attended with confiderable Ganger, ihe
removal of a polypus by tearing or twilling it with the for¬
ceps,PlateCCCCLXXXVII.fig.4- ^ occafionally practued;
but as ligatures are lefs painful, and fully as effe&ual, they
are now' more generally employed. The ligatures confil
of wire, catgut, filk cord, &c. Different methods have
been employed for" palling thefe over polypi, according to
TT- their different fituations.  
.Method of When the ligature is to be applied, it is to be palled double
apt bing over the tumor, and conduced to the foot of it y ”
a ligature to f;ne.ers 0r by flit probes, as in Plate CCvA.±-.A A A v 11.
them‘ fig. C. or rings, Plate CCCCLXXXV1I. fig. 6. as may be
bell fuited to the fiiape and fize of the paffage. The ends-
of the ligature are then to be introduced into a fingle or
double canula, as in Plate CCCCLXXXVH. fig.7- which is
to be pufhed along the oppofite fide of the polypus till the
end of the canula reach the root of it, when the ligature is
to be drawn fomewhat tight, and fattened to the canula
which is to be left in the paffage. The ligature is to be
daily tightened till the tumor drop off. In this manner the
lar.reft oolvpus may be removed equally well with thole of
a fmaller fize. Should any part of it remain, it may be de-
ftroyed by cauftic, and different inttruments are contrived
for condufting this to the root of the tumor .
What has been laid of the treatment of polypi m general,
readily applies to thofe feated in the nofe, outer paffage of
the ear, the reAum, and the vagina. It hkewife applies to
thofe in the throat; only that inftead of patting the ligature
through the mouth, it is to be patted through one of the
noftrils. The operator is then to introduce one or two of
his finders into the mouth, and open the doubling of the li¬
gature,1 which he is to pafs over the polypus, and having
preffed it down to the root of it, to proceed as before di-
icAed.
Chap. VII. Of Difeafes of the Bones.
The bones, as well as the fofter parts, are liable to be
fwelled, either throughout their whole length, or to have tu¬
mors formed on particular parts of them.
Exoftofis is one fpecies of tumor of the bone. According
E a f t0 Mr Bromefitld, no fwelling fhould be called fo, but an
excrefcence continued from a bone, like a branch trom the
trunk of a tree. Under this head therefore is ranked the
benign node, which maybe produced by external injury, fuch
as contufions and fraAures : it can hardly be called a difeafe,
as pain feldom fucceeds, but rather a deformity.
There are riftngs or tumors obfervable on the bones which
are often the confequents of venereal virus, and are termed
^ l1* tophi, gummiy or nodes.-Tophus is a foft tumor in the bone;
TopllUS‘ and feems to be formed of a chalky fubiiance, that is inter-
E R Y. Chap. VII.
mediate between the ofleous fibres. Thefe cretaceous extra- Difeafe, of
vafations are fometimes found on the ligaments and tendons,
as well as on the bone; and may fometimes be taken out by
the knife We have many in fiances where chalk flones in
gouty people make their way out through the fkm of the
“afoft tumor or, the furface of the bone, be-Gunml
tween it and the periofteum ; and its contents refemble gum
foftened, from whence it has taken its name. Poffibly, by
obftrudlion in the nutrient veffels of the bone, a rupture of
fome of them occafions the ferous liquor to efcape, which, by
modems' its way between the fibres of the bone, arrives at
its furface ; and being detained by the refiftance of the peno-
fteum, its moft liquid parts being evaporated, and the re¬
mainder condenfed by the inflammation and confequent-
1Y this inelaftic covering being ftretched, it becomes m-
fpiflated, and forms this fpecies of exnjhfs, as it is general y
called. When tliis is the caufe, and the mdilpofition of the
habit in general got the better of, preffure by a fteel mitru-
ment, adapted to the part affeAed, is the proper cure u»
The confirmed venereal node has the appearance of a di-Noues.
varication of the offeous fibres, probably from fome mipif-
fated humour obftruAing the nutrient veflels, but not extra-
vafated; this occafioning an extenfion of the periofteum,
produces a violent pain, which, when noAurnal, is the cha-
raAeriftic of a venereal caufe. When the periofteum is
thickened but the bone not affeAed, a courfe of mercury,
by attenuating the obftruAed humour, and fitting it to be
carried out of the body by the proper outlets, will often
produce a perfeA cure : but when the bone itfeh is dlltaiLd>
this method will fail. But here the divifion of the extended
periofteum has been known to give perfeA eafe.
The ufual method, formerly, was to apply a cauftic equal
to the extent of the node, which being laid bare, required
exfoliation before it could be cicatrized. If the incifion is
made early, that is, before matter be formed under the m-
vefting membrane, it feldom requires exfoliation ; and, as we
often find that the bone itfelf is not affeAed, but only the
periofteum thickened, we may be deceived even alter a care¬
ful examination: it is therefore proper that the patient
fhould be pretty far advanced in a courfe of mercurial unc¬
tion before even the incifion is made ; for, fiioula the tu¬
mor decreafe, and the pain abate during the courfe, cfnrur-
gical afliftance, with the knife, moft likely may become un- ^
“ Abone may become carious firft in its internal parts j and Abfc*“
that from external injury, as well as from a vitiated itate ottruefpiM
the animal-fluids. Authors feem not to agree as to the ve;itufa.
technical term for this kind ©f difeafe of the bones; fome
calling it cancer or gangrana ojis ; others,ventnfa> \rom.
the pointed exuberances ufually attendant on this dilcrder
of the bone ; and fome again teredo, from the appearance at
the carious bone, like wood that is worm-eaten. .
It is univerfally allowed, that this difeafe takes its rile'
from matter being formed either in the diploe, or in the
marrow : whenever cbftruAion is begun in the veflels ex¬
panded on, or terminating in, the medullary cyils, the con-
fequence will be inflammation, and, if not early removed*
matter will form ; for this reafon this cafe may be called ab- ,!0
feeffus in medulla. Whenever, then, a patient complainssyn^toj
of dull heavy pain, deeply fituated in the bone, poffibly c<m* t:i^f
fequent to a violent blow received on the part fome time be-c
fore, though the integuments appear perfeAly found, and.
the bone itfelf not in the leaf! injured, we have great reafon
to fufpcA an ablceffus in the medulla. Children oi a ba
habit of body, though they have not fuffered any external
injury, will often become lame, and complain of the fimb
jug remarkably heavy ; and though not attended with acm^
)
Chap. VII. S U R
pifeafes of pain, yet the dull throbhisg uneafinefs is conftant. If ri-
.hc Bones. g0rs happen during the time the patient labours under this
—■•v—indifpofition, it generally implies that matter will be formed
within the fubftance of the bone. If the extremities of the
bone complained of begin, or if it becomes enlarged
throughout its whole extent, it may be known to be an ab-
fceffus in medulla, or true fpina ventofa, as it is called : if
neither of thefe fymptoms take place, the great infenlibility
of the bone in fome fubjedts will prevent that acutcnefs of
pain ufual in other parts where matter is formed, though
the acrid matter is eroding the bone during the whole time
it is contained within it. This matter at length having
made its way through, arrives at the periofteurn, where it
creates molt violent pain, as well from its fharpnefs as from
its increafed quantity, occalioning an extenfion of the perio-
fteum. The integuments then become fwelled and inflamed,
and have a fort of emphyfematous feel. On being exami¬
ned by preffure, the tumor wall lometimes be leflened, from
part ot the matter retiring into the bone : from this appear-
iar ance to the touch, moft likely the name of ventofa was
reatment. added to the term fp'tna. When we are aflured of matter
bemg under the periofteum, we cannot be too early in let¬
ting it out, as it will fave a confiderable deal of pain to the
patient, though probably it may not be of any coniiderable
advantage in relpedl to the carious bone ; for, where the
fluids in general are vitiated, no chance of cure can be ex-
pe&ed from topical remedies ; but where the conllitution is
mended, nature will fometimes aftonifh us in her part, as
the carious bone will be thrown off from the epiphyfes, or
the teredines will be filled up by the offific matter that flows
from the parts of the bone where feme of the fpinae have
come away.
If proper medicines are given, the children well fupport-
G E R Y. i,5
ty. In fuch cafes, corre&ing the vitiated juices only will Difeafes of
not reftore the bones to their natural date ; therefore the af- die Bone*^
fiftance of a fkilful mechanic is neceflary both to fupport the ',‘"*rr"v 111V
parts improperly a&ed on, and to alter the line ot dire&ion
of the diftorted ofleous fibres. 124
Though the curvature of the extremities, or thicknefs of^yniPtoms‘
the ends of the bones near their articulations, may give the01 nc‘£'w's'
firft alarm to thofe who are conftantly with children, yet
there are other fymptoms that give earlier notice than thefe ;
and had they been timely difeovered by proper judges, it is
highly probable that the curvature of the limbs in many
children might not have happened. The belly generally
becomes larger in this difeafe, from the increafed fize of the
contained bowels, as it is not unlikely but that the mefen-
teric glands are the firft parts obftrufted ; obftruftions of the
liver, fpleen, and pancreas, foon follow ; the head then be¬
comes enlarged; then a difficulty of breathing, which is gene-
rally fuppoied to be the effects of taking cold, fucceeds; the
fternum is elevated and fharp, and the thorax becomes con-
traffed ; the fpine is protruded in feveral parts ; the pelvis
altered, according to the preffure of the parts within, and
habitual inclination of the patient, at times, to obtain that
line of diredtion in which the perpendicular from the centre
of gravity may fall within the common bafe of the body,
the extremities of the cylindrical bones, and the ends of the
ribs next the fternum, become enlarged ; foon after this the
bones in general become foft and flexible, yielding in fuch
diredtions as the ftrongeft mufcles determine by their ac¬
tions. j;j,
The bones of children who die of this diforder, we ob-Appearance
ferve, are not only rendered foft, but the veffels within theirof the bone*
fubftance are replete with blood of a texture totally broken,
and having more the appearance of thin chocolate than.^
ed, and the parts kept clean and dry, patience and perfeve- blood; the periofteum in many places is feparated, and the
ranre wm frpnupntKr mV* r.  r * * ^ c i . • * .1 i 1 • 1
ranee will frequently give great credit to the furgeon. In
cafe it fhould have been thought advifable to apply a tre¬
phine, to give free difeharge to the matter, the wafhing it
avyay, as well as the fmall Grumblings of the carious bone,
by means of deterfive and drying injedtions, has been known
to contribute greatly to the curing this kind of caries, after
rai °f body in general had been mended,
f brittle- Befides thofe above-mentioned, the bones are liabe to two
:fs uf the oppofite difeafes ; the one termed friabilitas, the other mo//i-
nti. tjeS'; the former peculiar to adults, the latter more frequent
m infants, though fometimes feen in adults, from a vitiated
ftate of their juices.
The bones, when deprived of their cementing liquor, by
paffing through fire, become friable. From repeated faliva-
aQns, and in old people, they have been rendered extremely
brittle ; infomuch that in many fubjefts they have been frac¬
tured merely from their weight and the adtion of the muf¬
cles: but in fuch cafes, this is not owing to the friability of
the bones, but to the lofs of fubftance, from the erofion of
1 n- ?°ne *?y an acr*m°nious humour thrown on it; to
which caufe perhaps may be attributed the difeafe called
nckets lIJ children. The effeds of fcorbutic humour in ren-
marked^ ^ ^ many inftances’ have oftcri keen re-
By proper diet, gentle fridfion with coarfe cloths, exer-
cife, and cold bathing, rickety children will frequently get
leir con til uf ion fo much changed, as that, by the time
tVTVe n- thC -f 2,° yearS’ there M not remain
are a u ft,ge / ^ f?rmer difea^- The epiphyfes
aje generaUy moft affeded in this fpecies of the dilorder.
find that ?rIy attentlon t0 of this fort, we
powers of^,r b0r iS T °nly beCOme foft> and yield to the
£(ves thon^tr^8’ bUt remam diftorted the reft of their
, .01 gh they have acquired a perfedt degiee of folidi-
123
ckets.
intermediate fpace between it and the bone filled with extra-
vafated fluid ; and caries is almoit as frequent as the fepara-
tion of the periofteum. The mufcles in fuch bodies gene¬
rally appear pale and flabby. J4^
Where the affedlion of the mefenteric glands is evident, Method of
Mr Bromefield aflerts, that after a dole or two of the pulviscure recom-
bafilicus to empty the inteftines thoroughly, the purifiedmerided by
crude quickfilver is by much the moft efficacious medicine
to remove obflrudtions in thofe glands. When the belly be¬
gins to foften and fubiide, the chyle pafles without interrup¬
tion, and the child begins to get flefh ; then the cold bath
becomes truly ferviceable, and the deco&ion or cold infu-
fion of the Peruvian bark is a proper reftorative ; but the
cold bath ufed too early, or the bark given before there is a
free circulation of chyle through the ladbeals, would be very
injurious.
The mollities offium, in fome cafes, may be produced Of molliticj
from a redundancy of the oleaginous parts of the blood, oroflium.
from a laxity of the folids, by which the fluids are not fuf-
ficiently attenuated, nor properly blended and mixed : the
eonfequence of which will be obftru&ed perfpiration, the
habit in general loaded with grofs, phlegmatic, and ferous
humours, and the offiflc matter not united or condenfed as
in an healthy ftate. The method of cure confirms us in the
caufe of thefe fymptoms ; for, by ilrengthening the fibrous
fyftem, by ufing gentle exercife, a dry'diet, good air, aro¬
matics, and cold bathing, this kind of invalids are generally
reftored to health.
_ Among the difeafes of the bones we may likewife take no- pa]f12f h
tice of that pal/y of the lower extremities which takes place, W Jr V_ **
as is generally fuppofed, in confequence of a curvature in 'tenuties
fome part of the fpine. To this diftemper both fexes andfrom cur;
all ages are equally liable. When it attacks an infant of
only a year or two old or under, the true caufe of it is fel- C 1
P i doin
116 ° .
D.fe fe- of dom discovered until Some time after the effea has taken
the Bones. jace child is faid to be uncommonly backward in
    [he u’fe of hls kgs, or it is thought to have received iome
hurt in the birth. When the child is of an age fufficient to
have already walked, and who has been able to walk, the
lots of the ufe of his legs is gradual, though in general not
very flow. He at hi ft complains of being very foon tired,
js languid, liftlefs, and unwilling to move much or at all
fcrifkly. Soon after this he may be obferved frequently to
trip and {tumble, though there be no impediment in his
way ; and whenever he attempts to- move brifkly, he finds
that his legs involuntarily crofs each other, by which he is
fiecuently thrown down without {fumbling ; and when he
endeavours to ftand Hill in an erect pofture without fupport,
even for a few minutes, his knees give way and bend for¬
ward. As the difterrrper advances, it will be found that he
cannot, without much difficulty and deliberation, diredt ei¬
ther of his feet exadtly to any one point; and very foon
after this, both kgs and thighs lofe a good deal of their na¬
tural fenfibility, and become quite ufelefs. In adults, the
progrefs of the difeafe is much quicker, but the fymptoms
nearly the fame.
Until the curvature of the fpine is difeovered, the com¬
plaint generally paiTts for a nervous one ; but when the
ftate of the back bone is adverted to, recourfe is almoft al-
u R G E It Y.
Chap. VIII,
fide of the curvature, and in maintaining fuch difeharge un- Blood,
til the patient fhall have perfedly recovered the ufe of his letting,
legs To accomplifh this purpofe, I have made ufe of dif-
ferent means, fuch as fetons, ifffip made by inciiion, and if-
fues made by cauftic ; and although there be no very mate,
rial difference, L do upon the whole prefer the laft. A le.
ton is a painful and a nafty thing: betides which it frequent-
ly wears through the fkin before the end for which it was
made can be accomplifhed. Iffues made by mcifton, if they
be large enough for the intended purpofe, are apt to be¬
come inflamed, and to be very troubiefome before they come
to fuppuration ; but openings made by caulhc are not m
general liable to any of thefe inconveniences, at kaft not to
frequently nor in the fame degree : they
are neither lo troubkfome to make or
maintain. I make the efehars about this
ftze and fhape on each fide the curve, ta¬
king care to leave a fufficient portion of
fkin between them. In a tew days, when
the efehar begins to loofen and leparate, I
cut out all the middle, and put into each ...
a large kidney-bean: when the bottoms of the fores are be¬
come clean by fuppuration, I fprinkk, every third or -onvt
day, a fmall quantity of finely powdered cantharides on
them, by which the lores are prevented from contracting,
une is aimoAL <u- uiciu, uy wnu-n ^ r 7 ^ r u*. • 1
ways had'tVfome previous violence to account for it. That the difeharge increafed, and poffibly otn^ benc it o amec.
rhlLlght have been .he ca-e in feme few inftancea might The iflhe. I keep open unt.l ^'“““of his’1 " ov
be admitted ; but in by fat the greateft number feme pre- unnl ^.ant ^ets ^^Uthtak that it Udd
PM ’ Pou, wtohas wtktUa treftife upon this difeafe, re- be more prudent to heal only one of them Moping
commends it to our obfervation, that though the lower other open for feme tune; that ts, not only untd the pa-
limbs are rendered almoft uiekfs, or even entirely fo,
yet there are feme circumftances in which it differs from a
common nervous palfy. The kgs and thighs, though fo
much affedted, have neither the flabby feel of a t'-uly para¬
lytic limb ; nor have they that feeming loofenefs at the
joints, nor the total incapacity of refiftance which allows
the latter to be twifted almoft in all directions • on the con¬
trary, the joints have frequently a coniiderable degree of
ftiffnefs, particularly the ankles ; by which ftiffnefs the feet
of children are generally pointed downward, and they are
prevented from letting them flat upon the ground.
At fir ft the general health of the patient ieems not to be at
all, or at kaft not materially affe&ed ; but when the difeafe
has continued for fome time, and the cuivature is thereby
increafed, many inconveniences and complaints come on ;
fuch as difficulty m relpiration, indigeftion, pain, and what
they call tightnefs at theJlomach, obftinate conftipations, pur¬
gings, involuntary flux of urine and faeces, &c. with the
addition of fome nervous complaints, which are partly cau-
fed by the alterations made in the form of the cavity of the
thorax, and partly by impreffions made on the abdominal
vifeera.
Mr Pott was led to a knowledge of the true caufe and
tient can walk, but until he can walk firmly, brifkly, and
without the affiitance of a ftick : until he can ftand quite
upright, and has recovered all the height which the habit or
lather the neceffity of Hooping, occalioned by the difUm-
per, had made him loie.”
Chap.VIII. Of Blood-letting.
.Sect. I. Of Blood-letting in general.
Blood letting is performed either to kffen the quan¬
tity of circulating fluid, or to relieve a particular part:
hence we have the terms of general and local blood-letting..
General blood-letting is eitlier performed upon a vein or
an artery ; and from this circumftance ariie the appellation
of phlebotomy and arteriotomy. _
Local or topical blood-letting is performed by fcanficators
and cupping-glaffes, by leeches, or by punaures made with
a lancet, as may be moft luitabk to the nature of the dii*
eafe it is intended to remedy. _ t • i. * J1?
There are fome general rules and obfervations which r2"General
late equally to this operation in whatever part of the body rules re-
Mr Pott was kd to a knowledge of the true cauie ami it is praftifcd : thefe >ve (hall in the firf
cure of this diltemper, from oblervlng the cafe of a youth of and (hall afterwards proceed to treat partrcularly of bloody
-bo -as reftored to the ufe pf his limbs immedratel), ^“f^^^^opLtion, thefituation of the
patient, and of the operator likewife, ought to be precifely
fixed. The fituation of a patient, during the operation o*p0{iurr i>f
blood-letting, has a confiderable influence on the effects pro- th£
duced, and therefore merits particular attention. In lome
after a feemingly accidental abfeefs near the part. 1*rom this
he was inclined to think, that the curvature of the Ipiue
was not the original caufe of the diforder, but that the fur¬
rounding parts were predifpofed towards it by fome affection
ef the folids and fluids there ; and he was confirmed in thefe
«f the folids and fluids there ; and ^asconnrm u,u ; of \hls remedy t0 evacuate a con-
fufpicions by a variety of appearances which ^ able quantity of blood without inducing fainting: When
both the being uudy and upon difredion of the lubject M r , 1 former experience it is known
• after death all of which are narrated at full length in lus
treatife upon this fubjedi. . ,.r .
“ The remedy (fays he) for this moft dreadful diieafe
confifts merely in procuring a large difeharge of matter, by
fuppuration, from, underneath the inembrana adipoia on each
this is the cafe, and when from former experience it is known
that the patient is liable during the evacuation to ffill into a
faintifh ftate, a horizontal pofture ought to be preferred to
every other; for fainting is not near fo ready to occur in a
horizontal as in an eredt pofture.' It now and then happens,
however,
Chap. VI IT, SURGERY.
Blood- however, that one material advantage expe&ed from the now to fpeak of the method of ufing It
operation of blood-letting, is the produftion of a date of
letting.
I3T
Method of
comp ef¬
fing the
vein.
13a
iftrument
i be ufed.
deliquium; as, for inftauce, in cafes of ilranijulated her¬
nia, where a general relaxation of the fyftem is fometimes
definable. In all fuch circumftances, inflead of a horizontal
poiture, the more ere£t the patient is kept, the more readily
will a ftate of fainting be induced. The patient ought
to be fo placed, that the principal light of the apartment
fiiali fall d redfly upon the part to be operated upon, that
the vein to be opened may be made as aoparent as pofftble.
II. I he patient being properly feated, the next ftep is,
by means of a proper bandage of (ilk, linen, or woollen
cloth, which has more elafticity, io tocomprefs the vein in¬
tended to be opened, as to prevent the blood from returning
to the heart. An equal degree of preflure ought to be ap¬
plied to all the other veins of the part : tor if this be not at¬
tended to, the communication preferved by the collateral
con-el ponding branches would render the preffure upon any
one particular vein of very little importance. This oreffure
upon the veins, by inducing an accumulation of their con¬
tents, tends to bring them more evidently into view, ami
confequently renders it eafier for the operator to effed a
proper opening than he would otherwife find it. The pref-
juie, however, ought never to be carried fo far as to obltrucf
the circulation in the correfponding arteries, otherwife no
dilcharge oi blood can take place. When we fee that it
has the eftedt of raifing the veins, while at the fame time the
puliation of the artery is diftin&ly felt in that part of the
member which lies on the fide of the ligature mofl diilant
tron uhe heart, we may be certain that it is to a very proper
c cgiee, and that it ought not to be carried farther ; for by
the iwelling of the veins we are fure that they are lufficient-
Jy comprefled; and by the arteries continuing to beat, it is
evident that a continued flow of blood may be1 expefted.
Hi. I he reflux of blood to the heart being in this man-'
ner prevented, the next queflion to be determined is, the
beu method of makings opening into the vein. Different
mffrurr.ents have.been invented for this purpofe ; but there
are two only which have been retained in ufe, and which are
all there tore that here require to be mentioned. Thefe are
the lancet and the phlegm. .This laft, on being olaced im-
mediately on the part to be cut, is, by means of a fpring,
fhthedAUrdtn )rr1ut0-the Van’ and Pro^ces an opening of
the exadf hze of the inffrument employed.
hrYhfr in8 dettfrminedrto the lancet, which is by
far the fafeft, the form of that inftrument is next the objel
enthdvaf^ brroad fll"uldered ^ncet ought to be laid
enu-itly afide; becaufe the broadnefs of its (boulders produ¬
ces alwavs a wound m the evi-f-i-n-t r ■* ,
three r f . eternal teguments of perhaps
three times the fize of the opening made in the vein • a cir-
cumftance which adds no advantage whatever to the’opera-
rendereVr COntrfy’ 11 Products much unneceffary pain ;
ftoppage o'tlie'hln ^ mattei' to command a
hp g the blood ; and the wounds produced bv it are
SZ'Lt £XtCnf'Ve “ “ b'
riateccccLxxxviTs,0" t-co“trary' ;eprcre"ted
p,i ‘ . PX’h ; S tCgUm'"tS aad tc!" very little
iWj.por.adr wra% of no
<0' t'e'!
ing made with one ° ^ 0°d Prodi,ced b7 an open-
to with g^t eafe •f hrtS’ 18 C°mmonly a ftop
upon therein lmmedl^ely on removing the ligature
1V forni of kucet being thus fixed upon,
we come
—  a The furgeon and
patient being both properly feated, and the ligature having
been applied for a fhort fpace of time in order to produce
fome degree of fwelling in the veins, that vein is to be made Method of
choice of which, at the fame time that it appears confpicu-reforming
oufiy enough, is found to roll lefs than the others on being,be
preffed upon by the fingers. It is fcarceiy thought necef-ti0n*
fary to obferve here, that when a vein appears to be fo im¬
mediately connedfed with a contiguous artery or tendon, as
evidently to produce fome rifk of wounding thefe parts ia
the operation, another vein not liable to fuch hazard, if it
can be procured, ought undoubtedly to be preferred. Veins
may lie diredfly above both arteries and tendons, and yet
no manner of rifle be incurred by opening them, provided
the operator is fufficiently fteady and attentive ; but it does
now and then happen, that veins are fo nearly and intimate¬
ly connetkd with thefe parts, as to render it hazardous
even for the moll dexterous furgeon to attempt this opera¬
tion.
ri he vein being at lafl made choice of, the furgeon, if he
is to nfe his right-hand in the opeiation, takes a firm hold
of the member from whence the blood is to be drawn with
his left, and with the thumb of the fame hand he is now to
make fuch a degree of preffure upon the vein, about an
inch and a half below the part where the orifice is to be
made, as not only to render the ficin and teguments fome-
what tenfe; but at tKe fame time to interrupt for a little all
communication between the under part of the vein and that
portion of it lying between the ligature and the thumb pla¬
ced as thus diredled.
The lancet being drawn out fo as to form nearly a right
angle with the feales, the operator now takes it between the
finger and thumb of his right-hand ; and leaving at leaft
one half of the blade uncovered, he refts his hand on the
middle-finger, ring-finger, and little-finger, all placed as con¬
veniently as poffible in the neighbourhood of the vein from,
whence the blood is to be taken ; and having pufhed the
point of the inftrument freely through the fkin and tegu¬
ments into the vein, he now carries it forward in an oblique
direction, till the orifice is of the fize lie inclines to have*it;
taking care, during the time of pufhing on the lancet, that
its point be kept in as ftraight a direction as pofftble, for
fear of dipping into the parts below.
- he inftrument is now to be withdrawn ; and the fur¬
geon, removing the thumb of his left hand, is to allow the
\cin to empty itielf freely into the diftetent cups prevtoufly
provided for the purpofe.
It is of importance to obferve, that during the time
the blood is difeharging, the member ought to be kept in
exa&dy the fame pofture it was in when the lancet was firffc
introduced : otherwile the orifice in the fkin is apt to flip
over the opening in the vein ; a circumftance which always,
proves inconvenient, and on fome occafions produces a good
deal of trouble by the blood from the vein infinuatim* itfelf
into the furrounding cellular fubftance.
r I‘- W,he? the v.ein is ProPerly cut> and the orifice is made Method 0*
umciently large, it rarely occurs that any difficulty is expe-producing
nenced in procuring all the blood that is wanted; Uuta ^u®t'cnt.
when this laft circumftanee occurs, from the patient beco-L1l0W,°f
mmg faintifh. a ftream of frefh air ought to be* admitted to ^
the apartment, wine or fome other cordial fhould be admi-
niftertd, and the patient ought to be laid in a horizon¬
tal pofture. By thefe means the faintifhnefs will in. general
be foon removed : but if ftill the blood fhould not flow free¬
ly, the member ought to be put into all the variety of pofi-
turns that can probably affift in bringing the openings of the
1km and other teguments to eorrefpond with that of the
van; which will foon be known to have happened by the
blood
S IT R
Venefec- blood beginning inftantly to flow. Throwing the mufclea
-t’on in aif- Gf the part into conftant aftion, by giving the patient a cane
fetent Parts r - - ^ . *-  f Kia
fc ent PartsQr anv Fothcr firm fubftance to turn frequently round in his
oi the J5o~ , , ^ , .1 _  in flip m. will often •
dy
^35-
hand'when the operation is done in the arm, will often an-
fwer in producing a conftant flow of blood hoin^ a vein
when every other means has failed : And, laftly, when the
pulfe in the inferior part of the member is felt very leeble,
or efpecially if it cannot be diftinguifhed at all, we may be
thereby rendered certain that the ligature is too tight, and
may in general have it in our power to produce an immediate
flow of blood, by removing the compreflion thus improperly
made upon the arteries of the part. .
Method of VI. A quantity of blood proportioned to the natuie o
(topping tbe diforder being thus difcharged, the preflure upon the
too great a fuperior part Df the vein ftiould be immediately removed ;
£uX' and this being done, if the fpear-pointed lancet has been
ufed, all farther lofs of bleed will in general ftop immediate¬
ly. 1 he contrary of this, however, fometimes occurs, and
blood continues to flow freely even after the ligature is re¬
moved. When this is the cafe, the operator ought to com-
prefs the vein both above and below the orifice, by means*
of the finger and thumb of orie hand, fo as to prevent any
farther lofs of blood. This being done, and the orifice be¬
ing cleared of every particle of blood, the fides of it fhould
be laid as exa&ly together as pofiible ; and a piece of court
or any other adhefive plafter being fo applied as to retain
them, it will feldom happen that any kind of bandage is ne-
ceffary : but when the blood has iflued with uncommon vio¬
lence during the operation, and has been difficult to com¬
mand after the removal of the ligature, in fuch inftances it
will be prudent to apply a fmall comprefs of linen over the
plafter, and to fecure the whole with a linen roller properly
applied round the member.
Sect. II
*36
Venefec-
tion in the
arm.
Of VcnefeShn in different Parts of the Body.
When venefe&ion is to be performed in the arm, the li¬
gature for flopping the circulation ought to be placed about
an inch or an inch and a half above the joint ot the elbow,
and brought twice round': in order to prevent the ends ol it
from interfering with the lancet, the knot ffiould be made
on the outfide of the arm. In general, one knot might an-
fwer; but a flip-knot being made above the firit, renders it
more fecure, and it is very eafily done.
In forming the choice of a vein from whence blood is to
be taken, the general rules we have already laid down upon
this point mull be here particularly attended to. In gene¬
ral the artery lies fo low in this place, that the median bafi-
lic vein, under which it commonly runs, may be opened with
perfedt fafety; and as this vein in general appears more con-
ipicuous than any of the others, probably t rom the continued
puliation of the artery below obftrudting in tome mealure the
paflage of its contents, it is in this refped: therefore more
properly calculated for this operation than any of the others.
Other circumftances occur too which render the median ba
filic preferable to the cephalic or median cephalic veins for
the operation of blood-letting. J he former, viz. the me¬
dian bafilic, is lefs deeply covered with cellular fubltance ;
and by lying towards the inner part of the arm, it is more
thinly covered with the tendinous expanlion of the biceps
mufeie than either of the others. From thefe circumftan¬
ces, the operation is always attended with lefs pain when
done in this vein than in any of the others.
In very corpulent people, it fometimes happens that all
the larger veins he fo deep as not to be dilcovered by the
eye ; but when they are lenfibly felt by the fingers, even
although they cannot be feen, they may be always opened
with freedom. In a few inftances, however, they can neither
be diftinguilhed by the eye nor by the finger : in iuch a ft'
G E- R Y. o Chap. VIII,
tuation, as they may in general be met with about the wrift Ven«fet.
or on the back-pa*t of the hand, the ligature ffiould be re-'™'NIL
moved from the upper part of the arm ; and being apphedof»
about half way between the elbow and wnft, the veins be-dy.
low will thereby be brought into view; and wherever a vein
can be evidently obierved, there can be no danger in having
recourfe to the operation. q;
There is only one vein of the neck, viz. the poftenorVenefec
external jugular, which can eafily be brought fo much in to to
view as to be with propriety opened ; and even this hesnec'
deeply covered with parts, not only with the fkin and cellu.
lar fubftance, but with the fibres of the platifma myoides
mufcle; fo that a confiderable degree of preffure becomes
neceftary in order to raile it to any height. With a view
to produce this, the operator s thumb is commonly advifed
to be plac ed upon the vein, fo as to comprefs it effe&ually
about an inch or an inch and a half below where the open¬
ing is to be made. This, however, feldom proves fufficient
for the purpofe, as the blood, on being flopped in its pro.
grefs through this branch, eafily finds a paflage to the other
veins ; fo that unlefs the principal vein on the other fide of
the neck is alfo compreffed, the vein to be opened can never
be fully diftended. In order to effed this, a firm comprefs
of linen ffiould be applied on the largeft vein on the oppo-
fite fide of the neck ; and an ordinary garter, or any other
proper ligature, being laid dire&ly over it, ffiould be tied with
a firm knot below the oppofite arm-pit ; taking care to
make fuch a degree of preflure, as to put an entire ftop to
the circulation in the vein, which in this way may be eafily
effedled without producing any obftru&ion to the patient s
breathing. But to prevent every inconvenience of this
kind, fee an inftrument contrived for the purpofe, Plate
CCCCLXXXVII. fig. 9.
This being done, and the patient’s head properly nip-
ported, the operator, with the thumb of his left hand, is
now to make a fufficient preflure upon the vein to be open¬
ed ; and with the lancet in his right hand is to penetrate at
once into the vein ; and before withdrawing the inftrument,
an orifice ftiould be made large enough for the intended eva¬
cuation. It may be proper to obferve, that a more extern
five opening ought always to be made here than is n.ecefiary
in the arm, otherwife the quantity of blood is generally pie-
cured with difficulty: and befides, there is not the lame ne-
ceffity for caution on this point here that there is in the
arm; for it leldom or never happens that any difficulty oc¬
curs in this fituation, in putting a ftop to the blood after
the preffure is removed from the veins ; all that is common¬
ly neceffary for this purpofe being a flip of adhdive plafter
without any bandage whatever.
In order to bring the vein more clearly into view, io as
afterwards to be able to open it with more exadtnels, it has
been recommended, that the fkin, cellular fubftance, and
mufcular fibres covering the vein, ffiould be previoufly divi
1 i •.! r 1 11 r a* _ i   .A, s-U ^ o inti
ded with a fcalpel before attempting to puffi the lancet into
it. There is not, however, any neceffity for this precau¬
tion, as it rarely happens that any difficulty is experienced
in procuring a free difehatge of blood by opening the vein
and teguments at once in the manner diredltd. And it is
here, as in every inftance where it is neceffary to take blood
by a lancet, if it is not done at once, the patient is much
difappointed, and is fure to attribute the failure entirely to
a fault in the operator. „ _ ^
Wrhen blood is to be difcharged from the veins of the £ .„,(
ankle or feet, the ligature being applied a little above tne^5$
n 1J - - — 7 - ~ C) C3 A A . • A
ankle-joint, all the branches of the vena faphena, both Wf.jt
the infide and outfide of the foot, come at once int°
view; and as this vein lies everywhere very fuperficiab
being in general covered with fldn onlyj wherever a pro'
U R
dy
fchap.VIH. t S
Venefec- per vein appears eonfpicuoufly it may with fafety be open-
tion in dif e(^
oTthe Bo-S With a view to encourage the difcharge of blood, it has
been a conftant pradlice in blood-letting, in thefe veins, to
■ dip the feet into warm water immediately on the orifice be¬
ing made. But this is a very inaccurate method of proceed¬
ing, as the quantity of blood taken in this manner can never
be afcertained with precihon ; for the blood being all mixed
with the water, the operator can never be in any degree cer¬
tain as to this point : and beiides, there does not appear to
be any neceffity for this afliftance; for when the compref-
fion of the fuperior part of the veins is made effectual, and
the orifice is of a proper fize, there is feldom more difficulty
in obtaining a full difcharge of blood from the veins or thefe
parts than from any other veins of the body.
On removing the ligature, the difcharge is generally flop¬
ped at once ; <o that a piece of adhefive plafler applied over
the orifice anfwers all the purpofe of a bandage. The
arm, neck, and ankles are the parts from whence blood is
ufually taken by venefedfion ; but on feme occafions, where
the contiguous parts have been particularly affected, it has
been thought advifable to perform venefeCtion in other
places.
r , When venefeftion is to be performed in the veins called
he1 tongue. ranu^a under the tongue, the apex of the tongue is to be
elevated, and the vein on each fide opened, becaufe the
opening of one only will hardly ever difcharge blood enough.
After a fufficient quantity has been difeharged, feme cold
allringent fluid taken into the mouth will generally flop t!i£
hemorrhagy.
T he vena dorfalis penis, which runs along the back or up-
in m the per fide of this member, being generally pretty much diftend-
ed, and confpicuous in an inflammation of this part, mav be
opened about the middle or back part of the penis ; and a
! fufficient quantity of blood be ditehsrged proportionable to
the urgency of the fymptoms. This being done, applv a
t comprefs and bandage proper for the penis. The arteries
, ard. nerves which lie on each fide of the vein are to be
avoided : nor ought the bandage to be too tight, othervvife
the inflammation and other fymptoms may turn out worfe
than before.
G E R Y.
• promoted by fomentations of warm water frequently applied Artcrioto-
to the eye by means of a fponge or foft linen rags. niy-
Among other methods that have been propofed for
fcarifying the blood-veffels of the eye, the beards of rough
barley were at one period much extolled, and are ftill em¬
ployed by fome individuals. By drawing them over the
furf'ace of the eye, in a dire&ion contrary to the fharp fpi-
culae with which they are furnifhed, a confiderable difcharge
of blood is thereby produced : But the pain attending this
operation is exquifite ; and as it does not pofTefs any fupe¬
rior advantage to the method with the lancet, it is now fall¬
ing into general difufe.
Sect. III.
*39
.'eneiec-
i *40
enefec
14*
When it is found neceflary to difcharge blood in this
manner from the penis, the veins can be eafily brought into
view, by producing an accumulation of their contents in-
the fame manner as m other parts of the body, through the
intervention of a ligature : but in the tongue, in the he¬
morrhoidal veins about the anus, and other parts whe-e
compreffion cannot be applied, all that the furgeon can do,
\t(\mrnke an-0rnSCe ofna proper f:ze in tliat Pai't of the vein
winch fhows itfelf moft evidently,; and if a fufficient dif-
n0t -thus Pr9duced> as there is no other
method of effeAmg it, immerfing the parts in warm water
may in fuch circumftances be a very neceffirry meafure.
mafec- t ooi -are leveralwavsof performing the onpratlnn/O'i 1 1
r 'h' f "g “ ‘V O? We M'here !
the patient is to be feated conveniently on the bed fide or on l
Aur „„h his haad held in a propa, Uure bp an affiSant •
which done, the ftirtieon majtes a tranf.erfe incifion with a
ance, upon the turpid fmall ve/Tels in the corner Jf the
X’lc tl 0r.CUt tl,em ecrofs. Some
“Iffd K ,pa,r fc:flar;> of a lancet, to divide the
ftmlli’jT m U ',ther of the eyelids mult be
the vclH- I0™ °fh5 bl' the lingers of one hand, while
again derae th' rY !"ftrTjnts hfht in the other. Some,
Wore t7d“e‘Tl 'e l't 'k ? Cr0oked
time held afunder b ’ mr ye' bemK ■» ‘he mean
thus opened of divhiT a® The r,n',ll ve,r‘',s bting
P divided, their diicharge of blood ffiould be
Of Arteriotomy.
Whatever particular advantages may in theory have
been expedled from arteriotomy, and however fome of its
fupporters may have recommended it, not only as being in
many inftanccs preferable to venefe&ion, but as an opera¬
tion perfedlly fafe even in veflfels of confiderable fize ; yet
the moft ftrermous friends to the prance have fhrunk from ,
any real attempt of this kind on the larger arteries. In-^y fddom
fiances have no doubt occurred of large arteries havingpradiftd.
been opened without any danger enfuing ; but thefe are
fo exceedingly rare, that no pra&itioner of experience
will, uom that confideratron, be induced coolly to proceed
to open any artery of importance. The fmaller branches
of arteries may indeed be opened with great fafety, when
they are not deeply covered, and efpecially when they lie
contiguous to bones ; but in any of the larger arteries,
the attempt muft be always attended with fo much hazard,’
and the advantages to be expected from it, in preference to
venefeclion, are appearently fo trifling, as muft in all pro¬
bability prevent it from ever being carried into execution.
There are veiy few arteries, therefore, which, with any Arteries
propriety, can be opened 1 the different branches of theufuaIiy o-
temporal are the only arteries indeed from whence blood,pened*
in ordinary p raft ice, is ever taken; for although the opening
of fome other branches of arteries has by fome been pro-
poled, yet they are fituated in fuch a. manner that they
either cannot be readily come at, or being in the neighbour--
hood of fo large nerves, the opening of them might be
attended with badconfequences. In performing this opera-,., f44- ,
tion on any of the temporal branches, if the artery lies fu- p r/ormiml
perficial, it may be done with one pufli of the lancet, in the opera."
•the fame manner as was diredled for venefeftion; buttiou‘
when the artery lies deeply covered with cellular fubftance,
it is always neceffary to lay it fairly open to view, before
making the orifice with the lancet : for in all the fmaller
arteries, when they are cut entirely acrofs, there is little
chance of being able to procure any confiderable quanti¬
ty blood from them ; as, when divided in this manner,
they are fure to retraft confiderably within the furround--
iug parts, which commonly-puts a flop to all farther evacu¬
ation.
Some degree of nicety is alfo neceffary in making the
opening into the artery of a proper oblique direftion, neither
quite acrofs nor direftly longitudinal ; for a longitudinal
opening never bleeds fo freely, either in an artery or in a
vein, as when its direftion is iomewhat oblique..
If the opening has been properly made, and if the artery
is of any tolerable fize, it will at once difcharge very freely
without any eompreffion ; but when the evacuation does not
go on fo well as could be wifhed, the difcharge may be al¬
ways affifted by compreffirg the artery immediately above
the orifice, between it and the correfponding veins. The
quantity of blood being thus difeharged, it will commonly
happen, that a very flight compreffion on thefe fmaller ar¬
teries will fuffige for putting a flop to the evacuation : and .
k wh&tevsr
145
?V?ethod of
tl«e blood-
I2o 1 S U R G
Topical whatever prefTure is found neoefiary, may be hore applied in
Blooding. t^e parne manner as was directed in venefedtion.
"v 1 ft happens, however, in fome inftances, that this does
not fucceed, the orifice continuing to burft out from time
to time, fp as to be productive of much diftrefs and incon¬
venience.
In this fituation there are three different methods by
which we may with tolerable certainty put a flop to the
farther difchargc of blood, iff, If the artery is Imafl, as
all the branches of the temporal arteries commonly are, the
cutting it entirely aero is, exadtly at the orifice made with
the lancet, by allowing it to retraCf within the furrounding
parts, generally outs an immediate ftop to the difcharge.
zd, When that is not confented to, we have it always in^our
power to fecure the bleeding veffel with a ligature, as we
would do an artery accidentally divided in any part of the
body. And, laftly, if neither of thefe methods is agreed
to by the patient, we can, by means of a conftant regular
preffure, obliterate the cavity of the artery at the place where
the operation has bees perfotmed, by producing the accre
tion of its fides. Different bandages have been contrived
for compreffing the temporal artery ; but none ot them an-
fwer the purpofe fo eafdy and fo effedfually as the one
figured in Plate CCCCLXXXVII. fg- to. ibis method is
more tedious ; but to timid patients it generally proves more
accex>table than either of the other two.
Sect. IV. Of Topical Blooding.
When, either from the feverity of a local fixed pain, or
from any other caufe, it is wifhed to evacuate blood dire&ly
from the fmall veffels of the part afFeckd, mftead of open¬
ing any of the larger arteries or veins, the following are
the different modes propoled for effetfling it, viz by means
of leeches ; by flight fcar ifications with the (boulder or edge
of a lancet ; and, laftly, by means of an inftrument term-
ed a fiarificator, (Plate CCCCIjXXXVII. fig. ) I.) ; in
hfoodhig ^ which fixteen or twenty lancets are commonly placed, in
with the fuch a manner, that, when the inftrument is applied to the
fcarificator part affedted, the whole number of lancets contained in it
are, by means of a ftrong fpring, puft-ed fuddenly into it,
to the depth at which the inftrument has been previoufly
regulated. This being done, as the fmaller blood-veflels
only by this operation are ever intended to be cut, and as
thefe do not commonly difcharge freely, fome means or
other become neceffary for promoting the evacuation.
Various methods have been propoled for this purpofe.
Glaffes fitted to the form of the affected parts, with a fmall
hole in the bottom of each, were long ago contrived ; and
thefe being placed upon the fcarified parts, a degree of fac¬
tion was produced by a perfon’s mouth fufficient for nearly
exhaufting the air contained in the glafs : and this accord¬
ingly was a fare enough method ©1 inoreafing the evacua¬
tion of blood to a certain extent. But as this was attended
with a good deal of trouble, and befides did not on every
occafion prove altogether effectual, an exhaufting iyringe
was at laft adapted to the glafs : which did indeed anlwer as
a very certain method of extracting the air contained in it ;
but the application of this inftrument lor any length of
time is very troublefome, and it is difficult to preierve the
fyringe always air-tight.
The application of heat to the cupping-fojfcs, reprefented
an Plate CCCCLXXXVII. fig. I2. has been found to rarefy
the air contained in them to a degree Efficient for produ¬
cing a very confiderable fuCtion. And as the inftrument
in this fimple form anfwers the purpofe in view with very
little trouble to the operator, and as it is at all times eafi-
ly obtained, the ufe of the fyringe has therefore been laid
afide.
147
And cup-
ping-glaf-
fcgSo
E R Y, Chap. Vi!
There are different methods adopted for thus applying Top;CJ|
heat to the cavity of the glafs. By fupporting the mouth Bl(,'4
of it for a few feconds above the flame of a taper, the air
may be fufficiently rarefied ; but it the flame is not kept
exaCtiy in the middle, but is allowed to touch either the
fides or bottom of the glafs, it is very apt to make it crack.
A more certain, as well as an eafter, method of applying
the heat, is to dip a piece of foft bibulous paper in ipirit of
wine ; and having fet it on fire, to put it into the bottom
of the glafs, and, on its being nearly extinguifhed, to apply
the mouth of the inftrument direCtly upon the fcaritied
part. This degree of heat, which may be always regu¬
lated by the fize of the piece of paper, and which it fs evi.
dent ought to be always in proportion to the fize of the
glafs, if long enough applied, proves always fufficient for
rarefying the air very effeClually, and at the fame time, if
done with any manner of caution, never injures the glafs in
the leaft.
The giafs having been thus applied, if the fcarificationj
have been properly made, they inftantly be -in to difcharge
freely : and fo foon as the inftrument is nearly full of blood,
it fhould be taken away ; which may be always eafily done
by raifing one fide of it, fo as to give aceefs to the external
air. When more blood is wiihed to be taken, the parts
ffiould be bathed with w^arm water; and being made per-
ftCfly dry, another glafs, exaCfly the fize of the former,
ffiould be inllantly applied in the very fame manner: and
thus, if the fcarifieator has been made to pufh to a fufficient
depth, fo as to have cut all the cutaneous veffcls of the part,
almoft any neceffary c]uantity of blood may be obtained.
It fometimes happens, however, that the full quantity in¬
tended to be diicharged cannot be got at one place. In
fuch a cafe, the fcarificator muff be again applied on a part
as contiguous to the other as poffible ; and this being
done, the application of the glaffes muft alfo be renewed as
before.
When it is wifhed to difcharge the quantity of blood as
quickly as pofiible, two or more glaft'es may be applied
at once on contiguous parts previoufly {carified ; aud, on
fome occafions, the quantity of blood is more quickly ob¬
tained by the cupping-glaffes being applied for a few fe¬
conds upon the parts to be afterwards fcarified. The fac¬
tion produced by the glaffes may poffibly have fome in¬
fluence in bringing the more deep-ieated veffels into nearer
contaift with the fkin, fo that more of them will be cut by
the fcarificator.
A fufficient quantity of blood being procured, the wounds
made by the different lancets fhould be all perfeftly cleared
of blood ; and a bit of foft linen or charpie, dipped in a lit¬
tle milk or cream, applied over the wrhole, is the only dref-
fing that is neceffary. When dry linen is applied, it not
only creates more uneafmefs to the patient, but renders the
wounds more apt to fefter than when it has been prcvioufly
wretted in the manner direfted. 4
Dry cupping confifts in the application of the cupping-DrT1?
glaffes diredtly to the parts affefted, without the ufe of theF^'
fcarificator. By this means a tumor is produced upon the
part ; and where any advantage is to be expected from
a determination of blood to a particular fpot, it may p'°*
bably be more eafily accomplifhtd by this means than by
any other.
When the part from which it is intended to produce a
local evacuation of this kind is fo fituated, that a fcarifica¬
tor and cupping-glaffes can be applied, this method is great¬
ly preferable to every other; but in inflammatory affetfions
of the eye, of the nofe, and of other parts of the face, &c. n?
the fcarificator cannot be properly applied dircdfly to the
paits affedted. In fuch inftances, leeches are commonly
•7 1 had
Chap, IX, S U R G
iffucs. ^ had recourfe to, as they can be placed upon almoft any fpot
' from whence we would wi/h to difeharge blood.
In the application of thefe animals, the moft effectual
method of making them iix upon a particular fpot, is to
confine them to the part by means of a fmall wine-glafs.
Allowing them to creep upon a dry cloth, or upon a dry
hoard, for a few minutes before application, makes them
fix more readily ; and moiftening and cooling the parts on
which they are intended to fix, either with milk, cream, or
blood, tends alfo to.caufe them adhere much more fpeedily
than they otherwae would do. So foon as the leeches have
fepaiated, the ordinary method of promoting the difeharge
of blood, is to cover the parts with linen cloths wet in warm
water. In feme fituations, ‘this may probably be as effeftual
a method as any other; but wherever the cupping-glaffes
canoe applied over the wounds, they anfwer the purpofe
much more effe&ually. ^ ^
Y.
Chap. IX. Of IJJues.
E R
The feton is ufed where a large quantity 6f matter is
wanted, and efpecially where it is wilhed for from deep
feated parts. It is frequently ufed in the back of the neck n
foi difea.es of the head or eyes, or between two of the ribs
in afteftions of the bread:..
When the cord, which is to be madeor threads of cotton
or filk, is to be introduced, the parts at which it is to enter
and pafs out fhould be previoufiy marked with ink, and a
fmall part of the cord being befmeared with fome "mild oint-
,and pafred thrmjg:h the eye of the feton-needle, Plate
%• l3’ the part is to be fupported by
an affiftafit, and the needle. palled fairly through, leaving a
few inches of the cord hanging out. The needle is now°to
be removed and the part drefTed. By this method matter
is produced in quantity proportioned to the degree of irri¬
tation applied; and this can be increafcd or dirninilhed by
covering the cord daily before it is drawn with an irritating
or mild ointment. • ^
'"ico
TTfe of if-
fues.
Issues are a kmd of artificial ulcers formed in different
paits of tne body with a view to procure a difeharge of
difoniismatter> W11Ch ,S freqUently of advancage in different
Wer" f?rmerl^ °f 0P1*m'on that Served
ao drains to carry off the noxious humours from the blood
poflible. But as it is now known that they prove ufeful
merely by the quantity of matter which thly^fford, hey
c n^Te" 7 CCd ferC WJI1 °CCafi- ^ leaft in'-
convenience. I he moft proper parts for them are, the nape
n e m-The V if m'd,d,e’ m,,ter’. a'“1 fore P>rt “f *-nf
merus the hollow above the inner fide of the knee - or
ether fide of the fpme of the back ; or between two of the
foAl^pro eft7"1" ^ a fuffici‘ency op cellular fubftance
,°f the parts beneatfa : the7 ought never
or thinfc °Ve; Lhe belIy of a mufdc > ^ «er a ,e„do"
The It d b0ni 5 nr°r near any lar^e blood-veffel.
ar'’ thcbii“> thap=a-
Th'U,"er- S'ASff!? “ ^ is
Chap, X.
Of Sutures and Ligatures of Arteries.
Of Sutures.
Sect. I.
The intention of futures is to unite parts which have
been divided, and where the retra&io-n of the lips of the
wound has been confiderable. The futures in ordinary ufe
at prefent, among furgeons, are the interrupted, the quil-
led and the twilled. Befides thefe futures, adhefive
planers are ufed for uniting the lips of wounds, which
have been termed the falfe or dry future, in oppofition to
the others which have obtained the name of true or bloody.
e true future is ufed in cafes of deep wounds, while the
iahe is employed in thofe of a fuperficial nature.
rp. , ± J ** AiCiLU
ihe interrupted future is made as follows. The wound
151
iffue.
moved a n c ’ uwc, arter the bhiter is re-
inflamed, the ^ Part. be ™oh
M2
The pea-
iiiue.
one alternately. ^Ue °lntment and a mild
a wCoft 'ft,,Cr by,mak;ag a" ™;f.on with
peas; iougt
Gentian root, or orange-peas are ufed PWl’ klfney'beans’
is made by an incifion the h • n,, ^'be,n the opening
cut through, of a fizeVnffl ’ °U d be Pinched up and
be p„t info it But wh^ f” ,0 JeCe‘Ve ti,e to
common cauflicor lapis infe r to be, done b7 cauftic, the
it ounln to be releTd to a oft °f ^ beft =
foap, to prevent i frof r P r W,*h »little »«=r or loft
with “ fmall bole cut in thefemr “Sf iti“lb0 P!all‘-;r>
P^ced, and the cauftic pafte Lead un^ It be Prev.Iouny
centre. Over the whole P'„ .uP0n the hole in the
Placed to prevent am- tj- f plafter {hould be
twelve hours, the while m-IvX ^ cfcfw^ In tenor
i'our days the efeha- will f ^ C rem”ved» aT1d in three or
be filled with peaf ^ the ^ning may
mentioned. * ^ tbo other fubftances already
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
i ao iuuuws. i ne wouna , r, ^
being tmpjicd of thegrumous blood, ond the affillant taking"'^
care bat the bps ofhe quite eve,,, the burgeon in carel fr
fully to carry the needles from tbe bottom outwards; ulmg
the caution of making them come out far enough from th“
edge of the wound, which will not only facilitate the palling
the hgature but will alio prevent it from cutting through the
linn and flefh ; as many more flitches as may be required will
be only repetitions of the fame procefs. The threads being
a 1 paffed, let thole be tuft tied which are in the middle of
t ie wound : though, if the lips are held carefully together
all the while, as_ they fhould be, it will be of no great con-
fequence which is done firft. The moft ufeful kind of knot
is a fingle one firft, and then a flip-knot, which may be
loofened upon any confiderable inflammation taking place
It a violent inflammation fhould fucceed, loofening the liga'i
ture only will not fufhee ; it mufl be cut through and drawn
away, and the wound be treated afterwards without any
future When the wound is fmall, the Ids ft is difturbed
y ^effing the better ; but in large ones, there will fome-
tmies be a coniiderable difeharge ; and if the threads be
not cautioufiy earned through the bottom of it, abfcefles
will frequently enfue from the matter being pent up under
ncath, and not finding iffue. If no accidfnf Irapn^ afS
tl.e bps are firmly agglutinated, the ligatures are to be re*
moved, and the orifices which they leave dreffed.
it will readily be underftood, that the flresgth of the hVa-
ture and (me of the needle ought always to be proportionable
to the depth of the fore and retraftion of the pIrtSP The pro¬
per form of needles is reprefented in PI. CCCCLXXXVII,
O *
rj1 rou{l ld-ewJfe be remembered, that during the cure the
uture muft be always affifted by the application of bandage
aud°SeiWt 'f I1' T1Uein]l of the S^ateft importance;
and that fort of bandage with two heads, and a flit in the
middle.
J?,2
Suture.'.
I5J
Of the
quilled
iuiurc.
U R
E R Y.
Chap. X.
it 6
Of the
tw ifled
future.
«i7
Ufes to
which it
may be put
Ij8
Method of
employ ir.g
the twiited
future.
middle, which is by much the belt, will in moft cafes be
found practicable. . ....
In deep wounds, attended tvith much retra&ion, it is al¬
ways a necdlary precaution, to afiift the operation of the
ligatures by means of bandages, fo applied as to afford as
much fupport as poffible to the divided parts t But even
with every afliftance of this nature, it now and then hap¬
pens, that the divided parts cannot be kept together,. re-
tradfion occurs to a greater or lefier degree, and the liga¬
tures of courfe cut afunder the foft parts they were at firft.
made to furround.
With a view to prevent this receding of the teguments
and other parts, it was long ago propofed to add to the in¬
terrupted future what was fuppofed would afford an ad¬
ditional fupport, viz. quills, or pieces of plafler rolled up
into the form of quills; one of which being placed on each
fide of the wound, the double of the ligature is made to in¬
clude the one, and the knot to prefs diredtly upon the other,
inftead of being made immediately on the edges of the fore,
as was directed for interrupted futures. _
It is at once evident, however, that the ligatures muft
here make the fame degree of preffure on the parts tnrough
which they pafs as they do in the interrupted future ; and
this being the cafe, it is equally obvious, that the interpo-
fition of thefe fubftances cannot be of any ufe. . ihis futme
is accordingly now very rarely pra&ifed, and it is probable
that it will be foon laid entirely afide.
By the term tnxnjlcdfuture^ is meant that fpecies of liga¬
ture by which parts, either naturally or artificially feparated,
are united together, by means of ftrong threads properly
twifted round pins or needles pufhed through the edges of
the divided parts.
This future is commonly employed for the purpofe of
uniting the parts in cafes of hare-lip ; and this indeed is
almoft the only ufe to which it has been hitherto applied :
But it may with gieat advantage be put in practice in a
variety of other cafes, particularly in all artificial or acci¬
dental divifions either of the lips or cheeks ; and in every
wound in other paxts that does not run deep, and in which
futures are neceffary, this future is preferable to the interrupt¬
ed or any other, The pins made ufe of for twilling the threads
upon ought to be made of a flat form, fo as not to cut the
parts through which they pafs lo readily as the ligatures
employed in the interrupted future. And thus one great
©bjeclion to the latter is very effe&ually obviated : for
every pra£titioner muft be fenfible of this being the moil
faulty part of the interrupted future, that when mufcular
parts are divided fo as to produce much retratlion, the li¬
gatures employed for retaining them almoft conflantly cut
them through before a reunion is accomplifhed ; whereas
the flatnefs of the pins ufed in the twifted future, and
upon which the whole preffure produced by the ligatuers is
made to reft, proves in general a very effe6lual preventative
againft all fueh occurrences.
The pins ufed in this operation are reprefented in Plate
CCCCLXXXVII. fig. ly. They are commonly made of
gold or filver ; and in order to make them pals with gieater
eafe, Heel points are added to them. They are fometimes
ufed, however, of gold or filver alone.
The manner of performing this operation is as follows.
The divided parts intended to be reunited, muft, by the
hands of an affiftant, be brought nearly into contact ; lea¬
ving juft as much fpace between the edges of the fore as to
allow the furgeon to fee that the pins are carried to a pro¬
per depth. This being done, one of the pins muft be intro¬
duced through both fides of the wound, by entering it
on one fide externally, pulhing it forwards and inwards to
within a little of the bottom of the wound; and afterwards
carrying it outwardly through the oppofite fide, to the fame Suture,
diftance from the edge of the fore that it was made to enter r-
at on the other. ^ ,, , . r
The diftance at which the needle ought to enter from
the edge of the fore muft be determined by the depth of
the wound, and by the degree of retraftion produced in the
divided parts* In general, however, it is a proper regular
tion, in deep wounds, to carry the pms nearly to the lame
diftance from the fide of the fore as they are made to pene¬
trate in depth: And whatever the deepnefs of the wound
may be, the pins ought to pafs' within a very little oi its
bottom : otherwife the parts which lie deep will run a nik
of not being united ; a circumftance which muft always give
rife to troublefome colle&ions of matter.
The firft pin being paffed in this manner very near to
one end of the fore, and the parts being Hill fupported by
an afliftant, the furgeon, by means of a firm waxed ligature,
paffed three or four times round and acrofs the pin, fo as
nearly to deferibe the figure of 8, is to draw the parts
through which it has paffed into immediate and clofe con-
taft: and the thread being now fecured with a loofe knot, .
another pin muft be introduced in the fame manner at a
proper diftance from the former; and the thread with
which the other was fixed being loofed, and in the fame
manner carried round this pin, others muft be introduced at
proper diftances along the whole courfe of the wound ; and
the fame ligature ought to be of a lufficient length for fe-
curing the whole. . 155
The number of pins to be ufed muft be determined ^n-
tirely by the extent of the wound. Whenever this future pins to be
is praftifed, a pin ought to be introduced very near eachufeJ,
end of the wound, otherwife the extremities of the fore are
apt to feparate fo as not to be afterwards eafily reunited.
In large wounds, if the pins are introduced at the diftance
of three quarters of an inch from one another, it will in ge¬
neral be found fufficient; but in cuts of fmaller extent a greater
number of pins become neceffary in proportion to the dimen-
fions of the fores. _ , ,r • , 1
Thus in a wound of an inch and half in length, three
pins are abfolutely requifite ; one near to each end, and
another in the middle of the fore: whereas five pins will
always be found fully fufficient for a wound of three inches
and a half in extent, allowing one to be within a quarter
of an inch of each extremity of the wound, and the others
to be placed along the courfe of the fore at the diftance of
three quarters of an inch from one another.
The pins being all introduced and fecured in the manner
direfted, nothing remains to be done, but to apply a piece of
lint wet with mucilage all along the courfe of the wound,
with a view to exclude, as effectually as poffible, every ao*
cefs to the external air.
When the pins remain long, they generally do harm, by
the unneceffary irritation and confequent letiattioa of parts
with which they are always attended ; and if they are not
continued for a fufficient length of time, that degree of ad-
hefion is not produced between the divided parts which is
neceffary for their future retention ; fo that the effedl of
the operation comes to be in a great meafure, if not entire-
ly, loft.
In wounds of no great depth, for inftance of three quar¬
ters of an inch or fo, a fufficient degree of adhefion always
takes place in the fpace of five days ; and fix,, or at moft fe-
ven days, will generally be found fufficient for wounds of
the greateft depth. But with refpeft to this circumftance,
it muft always be underftood, that the patient’s ftate m
health muft have a confiderable influence on the time necef¬
fary for producing adhefion. between divided parts.
When the pins are withdrawn, the uniting bandage may
pc
Ligature
Arteries
160
The tourni
quet.
Chap. X. S U R
ofbe applied with threat advantage ; but as flips of leather
' fpread with ordinary glue, when applied to each fide of the
~ cicatrix, may, by means of ligatures properly connefted
with them, be made to anfwer the purpofe more effe&ually,
this mode of fupportifig the parts ought of courfe to be
preferred.
Sect. II. Of the Ligature of Art tries.
When a furgeon is called immediately to a wound of
any great artery of a limb, he fliould clap the point of his
finger upon the wounded artery, or make his affiltant hold
it; cut the wound fo far open as to fee the artery fairly ;
draw it out if it be cut acrofs, and have fhrunk among the
fiefh; or tie it like the artery of the arm in aneurifm by
paffing ligatures under it. When? however, the wound
happens in fuch fituations that we cannot command the
blood, it is better to clofe the lips of the wound, and try
to make them adhere by means of a very fteady comprefs
and bandage. ] hus an aneurifm wrill form ; the operation for
the cure of which fhall be afterwards defcribed.
When accidents of this nature occur in any of the ex¬
tremities, and where preffure can be made with cafe on the
fuperior part of the artery, we are poflefied of an inftru-
ment which never fails to put a flop to all further lofs of
blood: we mean the tourniquet. SeePlaleCCCCLXXXVII.
fig x 6.
"1 he tourniquet has undergone many improvements ; but
the one here reprefented is confidered as the beft. By means
of it the blood in any limb is very eafily and effe&ually
commanded; and as it grafps the whole member equally,
all the collateral branches, as well as the principal arteries,
are equally comprefled by it. It has this material advan¬
tage too over every other inftrument of this kind, that,
when properly applied, a fingle turn, or even half a turn,
o| the fcrew, is fufficient for producing either a flow of
blood, or for putting a total flop to it. The manner of
ulmg it is as follows.
, ir',e-t a pu^on °f three inches in length by one inch and
halt in diameter be prepared of a linen roller, tolerably
him, but not fo hard as to render preffure produced by it
very painful. This being placed upon the courfe of the
principal artery of the limb, is to be firmly fecured in that
htuation by one or two turns of a circular roller, of the fame
breadth with the cufln’on itfelf.
i he inftrument, with the ilrap connedted with it, beinm
now placed upon the limb, with the handle of the fcrew on
the oppofite fide of the member to the cufhion upon the
artery, the ftrap is to be carried round the limb diredly
fideof theK iT’ V0 bC firmly COnneaed on the
t oireth^ ^ tHU- con.neainK the ftrap and buckle
together, particular attention is neceffary in doing ft wfth
wfth a^m^h ’ 5° “ that thC fcreW may afterwards operate
dee ee of P°ffibIe In Produang a fulcient
degree of prefture. When proper attention is paid to tin’s
orcumftance, a tingle turn of the fcrew proves fufficient for
bu whenVicT T t0 the cilgulation of blood in the limb:
oOhPe ter»KXmt V“y tightl
embarrafiing i„ the
161
Manner of
afing it.
G E R Y. r2 5
But this method was found to give fo much pain, and in Ligature of
fome cafes to be attended with fuch violent convulfions, Arteries-
not only in the part chiefly affe&ed, but of the whole body, W’N  
that the beft pra&itioners have thought proper to reject it,
and to tie up the blood-veflels by themfelves ; for ft is now
well known that even very fmall arteries are poffefled of
much firmnefs ; and that even in the largeft arteries a flight
degree of compreflion is fufficient not only for reft raining
hemorrhagy, but for fecuring the ligature on the very fpot
to which it is firft applied.
.In order to deleft the arteries to be tied, the tourniquet,
with which they are fecured, muft be flackened a little by
a turn or two of the fcrew ; and the moment the largeft
artery of the fore is difeovered, the furgeon fixes his eye
upon it, and immediately reftrains the blood again by means
of the tourniquet. An affiftant now forms a noofe on the
ligature to be made ufe of; and this noofe being put over
the point of the tenaculum, Plate CCCCLXXXVII. fig. i 7.
the operator puffies the fharp point of the inftrument
through the fides of the veflel, and at the fame time pulls
fo much of it out, over the furface of the furrounding parts,
as he thinks is fufficient to be included in the knot which
the affiftant is now to make upon the artery. In formin'r
this ligature a fingle knot moderately drawn, and over it
another fingle knot, is perfeftly iufficient. l6-.
When from the deepnefs of a wound, or from any other With fhe
caufe, fome particular artery cannot be properly fecured by crooked
the tenaculum; in this cafe there is a neceffity of employ-needle*
ing the crooked needle, and the following is the method of
ufing ft.
A needle of the ffiape reprefented PI. CCCCI.XXXVII.
r m armed a %ature of a fize proportioned to it-
u -nt0 the veflel .t0 be taken UP> Js to ke introduced at
the dtftance of a fixth or eighth part of an inch from
the artery, and pufhed to a depth fufficient for retaining ft, at
the fame time that it is carried fully one half round the blood-
vellel. It muft now be drawn out; and being again pufti-
ed forward till it has completely encircled the mouth of
the artery, it is then to be pulled out; and a knot to be
tied of a fufficient firmnefs, as was already direfted when
the tenaculum is ufed.
Chap. XI. Of Aneurifms.
The term Aneurifm was originally meant to fignifv aDefinifion.
tumor formed by the dilatation of the coats of an arterv *
but by modern praftitioners it is made to apply not onlv
to tumors of tins kind, but to fuch as are formed by blood
efrufed from arteries into the contiguous parts. There are
three fpecies ; the true or eneyfted, the falfe or diffufed, ’
and the vancofe aneurifm.
The true ox eneyfed aneurifm, when fit u^ted near theTheV-ue or
TUi face or the body, produces a tumor at firft fmall ande,lc)rfted
circumfcribed; the flein retains its natural appearance
when preffed by the fingers, a pulfation is evidently diftin!
guifhed ; and with very little force the contents of the
fwtlung may be made to difappear; but they immediately
return upon removing the preffure. By degrees the fwell-
ing increaies, and becomes more prominent; but ftfil the
patient does not complain of pain : on preffure the tumor
continues of an equal foftnefs, and is compreffible. After
his the fwelhng becomes large, the fl<in turns paler than
ufual, and m more advanced llages cedematous : the pulfe
ftdl continues; but parts of the tumor become firm from the
fur? nHVtl f CTa‘U-d blr0d’- and yJeld little t0 P^f*
k \ a -'I {wdhnS ‘frefifes 111 a gradual manner, and
W an^f H 3 grm degrt'e °f PaIn‘ I'he. Ikin turns
tiMU, and has a gangrenous appearance. An oozing of
bloody
aneurifm.
t6»
Method of
tying artc-
lies by
means of
the tena¬
culum.
courfe of an operation.
bXlTon'h0,dS haVe X" inV','tei1 for during arteries
ufe “r bv J 8 7' ' f aa‘Ce tni UtSy In ordinary
luffiSt if"'!? °f " C:‘,Ved n«dk' pais a ligature of
iucludtg a "8H, °fJ,he ble'di"S
part,, a?d aftX 7f. 7 aU, ,0U”d ofthe futrSunding
Upon tlie veffel "th ° °im 3 ^n0t °P a ProPer tightnefs
P vdiel and other parts comprehended in the noofe.
>34 ■ ,S U ®
Aiieurifms. blomly ferum occurs from the integuments ; and, d a real
    mortification do not take place, the fkm cracfcs m c luerent
parts; and the artery being now deprived ot the ulualie-
fiftance, the blood bujfb out with Inch force as to oceaiion
the almoft immediate death of the patient. t has the dil-
eafe terminates in the large cavities of the body ; but in
the extremities we can, by means of the tourniquet, prevent
the fudden termination of the difeate.
When affe&ions of this kind happen m the larger ar¬
teries, the effects produced upon the neighbouring parts
are often furpriiing : the foft parts not only yield to a great
extent, but even the bones frequently undergo a great de-
.. gree of derangement. .
mv"1? 1 The falfe or diffufed aneurifm confifts m a wound or nip-
Ifitfel ture in an artery,, producing, by the blood thrown out of
aneurifm. it, a {welling in the contiguous parts.^ It is molt frequently
produced by a wound made dire&ly into the artery.
A The following is the ufunl progrefs of the ddcrder. A
tumor, about the fize of a horfe-bean, generally rues at the
orifice in the artery foon after the difcharge of the blood
has been flopped by compreffion. At firft it is loft, has
a flrong degree of pulfation, and yields a little to preflure,
but cannot be made entirely to difeppear; for here the
blood forming the tumor being at reft, begins to coagulate.
If not improperly treated by much prtfture, it generally re-
mains nearly of the fame iize for feveral wccks. ie ta
largement however proceeds more rapidly m feme cafes than
in others. In fiances have occurred of the blood being dit-
fufed over the whole arm in the fpace of a few hours ;
while, on the contrary, fwellings of this kind have been
many months, nay even years, in arriving at any confiderable
fize. #
As the tumor becomes larger, it does not, like the true
aneurifm, grow much more prominent, but rathei fpreads
and diffufes itfelf into the furrounding parts. Ey degrees
it acquires a firm confiitence ; and the pulfation, which was
at ftrft confiderable, gradually duninifhes, till it is fometunes
fcarccly perceptible. If the blood at firft thrown out pro¬
ceed from an artery deeply feated, the fkin preferves its na¬
tural appearance till the diforder is far advanced . but wnen
the blood gets at firft into contatt with the flan, the parts
become inftantly livid, indicating the approach of mortifica¬
tion ; and a real fphacelus has fometimes been induced.
The tumor at firit produces little uneafinei's ; but as it in-
creafes in fize, the patient complains of fevere pain, ftiff-
nefs, numbnefs, and immobility of the whole joint; and
thefe fymptoms continuing to augment, if the arteiy be
large, and' affiftance not given, the teguments at laft burft,
and death muil enfue. . .
When an artery is punftured through a vein, as in blood¬
letting at the arm, the blood generally nifties into the yield¬
ing cellular fubftance, and there fpreads fo as to fhut the fides
of the vein together. But in fotne inftances where the aitery
happens to be in contaft with the vein, the communication
opened has been preferved; and the vein not being fufficient y
ftrongfor refilling the impulfeof the artery,mull confcquently
be dilated. This is a varicofe aneurifm. It was firft accu¬
rately deferibed by Dr Blunter, and fmee that time has been
frequently obferved by different praaitioners. Blere the iwell¬
ing is entirely confined to the veins. Soon alter the injury
the vein immediately communicating with the artery begins
to fvvell, and enlarge gradually. If there be any confiderabvc
communications in the neighbourhood, the veins which form
them are alfo enlarged. The tumor difappears upon pref-
fure, the blood, contained in it being chiefly pinhed for-
wards in its courfe towards Ure heart ; and w en t e tumor
h large, there is a Angular tremulous motion, attended with
'V aricofe
aneuxifin.
E R y. Chap. XI.
a perpetual biffing noife, as if air was paffing into it through Ancuri^.
5 Imatur^be applied upon the limb immediately below
the (welling, tight enough to flop the pulie in the under
part of the member, the fweUing difappeai-s by preffure, but
returns immediately upon the preffure being removed. If,
atter the fwelling is removed by preflure,^ the finger be
placed upon the orifice in the aitery, the veins remain per-
ft-aiy flaccid till the preffure is taken oft. If the trunk of
the artery be eomprtfted above tfie orifice fo as ciicCtually
to flop the circulation, the tremulous motion and hilling
immediately ceafe ; and ft the veins be now emptied by pref.
fare, they regain fo till the compreffioa upon the artery
be removed. If the vein be comprtffed a hale above, as
well as below the turfior, all the blood may generally,
though not always, be pufhed through the orifice wnto the
artery ; from whence it immediately returns on the piefure
being difeontinued. j’t .
When the difeafe has continued long, and the cnatation
of the veins has become contiderable, the trunk o. the aitery
above the orifice generally becomes greatly enlarged, whi e
that below becomes propertionably tmall; of conlequence
the pulie in the under part of the member is always more
feeble than in the found limb of the oppohte fide. l68
The eaufes producing aneurifms, m general, are a natural CiufcS0{
difeafe of the arteries. Thus a partial debility of their coatsaueirnfm,
may readilv produce the dileafe ; or they may ante, eipeaal-
ly in the internal parts of the body, from great bodily
exertions. They are likewife produced by wounds of the
coats of the arteries, as now and then happens in blood¬
letting at the arm ; or from acrid matter contained m a
neighbouring fore ; or from the deftrudion of furrounding
parts, by which the natural fupport is removed. 169
Aneurifms have frequently been miftaken for aDfcef- Diagnii*
fes and other collodions of matter, and have beea laid
ooen by incifion ; on which account great attention is fome-
times required to make the proper diftindion. In the
commencement of tire difeafe the pulfation in the tumor is
commonly fo ftrong, and other concomitant cir cum dances,
fo evidently point out the nature of the diforder, that little
or no doubt refpeding it can ever take place ; but in the
more advanced ftages of the difeafe, when the fwellmg has
become large and'has loft its pulfation, nothing but a mi¬
nute attention to the previous hiftory of the cafe can enable
the pra&itioner to form a judgment of its nature.
Aneurifms may be confounded with foft encyfted tumors,
fcrophulous fwellings, and abfeeffes fttuated fo near to an
artery as to be affe&ed by its puliation. But one fymptom,
when conneded with ftrong puliation, may always lead to
a certain determination that the fwelling is of the aneurilmal
kind, viz. the contents of the tumor being made er.hly to
difappear upon preft'ure, and their returning on the com-
preftion being removed. The want of this circumilance,
however, ought not to convince us that it is not of that
nature ; for it frequently happens, efpecially in the advanced
itages of aneurifms, that their contents become fo firm that
no effed is produced upon them, by preflure. Hence the
propriety, in doubtful cafes, of proceeding as if the difeale
was clearly of the aneurifmal kind. _ r’0 .
In the prognofis, three circumftances are chiefly to ut Prsg^
attended? to ; the manner in which the difeale appears to
have been produced, the part of the body in which the
fwellino is lituated, and the age and habit of the body of
the patient.
If an aneurifm has come forward in a gradual manner,
without any apparent injury done to the part, and not fuc-
ceeding any violent bodily exertion, there will be reaion to
Chap. XT. S U R G
Aneunln**. {uppofe that the dlfeafe depends upon a general cffefh’on
either of the trunk in which it occurs, or of the whole
arterious fyftem. In fuch cafes art can give little afiftance :
whereas if the tumor has fucceeded an external accident,
171 an operation may be attended with fuccefs.
An opera- in the varicofe aneunfm a more favourable prognofis may
tion ft.uloniggpgrgHy ^ given than in either of the other two fpecies. It
\arico(e a- does not proceed fo rapidly; when it has arrived at a certain
neuaim. length, it does not afterwards acquire much additional fize;
and it may be fuftained without much inconvenience for a
great number of years. As long as .here is reafon to ex¬
pect this, the hazard which almolt always attends the opera¬
tion ought to be avoided.
In the fecond volume of the London Medical Obferva-
tions, two cafes are related by Dr Hunter of the varicofe
aneurifm. One of them at that time was of 14 years
fbinding, and the other had fubfifted for five years, without
there being any neceffity for an operation. And in vol. iii.
of the fame work a fimilar cafe of five years duration is
related by Dr Cleghorn.
In a letter afterwards from Dr Hunter to Mr Benjamin
Bell, the Dodfor fays, “ The lady in whom I firft obferved
the varicofe aneurifm is now living at Bath in good health,
and the arm is in no fenfe worfe, although it is now 35
years fince ihe received the injury:” and the Doftor farther
cbferves, that he never heard of the operation being per¬
formed for the varicofe aneurifm which was known to be
fuch.
Mr Bell fays, he was informed by Dr William Cleghorn
of Dublin, that the cafe of varicofe aneurifm, related in the
3d volume of the London Medical Obfervations, remained
nearly in the fame ftate as at the time that account of it
was made out, which included a period of at leafl 20 years;
only that the veins were rather more enlarged. The patient
recovered, and the limb became nearly as flrong and fervice-
afcle as the other. Mr Pott alfo met with three different
infiances of this fpecies of aneurifm ; and obferves, that the
operation never became neceffary in any of them.
Among other inftances of vavicofe aneurifm which have
appeared here, a young man from Paifley was examined
feveral years ago by different furgeons of this place. The
difeafe was very clearly marked, and no operation was ad-
vifed. He was afterwards found ferving in the navy,
where he underwent great fatigue without any incon¬
venience from the aneurifm, though then of 13 years
Handing.
But though this aneurifm, when it has arrived at a certain
fize, commonly remains ftationary, and may be borne with¬
out much inconvenience for a long time, this is not always
the cafe; for fome inftances have occurred, where the dif-
eaie was attended with great uneafinefs, and where the ooe-
xation was performed with much difficulty.
In judging further of the probable event of aneurifms in
general, the fituation of the tumor next requires atten¬
tion. When it is fo fituated that no ligature or effijAual
compreffion can be applied for flopping the circulation in
the part, if the artery be large, there would he the great-
dt danger m opening it. In this cafe therefore the moll
fatal coniequences are to be apprehended.
When aneurifms are fituated near the upper parts of the
extremities, furgeons have been hitherto doubtful whether,
alter tying up the humeral or femoral arteries, the lower
feverin'ther rmib-Vu0U d be fuPPlied with blood ; and tho’
been °J Ptrtor™Z that operation have
publifhed, the fuccefs has been pretty trenerallv a-
fenbe _tQ m fa! b h;nK of the g£t
aneurifm M * l"! °Pei?tlon 'vas Performed, above the
aneunim. Mr John Bell, however, in his late very inge-
E R Y. 125
nious and important DJcourfes on Wounds^ has proved, to our Aneurifen
fatisfaftion at leaft, that the inofculations which take placed —1
between the internal iliac and the arteries of the leg, by Difc J
means of the glutseal arteries and the profunda femoris, are
in every cafe fuflicient to fupply nourifhment to the limb ;
that the fame is the cafe in the arm ; and that therefore
in every aneurifm, even of the humeral or femoral artery, r.^
we ought to perform the operation. Several inftances ofKerra-k*
fuccefs are there related ; among others, an operation per-able anea*
formed by Mr J. Bell himfelf, which, as it is perhaps thei:1"m#
greateft that has hitheito been performed, we ffiall here a-
bridge for the gratification of our readers. A leech-catcher
left as he was ftepping out ol a boat; and a pair of long-
pointed feiffars pierced his hip exa&ly over the fciatic notch,
where the great iliac artery comes out from the pelvis. The
artery bled furioufly : the patient fainted. The furgeon
eafily ftopt up the wound, as it was very narrow and deep,
and healed it. A great tumor foon formed. The man *
travelled from the north country in fix weeks to the Edin¬
burgh infirmary, with a prodigious tumor of the hip, the
thigh rigidly contrafted, the ham bent, the whole leg fhrunk
and cold and ufelefs. There was no pulfation nor retrocef-
fion of blood on preffure ; but the diftenfion was attended
with great pain, and the man was extremely anxious to have
an operation performed. Though there was little doubt of
its being aneurifm, it might be a great abfeefs. It was re-
lolved therefore to make a fmall incilion, and juft touch the
bag with the point of a lancet, and if it contained blood,
a full confultation was to be called. Mr Bell accordingly-
made an ineifion two inches and an half in length ; the
great fafeia formed the coat of the tumor, and under it
were feen the fibres of the great glutieus mufcle. As
foon as it was opened at one point, great clots of blood
came out; and Mr Bell, after being certain that it was an
aneurifm of the great artery of the thigh, clefed up tke
wound with a tent-like comprefs, put the patient to bed,
and a pupil held his hand on the hip. This was done
at one o’clock; at four the confultation met, and the
operation was performed. On making an incifion eight
inches long, the blood was thrown out with a whilhinr**
noife, and with fuch impetuofity, that the affiftants were
covered with it. in a moment twenty hands were about
the tumor, and the bag was -filled with fponges and cloths
of all fluids ; the blood, however, ftill made its way ; and
the man who had fupported himfelf on his elbow, fell down ;
his arms and head hung down, he uttered two or three
heavy groans, and they thought him dead. At that critical
moment Mr Bell ran the biftoury upwards and downwards,
and at once made the wound two feet long ; thruft his hand
to the bottom of the tumor, felt the warm jet of blood, put
his finger on the mouth of the artery, the pulie of which
he felt diftindly ; which flrft affured him that the man was
alive.^ The artery was then tied ; and when Mr Bell lifted
up his finger, it was difeovered to be the pofterior iliac ;
that it had been cut fairly acrofs, and had bled with ocen
mouth. The patient was fo low, that after dreifing the
wound, they were obliged to biing in a bed, and leave him
to fieep.ii) the operation roim. He was cured of this great
wound in lels than feven months, and afterwards recovered
the ufe of his leg completely.
. In e.vejT cafe of aneurifm, the ufe of preffure has been EffcSof"'
indiicriminately recommended, not only in the incipient pe-preffure in
riod of the dileafe, but even in its more advanced ftages. antunfifis.-.
. In the diffufed or falfe aneurifm, as preffure cannot be ap¬
plied to the artery alone, without at the fame time aftedting
the refluent veins ; and as this, by producing an inertafed
refiftance to the arterial pulfations, muft force an additional
quantity of blood to the orifice in the artery—no advantage,
126
Aneurifm
*74
the opera
tion for
aneurifm.
is to be expeaed from it, though it may be produftive of
In the early ftages of encyfted aneurifm, while the blood
can be yet preffed entirely out of the fac into the artery, it
often happens, by the ufe of a bandage of foft and fome-
what elaftic materials, properly fitted to the part, that much
may be done in preventing the fwelling from receiving any
degree of rncreafe; and on fome occafions, by the continued
fupport thus given to the weakened artery, complete cures
have been at laft obtained. In all fuch cafes, therefore,
particularly in every inftance of the varicofe aneurtfm, much
advantage may be expected from moderate preffure.
But preffure, even in eneyfted aneurifm, ought never to
be- carried to any great length ; for tight bandages, by pro¬
ducing an immoderate degree of reaAion in the containing
parts to which they are applied, inftead of anfwering the
purpofe for which they were intended, have evidently the
contrary effedf. Indeed the greateft length to which pref-
fure in fuch cafes ought to go, fhould be to ferve as an eafy
fupport to the parts affedkd, and no farther.
Method of jn performing the operation for aneurifm, the firft ftep
performingOUgjlt t0 ^ obtain a full command of the circulation in
thp f the inferior part of the member by means of the tourniquet.
This being done, the patient fhould be fo placed, that the
difeafed limb, on being ftretched on a table, is found to be
of a proper height for the furgeon ; who, as the operation
is generally tedious, ought to be feated. The limb being
properly fecured by an affiftant, the operator is now with
the fcalpel, Plate CCCCLXXXVI1. fig. 18. to make an in-
cifron through the {kin and cellular fubftance along the whole
courfe of the tumor ; and as freedom in the remaining parts
of the operation is here a matter of much importance, it is
even of ufe to carry this external incifion half an inch or fo
both above and below the fartheff extremities of the fwel-
ling.
All the effufed blood ought then to be wiped off by
means of a fponge ; and the fofteft part of the tumor be¬
ing difeovered, an opening ought there to be made into it
with the lancet, Plate CCCCLXXXVII. fig. 19. large
enough for admitting a finger of the operator’s left-hand.
This being done, and the finger introduced into the cavity
of the tumor, it is now to be laid open from one extremity
to the other, by running a blunt-pointed bittoury, Plate
CCCCLXXXVII. fig. 20- along the finger from below up¬
wards, and afterwards from above downwards, fo as to lay
the whole cavity fairly open.
The cavity of the tumor being thus laid freely open, all
the coagulated blood is to be taken out by the fingers of
the operator, together with a number of tough membra¬
nous filaments commonly found here. The cavity of the
tumor is now to be rendered quite dry, and free from the
blood which, on the firft opening of the fwelling, is dif-
charged into it from the veins in the inferior part of the
member: the tourniquet is then to be flackened to difeover,
not only the artery itfelf, but the opening into it, from
whence the blood colle&ed in the tumor has been all along
Method of difehanred. This being done, the next point to be deter-
fecurmg mined is the manner of fecuring this opening into the ar-
of^he^arte-^cry> as t0 Prevent future any farther effulion of blood.
Various means have been propofed for accomplifhing this ;
but the effe&s of all of them may be comprehended under
the three following heads.
1. The effeas of ligature upon a large artery having on
fome occafions proved fatal to the inferior part of the mem¬
ber, it was long ago ptopofed, that fo foon as the opening
into the artery has been difeovered, inftead of applying a
ligature round it, which for certain is to obliterate its ca-
*75
176
By aftrin-
gcnt«,
' Improper,
I '*'•‘1
vity entirely, a piece of agaric, ritriol, alnra, or any other Aneurifnn
aftringent fubftance, fiiould be applied to the orifice, in or- T-j
der if poffible to produce a reunion ®f its fides..
2. Upon the fame principle with the preceding, viz. that.Or by
of ft ill preferving the circulation in the artery, it was feveral tures,
years ago propofed by an eminent furgeon of Newcaftle, Mr
Lambert, that the orifice in the artery fhould be fecured by
means of the twilled future. A fmall needle being puffed
through the edges of the wound, they are then diredted to
be drawn together by a thread properly twilled round the
needle, as was formerly direfted when treating of futures.
Strong obje&ions, however, occur to both of thefe me-
thods. In the firft place, no aftringent application with
which we are acquainted is poffeffed of fuch powers as to
deferve much confidence. In almoft every inftance in which
they have been ufed, the hemorrhagy has recurred again
and again, fo as to prove very diftreffmg, not only to the
patient, but to the pradlitioner in attendance ; little or no
attention is therefore to be paid to remedies of this kind in
ordinary practice.
Mr Lambert’s method of Hitching the orifice in the ar-
tery is certainly a very ingenious propofal; and would in
all probability, at lealt in moll inllancqs, prove an effe&ual
Hop to all farther difeharge of blood : but as we have yet
only one inftance of its fuccefs, little can be faid about it.
Two material objections, however, feem to occur to this
praClice. One is, that in the operation for the aneurifm,
in almoft every inftance, a very few only excepted, the ar¬
tery lies at. the back-part of the tumor; fo that when all the
c.olle&ed blood is removed, there is fuch a depth of wound,
that it mull be always a very difficult matter, and on many
occafxons quite impra&ieable, to perform this nice operation
upon the artery with that attention and exaftnefs which, in
order to enfure fuccefs, it certainly requires. But there is
another very material objeftion. By introducing a needle
through the fides of the orifice, and drawing thefe together
by a ligature, the cavity of the artery muft undoubtedly be
at that point much diminiffed. Indeed Mr Lambert, in his
account of the cafe in which this operation was performed,
acknowledges that the diameter of the artery was thereby
diminilhed. Now the paffage of the blood being thus con¬
tracted at one point, the impulfe upon that particular part
muft be very confiderable : So that the very remedy em¬
ployed for the cure of one fpecies of aneurifm, will in all
probability prove a very powerful agent in inducing another;
for the blood being thus obftruCled in its ufual courfe, there
will be no fmall danger incurred of a dilatation being pro¬
duced immediately above this preternatural ftrifture.
3. Neither of the methods we have yet been confider-
ing being found eligible for fecuring the orifice in the ar¬
tery, we fhall now proceed to deferibe the ordinary manner
of performing this operation ; which confifts in obliterating
the arterial cavity entirely by means of ligatures. ^
The artery being laid bare in the manner direCled, and all
the coagulated blood being carefully removed from the ca-doingi;'!
vity of the tumor, on the tourniquet being now fiackenedlig31^'
fo as to bring the orifice in the artery imo view', a fmall
probe curved at the extremity is to be introduced at the
opening, in order to raife the artery from the neighbouring
parts, fo as that the furgeon may be enabled with certainty
to pafs a ligature round it, without comprehending the con¬
tiguous nerves, which iu general run very near to the large
blood-veflels of a limb. By this precaution the nerves may
be always avoided; and by doing fo, a great deal of mil-
chief may be prevented, which otherwife might fupervene.
When the diforder is lituated either in the ham, or in the
ufual part of blood-letting in the arm, bending the joints of
2t
Chap.
180
Subfequent
treatment
of the pa¬
tient.
,.xr. s u r
Areurifrm. the hnee or of the elbow, as it relaxes the artery a little,
; renders this part of the operation more cafily effe&ed than
when the limbs are kept fully ftretched out.
The artery being thus gently feparated from the conti¬
guous parts, a firm waxed ligature muft be paffed round it,
about the eighth part of an inch or fo above the orifice, and
another muft in the fame manner be introduced at the fame
diftance below it.
The ligatures being both finiihcd in the manner dire&ed,
the tourniquet is now to be made quite loofe ; and if no
blood is difeharged at the orifice in the artery, we may then
reft fatisfied that the operation is fo far properly com¬
pleted.
1 he wound is now to be lightly covered with foft lint,
with a pledgit ot any emollient ointment over the whole ;
and a comprefs of linen being applied over the dreffings, all
the bandage in any degree requilite is two or three turns
of a roller above and as many below the centre of the
wound, making it prefs with no more tightnefs than is ab-
folutely necefiary for retaining the application we have juft
now mentioned.
1 he patient being now put into bed, the member firould
be laid in a relaxed pofture upon a pillow, and ought to be
fo placed as to create the ieaft poffible uneafinefs from the
poilure in which it is laid.
As the operation for the aneurifm is always tedious, and
produces much pain and irritation, a full dole of laudanum
fhould be given immediately on the patient being got into
bed. In order to dimimfh fenlibility during fome of the
more capital operations, different trials have been made of
opiates given an hour or fo before th*e operation. On
fome occafions this proved evidently very ufeful; but in
others it feemed to have the contrary effect; particularly in
weak nervous conllitutions, in which with any dofes, how¬
ever fmall, they appeared to be rendered more irritable and
more fufceptible of pain, than if no opiate had been giveri.
Immediately after this operation, however, an opiate ought
to be exhibited, to be repeated occalionally accordino- to the
degrees of pain and reftleffnefs.
In fome few cafes of aneurifm, it has happened that the
pulfe in the under part of the member has been difeovered
immediate!} alter the operation. This, however, is a very
rare occurrence : For as this diforder is feldom met with m
any other part than at the joint of the elbow as a confe-
quence of blood-letting, and as it rarely happens that the
brachial artery divides till it paffes an inch or two below
that place, the trunk of this artery is therefore moft fre¬
quently wounded ; and when, accordingly, the ligature, in
this operation, is made to obliterate the paffage of almoft
the whole blood which went to the under part of the arm,
there cannot be the leaft reafon to expeft any pulfation at
the wmt, tul m a gradual manner the anaftomofmg branches
o the artery have become fo much enlarged as to tranfmit
fuch a quantity or Wood to the inferior part of the member
of theanery.1 ^ ** * ftimuIu'3 tC the larSer branches
an um?r^iately the 0Perat!on’ the P^'ent complains of
an unufua! numbnefs or want of feeling in the whole mem-
• ic th r aS • *fneral for a few hours, becomes cold, it
foft flan^r ^ t0 ieep k Foperly covered with warm
carts M 5 anjm rV° W 38 a Semle ^ulus to the
Lcl bJtW’ Tn°dtrate (nA,on? aPP«r to be of ufe. In the
he nulwf uW ' °Ur8 fr°m the 0Perati°n> although
he numbnefs ftill continues, the heat of the parts generally
of a fLVu11™ 5 30(1 u fre^lientIy haPpens, in the courfe
hours more, that all the inferior part of the
ber becomes even preternatural!,- warm. P
mmobaul)- alter tbis operation, the want of feeling
18 iSi
ditafe of the
pjmb after
j ic opera-
i on.
mem-
G E R Y. T27
the parts is often very great; and in proportion as the cir- Aneurifm?.
culation in the under part of the member becomes more con-—v-—-^
fiderable, the degree of feeling alfo augments. If we could
fuppofe the nerves of the parts below to be always included
in the ligature with the artery, that numbnefs which fuc-
ceeds immediately to the operation might be eafily ac¬
counted for; but it has been alfo known to happen when
nothing but the artery was fecured by the ligature.
In the mean time, the patient being properly attended
to as to regimen, by giving him cordials and nourilhing
diet when low and reduced, and .confining him to a low-
diet if his conftitution is plethoric, the limb being ftill kept
in an eafy relaxed pofture, towards the end of the fourth or
fifth day, fometimes much foener, a very weak feeble pulfe '
is difeovered in the under part of the member, which beco¬
ming ftrongcr in a gradual manner, the patient in the fame
proportion recovers the ufe and feeling of the parts.
So foon as there is an appearance of matter having form¬
ed freely about the fore, which will feldom happen before
the fifth or fixth day, an emollient poultice Ihould be ap¬
plied over it for a lew hours, in order to foften the dreffings,
which may be then removed. At this time the ligatures
might be taken away ; but as their continuance for a day
or two longer can do no harm, it is better to allow them
to remain till the iecond or third dreffing, when they either
drop off themfelves, or may be taken away with perfeft
fafety. The dreffings, which ffiould always be of the foft-
eft materials, being renewed every fecond or third day ac¬
cording to the quantity of matter produced, the fore is in
general iound to heal very eafily ; and although the patient
may for a confiderable time complain of great numbnefs and
want of ftrength in the whole courfe of the difeafed limb,
yet in moft inftances a very free ufe of it is at laft obtain,
ed.
Very often after the artery feems to be fecured it gives Hemo?rh».
way, and fatal hemorrhagies enfue ; nor is the patient freezes often •
from this danger for a great length of time. In one of Mr h*cceed the
Hunter’s operations the artery gave way on the 26th day. 0Peratioa’
It is to this difficulty of procuring adheiion between the
lides of the artery that a great part of the danger of this
operation is to be aferibed.
Chap. XII.
Of Ajfeftions of the Brain from Exter¬
nal Violence-
When the bram is compreffed, a fet of fymptoms enfueSyngtom!
m
extremely dangerous, though fometimes they do not make of
tr.cir appearance till after a confiderable interval. But at^on
whatever time they appear, they are uniformly of the famebl'airK
kind, and are in general as follow: drowfinefs, giddinefs,
and itupefadion, dimnefs of fight, dilatation of the pupil -
and, where the injury done to the head is(great, there is
commonly a difeharge of blood from the eyes, nofe, and
ears. Sometimes the Tradtured bone can be difeovered
through the integuments, at others it cannot. There is an
irregular and oppreffed pulfe, and fr.oring or apople&ie fter-
tor m breathing. There is likewife naufea and vomiting
with an involuntary difeharge of faeces and urine. Among
the mufcles of the extremities and other parts, there is loft
of voluntary motion, convulfive tremors in fome parts of the
body, and palfy in others, especially in that fide of the bo¬
dy which is oppofite to the injured part of the head.
. Some cf the milder of thefe fymptoms, as vertigo, ftupefac-
tion and a temporary iofs of fenfibility, are frequently indu-
eed by flight blows upon the head, but commonly foon difap.
pear, either by reft alone, or by the means to be afterward*
pointed out. But when any other fymptoms enfue, fuch as d'*
Jatatiyn of the pupils, and efpecially when much blood i«
di£-
graft .
FraSure 4I^arwcl from the eyes, note, and ears,, and that there is
and0epr<f-an jnvoluntary difcharge of feces and mine, it may be rea-
lloll of the - - - ■•ti.i,    _ ITT   C V»*«n * r» ic innilPPri-
TT R G E R Y.
Chap. XJI
Cran:um,
See.
1S4
sCaufes of
•tiufe.
an invuiuuioi y —    . . , 1
fonably concluded that compreffion of the brain is induced
The cavity of the cranium, in the healthy and natural
ftate, is everywhere completely filled by the brain ; whatever
therefore diminifhes that cavity, will produce a compreliion
of the brain. ... u r *
The caufes producing fuch a diminution may be 01 vari¬
ous kinds, as fra&ure and deprefiion of the bones of the cra¬
nium ; the forcible introdu&ion of any extraneous body into
the cavity of the cranium ; effufion of blood, ferum, pus, 01
any other matter ; the thicknefs of the bones of the cranium
in certain difeafes, as in lues venerea, rickets, or fpina ventofa,
or water cr*dle£ted in hydrocephalous cafes. The firft fet of
caufes fhsll be confidered in their order. 1 he four laft
mentioned belong to the province of the phyfician, and have
been coniidered in a former part of this Work.
Sect. I. Of FroBure and Deprefion of the Cranium produ¬
cing Compreffwn of the Brain.
Tractures of the cranium have been differently diftin-
guilhed by different authors ; but it feems fuflicient to dn
vide them into thofe attended with depreffion, and thole
-which are not fo.
In frafture and depreffion of the cranium, the treatment
ought to be,—to difeover the fituation and extent of the
fra&ure to obviate the effeas of the injury done to the
brain, by railing or removing all the depreffed parts of the
bone ;—to endeavour to complete the cure by proper dref-
, « lings, and attention to the after treatment.
Method of When the teguments correfponding.to the injury done to
sdifeoveringthe bone are cut or lacerated, and, as is fometimes.the caie,
.the fitua* entirely removed, the Rate of the fraaure is immediately dif-
*ion of fra,c-covered ; but when the integuments of the fkull remain en-
SSum. tire, even though the general fymptoms of fradure.be pre-
fent, there is fometimes much difficulty in afeertaining it.
When, however, any external injury appears, particularly
a tumor from a recent contufion, attended by the fymptoms
already deferibed, there can be no doubt of the exillence of
a fradure. But it fometimes happens that compreflion ex-
ifts without the fmalleft appearance of tumor. In Rich cates,
the whole head ought to be fhaved, when an inflammatoiy
foot may frequently be obferved. Sometimes the place of
the fradure has been difeovered by the patient applying the
band frequently on or near fome particular part of the head.
When the fymptoms of a compreffed brain are evidently
marked, no time ought to be loft in fetting about an exa¬
mination of the ftate of the cranium, wherever appearances
point out, or even lead us to conjedure, in what part a frac¬
ture may be fimated. For this purpofe an incilion is to be
made upon the Ipot through the integuments to the fuiface
of the bone, which mufl be fufficiently expofed to admit of
a free examination.
Some authors have recommended a crucial incilion ; others
one in form of the letter T ; while many advile a confide!-
able part of the integuments to be entirely removed.. But
as it is more agreeable to the prefent mode o! pradice to
fave as much of the fit in as pofftble, a fimple incilion is. ge¬
nerally preferred, unlefs the fradtire run in different direc¬
tions, and then the incifion mufl vary accordingly. It will
frequently happen, that a confiderable part of the integu¬
ments muft be feparated from die fkull, in order to obtain a
diftind view of the full extent of the fradure ; but no part
of the integuments is to be entirely removed.
When blood-veffels of any confiderable fixe are divided,
either before or in time of the examination, they ought to
Ibe allowed to blood freely, as in no cafe whatever is the lofs
<cf blood attended with more advantage than the prefent.
When, however, it appears that the patient has loft a fuffi- Fra&ure
cient (quantity, the veffels ought to be fecured. ™dDcm
After the integuments have been divided, if the fkull be 'h
found to be fradored and depreffed, the nature of the cafe is &'Un,‘
rendered evident; but even where there is no external appear-'—^
ance of fradure, tumor, difcoloration, or other injury, if the
patient continue to labour under fymptoms of a compreffed
brain if the pericranium has been feparated from the bone,
and specially if the bone has loft its natural appearance,
and has acquired a pale white or dufky yellow hue, the
trepan ought to be applied without hefitation at the place
where thefe appearances mark the principal feat of the in.
JU1 Again, although no mark either of fradure or of any
difeafes underneath fhould appear on the outei table of the
bone, yet there is a poffibility that the inner table may be
fradured and depreffed. 1 his indeed is not a common oc¬
currence, but it happens probably more frequently than fur-
aeons have been aware of; and where it does happen, the in-
jury done to the brain is as great, and attended with as much
danger, as where the whole thicknefs of the bone is beat in.
The application of the trepan is therefore neceflary.
But if, after the application of the trepan, it happens
that no mark of injury appears either in the outer or in¬
ner table in that part, or in the dura mater below it, and
that the fymptoms of a compreffed brain Hill continue, a
fradure in fome other part is to be fufpeded ; or that kind
of fradure termed by pradlitioners counter fJure, where the
fkull is fradured and fometimes depreffed on the oppofite
fide to, or at a diftance from, the part where the injury was
received. This is fortunately not a very frequent occur¬
rence, and has even been doubted by fome ; but different in-
flances of it have, beyond all queftion, been found. II
therefore the operation of the trepan has been performed,
and no fradure is difeovered, no- extravafation appears
on the furface of the brain ; and if blood-letting and other
means ufually employed do not remove the fymptoms
of compreflion, the operator is to fearch for a fradure on
fome other part. The whole head fhould again be exami¬
ned with much accuracy ; and, by prefling deliberately but
firmly over every part of it, if the Imalleft degree of fenfi-
bility remains, the patient will Ihow figns of pain, either by
moans or by raifing his hands, when preffure is made over
the fradured part. In this way fradures have been fre¬
quently deteded, which might otherwife have been con-
cealed. ^ <
Having now confidered every thing preparatory to the Me-h-d
operation of the trepan, we (hall next point out the means
bell adapted for the removal or elevation of a deprelled
tion of the bone. . ...
The firft thing to be done is, after fhavmg the head, tOnt*11'
make an incifion as deep as the bone, and directly upon theim111
courfe of the fradure. .
The patient ought to be laid on a table, with a mattre i
under him, while his head is placed upon a pillow, and fe¬
cured by an afliftani. When the extent of the fradure
has been determined, and the bleeding from the incifeon
flopped, the depreffed bone is now to be elevated ; but pre¬
vious to this it is neceflary to fearch for detached pieces^.
Should any be found, they ought to be removed by a pair of
forceps adapted to this purpofe. By the fame inftrunaCM
any fplinters of bone which may have been beaten in may
be removed; but when a part of the bone is beaten in be¬
yond the level of the reft ot the cranium, as much of the pe
ricranium is then to be removed by a rafpatory,
CCCCLXXXVIII. fig. 21. as will allow the trephine, Flat-
CCCCLXXX VIII. fig. 2 2. to be applied; or, if the operator
incline, for the fake of difpatch, he may ufe the t1^'^
Chap. XII. S U R G
Fracbure Plate CCCCLXXXVTIT. fig. 2^. and 24.; or the operation
afioVof Thi riay be beglln and fin{!hed with the trephine, while the trepan
Cranium, j*1?? Per^'orn'1 the middle and principal part ©f the work.
&c. rni3 part af the work is begjun by making' a hole with the
perforator (fig. 24.), which is lerewedon to the lower end
of fig. 23. deep enough to fix the central pin ol the tre¬
phine, in order to prevent the faw from flipping out of
its central courfe, till it has formed a groove fufficiently
deep to be worked fteadily in ; and then the pin is to
be removed. If the bone be thick, the teeth of the faw
muft be cleaned now and then by the brufh (fig. 23.)
dining the perforation, and dipped in oil as often as it is
cleaned,, which will confiderably facilitate the motion, and
render it more expeditious ; making it at the fame time
rmich lefs difagreeable to the patient,'if he poffefs his fenfes.
i fiat no time may be loft, the operator oun.ht to be provi¬
ded with two inftruments of the fame fize, or at leaft to have
two heads which can be readily fitted to the fame handle.
Alter having made fome progrefs in the operation, the
groove ought to be frequently examined with a pick-tooth,
or feme Inch inftrument, in order to difeover its depth ; and
if one fide happen to be deeper than the other, the operator
ought to prefs more on that fide which is fhalloweft. Pre-
r-* ci n f 1 /"v ra o •. .^-1 ^ —    ^ * t 1 /v» . .
E
When
R Y. i2(>
the fiiull is injured over a future, and it is not Fra& re
ufe the trepan, a perforation ought to
aun.
opera-
.. 10 a luturr, Hiru il is hut:
thought advifable to ufe the trepan, a perforation ought to^f
be made on each fide of the future, efpecially in young fub' Ciamum^
jetts, in whom the dura mater adheres more ftrongly than &c *
in adults ; becaufe there cannot be a free communication Vl~~~v~
between the one fide and the other, on account of the at¬
tachment of that membrane to the future.
After the elevation of the depreffed pieces, or the remo-Treatment
val of thofe which are quite loofe, the extra&ion of extra-of the p*.
neous bodies, and the evacuation of extravafated fluids, &c.tient; after
the fore.is to be dreffed in the lighteft and eafieft manner ithe
all that is neceffary being to apply a pledget of fine feraped
lint, covered with fimple ointment, to that part of the dura
mater which is laid bare by the trepan, or otherwife; after
which the edges of the fcalp are to be brought together or
nearly fo, and another pledget laid along the whole courfe of
the wound ; a piece of fine foft linen is to be laid over all,
and the dreffings may be retained in their place by a com¬
mon night-cap applied clofe to the head, and properly
fixed. i r s
1 he patient is to be placed in as eafy a pofition in bed
as pofiible, with his head and fhoulders elevated a little more
than ordinary. If the operation be attended with fuc-
cautions ^ than ^ °PeratI'0n be tended with fue¬
ls performed noon a part of the fb„ll WL y • r operation cefs, the patient will foon begin to {how favourable fymp-
thicknefs, efpSy ate 1 p^eVrS [17^ C"S fepilbility/an^
ploe. And though it be laid by wi iters in i Aral that the 1 hT. g fymI>tonls W,.U gradually d.iappear. After this
sir-=i-:“ “S:»rastt* r iSJams-SliOTiri:
# v    luiiics at me aipioe
(which is generally known by the appearance of blood),
yet the operator fhould be upon his guard in this point, ex¬
amining from time to time if the piece be loofe, left thro’
inadvertence the dura mater be wounded ; for in fome parts
o. the {]<uh there is naturally very little diploe, and in old
twfi8 If °Ught iikewife to be remembered,
that the fkulls of children are very thin. When the piece
begins to vacillate, it ought to be fnapped off with the for-
ceps (hg. 26.), or levator (fig 26. a); for the fawing
eught by no means to be continued till the bone be cut quite
through, otherwife the inftrument may plunge in upon the
brain, or at leaft injure the dura mater. If the inner edge
of the perforation be left; ragged, it is to be fmoothed
, he !entlc«^r (fig. 28. 6), to prevent it from irritating
the dura mater. Particular care is to be taken in ufing
^.ninftrument’ left 11 ^uld prefs too much upon the
The next ftep is to raife the cepreffed part of the bone
with the levator, or to extraft the fragments of the bone,
grumous blood, or any extraneous body. After this if
tnere appear reafon to apprehend that blood, lymph, or mat-
er, ,s contained under the dura mater, it ougbtho be cau.
,, U 7 w!t l a lancet, endeavouring to avoid the
blood-vcilels running „poI1 it) or ly!ng Mediately u„.
der it.
When the trepan is to be ufed on account of a fiffure in
which the bone will not yield, the inftrument fhould bl a;-
phed fo as to include part of it, if not diredly over it as ft
is moft probable that the extravafated fluid will be found
direaiy under it. And when the fiffure is of great extent
u may be proper to make a perforation at each end if the
who'e can be conveniently brought into view; and in fome
•\A;ueVer-a -Perr°rat'bnS may become neceffary.
rwhichr an-e^firmly 0fix-
r M “ faa- ed paits Aoffib^ naktete A
AlSSrtatr’ “ PreV,:,,t the tI0uU« of cutting
Vol. XVIII, Part f.
r • _. ' — J *N-W*t*' yjs a nau«
ieatmg nature. His . food ought to be fimple and eafy of
dtgeftion, and his drink of the moft diluent kind. If he
complain of the wound being uneafy, an emollient poultice
ftiould.be immediately applied, and renewed three or four
times in the twenty four hours. By thefe means there will
commonly be a free fuppuration from the whole furface of
the fore.
Every time the wound is dreffed, the purulent matter
ought to be wiped off from it with a fine warm fpono-e ;
and if any degree of floughinefs take place on the dura ma¬
ter or paits adjacent, it will then be completely feparated.
Granulations will begin to form, which will continue to in¬
crease till the whole arife to a level with the furface of the
cranium. The edges of the fore are now to be drefled with
cerate ftraps, and the reft of it covered with fine foft lint,
ept gently preffed on by the night-cap properly tied.
In this vyay the cure will go on favourably ; luxuriance of
granulations will commonly be-prevented ; the parts will ci¬
catrize kindly; and as all the fldn has been preferved iu
making the firft incifion, the cicatrix will be but little ob-
lerved.
But things do not always proceed in this favourable man-
r. Sometimes in a few hours after the operation the
ner.
. -- t." Luc operation the
patient is feized with a kind of reftleffnefs, tolling his arms,
and endeavouring to move himfclf in bed, while the fymp-
toms of a compreffed brain icmain nearly the fame as for¬
merly. In thiS cafej efpecially if the pulfe be quick and
itrong, the patient ought to be bled freely, as there will be
realon to fufpeft fome tendency to inflammation in the
brain. Sometimes, though the trepan has been properly an-
phed, the iymptoms are not relieved, on account of extrava-
ated fluids colledfed internally under the dura mater, or be-
tvyeen the pia mater and brain, or in the cavity of the ven-
tncles. 1 he danger in thefe cafes will be in proportion to
the depth of the colleftion. Particular attention therefore
ought always to be paid to the ftate of the dura mater af¬
ter the perforation has been made. If blood be colle&ed
below the dura mater, this membrane will be found tenfe
dark coloured, elaftic, and even livid; in which cafe, an
opening becomes abiolutely neceffary to difeharge the extra-
vafated
130
I'VadVusv, vafated Hu id.
ftnciDeprei'
lion of fhe
Cranium,
&c.
SURGERY.
r 33
Of fungi.
Gentle fcratches are to be made with a foal-
pel, till a probe (fitf. 27 )* or diredory (fig. 28.), can be
introduced ; upon which the membrane is to be iuthciently
divided in a longitudinal, and fometimes even in a crucial
diredion, till an outlet to the fluid be given..
iVfter the dura rnater has been cut in this manner, there
is fome danger of the brain protruding at the opening ; but
the danger from this is not equal to the bad effeds aiding
from.effufed fluids compreffing .the brain.
A troublefome and an alarming appearance now and then
follows the operation of the trepan ; namely, the excrefeen-
ces called fung), formerly fuppofed to grow immediately
from the furface ot the bram, but which, in geneial, origi¬
nate from the furface of the dura mater or cut edge ol the
bone granulating too luxuriantly.
It often happens that they poflefs little fenfibihty ; and
then the belt method to prevent their rifing to any great
height is to touch them frequently with lunar cauftic : but
fome cafes occur where their fenfibihty is fo great that
they cannot be touched, unlefs they hang by a fmall necx ;
and then a ligature may be put round them, and tightened
from time to time till they drop off, which will commonly
be in the courfe of a few days. It feldom happens, how¬
ever, that there is any occafion for applying fuch means for
the removal of thefe tumors, for they generally fad off as
the perforations of the bone fill np.
It they do not, as the connedion between them and the
brain will be then in a great meafure intercepted, they may
be with more fafety removed, either by excifion, by cauftic,
or by ligature.
The cure being thus far completed, only a frnall cicatrix
will remain, and in general the parts will be nearly as firm
as at firft: but when much of the integuments have been
ieparated or deftroyed, as they are never regenerated, the
bone will be left covered only by a thin cuticle, with fome
fmall quantity of cellular fubftance. When this is the cafe,
the perfon ought to wear a piece of lead or tin, propeily
fitted and lined with flannel, to proted it from the cold and
other external injuries. • ■ r c
This is the method now commonly pradifed in cafes of
cooipreflion ; but it frequently happens, that iuflead o com-
preflion, inch a degree of concuffion takes place that no
aiUttance from the trepan can be attended with any advan¬
tage ; for the effeds of concuflion are totally different from
thofe of comprelfion, and therefore to be removed in a dif¬
ferent manner. .
139
Symptoms
of concuf¬
fion of the
brain.
Sect. II. Of ConcuJJion of the Bram.
By concuflion of the brain is meant fuch an injury, from
external violence, as either obllruds or deflroys its func¬
tions, without leaving behind it fuch maiks as to allow its
nature to be afeertained by diffedion.
Molt of the fymptoms attending compreflion of the brain
occur alio in concuffion ; but in a compreffed Hate of the
brain they are more permanent. There is no difeharge of
blood from the eyes, nofe, or ears, which frequently hap¬
pens in compreffion j and inftead of that apoplectic ftertor
in breathing which accompanies compreffion, the patient
feems to be in a found and natural fleep. T. he puile is ir¬
regular and flow in compreflion, and grows ftronger and
fuller by blood-letting; but in concuffion it is weaker, be¬
ing foft and equal, and finks by blood-letting. There are
befides convulfions in compreffions, which are not obferved
in a ff ate of concuffion. The fymptoms arifing from .con¬
cuffion come on immediately after the injury is received.
In the violent degrees of thefe the patient remains quite
infenfible; the pupils are much dilated, and do notcontrad
though the eyes be expofed to the Arongeft light.
In more violent fymptoms, efpecially when the patient
(•hap. XII,
is rendered infenfible, it is extremely difficult to diftinguifti C rac<jfiion
between concuffion and depreffion ; for fymptoms which ^ the
have been fuppofed to arife entirely from concuffion have, L. r^|
after death, been found to be owing to extravafation or un-
difeovered fradure ; and extravafation has been blamed,
when, on diffedion, not the leaff morbid appearance could be
difeovered. > 190
In concuffion the pulfe will frequently fink and become Treatment,
feeble, even after the difeharge of eight or ten ounces of
blood: In doubtful cafes, therefore, blood-letting ffiould be
pradifed with great caution. If the pulfe become.fuller
and ftronger after difcharging a moderate quantity, if the
blood appear fizy, and efpecially it the patient become
more ftnlible, it may be concluded that the fymptom*
denend uoon extravafation, depreffion of the fkull, or iome
degree of inflammation ; and as long as advantage leems
to be derived from blood-letting, we may repeat it : but
if, upon drawing a few ounces of blood, the pulfe become*
feeble, and efpecially if along with tms the patient become
more weakly, we fliould immediately delift from any farther
evacuation of blood; and in place of it we ought to give
inch remedies as may fupport and ftrengthen the patient:
cordials ought to be given internally,and ftimulants applied
externally. Warm wine fliould be given in proportion to
the degree of debility induced ; the patient, who is apt, in
this cafe, to become cold, Ihould be kept warm by proper
coverings ; a bhfter ought to be put to all that part ot the
head in which the !kin has not been injured ; iinapis fliould
be applied to the feet ; gentle laxatives are ufetul, and
fliould be regularly given, fo as to keep the body open.
If the patient cannot fwallow wine in fufficient quan¬
tity, volatile alkali, ardent fpirits, and other cordials of
a It 1 mplating kind, fliould be given. In concuffions of the
brain, Mr Bromefield has recommended the ufe of opiates,
and feveral other practitioners agree with him; though iome
confider it as hurtful in the early ftages of the dilorder, and
are of opinion that even wine and other cordials ought to
be given with fome degree of caution. Iflues, or the fre¬
quent repetition of blillers to the different parts of the bead
and neck, by which an almoft conftant ftimulus is preier-
ved, are much recommended. When patients are re¬
covering from accidents of this kind, a lioeral uie ot bark,
fled, and mineral waters, &c. have iometimes been of ter-
vice. When the Itomach is loaded, gentle vomits become
neceffary; and white vitriol is reckoned the beft in inch
cafes When much languor, inactivity, and lois of me¬
mory continue, eleCtricity long applied has been attended
with advantage. This remedy, however, would be hurt¬
ful where any fymptoms of compreffion or inflammation of
the brain are prefent.
Sect. III. Of Inflammation of the Membranes of the Brainy or
of the Brain itfelf , from external Violence.
Inflammation of the brain and of its membranes is at-
tended with fymptoms which occur in inflammations at-ofiiiS1®;
feCling other parts of the body, and from fimilar caufea, and
likewue with fymptoms peculiar to the brain itfelf. This
dilorder differs effentially from concuffion in its not appear-
ing immediately; fddom till feveral days after the accident,
and fometimes not till two, three, or more wreeks, or even as
many months, have, elapfed; when the patient begins to
feel an univerfal uneafinefs over his head, attended with lilt-
leffnefs, fome degree of pain in the part upon which the
injury was inflicted, though of this there was perhaps no
previous fenfation. Thefe fymptons gradually increale;.
the patient appears dull and ftupid ; there is now a lenia*
tion of fulnefs, as if the brain were girt or comprefled; he
complains of giddinefs and of naufea, which fometimes ter¬
minate in vomiting; he is hot, and extremely uneafy; 1‘1S
fleep
Chap.
4.XII. S U R
Inflamma- deep la much dirturbed, neither natural fleep nor that pro-
BraniD f&ce curetl ^ °P,ates affordl,11g him relief; the pulfe is hard
t t’- and quick ; the face is. flufhed ; the eyes inflamed, and un¬
able to bear an expofure to much light- Sometimes, where
a wound of the head accompanies thefe fymptoms, its edges
become hard and fwelled, and an eryfipelatous inflamma¬
tion fpreads quickly over the whole head, and especially to¬
wards the forehead and eyelids, which frequently fwell to
fuch a degree as to fhut up the eyes entirely. This fwell-
ing is foit and painful to the touch ; it receives the im-
preffion of the finger, and frequently originates merely from
the external wound ; on which account the attending fymp¬
toms are commonly eafily removed by the means belt fuited
to eryiipelas of the parts. In a few inftances, however,
this fymptom is hkewife connefted with, and feems to ori¬
ginate hom, lome alfedtion of the dura mater. Its ten¬
dency is then of the moft dangerous kind, and therefore
requires the greatefl; attention. Soon after thefe fymptoms
become formidable, the part which received the blow be¬
gins to out on a difeafed appearance. If the bone has been
expo fed by the accident, it now lofes ics natural complexion,
becomes pale, white, and dry, either over its whole furtace
or in particular fpots: but when the bone has not been
denuded, nor the fofter parts divided, but merely contuied,.
they now fwell, become puffy, and painful to 'the touch ;
and when the head is fhaved, the fkin over the part affected
is redder than the reft of the Icalp ; and if the fwelled part
be laid open, the pericranium will probably be found to
be detached from the Ikull, and a little bloody fetid ichor
wift be obferved between this membrane and the bone,
which will be found ddcoloured in nearly the fame manner
as it it had been laid bare from the beginning.
Ly the application of proper remedies thefe fymptoms
are frequently entirely removed ; but when negle&ed, or
when they uo not yield to the means employed, they con-
ifantly become worfe. Delirium enfues ; the patient be¬
comes extremeiy hot; and is at times feized with flight'fhi-
verings, which continue to iucreafe and are attended with
feme degree of coma or ft upon The former fymptoms now in
a great meafure difappear ; palfy of one fide is foon followed
by deep coma ; the pupils are dilated ; the urine and fames
a, epafled involuntarily ; fubfultus tendinum and other con-
vunions enfue ; and death certainly follows, if the patient be
not fpeedily relieved. r
Of the above fymptoms, the firft fet point out the inflam¬
matory, the other the fuppurative, ftage of the difeafe. The
remedies which are ufeful in the one are highly improper in
tne other. During the inflammatory ftage, blood-lettiim is
ie principal remedy; but this is improper after the fup-
puranye fymptoms appear, for then the trepan is the only
thm r that can give relief. '
Method °f The indications of cure are; i. To employ the moft
e. efteftudl means for preventing inflammation. 2. To en
deavour to procure the relolution of inflammation by ge-
cannot be “P":aJ 3'When ,he
Sen olac ™° U,,°n’ ^ whe,, f'-PP-atlon baa
Iffi u glVe! 3 free vent to the matter. 4. If the
afteded parts be attacked with gangrene, to endeavour to re!
T93 mo\e it and obviate its efft&s.
Blood-let- To anfwer the firft indication wbon ^ ^
to lx employed, and to a confide,able extent; the bot^ls
y ght to be kept open by the ute of laxatives • a waterv
8 their proper application, and if inflamnia-
sure.
G E R Y. ,,,
tion have adually cbmmenced, the fecond indication ought fnflimma-
then to be attended to. For this purpofe, blood-letting, t,,in/ i fhe
not from the feet according to the advice of old pra&i- ,Lrai”’ &c‘,
tioners, but as near as poflible to the part affeded, is to be
performed, by leeching, cupping, or fcarifying with a lan¬
cet or Icalpel.
When, inftead of this, general blood-letting is thought
more advifable, it is commonly reckoned belt to open the
external jugular vein, or the temporal artery ; and the rule,
with regard to the quantity to be evacuated, ought to be, to
draw blood as long as the pulfe continues firm ; fo that,
in violent.cafes, taking away from 20 to 2J ounces at once
will be found to anfvver the purpofe better than to extrad
even a larger quantity, but at different intervals. A few
hours afterwards, if the fymptoms continue violent, it may
be proper to dilcharge an additional quantity ; but this
muft depend upon the ftrength of the patient and the ful-
nefs of the pulfe.
Along with the liberal ufe of blood-letting, brifle pur-And purga.
gatives fliould be given. The bowels fhould not merely bedves.
kept open ; but in order to receive full advantage from the
practice, a Imart purging fhould be kept up by repeated
dofes of calomel, jalap, or fome other neutral fait. Where
the patient cannot fwallow in fufficient quantity, llimulating
injeChons fhould be frequently exhibited.
A moiit Hate of the fkin is ufeful in every cafe of in¬
flammation, and ought therefore to be here particularly at¬
tended to - In generala mild perlpiration may be induced
by applying warm fomentations to the feet and legs, and
by laying the patient in blankets inftead of linen. But
when thefe means are infufficient, diaphoretics or evenfudo-
nfics may be given.
When much pain or reftleffnefs takes place, opiates
ihould be admimitered freely, which are now found to be at¬
tended with real advantage.
With refpedt to the external treatment of this diforder,Fxter9n5al
atten ,on fliould be paid to thole means which may meftrteatnL it.
readily induce a free diicharge of purulent matter from the
j at the injury. With this view, if the original acci-
cent be attended with a wound or divifion of the integu¬
ments, as the lips of the fore are commonly obferved to be
hard, painful, and dry, it ihould be covered with pledgets
ipread with an emollient .ointment, and warm emollient
pomtices hud over the whole ; by which means, and efpeci-
aily by a frequent renewal of the poultices, a free difeharge
of matter will commonly be induced, and the bad fymp-
tr3edWlH generally be much mitigated, or entirely re-
In cafes unattended with a divifion of the integuments as
foon as it is fulpefted that bad fymptoms ma/fupervene
the tumor fliould be divided down to the pericranium ; and
1 t iat membrane be found feparated from the bone, it
ought hkewife to be divided ; and by inducing a fuppura-
tion m the way already mentioned, the inflammatory fymp-
toms will probably be removed. As matter formed here is
commonly of an acrid nature, and therefore apt to affeft
the bone, and by communication of veffels the membranes
under it, inftead of wafting time till fluctuation be diftindtly
perceived, a free incilion fhould be made as foon as a tu
mor is obfervable. But this would be extremely improper
m the tieatment of tumors which immediately fucceed^o
external mjunes ; for it orten happens that fuch tumors dif¬
appear fpontaneoufly, or by the ufe of aftringent applica-
tions. It is only when a tumor-attended with pain ap-
pears at a diftant period upon the fpQt where the injuJy
was nxewed, that it ought to be opened as foon as per.
The next part of the praftice regards the remedies to be
R 2 . ufed
pura‘i<'n
his taken
place.
S U R
ured when the dirorder has either proceeded to fuppura-
tn of he "ion, or when, on a removal ot a portion of the cranmm.
Brain, the dara mater is ohferved to be floughy with a tendency
'—-pr-— tQ gangrene ; and this includes the third and fourth inaica-
wSlp- ^Th0/h.pP««!« °f Ac^e " k"0"'nb>-,the
inflammatory fymptoms, mftead of yielding to the remedies
already advifed, increafing m violence ; and being fucceed ,d
by coma, dilatation of the pupils, a flow and full P«lfe, in¬
voluntary- discharge of faeces and urine, pally, and inegu-
Lr convllfive rr.ottons, and efpecally when thefc fymptoms
are fucceeded by fits rigor and flnvenng.
The exiftence of matter within the cranium beins aker-
tained as ro other remedy can be depended upon tor re-
jnovlntr it, the operation of the trepan fhonld be immedt-
aiely employed, and as many perforations ought to be made
as may be tufficient for evacuating the matter. But it, a.ter
the (hull is perforated, little or no matter appear between
the bone and membranes ; if the dura mater teem more tenfe
than ufual; this membrane is liltewife to be opened, lo a. -o
give a free dilcharge to any matter which may be between
the brain and its membranes. , , , .
When it is perceived that the dura mater has already be-
come flou-hy, with fome tendency to gangrene, the great-
S dan-eAs to be dreaded. If mortification has commen¬
ced there will be much reafon to think that death will
Zon follow ; but different inftances have occurred ot floughs
for min«■ upon the dura mater, and of cut es being made a-
er thele have feparated. All that can be attempted is to
keep the fores clean, to give a free difeharge to the matter
to apply nothing but light eaiy dreffings, and to give bark
Tn as^great qualities as" the ftomach can bear I- there be
ftill fome tendency to inflammation, the diet fliomd be kn
“d coohn “ he patient fhonld drink freely of whey or other
diluent liquors, and the bowels ihould be kept moderate )'
open: But if, on the contrary, the fyftem be low and the
pulfe feeble, wine is the moil effeaual cordial.
Sect. IV. Of Ffares, orJitnp/e FraSures of the Skua,
The term is here meant to imply a mere divifion of one
or both the tables of the flcuU, with or without a wound of
the integuments, not attended with depreffion. (
of this kind ate not dangerous as far as affects the Ikull on¬
ly, for it frequently happens that extenfive hffures heal
without producing bad iymptoms. But as they are fre-
ouently attended with effufions of blood or ferum upon the
brain or its membranes, or as they may tend to excite m-
Jflammhtion in thefe, they require particular attention.
When effufions occur, fymptoms of comprdfion imme¬
diately follow. The remedies heft fmted to this diieafe
muff then be applied; and the trepan is alone to b de-
pended upon. The fiffures (hould be traced through their
whole extent, and a perforation made on the nao *
ing part of each of them, if tlus be unfuccefsful, the ope
ranoii ihould be repeated along the courfe of the tiffures as
long as fymptoms of a compreffed brain continue; and a*
theSeffufed matter will commonly be found contiguous to
the fiffures, they ought to be included m each perforate .
xa 'h7J f If the fiffurJbe fo large as to produce an obvious fepa-
JS^Xmdonofthe two fides of the bo^ the suture of Ac cak
filTures. wiH be at once rendered evident; bu w
iTfmSl, there is difficulty in diitinguiflung i from tne na-
turaTfutures, or from futures funounding fmall bones, which
fometimes occur, and get the name ot #
mav be known by the firmer adhefion which always exnts
Seen the perkranhun and futures; whcreaB thrs meo-
brane is always fomewhat feparated from that part t e
fcooe where a fiffure is formed. When the pericranium 19
G E R Y. _ Chap, xm,
r bv the accident for a confiderable way from the Wounds nf
S of bone, various means have been contriveifor^j,
dffcovering the nature of the cafe ; as pouring ink upon the
part fufnecled to be fraAured, which in cafe of a traftare
cannot be wiped entirely off; or making the patient hold a
hair or piece of catgut between his teeth, while the other
extremity of it is-drawn tenfe, which, when ftruck, ^ laid
to produce a difagreeable fenfation in the sractared part.
But iuch tefts are little to be depended on ; ink will pene-
irate the futures ; and the others are ‘neffeaual, unleis the
fradture be extenlive, and the pieees confiderabl) feparated
from each other. The oozing of the blood from a fiffure
better mark. The afeertaming of this point, how-
ever, aopearsnot viry material; for unlefa alarming.fymptoni,
are prefent, although there ihould be a fiflure, no op-
deration is r.ecelfary; and i: fuch fymptoms occur, the
bone ought to be perforated whether there be a h.Ttire
“whin a 6 dure is not attended with fymotoms of a com-
preffed brain, the trepan ought not to be applied,. opeci-
ally as the operation itfelf tends in fome degree to mereafe
inflammation of the part. The hflure fhould be treated
merely as a caufc which may induce inflammation. . i e
patient fhould be blooded according to his ffrength , the
bowels Ihould be kept lax, and the fore treated with miU
eaty dreffing ; and violent exertion fliould he avoided as
long as there is any danger of inflammation occurring.
Chap. XIII. Difeafes of the Eyes.
Sect. I.
Of Wounds of the Eyelids and Eyeball
19I
In cafes of fuperficial wounds of the eyelids, it will be Treat-
fufficient to bring the edges of the wounds together and.(.»
retain them in their place by flips ofadhetive pla.ter. .
when a wound is deep, particularly when the tarsus is dt-
vided, it will be neceffary to employ either the interrupted ■
or the twilled future, care being taken that the luturcs be
not carried through the inner membrane ot the eyelid
otherwife the eye would be irritated and inflamed. Alter
fuch an operation, the motion of both eyelids fhou . e pre- |
vented as much as poffible, elfe no union ot the divided part^
can be obtained. Alter the futures are nmfiied, the eye¬
lids ihouldbe clofed and covered with a pledget of emoUient
ointment, and over this {hould be laid a cornpreis pf foft
lint, and one of a flmilar nature ought hkew.ie to cover t -
found eye ; then a napkin {hould be made to piefs equal y
on both eyes, and be properly fixed. Infiammat.on fhouhi
be guarded againft, or, if already prefent it muff be remo¬
ved in the manner direfted under the article (lee
Medicine.) The futures may be removed in about three
days from their introduaion, when the parts will commonly
be found reunited. , , A , _
When a portion of the eyelids is fo much deffroyed,
perhaps fo completely removed, as to prevent the rJraainl"?
Arts from being brought together, without obftruaing the
motion of the eye, the belt method will be to treat them
with light eafy dreffings, truiling to nature for fupplying
thCIf thrcorlea be wounded, k will commonly be attended Of
with partial or total blindnefs. If any of the other par. ^
of the ball be wounded, the danger wiU generally be m pro¬
portion to the extent of the wound. The principal atten¬
tion ought to be direfted to tlie prevention or removal ot
inflammation. When pain occum, it ought to be removed
by opiates; and with thefc a ftria antiphlogubc courfe is
When the wound is large, and the humours
3 • =1
Chap.XTlI. S U R
Difeafes of evacuated, blindnefs, with finking of the eyeball, will almoft
the Eye ids alwayS fee the confequence ; but in wounds of a fmall ex-
tent, by proper treatment, a cure may be made and the light
preserved.
Sect. II. Of Dtfeajes of the Eyelids.
too
Tumors of The eyelids are fubjedt to be infefted with tumors of dif-
the eyelids, ferent kinds, which frequently require the aflillance of for¬
gery. The firll of thefe is the hordeolum or Itye, which
frequently grows on the edge of the eyelid, and is attended
with heat, ftiffnefs, and pain; and unlefs proper means be
taken to prevent it, a fuppuration is frequently the confe¬
quence. It may be confidered as a common abfeefs feated
in an obftrufted febaceous duel or gland. It may gene¬
rally be removed by difeutient applications. Should thefe
prove ineffectual, it ought to be brought to fuppurate by a
irnall emollient poultice, when it will commonly heal of it-
feif; but if it do not, it may be opened with the point of
a lancet, that the matter may be difeharged ; and the part
may be anointed afterwards with faturnine folution.
j The eyelids are fubjett to encyiled tumors, fteatoms,
warts, &c. which are to be treated like the fame tumors
; when feated in other parts of the body ; only in extirpa¬
ting thefe tumors, fliould part of the eyelid be removed en¬
tirely, no dreflings can be applied, as, however mild they
may be, they would irritate and inflame the ball of the eye.
All that can be done therefore, in luch cafes, is to lay the lips
of the fore as nearly together as poflible, and frequently to
aoi remove any matter that may form on it.
nveiiion of 'ihe eyelafhes are fometimes fo much inverted as to rub
uPon eye and create much pain and inflammation. Vari-
^ ous caufes are afligned for this, inch as the hairs themfelves
taking a wrong diretlion ; rnverlion of the tarfus or carti¬
lage of the eyelid; fome cicatrix formed upon the fltin of
this part after wounds or abfeefles ; tumors prefling the
j hairs in upon the eye ; and, finally, a relaxation of the exter¬
nal integuments.
1 he treatment of this drforder muff depend much upon a
> knowledge of the caule. When it is owing to a derange¬
ment of the cilia themfelves, if they have remained long in
this ftate,. it will be extremely difficult to make them re¬
ft* cov6r their proper dire61 ion. They ought therefore to be
!«■ pulled out by a pair of forceps, and the part waffied with
fome aftringent lotion ; and if the new hairs appear to
take a fimilar direction, which is very apt to happen, as foon
as they are long enough they ought to be turned back upon
i the eyelid, and kept there for feveral days, or even weeks,
sii by ad he five plailer. When the difeaie ptoceeds from a
'■ contraction of the orbicular mufcles, the contracted part
[lit may be cut from the inner furface of the eyelid ; in
irtf which place a cut commonly foon heals. If the caufe pro-
ulf cecd from a tumor or cicatrix, this muft be removed before
a cure can be expefted; or if it be owing to relaxation of
i11 the fltin, the parts ought to be bathed with fome ftrono1
lii! aftringent. If this fail, the relaxed fltin fhould be removed^
,1, and the part healed by the firft intention. Sometimes the
K, ■ Cilia of the upper eyelid are turned in on account of drop-
ifi f1Cid ^welling in that place. When this happens, the water
is to be evacuated by a few punctures with a lancet; but
iii ^h(:n fuc]l means fail, and when the difeafe is quite local.
If; V1f10n be difturbed, a fufficient part of the fltin ought to
r) ^moved with a fcalpel, and a cure made by adhefive
aoi platter or the twifted future.
tlf’ Gr- lJbe gaPing eye takes place to any great degree, it
(J rningoutr tten^ed not only with much deformity and uneafinefs,'
u'the eye- trom a iarge potion of the lining of the eyelid beW turned
is. outwards, but hkewife from too much of the eye being
expoiea. The diforder may arife from an enlargement of
G E R Y. ,33
the eyeball, from dropfical fwelling, or from the cicatrix Difeafes of
of an old wound or abfeefs ; hence it is frequently produced the Eyelids^
by the fmall-pox, burns, or fcrophula ; but more frequently v *■
by a laxity' of tiie part in old age.
VV hen the dilordcr is induced by an enlargement of the
ball ol the eye, nothing but a removal ot this fwelling can
be effedtual. If from dropfical fwelling, when this is con¬
nected with general anafarca, the affedtion of the fyftem
mult firlt be cured ; but if it appear to be local, nothing
anfvveis fo well as punCtures. When it arifes from a cica¬
trix, the fleui Ihouki be divided, and the effects of inflam¬
mation guarded a-;ainlt. If it be owing to inflammation,
the antipnlogiftic courfe mull be uled ; when it ariles from
old age, the eyes ought to be daily bathed with cold water,
or lome aftringent and ftimulant folution.
Concretion of the eyelids fometimes ariles from a high de- Concfiftio®
giee of ophthalmia; in which caie the eyelids are not only of the eye*-
connected by their edges to each other, but now and theniids*
g;ow to the iurface of the eyeball. A cohefion is fometimes
obierved alio in children at birth. When the adhelion is
flight, it may in general be removed by the end of a blunt
piobe ; but when it is co-nfiderable, a cure can only be
effected by a cautious difleCtion. If the eyelids on one
fide be found, they will ferve as a guide to direct the inci-
lion. Ihe i.arfi are carerully to be divided from each other;-
after which, it there be no other adheiions, the eyelids-
may be readily opened r But if they adhere to the eye, the
operator is gently to pull and feparate the eyelids, while
the patient, is defired to move the eye in the oppofite di¬
rection. When this is effected, nothing is further neceflary
than to drop a little oil upon the eye, and cover the eye*
lias with loft lint fpread with lome cooling emollient oint*
meat. Ihe oil and ointment are frequently to be repeat¬
ed, and every precaution taken to prevent inflammation and*,
irritation.
Sect. III. Of Specks, Films, or Excrefcences on the Eye.
Specks are fometimes formed upon the white part ofOffpeck*
the eye, but more frequently upon the cornea. In theon the cor®-
fonner cafe they are feldom attended with much inconveni-nea'
enee, but in the latter they are often the caufe of partial'
or total bliudnefs. T hey are almoft univerfally the confe¬
quence of inflammation, and feldom go much deeper than’
the tunica adnata. Two very different ftates of the dif-
orcier occur ; the one from an effufion immediately under the
outer layer of the cornea, and in this cafe the cornea does
not appear to be railed; the other takes place from one or
more little ulcers, which breaking, leave as many opaque
Pot0 in ^be centre, wnich are more elevated than the reft;
of the cornea.: and the ineonvenience attending either fitua-
tion muft always be in proportion to their extent and
degree ot opacity, or their vicinity to the pupil. When-
vifzon is little affected by them, they need fcarcely be con-
fidered as an object ot iurgery ; but whenever vifion is ma¬
terially^ impaired, remedies become neceffary, and thefe-
fhouid be inch as are belt fluted for removing inflammation,
promoting abforption, and reftoring tone to the veffels.
For the means adapted for removing inflammation, Ice
Medicine, n° 175.
Veffels running upon the furface of the eye into the
IpecK are to be divided, and the eye frequently bathed
with fome refrigerant collymim. By thefe means the iim-
pleft kind of fpecks, when recently formed, may generally
be removed ; but where they have been of long fiandinc,
their removal is attended with great difficulty. Where-
the fpeck is owing to an effufion of fluids between the
layers of the cornea, and where it is not attended with any
prominence, *ocal. applications are of little advantage, as it-
134 S U R G
Specks, &e.x8 jmpoflible to remove the effufed matter without mjunnp;
on the Eye. coriiea . but conliderable ferviee is derived from the
4 ^ ufe fUch remedies as are moft effeaual for promoting
abiorption ; and with this view a gentle, long continued
courfe of mercury, brifli purgatives cccafionally, and dlues
m the neck, are found to be the moft effeaual remedies.
In the management of fpecks which are prominent upon
the cornea, and where inflammation is removed and the
opacity is confiderable, if the cornea beneath be found, the
removal of the diieafed part will leave it tranfparent and lit
for viiion. The remedies proper for this purpofe are efcha-
rotics or the knife. The former are applied in the form of,
a powder, an ointment, or a wafh ; and thefe ought to be
very finely prepared, otherwife they wulbe in danger o n-
' mating and inflaming the eye ; and they ought merely to
be of inch ftrength as the eye can eaflly bear.
The applications fhould be long perflfted in and frequent¬
ly repeated; and to make them ftill more ufeful, iome of the
powders or ointments may be applied evening and morning,
and the folution two or three times through the couife of
the day. To the remedies already mentioned cauihc is
fometimes preferred. With this the centre of the fpeck is
to be frequently touched, till the patient complain of con-
iiderable pain, when pure water is to be applied, by a pencil,
or by dipping the eye in water, with the eyelids open, till
the pain occalioned by the application of the cauftic be re¬
moved. The eye is then to be covered with comprefles
moittened in fome folution, and this frequently repeated.
The cauftic to be repeated every fecond or third day, un-
lefs pi evented by inflammation. When the furgeon choofes
to employ the knife, which frequently may be more effec¬
tual, the eye is to be fixed by a fpeculum (fig. 29.), or leva¬
tor (fig. 3c) ; the tumor is then to be cautioufly feparated
by means of a fmall knife, and every attention paid to pre-
inflammation. Thefe are the methods moft likely to be o.
fervicc ; and when properly managed, they will frequently
remove fpecks, which otherwife would entirely deprive the
patient of the ufe of the eye ; though it is to be regretted
that cafes frequently occur which baffle art.
A membranous excrefcence, called pterygium, is frequently
E R
Y. ^ Cliap.XlIf,
In this way the operation commonly AVcf,,
Of the ex¬
crefcence founc[ Up0n the white part of the eye, which often fpreads
■Mcdptery- fo a. entirelY to deftroy viiion. It is fome-
cence is removed. ... , - — 7,
proves eiTe&ual; but inftances iometimes occur where, in- in the
Head of being ufeful, it increafes the difeafe. Whenever ^
this happens, a palliative courfe is the only thing to be ,the ^
tried ; and although it will not remove the diforder, it may ^
commonly prevent the excrefcence from acquiring any ad-
ditional fixe. With this intention it ought to be f requently
bathed with the folution laft mentioned, and afterwards
covered with a coolinir ointment. When the diforder can-
not even be palliated, when viiion is deftroyed, and parti¬
cularly when the pain attending it is fevere, there is reafott
to fufped cancer. In this cafe the eye ought to be extir¬
pated, otherwife deeper parts may fuffer, and the life of the
patient be endangered. The method of performing this
operation will be afterwards pointed out.
Sect. IV. Of Abfiejes in the Globe of the Eye.
Though inflammation of the eye generally terminates
by refolution, inftances fometimes occur in which an ab-
feefs eniues. This is owing either to impiopei treatment,
or a bad habit of body which counteraAs a1l remedies.
The greateft danger attending thefe complaints is when
they are fituated on the cornea, as the cicatnx left by
them may deftroy vifion. When deep leated, a puiulent
matter is fometimes apt to be found in iome or the chambers
of the eye, the ball becomes enlarged, the humours are di-
fturbed, and neither the iris, pupil, nor lens can be diftin-
guiftied. In fome rare cafes again, after thefe appearances
have continued iome time, the cornea burfts, part or whole
of the humours are evacuated, and the iris protrudes in a
thickened diftended ftate. This has now the appearance of
an excrelcence, which is called jlaphykma from a kind of
refemblance to a grape. But under this term fome authors
include all colleftions like thofe above defended. In molt
inftances the cornea protrudes, but in others the tunica fcle*
rotica or opaque part is afFe&ed with partial iwdlings or
protrufions.
While the difeafe is forming, brfides the lofs of fight, the
patient commonly feels great diftrets in the eye and head,
accompanied by iymptoms of fever. When no othet dibiefs
* • 1    4-U^ 1 ■Pv.Vf'lllTVvT' IS Hilt
glUM.
107
Method of
removing
excrefcen-
ces.
is experienced than the lofs of light, the fwelhng is but
over the cornea fo as entirely to deftroy viiion. . It is fome
times owing to external injuries ; at other times it antes fiom
a general difeafe of the fyftem, as lues venerea or fcrophula ;
but inflammation is always the more immediate caufe. .
By a proper application of the remedies above mentioned
affeftions of this kind may generally be prevented from
becoming formidable ; but when the reverie takes place,
and excrefcences begin to ipread over the cornea, other
means muft be ufed. When the difeafed part is only
{lightly attached, it may be freely removed by a cut of the
knife ; but when this cannot be done without difficulty, it
is belter to deftroy the veffels by the extenllon of which this
iubftance is chiefly formed. ’1 he manner of performing the
operation in general is this : The patient being properly
feated, the eyelids opened, and the eye ieeured, the opera¬
tor, with a fmall knife, makes a' fcarification through the
whole thicknefs of the excrefcence, entirely round, and at a
little diftance from the circumference, by which the fource of
nourifhment will be cut off; and, after the blooding is
abated, one or two inciiions more may be made, in a iimilar
manner, within the former. Some practitioners _ raife the
excrefcence with a needle and ligature before the inciuon is
made; and, in fome cafes, this may be done with advantage,
though not in others. . . .
After the bleeding is over, the part is to be bathed two
er three times a-day with a weak iaturnine ^utlon ? an“
the operation may be repeated occafionally tnl the excief-
41
fmall, and contains chiefly a watery’ fluid. In the tieatment,
as viiion is ftldom preferved, the principal thing is to abate
the pain and remove deformity. There is another kind of
ablcefs in the eye, termed hypopyon^ where the matter is
lodged in the fubftance of the coats. It is fometimes pro¬
duced by external injuries, but more frequently from pu-
ftules of (mall-pox. If this termination cannot be prevent¬
ed by the remedies mentioned in the article Medicine, n3
175, the matter muft be evacuated by an incihon into the
eye, not regarding the humours, as vifion previous to this
tin e is entirely deftroyed. 1 he prbper part is the cornea
or the moft prominent part of the tumor.
A variety of this diforder fometimes, though rarely, hap¬
pens, where the humours are abiorbed ; but ftill the lame
external appearances are obferved. In this cafe the tumor
is foimed by a thickening of the coats, efpecially the iris.
The only means of relief is extirpation of the prominent
part by the ufe of the knife. After the contents of the
eye have been difeharged, the parts are to be covered with
a comprefs moiftened with a faturnine folution, and the an-
tiphlogiftic courie followed, till a cure is perfe&ed, or at
leaft inflammation removed. If the ulcers diicharge a thm
acrid matter, they may be wafhed two or three times a-day
with a folution of corrolive iublimate, or of white vitno,
&c. Fungous excrelcences, fometimes confidered as a cancer
of the eye, are apt to form in both thefe difeafes after t e
matter is evacuated ; but they may be prevented from m-
- creaiwg
Chap. XIIr. S U R G
Dropfical creafingr to a confidcrable fize by burnt alum finely powder-
cfThe E^e e^’ °r touc^^n.? t^Gm occafxonally with lunar cauftic.
. . ■ < Ulcers on the eye may arife from the fame caufes which
zcS produce ulcers on other parts of the bodvs as wounds,
E R Y.
U5
Ulcers of
the eye.
When a pundure is neceiTary, it *s to be made in the Pwrufion
lame manner as in cafes of dropfy of the eye ; only the open- t^ie E>e
ing may require to be fomewhat larger, otherwife the blood
mayjiot pals readily out. After the operation, nothing is -i—v
5ECT.
IC9
Symptoms
of dropfy
cf the eye.
l j r..- r r ; n- * uui- -ci-iier me operation, nothing is
burns, &c; or they may anie from a general affection of neceffary but to apply a comp refs of loft lint, moillened
the conititution, as lues or fcrophula ; out they are more with a weak faturnine lolution.
immediately produced by inflammation. In the treatment
therefore of fuch difeafes, blood-letting, bliltering, laxative
and cooling applications, as already deferibed in the cafe of
ophthalmia, aie to be employed. When the inflammatory
ftate is removed, their management muff be almoft the
fame with that for fimilar affections in other parts of
tae body. When the diforder arifes from an affection of
the fyttem, the primary difeafe muff be attended to before
a cure can be performed. With refpedt to the fores them-
felvts, if acrid matter be difeharged, we muff have rccourfe
to detergent ointments and wafhes before a cicatrix can
be, formed. When thefe have not the defired effeft, and
when the fore becomes foft and higher than the reft of the
eye, aftringent applications are moil efficacious. If excrel-
centes he prefent, thelc are to be removed by efcharotics,
or by the knire. In fome rare inftanccs exctefcences of a
fungous natuie are found to be connedled with the interior
paits of the eye, and become fo prominent as even to reft
upon the cheek. When fuch occur, nothing but the re¬
moval of the eye itfelf can effedl a cure.
Sect. V. Of Dropjical Swellings of the Eye.
I he eye is lometimes enbtrged by an accumulation of
the aqueous humour. The'fymptoms are, a 1'tnfe of fullnefs
the eyeball ; by degrees the motions ef the eyelids be-
come impeded; vihon gradually becomes more and more im-
per-ed, till at laft the patient can only diftinguilh light
from darknefs. As the difeafe increafes, the ball of the
eye becomes greatly enlarged, and at this time the cornea
heo ms to protrude; when, it a pundure be not made, the
eye burfts and empties itfelf. This difeafe is apt to be con-
founded with ftaphyloma. But in the dropiical fwelling
the patient is always fenfrble to the effeds of light, and the
pupil is obferved to contrad, which does not happen in
2ro ‘P1) cma. In the eaily fta«es of this difeale vifion may
Treacuient be PrGlerv>cd oy punduring the under edge of the cornea
and allowing the aqueous humour to pafs out by the ante-
nor chamber; or by punduring the tunica fclerotica a lit¬
tle behind the ins, by which the fluid will pafs out by the
pottenor chamber  ► , . . J . .
VI. Of the Protrujion oj the Eyeball beyond its Socket,
The eye may protrude in confequence of external vio¬
lence, or from tumors forming behind it, or on account off
iorne of the ulcers, excrefcences, or dropfical fwellings, al-
reauy mentioned. When the eye is forced out of its focket
by external violence, if the eyeball be not entirely feparated
fiom the neighbouring paits, it ought to be freed from any
extraneous matter which may adhere to it, and immediately
replaced; and if the optic rierve he not quite divided, the
ufe of the eye may be recovered. W ith a view to prevent or
moderate inflammation, every part of the antiphlogiftic re¬
gimen ought to be ftridly adhered to. If the protrufion
is occafioned by a tumor, the cure muff depeftd upon the
reir.o\al o- this ; and if the difeafe has advanced fo far
that the bones are become carious, they muft likewife be
eparated. But more frequently, inftead of the bones be¬
coming carious, they affume a gelatinous or rather carti-
iaginous nature. In fuch a fituation an operation could be
of little advantage. The beft method to prevent the bones
rom being lo affefted is ai; early performance of the opera¬
tion. r
A few in fiances have happened of the eye being puftied
from Its locket by an enlargement of the lachrymal gland,
wnen this occurs, if the enlargement be confiderable, the
ftructiire of the eye will moil probably he fo much injured
that vifion will be deftroyed ; but inftances have occurred of
this gland, in the enlarged ftate, having been removed with¬
out any injury being done to the eye.
Sect. VII. Of Cancer of the Eye, and Extirpation of the
Eyeball,
S.ciRRHi’s an^ cancer may arife from repeated inflam-c 212
mations of the eye or from ftaphyloma, or fome of the of of!
othei oifeafes which frequently attack this organ. The the eye.
lymptoms a an enlargement, hardnefs, and protrufion of
the ball, with a red, fungous appearance, fometimes dif-
charging thick, yellow matter, but more frequently a thin
acriL. ichor. At firft there is only a fenfation of heat in
pofterior chamber. The nnnbtiire ; -l “f , 1 "rlt the,e 18 only a fenfation of heat in
a lancet, pointed llto'ZtT * b”' ^ i-reafing, changes at latt
i he eye ought afterwards to be dreffed with a r ,n& Pa,ns> vvhicli hkewife ffioot through to the 00-
made Lifk tnVK , f- ™ rdrefftd ^ 3 comPrefs P°!ltG of the_ head. In this fituation blood-lettino
opiates, and emollient applications, may alleviate the pahv
A hemlock poultice applied to the eye, and a waffi of lime-
water with a little opium diffolved in it, and applied every
time the poultice is renewed, gives fome relief; but altho*
tiie pain be moderated by thefe means, it does not prevent
an
Blood efFu-
fedi
made moift with a faturnine folution, guarding againftex-
ceffive inflammation. When the ufe of the eye is Lewhat
r may ube reftored t0 the Part^ a return
h th dl/r 38 .muJ.as PoffibIe prevented, by frequently
bathing the^eye in aftnngent lotions ; but where the cornea
deilroyed, the fight cannot be reftored: We can then
only dimmifh the fize of the eye, and render it fomewhat
more comfortable to the oatient.
. ^0o^. ^ effufed* into the chambers of the eye
W mtchc from vanons cufes, as m putrid difeafes, or in confeouence
of .nflammation but moll frequently from a rupture of“he
blood-veffels induced by external ininrv T r
it rrets into fbe evr- kr,- k -i n{ whatever way tient Ihouf
renders it opaque ’ It is 1 e 3queous humour> and ported by an affiftant
i t , °P 18 lometiines taken up bv the ntifnr mnii Ko r . i i . 7'-“'-*° uucaiea, tney
hents; when it is otherwife, it ouoht to be LeL f u r ^P3:31^ alonff the tumor ; but where they
Puf-e. • S' t0 bC dlfch3r^d ^ a- are found they ought to be carefully preferred; and for
A few inftances have occurred where the blond W f n ! th^y„may be out of the way by two leva-
to the under fide of the eye, and remaintl hi r°;S ^ by affift3nts- When the eyeball preludes con-
mixing with the aqueous humour. In fuchl ft ^ )U* bderabI>;’.tbe operator may lay hold of it with his finders •
«ught to be allowed to remain. ituauon it but if this be impraaicable, a btoad ligature ftiould be ini'
troduced through the centre of it, that it may be the more
readily
the difeale from fpreading, nor can any thing elfe but ex¬
tirpation produce a radical cure.
Alter the difeafe is difcovered to be cancerous, the ope- vTorViu P
kmin^bc nc ,r With0nt ^ <o prevent theexci^lt
parts in the neighbonrhood, as-well as the conititution at‘her, v-
In v/hatever way t^t’^d^pTSa '
renders it opaque. ’ ,t
P. I
readily removed from the orbit,
cefiarv to enlarge the opening of the eyelids, by cutting
the external angle to allow the eyeball to be more readily
removed. The whole of the difeafed parts are now to be
feparated by a knife bent fo as to correfpond with the hdes
of*the orbit, guarding at the fame time againft wounding
the periofteum or the bones of the orbit, which are com¬
monly extremely thin. The eye being in this manner ex¬
tirpated, the hemorrhagy from the ocular arteries is to be
fuppreffed by means of agaric, or by a bit of fponge ; then
over this is to be laid foft lint, with a napkin to cover
the whole. After fuppuration takes place, the dreffings
are to be removed, when a little lint, applied with an emol¬
lient pledget over it, will be fufficient as long as any mat¬
ter is difeharged. After the wound is healed, the deformity
may be in fome meafure obviated by wearing an artificial
eye; though it is chiefly m cafes where patt ot the humouis
of the eye have been evacuated that this can be ufed with
much propriety ; for when the orbit is empty the artificial
eye finks too far into it.
Sect. VIII.
at4
Of the Cataraft.
-•t The ancients, and fome of the modern writers, had a
Symptoms .confufed idea of the feat of the cataradl; different authors
©t ca-tarid-piac[ng It in different parts of the eye. It confifta of an
affe&ion of the cryllalline lens or of its capfule, by which
the rays of light are prevented from falling upon the retina ;
and is therefore the fame difeafe with the glaucoma of the
ancients. It commonly begins with a dimnels of fight; and
this generally continues a confiderable time before any opa¬
city can be obferved in the lens. As the difeaie advances
the opacity becomes fenfible, and the patient imagines there
are particles of duff or motes upon the eye, or in the air.
This opacity gradually increafes till the perfon either be-
- comes entirely blind, or can merely diftinguilh light from
darknefs. The difeafe commonly comes on rapidly, though
’fometimes its progrefs is flow and gradual. The opacity
of the lens is found to be nearly in proportion to the degree
of blindnefs the patient is affetled with ; it gradually
changes from a ftate of tranfparency to a perfe&ly white,
or light grey colour. In fome very rare inftances a black
cataraA is found. Sometimes the difeafe is confined to a
particular fpot of the lens, but generally the whole is affeft-
cd. The confiftence alfo varies, being at one time hard,
at another entirely diffolved. When the eye is otherwife
found, the pupil moves according to the degree of light in
which it is placed. This difeafe is ieldom attended with
pain ; fometimesf however, every expofure to light creates
uneafinefs, owing probably to inflammation in the bottom
of the eye. The real caufe of cataraft is not yet well un¬
derflood. Numbers of authors conlider it as proceeding
,from a preternatural contra&ion of the veffels of the lens,
arifing fometimes from external violence, though more com¬
monly from fome internal and occult caufe. Tire difeafe is
diffinguifhed from the gutta ferena, by the pupils in the lat¬
ter being never affedted with light, and from no opacity
being obferved in the lens. It is dittinguifhed from hypo¬
pyon, ftaphyloma, or any other difcafe in the fore part of
the eye, by the evident marks which thefe affeftions pro¬
duce, as well as by the pain attending their beginning. But
it is difficult to determine when the opacity is in the lens
or in its capfule. The lens is generally affefted ; when the
capfule is the feat of the difeafe, it is termed the membr anous
215 cataradl.
Methods of With refpefl to the treatment: If the difeafe be in the
treatment, incipient ftate, mercury, particularly calomel in linall doles,
has been attended with fome advantage. When any degree
of inflammation is prefent, blood-letting and cooling regimen
SURGERY. Chap, xil!,
Sometimes it will be ne- will fometimes be needfary. Eleftricity, extraft. hyofcyxmi,
flammula Jovis, See. have hkewue been extolled ; but alter w*“v~-o
thefe or other remedies have failed, the cure muft depend
upon a chirurgical operation. For this purpofe two methods
are in general ufe. The firft of thefe, and which was prac-
tifed for a long time before the other, is called couching. It
is done with a view to allow the rays of light to fall upon
the retina; and it confifts in removing the lens Irom its
capfule, and lodging it in fome part of the vitreous humour,
where it may be entirely off the axis of the eye, and where
it is fuppofed, in courfe of time, to diffolve.
The other method is termed extroBioriy where, after an
incifion has been made in the cornea, the lens *is puffed
through the pupil, and then entirely removed from the eye.
Each of thefe methods has been much pra&ifed, and it is
ftill a matter of doubt to which we ought to give the pre¬
ference. The next circumftance deferving attention is the
time at which the operation for couching or extra&ing can
with moft propriety be performed. Formerly it was thought
neceffary to wait till the lens had a certain degree of con¬
fiftence, or was become ripe; but no certain marks of fluidity
or firmnefs have been yet difeovered; neither indeed is there
any neceffity for attending particularly to it, as the operation
may be praclifed in every period of the diieafe, providing
the retina be found, the iris have the power of contra&ing,
and the cornea be tranfparent. The proper time for the
operation is when the opacity of the lens is fo confiderable
as to prevent the patient from following his ordinary occupa
tion. When this is not the cafe, or when the patient has
the ufe of one eye, it ought not to be performed, as it is
always attended with fome degree of danger.
When the operation is to be performed, the following isMetWti
the method of doing it : And firft, of couching the cataraft.
uS
To guard as much as poffible againft the effefts of inflam-
mation, the patient ffould be confined, for leverai days pre¬
vious to the operation, to a low regimen ; and two or three
dofes of fome cooling laxative fhould be given at proper
intervals. After this he is to be feated with his face to¬
wards the light; but funffine ought to be avoided. Some,
however, prefer a fide-light both on account of the operator
and patient. One affiilant is to iupport the head, while
others feeure the arms. The operator is either to be feated
with his elbow refting upon a table; or, which is preferred
by fome, he ought to ftand, refting his arm upon the fide
of the patient. The eye being fixed by the fpeculum
(fig. 29.), or in fuch a manner as to allow the whole cf
the cornea and a fmall portion of the iclerotic coat to pro¬
trude, a couching needle (fig. 31. ) is to be held in the right
hand, in the manner of a writing pen, if the left eye be the
fubjedl of operation ; the ring and little fingers are to be
fupported upon the cheek or temple o<' the patient; The
needle is to be entered in an horizontal direction through
the fclerotic coat, a little below the axis of the eye, and
about one fourth of a line behind the edge of the cornea,
fo as to get entirely behind the iris. If the needle be ot
the flat form, the flat fide ought to be oppofed to the
iris, to prevent that fubftance from being wounded. The
point of the needle is to be carried forwards till it be dif¬
eovered behind the pupil. The operator is now common¬
ly directed to puff* the point into the lens, and deprefs
it at once to the bottom of the eye ; but in this way the
lens either burfts through the capfule at an improper place,
or it carries the capfule with it, tearing it from the parts to
which it is connedled. Inftead of this, the needle ought
firft to be puffed into the lens near its under edge, as Dr
Taylor adviles, and then carried fome way down into the vi¬
treous humour, fo as to clear the way for the lens. F 19
then to be drawn a little back, and carried to the upper
part
Chap. XIII. S U R G
CWt. part of tk apfflk, when,- by preffiog Hpon it, the lens, if
* folid, 18 to be puflied down by one, or, if fluid, by feveral
movements, to the bottom of the vitreous humour. It
117 Ts 11 j* t^en rbe pUfh,C<i ^ownwards and outwards, as Mr
Treatment Beil d.re&s, fo as to leave it in the under and outer fide of
afterwards-the eye ; where, m cafe it ihould rife, the paffage of the li^ht
would be little obftruaed. The needle is then to be with¬
drawn, the fpeculum removed, and the eyelids clofed : and
a comprefs f«aked in a faturnine folution is to be applied
over them. Mr PeUter;, method is to cover each eye with
a linen bag half filled with fine wool, applied dry and fixed
-to a circular bandage of linen paffed round the forehead :
the whole is retained by a triangular napkin. The patient
is then to be laid m bed, upon his back, with his head very
httle raifed; and.tobe kept in this fituation for about a
Z , Unlefs he bc weakly habit, he
ought to be bled at the neck, or leeched at the temple, a
few hours after the operation. He fhould be kept upon
W diet, and get fmall dofes of opiates frequently repeated
2'eL. "Tk f ^ °P- >>y /c„T £
Ltion isa^ti^T3 fhouIlnot be removed till inflam-
mat ion is at leafl fo far gone that no danger will arife from
, j sometimes the patient perceives lipht im
tynuttlii tae t;t®?feS,W"g rem°,Cd’ bUt m0re
rltnkr^?:fr;ta^tr^,hh:0aPr
found ?he catarad to be of the^ifed kfnd'd'r8’ When he
JiLl - f ’ m. winch cafes the lens hardly ever failed of
cataract ^ ^ ^ ^ the fmaIleft vt%e of a
right eye the ftrai e^perat^n 18 *1 be Perfbrmed "pon the
left th^ttraigbt needle muft either be ufedhv the
«'e;thai^Trr,rfbplrhimMf bch;"d r"-
with a large curve bv which thS bCen c.ontnved» however,
performed with the m ht hand wh'f'tl"0? b? read'lf
before the patient onlv th, ’ W,f,k.lhe » placed
a.8 “"'J <f outer, angk'of'the e^ t0”rdS ‘he
“^fnggefcd by Mr^Twho8111' fe'mS t0 been
chamber of the eve u.. . . . thc anterior
:: iraii.
k
k
chamber of the eve either hv -y 1 the anterio
dentally in couching. At firfl^it™31 V1° C^C,e or acci
dangerous operation, and was feldom praftifed"Ilf^1 3
y™ .'737, when Mr David propofed and nraA f ^ '
tion in preference to couching The d P.raa!fed extrac*
formed in the following manner • Th °per.atl0n 18 now per-
bcing placed, and thefye fixed'in the^ m”1 ^ 0Perator
touching,'the foeculurh wh^ .1 th f mc manner as for
upon the left ever Ho k ?Pe[ati?n is "> be d<>"0
operator. It ia^eceifarv to f" ‘he krt hand °f the
tviU fecure without hurting “e 'eye “'Sffre(rur£ as
the cornea to be prefled too ♦ u ' • . Llther ought
ter be wounded. K onot,„ ' left th£
33-), and holda it in the lame wlyTheir k"ife (fi«-
Pouching; he then enters the poTof tthh A '/“‘‘T''
moft into thc cornea aho,.i J-A W1,th the edge under-
conneftion with the fclc f* * ance ^alf a line from its
ofthepupilTt is then ro C and as high as the centre
ner angle in an horizontal -tbe pupiI to the in-
outwards tn nonzontal direftion, keep ng the ed'Te a litrle T Vll,cuus numour >s evacuated. This
VoA'v&t - - *4 - S - ^-eSST nr three
weeks
E R Y.
tthenundebehP1ffheAlhr0Ugh t0 WllCre k™^‘, Cataral7
the under half of the cornea is next to be cut, and at the v v  
ame diftance from the fclerotics with the parts at which
the point of the knife went into and came out from the
In cuttIng th(l UTlder half of the cornea the prdTure of
forfe Tn ^ he gradually leffened ;
tor d the eye be too much comprefled, the aqueous hu’
mour, with the cataraft and part of the vhreous hi
IdthT- 3T t0-be f°rced fuddenIy out immediately
a. ter the mc.fion is made. The operator then takes a
flat probe, and raises the flap made in the cornea, while
he pafles the fame inftrument, or another probe (fig. )
rough at the extremity, cautioufly through the pupil, to
feratch an opening m the capfule of the lens. This being-
done, the eye fliould be fhaded till the lens be extraded, or
the eyelids are to be Ihut to allow the pupil to be dilated
as much as poffiole ; and while in this fituation, if a gentle
prdTure be made upon the eyeball at either the upper or
under edge of the orbit, the cataraft will p3fs thfoun-h
are" opfn readlly than h WOuld do when the eyelids
Ir the lens cannot be eafily pufhed through the opening
of the cornea, no violent force fhould be ufed, for this would
tend much to mcreafe the inflammation. The opening
M beixe^argee’ f° 38 t0 all°W the lens to Pals oufmorf
y. When the cataraft does not come out entire or
wheu lt is found to adhere to the contiguous parts ’the
end of a fmall flat probe, or a fcoop (fig. 2 c.) is to
be introduced, to remove any detached pieces or adhe-
f’T ,tbat ^ ^ PrfThe iris fometiines either pro-
jeds too much into the anterior chamber, or is pufhed out
through the opening of the cornea. When this hapoens,
orobe0r rftUrned.to lts natural fituation by means of the
thehnH S.ometIme8 the opacity is not in
tains hY The t’ a* ent,rely, ^^ CapPule ^’hIch con'
tains it. I he extradlion of the lens alone would here
eve A ?aflU PUrp°fe* Some Petitioners attempt to
extraft, firft the lens, and then the capfule by forceps • others
the lens and capfule entire. Thofe who\aveTad much
practice in this branch of furgery, as Pellier, fay they find
iuch a method praaicable ; but others think it better to
truft ent^ely to tjme and a cooI;ng reg;men for the cu
which, in fome mftances, has taken place. When the ope!
ration is to be performed on the right eye, the operator^is
tieTr tH1 left hdnd,’t0 take his ftation bchh‘d the pa!
tient, or to employ a crooked knife (fig ^6) P
rnhVTrr«ht not *» ks
ien it fhould onJy be done in a dull Ij.rht, otherwife ir
may fuffer coufiderabJy from the irritation’ which a ftrong
he veZ hT10,"* iThen the C>'e is to be -arnined, §
wl7;,idTbe/°Und adbenn^ to^ther, they ought to be
0*5, d if b f?rae Sentle aftringent. With this the eye
ought alfo to be frequently wafted afterwards, by which
it will graduaHy recover ftrength and fight Ahnn/ S
end of the third week the dfeffing Jy be entlelv r^
moved, and a piece of green (ilk pot over the eyes 'as a
fhade ; and if every thing has fucceede 1 tli<=
generally go out after a loth fT the ’ti^ Pa"hkhT
operation was performed. Ch the
Pt haPpens, that in extrading the lens a nor
tion of the vitreous humour is evacuated rl 5 P
general prevent the fuccefs oHhe optation Th” "0t
foon begins to fill a^in J °petation. The eye
s U R o
Lula WfCk8 it is for the mo ft part as large as it was previous to
Lachryma- the operation. Wkether this be owing to a renewal of the
, l,s- ,vitreous humour, or merely an aqueous feeretion, is no
U V yet determined; though thelatter circumftance is generally
iuppofed.
Chap. XIV. Of Fijluta. Lachrym&Hs.
Bv this difeafe is properly underftood a finuous ulcer of the
lachrymal fac or dud with callous edges, though every ob-
ftruftion of this paflage is commonly called jytuta iachry-
Sym*° ms'*2 The firft and moll fimple ftate of the difeafe is that term-
oymycoms me urn aim iuuil  
®f rhf dif- e(j a dropfy of the lachrymal fac. The fymptoms are, a tu
cafe in its - % .   linp ni tn<
„ , , m„; between the inner eornea of the eye and fide of the
fom, p nofe. This difappears by preffnre, the tears rn^ed w.th
mucus palling partly into the note, hut chiefly back upon
the eye and over the cheek.
This itate of the difeaie is what the French have called
the hernia, or hydrops facculi lachrymalf. It is frequently
met with in children who have been rickety, or are.iuojet.t
to glandular obftructicns : and in this ftate it fometimes ic-
mains for feveral years, fubjedf to little alterations, as the
health or habit ihall happen to vary, the facculus being
fometimes more, fometimes lefs full and troublefome ; t.ie
contents which are preffed out are fometimes more, fome¬
times lefs cloudy; and now and then the difeafe is attended
with a flight ophthalmy, or an inflammation or the eyelids,
but which, by common care, is eaiily removed. It the iac-
cuius be not much dilated, the ditcharge fmall, and produ¬
ced only by preffure, the chief inconveniences are the weep¬
ing eye, and the gumming together of the lids alter lleep-
ing : but thefe, by being attended to, may be kept from
being very troublefome ; and if the difeafe makes no fur¬
ther progrefs, may be lo regulated as to render any mote
painful procefs totally unneceflary. If the dilatation be con-
fiderable, the fwclling is more , vifible, and the quantity of
fmid is larger ; it is alfo in this ftate more frequently mixed
and cloudy, and more troublefome, from the mote frequent
necelfity of emptying the bag ; but if the patient be an adult,
it may, even in this more dilated ftate of it, be kept from be¬
ing very inconvenient.
If an inflammation comes on, the tumor is thereby confi-
derably increafed, the difeharge is larger, as well during
fleep as upon preflure ; the Ikin covering it lofes its natural
whitenefs and foftnefs, becomes hard, and acquires an infla¬
med rednefs; and with the tears a mixture of fornething,
which in colour refembles matter, is difeharged, efpecially if
the prelfure be made with any force, or continued for any
time.
When the parts are in this ftate, the contents of the bag
have fo much the appearance of purulent matter, that they
are now generally confidered as fuch, though Mr Pott and
feveral others have been of a different opinion, conlidering
the lluid as merely mucus under a different form; allowing,
however, that pus is fometimes difeharged. If the putnfta
lachrymalia be naturally large and open, and the inflamma¬
tion confined to the furface of the fac, its contents will pafs
off pretty freely, and the fkin will remain entire.
In its ad- But when the flein covering the lachrymal bag has been
■vanced fol- fome time inflamed, or fubjedt to frequently returning
inflammations, it moft commonly happens that the pundta
lachrymalia are affe&ed by it, and the fluid, not having an
opportunity of palling off through them, diftends the infla¬
med flein ; fo that at laft it becomes floughy, burfts exter¬
nally, and forms an opening in the moft prominent part of
the tumor, at which the tears and matter contained in it
are difeharged. When the opening thus formed is fmall, it
E R Y. Chap. XIV,
commonly heals again in a few days, but it burft* as Toon M Fiftsi,
a confiderable quantity of this fluid is colkaed ; and n eonti.La^yma.
nuesthus to collect and burft alternately, till the open.ng be-
comes fufficiently large to prevent any farther colledtion. 1 ms
ftate of the diforder exhibits exadtly the appearances ot a fi¬
nuous ulcer, with callous, and fometimes with retorted edges ;
and this ftage forms properly the real fittula lachrymalis.
Tears, mucus, and purulent matter, are now abundantly d.i-
chanred from the fore. When the bone beneath is found,
this difeharge is feldom either acrid or offenfive to the Imell,
for the opening being in general in the under part ot the
tumor, the matter is readily evacuated ; but when any of the
contiguous bones are carious, they are not only found to be
fo by the introdadlion of a probe, but by the appearance,
fmell, and effedla of the matter upon the neighbouring parts.
In this cafe it is thin, fetid, and commonly fo acrid as to fret
and corrode the integuments moft contiguous to the ulcer;
and when the diforder is connefted with fcrophula or with
lues venerea, which is by no means an unfrequent occur-
rence, the difeharge and appearance of the fore wnl vary
according as it happens to be combined with one or other
of thefe diteafes. , . ,.r r . . T,
From what has been faid, we may divide this difeafe into The«
four generJheads or ftate^under which all its more minute
to four
diftindions may be comprehended. The firft coniifts m a^.
fimple dilatation of the facculus and obftruftion of the nafal
daft, difeharging, upon preffure, a fluid either quite clear ora
little cloudy'; the fkin covering the bag being entire and
perfectly free from inflammation. In the fecond, the tumor
is fomewhat larger; the fkin which covers it is in an
med ftate, but entire.; and the difeharge made through the
pundta lachrymalia is of a pale yellow or purulent colour. In
the third,the flein covering thefacculus is become floughy,and
burfts; by which means the fwelling is in fome meafure lef*
fened: but the matter which, while the fl<in was entire,
ufed to be preffed out through the panda lachrymalia, now
difeharges itfelf through the new aperture. The dudus
ad nares, both in this and the preceding ftate, are not other-
wife difeaied than by the thickening of its lining. . In the
fourth, the paffaee from the facculus lachrymalis into the
nofe is totally obliterated, the infide of the former being ei¬
ther ulcerated or filled up with a fungus, and- attended iome-
times with a caries of the bene underneath.. _ . ’T
In the firft and moft fimple ftate of the difeafe, viz. that
of mere obftrudion without inflammation, much pains
been taken to reftore the parts to their natural ftate and ufe,
without making any wound or divifion at all. The intro-
du&ion of a probe, the inje&ion of aftringent fluids, and a
conftant cOmpreffion made on the out fide of the facculus in
the corner of the eye, are the principal means by which this
has been attempted
514
Several years ago, M. Anel made a probe (fig. 37-
IM.A®
of fo fmall a fize asTto be capable of paffing from the eye-?
fyrieg*
itate.
lid into the nofe, being introduced at one of the puntla
laehi vmalia, and paffing through the faoculus and du&;
with' which probe he propofed to break through any
fmall obftrudtion which might be found in its paffage.
He alfo invented a fyringe (fig. 38.), the pipe of winch
is fmall enough to enter one ot the punfta, and thus furniih-
es an opportunity of injecting a liquor into the face ulus and
du£t; and with thefe two inftruments he pretended to be ahe
to cure the difeafe whenever it eoniifted in obftrueftion merely*
and the difeharge was not much difcoloured. I he br^°
thefe, viz. the paffage of a Imall probe through the pun- a*
has a plaufible appearance ; but will, upon trial, be ftn^ O '
very unequal to the talk affigned : the very frnall iiz.e of lt»u
its neceffary flexibility, and the very little refiftance it is ca¬
pable of making, are manifeft deficiencies in the
6 *1
Chap. XIV. S IT R
PiftuU ment; the quick fenTatfon In the lining of the foe an4 clu$t,
G E R Y.
Screw in¬
vented by
Fabricius
ab A'qua-
|>cadente.
, ---- T’ ”’-     —- —— -.f, v..-.
Lachryma- an(j ^ifeaied date, are great objections on the fide of the
> '*’ .parts, fuppofing it were capable of anfwering any valuable
end, which it moft ceitainly is not.
That the pafling a fine probe from one of the punfta la-
chrymalia into the nofe is very practicable, is known from
experience ; but the pain it gives, and the inflammation it
often excites, arc much greater than any benefit which does
or can arife from it. It is faid that the principal ufe of this
probe is to clear the little dudls leading from thepunbta into
the facculus, and the obftrudtion of thofc dudts is often men¬
tioned as a part of this difeafe. Hence one would be led to
fuppofe that it was a circumftance which frequently occur¬
red ; whereas it is feldom, if ever, met with. Nor, even if
it did happen, could it ever produce the difeafe in queflion;
the principal clmadferiftic of which is a difeharge into the
inner corner of the eye upon prefiure made in the angle.
The fyringe, it ufed judicioufly while the difeafe is re¬
cent, the fac very little dilated, and the mucus perfe&ly clear,
will fometimes be found ferviceable ; it gives no pain; and a
few trials render the ufe of it by no means troublefome. There
is very little occafion, however, to take much trouble, or to
put the patient to fo much unealinefs; for if the fac be emp¬
tied by comprefilon, if the liquor which was to have been
injected be applied to the pun&a, they will abforb it as rea¬
dily as the fluid which naturally paffes through them.
Fabncius ab Aquapendente invented an inftrument,
which was fo contrived as by means of a ferevv to make a
preffure externally on the lachrymal bag ; from the ufe of
which, he fays, his patients received much benefit. This
inftrument has been confiderably improved by late practition¬
ers, and is ftill recorqmended as very ufeful. See fig. 39.
All the good that can be obtained by comprefs and ban-
dage, this ferew is capable of procuring; but it is alfo fub
jed to all the fame inconveniences, arifing from the impoffibi
lit} of determining exadly the due degree of preflure; for if it
be fo great as to bring the fides of the upper part of the fac
into contad, all communicationbetween it and the punda will
be thereby flopped; if it be but flight, the accumulation will
not be prevented ; nor does it in either cafe contribute to the
removal of the ooftrudion in the naial dud, the primary
and original caufe of the difeafe If the curative intention
was to procure an union of the fides of the facculus, as in
the cafe of parts feparated Trom each other by the forma¬
tion of matter or floughs, and the preflure could be made
uniformly and conilamly, poffibly it might be fo managed
as to antwer a valuable purpoie ; but as that is not th/in-
tention, the preflure, whether made by an inftrument or by
a common roller and comprefs, contributes little or nothing
toward a cure. s
'W hen the difeafe is only beginning to form, if the la¬
chrymal fac be frequently preffed with the finger, the c in¬
tents of it will be difeharged before they become acrid, and
the complaint, though ieldom to be cured in this manner
may be fometimes endured without any other affiftance.’
Trp.r' pm f - fl1™ ^ dlfeale haS advailced kr as to be in a ftate
during1 the ° 'nflam";atl011. conhderable relief may be obtained from
,fe- r.d and . lemedies as are found to be ufeful in inflammatory af-
*hird ftagei, . tlons of other parts of the body, as blood-letting, laxa¬
tives, and W diet, together with faturnine applications to
he parts affedled. But when thefe fail, and it is found that
the paffage of the tears to the note is completely obftru&ed,
as the matter, if it does not burft outwardly, mly be in dan!
fo be fSed"g U"‘krne,th’ a praftice is
i.i"an °Pcr"!,S;n '!« uPPer part of the facculiu
iachr} mahs becomes in general abfolutely neceffarv • and as
■* W0U;ili made by a leaves a much lefs difagreeable fear
iT>7
1 . ,
than that which neceflarily follows the burfting of the (Itin, Fiftula
one being a mere fimple divifion, the other a lofs of fub-Laci]^'>'n^a,,,.
fiance ; it will always be found beft to anticipate the acci¬
dent ot hurfting, by making the opening as foon as the inte¬
guments are in fuch a ftate as to threaten it.
_ For making this incifion, authors have been very par¬
ticular in their dire&ions with regard to its place, manner,
and form. But all that the furgeon need obferve is, to take
care to keep the knife at a proper diftance from the junc¬
ture of the palpebne, to begin the incifion a very little above
a lyie drawn from that jundlure toward the nofe, and to
continue it downward fo as to lay the fac completely open ;
and the belt inftrument to make it with is a fcalpel of the
common form, but of a fmall fize. If the facculus be alrea¬
dy burft, the place of opening is determined ; and the ori¬
fice may be enlarged wfith a knife, or dilated.
The incifion being made, the contents of the tumor fhoull
be moderately prefted out; after which, fame pradlitionerj
advife that the nafal dudt ftiould be fearched for by means of
a probe ; and if found, that a piece of catgut, bougie, or
lead, fhould be introduced, and kept there, its edge being
bent a little downwards till the fides of the du& are fleinned
over and healed. In the mean time, the fore is to be drefled
with fimple pledgets of wax and oil, which are tube retain¬
ed by means of adhefive plafter. As foon as the paffage of
the tears into the nofe is fufficiently fecured, the fubftance
which has been left in it is to be withdrawn, and the wound
healed. ^
The Lift ftate of this diforder is that in which the natural during ths
paffage from the facculus to the nofe is fo difeafed as to be'a^ ^aSe*
quite ouliterated, or in which the bones are fometimes found
to be carious. ^ Fhe methods hitherto defenbed have all
been calculated to preferve the natural paffage, and to
dnve the lachrymal fluid again through it. In this attempt
th«y are fometimes fuccefsful ; but when every trial for dif- 429
covering the nafal duel has been unfuccefsful, recourfd muff Method <»f
be had to an artificial opening for the tears. In performina-making atl
this part of the operation, the patient fhould be feaced op"
polite to^a window, with his head fupported by an affif-
tant. . The furge >n is to place himlelf immediately, be-
foie him, either in a fitting or {landing pofture. The
canula of the trocar (fig. 40.) is now to be introduced
to the under and back part of the lachrymal fac, and held
with one hand, while the ftilette is to be paffed into it
by the other, in a direflion obliquely downwards and in¬
wards, between the two fpongy bones, till it reach the ca-
vity of the nofe, which will be known by fome bloody mu¬
cus pafling out at the noftril. As foon as the inftrument
has penetrated the nofe, the opening ftiould be made fuffi-
ciently large ; then the ftilette ihould be withdrawn, and
a bit of cat - ut or bougie, or what is more cleanly and con¬
venient, a leaden probe, is to be introduced, and the canula
removed. One end ol the probe ought to remain in the
noie, and the other bent in fuch a way as to hang over the
ed -e of the wound, and at the fame time be in no danger of
coming out. The fore is now to be covered with a pledget
of lint fpread with emollient ointment, and the whole re¬
tained with adhefive plafter. The probe rmift be removed
every day or two, fo as to allow it and the oailW to be
cleaned ; and at each dreffing fome aftringent injeftioii
fhould be thrown in, when the parts are to be drefl'ed as at
hrit. beveral weeks will commonly be neceffary for render¬
ing the paffage perfectly callous ; but this muft depend
much upon the ftate of the parts, as well as the conftitu-
tion ot the patient.
After the pafl'age is become fufficiently callous, the dref-
imgs and ptoBe are to be withdrawn, and the parts cleared
irom any mucus with which they may be fluffed. The
S 3 ' fides '
li!.
-330
Mr Pel-
lier’s me¬
thod of
,40 S U R G
Fiftula fides of the vvoun<!, now already fufficiently contradted, are
Lachryma- to together, and covered with fome adhefive plafter.
If this be inefFeftual, the wound is to be touched with cauf-
J tic, when the cure will generally be quickly completed.
To give tone to the pans, moderate preffure. fhould fre¬
quently be made upon the fac, either by the patient’s finger
or by the machine already mentioned, and this fhould be
continued for a confiderable time. Sometimes the difeafe
returns after a cure has been made, owing to difeafes of the
conftitution, carious bone contiguous to the fore, or fome-
times to too fmall an opening having been formed. . In this
cafe a canula of gold, filver, or lead, is fometimes introdu¬
ced into the artificial pafTage, and the fkin healed over it;
by which means the paflage will afterwards remain com¬
pletely open, and no difeafe of the conftitution can ever affedb
ft. We fhall defcribe Mr Pellier’s method of performing
this operation, who has made feveral improvements on it.
The patient is to be feated, and his head properly fup-
    ported by an afliftant; then the fac is to be laid freely open
thod of ;ts jnferior part; the nafal duft is to be fearched for with
performing a probe, or with a conductor (fig. 41.) made for the
tion.0^6^ purpofe; and Pellier aflerts that he never fails in finding it.
As foon as this is difcovered, a conical tube (fig. 42.),
with a projedlion at the top, and another in the middle
for fecuring it in its place, muft be put upon the con¬
ductor, previoufly furnifhed with a comprefibr (fig. 43.),
and it ihould be of fuch a fize that the conductor may fit it
exa&ly. The point of the conductor is now to be pafled
into the lachrymal dutt ; and being pufhed in till it reaches
the noftril, which may Be known either by inferting a probe
into it, or by a few drops of blood falling from the nofe,
the conductor is to be withdrawn ; leaving the compreflbr
upon the brim of the canula, which muft be firmly prefl'ed
down with the left hand, while the conductor is removed
with the other. This being done, the compreflbr muft next
be taken out; and to difeover whether the canula be at a
proper depth, a little milk or water fhould be injefted thro’
it. If the injection pafs, it will fhow that the canula is pro¬
perly placed. If, on the contrary, any obftrudtion occur,
there will be reafon to fufpeCt that it is already pufhed too
far, and that it preffes againlt the os fpongiofum inferins ;
in which cafe the canula muft be withdrawn, fhortened, and
reintroduced as before.
The fore ought to be kept open for eight or ten days
after the operation with foft lint fpread with emollient oint¬
ment, and the whole covered with a cornprefs of foft li¬
nen fecured with a bandage. An inje&ion of milk and wa¬
ter fhould be daily palled through the canula ; and as feon
as the fore looks clean and healthy, the dreffings Ihould be
entirely removed, and a piece of court plafter laid over it.
In this ftate it is to be left to heal; but the plafter muft be
renewed, if matter appear to form beneath it. By this me¬
thod Mr Pellier finds, that fiftula lachrymalis, not depending
upon difeafes of the contiguous bones or of the conftitution,
may commonly be completely cured in two or three weeks,
which, by the ufual practice, might require feveral months*
Chap. XV. Of Jjfc Elions of the Nofe.
1 Sect. I. Of Hemcrrhagies from the Nofe.
When the means mentioned for this complaint in the ar¬
ticle Medicine have failed, recourfe muft be had to com-
preffion. Doffils of lint introduced into the noftrils are
fometimes effectual; or the gut of fome fmall animal, tied
at one end, then introduced by a probe into the nofe as far
as the pharinx, and filled with cold water, or that and vine*
fe R Y. chap. XV.
gar, and fecured by a ligature, by adapting itfelf to all tbe A“h““'
parts, and preffing equally on them, has been attended with Nofes
advantage. When thefe remedies likewife fail in their ef-
fed, a piece of catgut or wfire may be introduced through
the nofe into the throat, and brought out at the mouth ; a
piece of fponge, or a bolfter of lint of a fize fufficient to fill
the back-part of the noftril, is then to be fixed to it; the
fponge is next to be drawn back and properly applied. An¬
other is to be applied to the anterior part of the noftril and
fecured. The fame may be done to the other noftril, if it
be neceftary ; or the fponge may be of fuch a fize as to fill
the ends of both noftrils at the fame time. By this con¬
trivance the blood not finding an outlet, will foon coagulate,
and prevent any farther evacuation. »
Sect. II. Of Ozana.
By this is underftood an ulceration within the nofe, which
may be occafioned by external violence, by expofure to cold,
by imitating fubftances, or by whatever produces inflamma¬
tion in the membrane lining the noftrils. Sometimes it
arifes from venereal infe&ion ; and in this cafe the dif-
charge becomes fo acrid as to corrode, and produce caries in
the bones of the nofe. When the difeafe is local, and not
depending upon any conftitutional affedtion, aftringent folu-
tions are tound to be the moft ufeful, fuch as a decoftion of
bark or that mixed with alum. Dofiils of lint dipped in
thefe are to be introduced into the noftrils three or four
times a-day, or fome prefer the injedlion of fuch fluids by
means of a fyringe as being more effectual. If ftronger
aftringents be neceffary, a folution of ftyptic powder ought
to be ufed. At bed-time an ointment prepared with zinc
or with lapis calaminaris ought likewife to be applied. Up¬
on fome occafions the application of a blifter to the temple
has cured the difeafe.
Inftances, however, occur, where the difeharge is occa¬
fioned by a collection of matter within the antrum maxillare;
and then it is apt to refill every effort till a proper outlet
be given to it.
When the complaint is owing to venereal infedtion, the
primary difeafe is to be attended to, and mercurial prepara¬
tions are to be applied to the part; but when the bones are
carious, till thefe are removed we need neither expeCt that
the difeharge will ceafe, nor the difeafe be otherwife com¬
pletely cured.
Sect. III. Of Imperforated Nofrils.
Sometimes the noftrils are in part or entirely obliterated.
This may be owing to burns; fmall-pox; different kinds of
fores, efpecially thofe of a venereal nature ; and fometimes
it is the effeCt of original conformation, for it has been ob-
ferved in new-born children.
When any opening appears in the obftruCted noftril, it
may be readily dilated by the introduction of a furrowed
probe, and then cutting upon it in the cotnfe of the adhe-
fion : but when no paffage appears, the operator muft en¬
deavour, by means of a fcalpel, to difeover one of the nof-
tiils ; and when difcovered, it muft be enlarged by a direc¬
tor and biftoury, as in the former cafe. The other noftril is
to be treated in the fame manner. After the openings are:
formed, they might be preferved of a proper fize by the in¬
troduction of doflils of lint, which fhould be frequently
cleaned or renewed ; but metallic tubes anfwer the purpofe
better, and allow the patient to breathe freely through them
till a cure be performed. Previous to their introduction,
they ought to be covered with foft leather fpread with emol¬
lient ointment, and retained till the fores are completely
healed.
c ChAT-
S U R G
CKap. XVI.
Affe&Sons
M?>utheand^'I,AP* Of dffe El ions of the Mouth and Throat.
Throat.
Sect. I. Of the Dlvjion of the Parotid Dud.
When the parotid duft is divided, the faliva which it
tranfmits pafies over the cheek inftead of going into the ca-
vity of the mouth.
When the furgeon is called to a recent divifion of the
du&, he ought to lay the divided ends of it as exadtly to¬
gether as pofHble, and to retain them in their fituation till
they are united by adhelive plafters, or by the twilled future
if there be confiderable retraftion of the parts. But when
the portion of the duft next the mouth is entirely oblitera¬
ted, an artificial palfage mult be made into the mouth, and
an union formed between the opening and that part of the
duA which proceeds from the parotid gland. The artificial
paflage ought to be as much as poflible in the direAion
of the natural duA. For this purpofe a perforation of
a proper fize is to be made obliquely into the mouth
with the trocar (fig. 44.), from the fide of the wound
exactly oppofite and contiguous to the under extremity
of the upper portion of the duA ; and then a piece of
leaden probe of the fize of the perforator fhould be in-
.u06!!57 T?5 °f th.e canula’ and be ^ ^ the cheek
till the hues of the opening become callous; when the lead
being withdrawn, the extremities of the'artificial and natu¬
ral duAs are to be brought into contaA, and retained there
byadhefive plafter till the cure is completed. Another method
has, m a few mftances, been followed by Mr Latta (fee his
iyfem of Surgery), of introducing one end of a bit of cataut
M t} ^ °penT’ and brinSInS ft out ^ the mouth,
wh le the other is introduced a little way into the extremity
ct the natural duA, and retained by adhefive plafter till the
wound is healed Whichever way the operation is done"
Jot£n as fTK 1 and make ^3 little
^notion as potable with his lips or jaws.
Bect. II. Of the Hure-lip.
The hare-lip is a fiffure in the upper lip, very feldom in the
uncer one. it is attended with want of fubftance, and has its
name from a refemblance to the lip of a hare. In general
U is only a fimple fififure, though fometimes it is double ; in
which cafe it renders a cure more difficult to be executed.
1 here are many lips where the want of iubftance is fo great,
that the edges of the fiffure cannot be brought together, or
at eaft where they can but juft touch, and then the attempt
fhould be forborne. It is likewife improper in infants, and
ought not to be performed till feveral months after they
have been weaned, when they will have acquired more ftrength
to J|ndergo the operation, and will be lefs -liable to be at-
erfafan e V C.°^PIai"ts’ which frequently make them
cn at an earlier period of infancy.
ffioTuldPhTfeCdl’nV° the0pcrati0"’ the Paticrit» if a child,
unnn ^ WCUrK T" " knee’ or rather perhap
upon a table ; but ,f an adult, he is to be feated upon a
chair, in a proper light. The fraenum conneAing the gums
to the upper lip is to be divided ; if a fore-tooth proieA
much as to prevent the parts from being brought^roperly
hTui^hV th/fiffiL^
pS a k ' Palate,’if a fmaU portion of bone
fufted ’the o • renJ°VeLd-1 Matters beiV fo far ad-
betwe’en tL I" 15 !°rIay choId °f °ne iide of tbe fi^re
(f.p. he thumb and fore-finger, or between the forceps
(fif 46’o? hra ?a'[ °f fharp and very ftrong feifi’ars
lipfand to renl1 It3 cut off a thin portion of the
Mure, fo as toPrend e ?mei t^in? Upon thc otbcr fide °f tbe
; t0 render thc whole edges of the fiffure completely
131
Operation
for the
bare lip.
E R Y. 141
raw; by which, if tbe operation be properly performed,a piece Affe&ions
will be feparated in form like an inverted V. After the in-..of^he .
cifions have been made, the vefiels ftiould be allowed to bleed jjiroar'
freely to prevent inflammation ; and when the bleeding has ^ y
ceafed, the fides of the wound are to be brought accurately
together, and kept in that ftate by the twifted future. The
firft pin ought to be as near as poffible to the under edge of
the lip ; another is to be inferted near the upper anvle •
and if the patient be an adult, a third pin will generally be
neceffary, half way between the other two. In paQing themj
they ought to go rather deeper than half through the lip,
that the edges of" the wound may be kept properly in
contaA. An affiftant now keeps the parts together,
while the operator applies a firm waxed ligature firfl to-
the under pin ; and having made three or four turns with
it in the form of an eight figure (fig. 47.), it fhould then be
carried about the fecond, and in a fimflar way about the
third, care being taken that the thread be drawn of a pro.
per tightnefs. After the ligature is fecured, a piece of lint,
covered with fome mucilage, fhould be laid over the wound
to proteA it from the air ; and this is commonly all the
bandage neceffary. When, however, from a great want of
fubftance, the retraAion has been confiderable, fome advan¬
tage is derived from the ufe of adhefive plafters applied to
the cheeks and tied between the pins. During the time of
the cure the patient fhould be fed upon fpoon-meat, and
prevented from making any exertion with the lips, otherwife
the cure might be confiderably retarded. At the end of
five or fix days the pins may be taken out, wfien the parts
will commonly be found completely united.
In the cafe of a double hare-lip, the operation fhould be
firft done upon one fiffure ; and when a cure is completed
there, it may be done fafely upon the other.
Sect. III. Of Extirpation of Cancerous Lips.
The under lip is much more frequently attacked with
cancer than the upper, or indeed than any other part of the
0. y ' as little dependence is to be placed upon exter¬
nal applications or internal remedies, recourfe muff be had
to the knife as the only certain method of cure.
When the difeafe has not attacked anv confiderable part
of the bp, the difeafed part is to be cut out, and the wound
cured by the twifted future. The ooeration ought there¬
fore to be performed early, to allow the parts to be brought
properly together. The general fteps of the operation arc
nearly the fame as m the operation for hare-lip, and there*
^ rePeated- 11 is °nly to he obferved, that
all the difeafed parts are to be removed, taking care to make
the cut in fuch a way as will moll readily admit of the twill-
ed or hare lip future When the parts can be brought to¬
gether, the hp will have nearly the fame appearance as in
the operation for hare-lip ; but. when- the difeafe fpreada
over a confiderable part of the lip, fo as to prevent the found
parts from being united after the difeafed parts have been
removed, all that can be done is to remove the part affeAed,
fecure the bleeding veffels, and drefs the fore like any other*
recent wound. ^
Sect. IV. Of HJfedions of the Teeth, -
In dentition the gums inflame and fwellabout the partsrv
-here the teeth are af terwards to appear t the child
tinually rubbing the gums with its finger; the faliva is com*
monly mcreafed m quantity, though fometimes the contrary
happens; fometimes the bowels are remarkably coftive, tho’
more frequently the reverfe : there is generally quick pulfe
with heat, and other fymptoms of fever; and on Pfome
occafions thefe fymptoms are attended with convulfions
iiie meaiis found to jje mil ufeful here are fuch as
ars
34a
/Wic-diins
of the
•Teeth.
S tf R
»<-t raoit eftftiial in allaying irritation; at opiates, bit;',
ters, and tfpeciallr varm.l,athini.r. When theft fail, cut.
i ’ the gum by means of a fleme (fin. 48 ).
approac
C wuiii v . .
hi.va tooth, is frequently found to remove every
• £> . . 1 i i _. -  flvtnn »t mm-
Etom but tin; ought to be done earlier than it com.
nlonlv is to have the full effect Whenever the fymptoms
n-ive reafem to think that a tooth is approaching, the gums
fhould be cut freely over that part where the teeth may be
firft expected When the fymptoms recur, the operation
*33
Xferange-
jnert of tl
teeth.
‘*34
Of loofe
tcech.
fliouid be repeated. A crucial incifion is attended with ihll
more effeA ; and the bleedimOwhich afterwards takes place
is of conliderable fervice. The incifion Ihould always be
carried as far as the tooth, which ought to be fomewhat ex-
pofed; and when properly done, is frequently followed with
immediate relief. Sometimes the fame kind of fymptoms
attend the cutting of the fecond fet, particularly of the
dentes fap entiae. When this is owing to the tlneknels of
the gums, fcarifyiog gives the greateft relief; but fometimes
it is for want of room in the jaw, and then the tooth Ihould
be drawn. . ■
Derangement of the teeth happens more freqttentiy m
cthe fecond than in the firft fet, and more commonly in the
fore than in the back teeth. This may be owing to the
firft fet remaining in the jaw after the lecond have appeared.
Another caufe is a wafte of fpace in the jaw ; and a third
Is a rnal conformation of the teeth, where they are too large
in proportion to the jaw, and therefore overlope each other.
The remedy is the fame in each of thefe cafes, viz. to ex*
tradft the teeth which ftand in the way of the reft, to allow
thofe which are out of their place to come into the row, and
put on a more uniform appearance. _
The ufual method of moving teeth which are out of tne
row is, by fixing them with a ligature to the neareft teeth ;
or the fame thing is done by metalline plates or pieces or
wire. But thefe methods have not been found fully to an-
fwer the purpofe intended, though in forne cafes they may
be tifeful. When one or more front teeth are accidentally
drawn out of the jaw, they ought to be immediately repla¬
ced. When the teeth are broken over or otherwile inju¬
red, they may be fupplied with others tranfplanted from the
jaws of another perion; but this can only be done when the
fockets have been newly emptied, for after inflammation
comes on it is impracticable. In thefe cafes the inflamma¬
tion muft be allowed to fubfide, and then artificial teeth can
be readily adapted.
When the teeth are loofened by external violence, by falls
and blows, or by improper ufe of inftruments in pulling dif-
eafed teeth in the neighbourhood of lound ones, they may
a;min be made tolerably faft by prefiing them as firmly as
poffible into their fockets, and preferving them fo with liga¬
tures of catgut, Indian weed, or waxed filk, and keeping
the patient upon fpoon-meat till they are firm. When look
teeth are owing to tartar, nothing will fallen them till the
caufe be removed ; and this ought to be done early, other-
wife it will have no effe&. Frequently the teeth become
loofe from a fponginefs in the gums, often, but improperly,
attributed to feurvy. The beft remedy is fcarifying the
gums deeply, and allowing them to bleed freely ; this Ihould
be repeated till they are fully faftened. . Mild aftringents, as
( tin&ure of bark, are here attended with good effects, tho
thofe of a flrong nature will certainly do harm. 1 he mouth
fhould be frequently. wafhed with cold water ftrongly im¬
pregnated with thefe, and the patient fhould not ufe the
teeth which have been loofe till they become firm again.
The loofening of the teeth in old age cannot be remediec,
as it is owing to a wafting of their fockets, from winch the
teeth lofe their fupport. .
The teeth fometimes become yellow or brack without
G E R. Y, Chap.XVr,
any adventitious matter being obferved in them; at other
times they become foul, and give a taint to the breath, m £thj
confequence of the natural mucus of the mouth, or part, of ^
the food remaining too long about them, ft he moft fre-
ouent came of foul teeth is the iubftance called tartar, which g deani^
k-ems to be a depofition from the ialiva, and with which the the tecch.
S often almoft entirely iacrufed. When th,S fab-
fiance is allowed to remain, if mfinuates itfelf between the
rrUms and the teeth, and then gets down upon the jaw m
^ r  —4.^ irrr-i n I rm in*
fucTa manner as frequently to loofen the teeth. This in,
deed is by far the moft common caufe of look teeth, and
when they have been long covered with this or with any
other matter, it is feldom they can be cleaned without the
afliftance of inftruments. But when once they are cleaned,
they may generally be kept fo by rubbing them with a thm
piece of foft wood made into a kind of brufli, and dipped
into white-wine vinegar ; after which the mouth is to be
wafhed with common water. , , . „ . .c
When the teeth are to be cleaned by inftruments, the
operator ought, with a linen cloth or with a glove, to.
prefs againft the points of the teeth, fo as to keep them
firm in their fockets, with the fingers of the one hand,,
while he cleans them with the neceftary inftruments,
fiLT r | n° x, 2, 3, 4, I, held in the other; taxing care PM
not to ferape them fo hard as to loofen them, or to rub ofBcc™
the'enamel. This being done, the teeth fhould be rub¬
bed over with a fmali brufh, or a piece of fponge dipped in
a mixture of cream of tartar and Peruvian bark. 1 he fame
application may be made to the teeth for a few days, after
which they may be kept clean as already directed.
Tbe teeth are fometimes covered over with a thm dark
coloured feurf, which has by fome been miftaken for a wa¬
fting of the enamel, but which is only an extraneous mat¬
ter covering it. By perfeverance this may be cleaned oft
as completely as where the teeth are covered with tartar;
but it is apt, after fome time, to appear again. When this
is obkrved, the fame operation mull be repeated.
For the purpofe of applying powders or wafhes to the
teeth, a brufh or a fponge is commonly employed ; the latter
is certainly preferable, as being kfs in danger or wearing
down the enamel, or of feparating the teeth.
'Phe caufes producing toothach may be, expofure of the 0f tooiii*
nerve of a tooth, by breaking or wafting of the enamel, in-ach.,
flanimation in or about the tooth, or from fympathy when
diftant parts are affected, as the eye, the ear, the ftomac ,
or the uterus, as in time of geftation. After toothach has
once been produced and removed, it is apt to return by ex-,
pefure to cold, by taking hot liquids, by hard bodies prefleq
againft the nerve in the time of chewing, by the ufe of a
pick-tooth, &c. , i
With retpetl to the cure of this difeafe, no rule can beMe hoF
laid down which will anfwer with certainty upon all occa-cure,
lions. No remedy has yet been difeoveted which will at all
times even moderate the pain ; relief however, is frequently
obtained from acrid iubftances applied to the tooth, fo as
to deftroy the irritability of the nerves, fuch as opium, fpuit
of wine, camphire, and effential aromatic oils. When
fail, blifters behind the ear, or deftroying the nerve by the
cautious uk of llrong acids, or by a red hot wire frequent¬
ly applied to the part, have been attended with advantage..
When a black or mortified foot appears on a tooth, if it
be quite fuperficial, it may be removed ; but it it go throug
the thickuefs of the enamel, it will be more adviiabie to let
it remain. #
When a fmali hole breaks out in a tooth, particular
tention fhould be paid to prevent the admiflion of air. I ”1'
lead, or gold-leaf, commonly employed for this purpo e,
fomeUmes give rebef for many months, or even years i 711
at
CVi ap.
S U R
Aff ^ion
of the
Teeth.
xvr.
at other times are of little advantage, and in fome inftances
create great pain. Gum-maitich or bees-wax are frequent¬
ly employed, and can be made to fill the cavity of the tooth
ft ill better than metalline fubftances. When fluffing is to
be employed, it oupht to be done in the intervals of the fits
of toothach, otherwifc it will give great uneafinefs. When
it is to be ufed, the whole cavity of the tooth ftiould be fill¬
ed ; and this is to be done with the inftruments, fig. 52.
338 n'' r. 2, 3.
Method of When the remedies made ufe of for the removal of tooth-
the tooth aC^ ^aVe 'n t*ie‘r an^ ^ is found that the com¬
plaint ftill continues, it will be- neceftary to ext raft the
tooth. In doing this, it may be obferved, that all the teeth
may be pulled to either fide, excepting the dentes fapientias
of the lower jaw, whvh ought to be pulled outwards, other-
wife the jaw may be fplintered. As foon as the focket is
cleared of blood, if the tooth be not much fpoikd, it may
be immediately replaced, when it will become as ufeful as
before. It is difficult, however, to replace the large grin¬
ders, on account of their diverging roots. The more per¬
pendicularly the teeth are pulled, the Id’s contufion and in¬
jury will be done to the jaws and alveoli. But as no
mftrument has been yet invented capable of efteftinT
this properly, furgeons are obliged to be contented with
an inftrument which afts in a lateral direftion. One of
the heft is that (fig. 53’) form of a key, with a claw
and fulcrum. Previous to the operation, this fhould be
covered with a linen rag, to prevent the gum from fuffer-
ing. After dividing the gum, or feparating it from the
tooth, the claw is to be fixed as deep between the teeth and
gum as poffible. Then the fulcrum is to be applied on the
oppofite fide. . The furgeon may now, with one turn of the
handle of the inftument, pull the tooth out at once. But
the turn ffiould not be effifted by a fudden jerk, but in the
.moft cautious and flow manner. When it happens to be
one of the great molares, whofe roots diverge very much,
and when they are firmly fixed, after only loofing it with
the firll pull, the claw of the inftrument is to be aoplied to
the other tide of the tooth, and the turn given in a contrary
direftion to the firft. After it has been Efficiently loofened
in this manner, it is to be laid hold of by a common teeth
» *orcePs (hg- 54-)> anfi extrafted in .the eafieft manner. Up¬
on extraction of the tooth, any detached fplinters occur¬
ring are to be immediately removed. Should any confider-
able hemorrhagy take place, the patient may takeVome cold
water, vinegar, or fpirit of wine into his mouth, and doffils
of lint may be introduced into the foeket. After all thefe
fad, recourie muft be had to the aftual cautery.
When ft amps occur from caries, or when the teeth have
broken m tuna of the extrafting, the common key will
fometimes remove them ; if that fail, the punch (fig. c f )
is to be ufed 1 he operator, having this inftrument in one
hand, is to place the fore finger of the other, with a piece
m cloth wrap,,«1 rourdit, upon the mlide of the jaw oppo-
llte to the fTllinn- tn 1 • J e.
O E R v 1^3
ligature to fix it; but if a ligature be found neceflaiy, it Bolls and
may be made of threads of fine filk properly waxed. Af- E*crefcen-
ter the operation is finiftied, the patient ought to avoid CQ°nf1the'
whatever may be in danger of fnaking the tooth, and this Uy1‘S' f
is to be attended to till the tooth is perfeftly firm. Tie
fhould alfo guard againft: cold and moift air, and live upon
fpoon-meat.
Sect. V.
*39
Of rranf-
planting
iceth.
Of Boils and Excrefcences cf the Gums.
Gum boils may arife from cold or from external violence, Of gum
See. but moft frequently they are the confequence of tooth-k0^5*
ach. The complaint begins with pain attending a tumor
on the parts aftefted ; by degrees the fide of the face fwells
considerably ; the tumor of the gum now begins to point ;
and if it be not opened, it burfts and gives the patient im¬
mediate relief. When the boil is owing merely to inflam¬
mation, after the matter is evacuated, the complaint goes
off; but when it proceeds from a caries of a tooth, it will
continue as long as the caufe remains ; the tooth therefore
ought to be extrafted. After the abfeefs has burft, if the
matter continue to be difeharged, it may fometimes be
dried up by injefting fome aftringent liquor ; but the moft
effectual method is to lay the abfeefs-fully open, and to heal
itfiom the bottom by doffils of lint. Sometimes abfeeffes
occur or a more dbftinate nature, owing to a carious ftate of
the jaw. In that cafe fuppuration ought to be promoted,
and the part laid open as foon as matter is formed; keeping
the paffage open for the difeharge, being the only means for
effefting a cure.
Excrefcences of various degrees of firmnefs fometimes Excrcfcen-
grow upon the gums. Some are foft and fungous, while ces“l
others are of a warty nature. In general they are not at-gum*‘
tended with pain. They frequently originate from caries ©f
the teeth, or of their fockets ; in which cafe the removal of
the fpoiled teeth, and the fublcquent exfoliation of the cari¬
ous part of the jaw, will often ^ccomnlifh a cure. But
when this does not happen, the tumor fhould be removed as
foon as.it becomes troublefome, otberwife there may be dan¬
ger of its ending in cancer. The removal may be effefted
by a ligature or knife, according as the tumor may have a
narrow or broad bafis. It is fometimeg neceffary to ufe a
fpeculum oris to keep the mouth open. After the tumor
is extirpated, the wound ffiould he allowed to bleed freely
to prevent fubfequent inflammation. When the-hemorrha-
gy proceeds too far, it fhould be reftfained by the applica¬
tion of fpirit o- wine, or tinfture of myrrh, or folntion of
alum, Ac. and ffiould thefe prove unfucceisful, the lunar cau-
iric will feldom fail of having the deiired effeft. No dref- •
fings can be applied ; but for fome days after the operation,
the mouth ffiould be frequently waffled with a warm emol¬
lient decoftion ; and the cure will be afterwards promoted
by the application of fome gently aftringent liquor, as port
wine, tinfture of rofes, &c. ^
~ . , - - 1 “mu*, ui cue aw oppo- „
iite to the flump, to proteft the neighbouring parts. Sec- VL Of Ahfcejfes, &c. in the Antrum MaxMdre
leeth can never be -o T-. . .... . ^uiare
Teeth can never be tranfplanted with proprieTyffi child¬
hood or in old age. I he conftitution muft be free from
thofe difeafes which afFcft the gums. The tooth to be
tran planted mull be takca from a perfon of a found con.
Ititution, otheiwife it will convey mfeftion. To vuard as
much as poffihle aganift infeftion, it ffiould be immerftd
nnd^l T*T ^ UkeWa;m WaCer> and then dried
‘too la ^ th" locket exaftly ; if it be
n^c ags o Mm rd/OWn’-a¥“dl‘ng the
level wTthth " ft I h^furface of it ffiould be at firft on a
with the reft, or rather a little more depreffed that it
Soctotr? Pfb,C “ lOhetooth'ilt
.khe locket properly, there wffi be ho occafion for ufmg a
. J. H1 s dlfcafe 18 knowir by a pain and uneafinefs beginninr
in the cheek, and extending upwards to the eyes, nofe, and
ears together with a fwellmg, which in the latter ftages of
the difeafe tends to a point, moft frequently in the cheek.
Sometimes a dilcharge enfues between t he roots of the back-
teeth, when they happen to penetrate the antrum. Some¬
times a difeharge of matter from the noftrils takes place nm-rL .
cularJy when.the patient lies op the fide oppofite to^he tumor.
ine dlfeare . may ante Tom cold, or whatever produces in¬
flammation m general ; but the moft common caufes are
violent fits of the toothach, occafioning exceffive pain and
inflammation o^the membranes of the nofe and antrum
ihc cure is performed by giving a free difeharge to the
COE-
144
Ranuta*
P!afe
438.
S U R o
contents of the tumor: and this is done in two ways; either
bv estraftine one of the two anterior great molares, which
are fiuuated'under the antrum, and making a perforation
with a round trocar (fig. 49*) through the hottom of the
Socket; if this has not been already perforated by the tangs
of the tooth or eroded, in which cafe the matter will pais
out immediately after the extradion : or the perforation may
be made by the iuftrument reprefented in fig. 50. thro that
part of the antrum which projefts outwardly o ver the molares.
As moft people wiih to avoid the pulling ot a tooth, when
it does not appear to be abfolutely neceffary, the perforation
is commonly made in the way lait mentioned. Some au¬
thors, however, objed to this, as not giving a fufficiently
depending opening to the matter. As foon as the matter
is difeharged, a plug may be introduced into the perfora¬
tion, which may be removed frequently to. allow the matter
to pafs out, and to admit aftringent folutions of bark, &c.
to be occafionally thrown into the cavity of the antrum. I n
this way a cure is obtained, if the bones be found ; hut “
they are carious, it is impoffible to exped a cure till the
difeafed portions of the bone exfoliate and .be removed.
When cloated blood is formed in the antrum, it is to be re¬
moved in the fame manner. Sometimes the tumor of the
cheek is owing to a fwelling of the bones, and no matter is
found in the antrum : In that cafe the operation does harm.
No external application has yet been difeovered for removing
; fuch a fwelling, though a long continued courfe of mercury
has been found to be of fome fervice.
E R Y.
Sect. IX. Divifion of'Funum Ltngutt.
Chap. XVI,
Divifion o|
. ... Fnenum
•Sometimes the frsenum linguae extends to the point*of Lingu*.
'the tongue, and tying it down ‘f whereas, in the natural ftatc, V""
it ends about one-fourth of an inch farther back. When
-this is the cafe, it is to be divided, guarding againfl wound-
nng the neighbouring vefiels, or the ends of the lalivary
"duds. The divifion may be made with a common fcalpel,
but ft ill better with a pair of very fliarp feiflars with bhuit
^ The child being laid acrofs the nurfe’s knee, the furgeon
(hould open the mouth, and raife the. tongue with the two
firft fingers of the one hand, while with the other he intro¬
duces the feiffars, and divides the fraenum in the middle,
and as tar back as is neceffary.
Sect. X. Of Enlargement of the Tonfilt and Uvula
Hi
Sect. yil. Of Ranula.
This is a tumor under the tongue, moft frequently owing
- to an obftrudion in one of the falivary duds. Sometimes it
contains matter like the fynovia of the joints, fometimes a
fatty matter, now and then ftony concretions, but moft; com¬
monly a fluid like faliva. It often acquires fuch a fize as
to prevent fucking in infants, or maftication and fpeech in
adults. When the perfon attempts to fptak, he only
, makes a croaking noife: hence the name of the difeafe.
The beft mode of treatment is to lay the tumor fully
open by means of a fcalpel or large lancet, to evacuate its
contents completely, and then to wafti the cavity with any
mild fluid, as milk and water. If the fore be difficult to
heal, tindure of bark or other aftringents may be ufed.
When the tumor is obferved to be filled with a fatty or
any other firm fubftance, it ought to be removed entirely.
The only application neceflary in the time of the cure, is
the frequent injedion ot milk and water, or any other mild
fluid, by means of a fyringe.
Sect. VIII. Ulcers •within the Mouth*
When ulcers of the mouth arife from a general affedion
the fyftem, this muft be removed before a cure can be ex-
peded. When they originate from fliarp points in the
teeth, thefe are to be filed off, and fome aftringent folution
taken occafionally into the mouth. Notwithftanding thefe
-and other remedies, the fores fometimes becomes worfe, dif-
charging a thin fetid fanies, attended with much pain, and
putting on every appearance of cancer. In this fituation, ex¬
tirpation is the only thing that can effed a cure. If the
fore be only fuperficial, it may pretty readily be extirpated;
but when deep-feated, it may fometimes be neceffary to cut
through the whole fubftance of the cheek, and heal the
fore by the hare-lip future. When the tongue is the fub-
jed of operation, the operator ought to be ready to take
up the bleeding vcffels by the tenaculum or the needle. A-
dong with ligature, it may be neceffary' to ufe aftringent
gargles, or a mixture of vitriolic acid in water. If thefe
JLail, the potential or even adual cautery mull be ufed.
The tonfils fometimes grow fo large and hard as to be-My
come incurable, and even to threaten fuffocation. The™
tumors here have been commonly confidered as to be of
feirrhous nature ; but they are neither attended with {hoot¬
ing pain, nor are they apt to degenerate into cancer ; neither
do fwellrngs return after the tonfils have been extirpated:
hence they ought not to be removed till by their fize they
impede deglutition or refpiration ; but whenever they do
this, they may be removed with fafety. The only proper
method of removing them is that by ligatures, which are
not only void of danger, but feldom fail to perform a cure.
If the bafe of the tonfil be fmaller than the top, the liga-
ture is to be ufed as for polypi in the throat; but however
broad the bafe of it may be, much difficulty will feldom oc¬
cur in fixing it, for the fwelling is always very prominent.
In difeafes of this kind both tonfils are generally affe&ed;
but if the removal of one of them forms a fufficient paffage
for the food, the other may be allowed to remain. When,
however, it is neceffary to extirpate them both, the inflam¬
matory fymptoms produced by the extirpation of the firfl
ffiould be allowed to fubfide before any attempt be made
to remove the other.
When the form of the tonfils happens to be conical, fo
that the ligature would be apt to flip over their extremi¬
ties, Mr Chefelden has recommended a needle (fig. 56.),
with an eye near the point: a double ligature being put
into the eye, the inftrument is to be puftied through the
centre of the bafe of the tumor, and the ligature being.laid
hold of by a hook and pulled forwards, the inftrument is to
be withdrawn ; then it is to be divided, and fo tied that
each part may furround one half of the tumor. This method
however is fcarcely ever found to be neceffary.
Enlargements of the uvula, from inflammation or
other caufes, may generally be removed by the frequent ufe
of aftringent gargles, as of ftrong infufions of red rofe-leaves
or of Peruvian bark. But when thefe fail, and the enlarge¬
ment is fo conliderable as to give great uneafinefs by impe¬
ding deglutition, irritating the throat, and fo caufing cough»
retching, and vomiting, extirpation is the only thing upon 1(1
which any dependence can be placed. Excifion is the rea-j7«irpi^
dieft method when the uvula is only elongated ; but whenoftnet-
the fize is confiderabk, dangerous hemorrhagies fometimesk
attend this method; on which account a ligature is pre¬
ferable. The operation may be readily performed by thofe-
of the common kind; iome prefer the curved probe-pointed
biftoury. ,
In performing the operation, the fpeculum oris (fig. j?-/
is neceffary to keep the mouth fufficiently open, and the
uvula fhouid be laid hold of by a p*ir of forceps or a final
hook, fo as to keep it firm, and prevent it from falling int0
the throat. After the operation, if the bleeding be con/v
derable, it may be checked by aftringent gargles, or by
touch-
Chap XVII. S U R
Scarifying touching the part with lunar cauftic ; but this will feldom
ine! tiri r neceiFary.
the' Throat. When a ligature is to be employed, it may be readily
» y— done according to the method recommended in the extir¬
pation of polypi. A double canula with a ligature may
be paffed through the nofe, or the ligature may be applied
according to Chefelden’s method in extirpation of the ton*
Ills.
Imperfora¬
ted mea¬
tus audito-
i'ius txcer-
nus.
i r 246
(Extr^ne-
«us bodies
impaled
! ia the ear.
Sect. XI. 0/fcar'ifymg and fomenting the Throat.
Is inflammatory affe&ions of the throat, the means com¬
monly employed are gargles, fomentations, fcarification,
or top-bleeding. Gargles are ufeful for cleaning the fauces
from thick mucus or other, fordes; they may likewife be
ufeful in cafes of ulceration. In relaxation of the parts,
they are emnloyed to advantage when made of allringeat
materials. Fomentations may be of forne ufe when exter¬
nally applied ; but the fleam of water, &c. drawn into the
throat, by means of Madge’s inhaler (fig. c8.), is preferable.
Sometimes it is neceflary to draw blood from the part af¬
fected. Here recourfe may be had to fcarifying with a
common lancet, the tongue being depiefied with a fpattila.
It may be (till more readily done by the fcarificator (fig. 59).
After a fufficient number of puntlures have been made," the
flow of blood may be promoted by the patient’s frequently
applying warm water to the punftures. When abfeefs forms,
notwithftanding the ufe of thefe remedies, the matter may
be difeharged with the icarificator already mentioned.
Chap. XVII. Of Difeafes of the Ear, and Operations
performed upon it.
Sometimes a thin membrane is fpread over the mouth
of the external pafiage, while at other times a confiderable
pai t of the paflage is filled up with a flefhy looking fub-
ftance, occafioning deafnefs. When the firft cfrcumftance
occurs, the flein is eafily divided by a limple incifion, and
the accretion of its fides may be prevented by a doffil of
lint or a bit of bougie inferted between the edges of the
wound, and daily cleaned and returned till the part be render¬
ed callous.
When the other caufe is prefent, the incifion muft he conti¬
nued cpniiderably deeper, till the reiiftance be removed, or
till the inflrumerit reach near to the membrane of the tympa¬
num, when the operator fhould defifl, left the membrane
fhould be wounded ; then the lame kind of treatment may be
followed as in the former cafe. The proper time for perform¬
ing the operation is when children ufually begin to (peak ;
for previous to this the patient may be too weakly to bear
it, and artei this Ipeech would be impeded.
Sometimes the meatus externus is entirely wanting in
the temporal bone. 1'or this an opening through the maf-
toid procefs has been propofed ; but the operation has not
been performed, at leaft in this country.
Children fometimes pufh hard bodies into their ear, or
different kinds of infeCts occafionally creep into it, fo as to
caufe coniiderable uneafinefs. Subftances lying near the
outer end of the paffage may generally be extrafted by
the fmall forceps reprefented in (fig. 60.) ; but round, hard
bodies iituated deeper in the paflage are more readily re¬
moved by a crooked probe. When infeds are deep feat-
ed in the ear, they ought firft to be killed, by filling the
paffage with oil, or any other fluid which proves noxious to
W'thGut, hl?rtln3 the tympanum. They may then
of a fyrJnge Ut by inJe<ftin§ warm water frequently by means
Wvnl3 vv nVn0 moft fre(Iuent caufe8 of deafnefs, and
* ol. Avill. Fart I.
G E R Y. r4y
it may be readily deteded by looking into the ear in a clear Difeafes of
funftnne. Ear.
Various methods have been propofed for removing wax
from the ear ; but one, not inferior to any, is to throw in fre-of fupera-
quently, by means of a lyringe (fig- 61.), warm milk andb ndance
water, or water in which a little foap has been diffolved. wa!C
Affiftance may likewife be given here, by uling along with111 tiltiear-
the injedion a blunt probe or fine hair pencil, by which the
bottom of the paffage may be cleared out. After the wax is
removed, the patient ought to guard againit the effeCts of
cold by introducing a little wool forfome time into the meatus. 248
When deafnds is owing to a deficiency of wax in the ear, Deficiency
a little oil of almonds, or even oils of a hotter nature, orofwax-
foap, or galbanum &c. have been of fervice. 249
Purulent matter is now and then formed in the ears ofA dTcharge
adults, but ottener in thole of children. Sometimes it is£fj,™a?:jer
produced by ulcers fituated in the lining of the meatus, 112
or upon the membrane of the tympanum. It feems to-
be merely a local affeCtion, and does not, as many have
fuppofed, originate from morbid humours of the fyftem.
The remedies bell calculated for removing it are fuch as
a>-e of a moderately aftringent nature, as a weak folution
of faccharum faturni. A little of this may be dropped in
two or three times a-day, but it is ftill better to ufe a fy-
ringe. If the difeharge has continued long, it may be
proper, in addition to the other applications, to keep open
a imall blifter for 1'ome time in the neck, arm, or wherever
it may be thought moft convenient.
It fometimes happens, particularly in old people, that,
from expofure to a ftream of cold air, the tympanum becomes
affefted, and a noife is heard by the patient like the rulhing
oi water. In other cafes the’patient is incapable of accu¬
rately diftinguithing the words of feme perfons fpeaking in
a loud tone of voice ; or, in mixed companies, he hears on¬
ly a confufion of founds. Complaints of this kind frequent¬
ly originate from a relaxation of the foft parts of the tym-
panuni; and though a complete cure is not very frequently
performed, yet coniiderable advantage is fometimes derived
from the ule of hot ftimulating oils,andfrom keeping the part
warm at the fame time with a little wool. When deafnefs
arifes from affections of this nature, fome afliftance may be
derived from collecting the found, fo as to make a ftronger
imprefllon upon the internal ear. A variety of inllruments
have been invented for this purpofe. Some ufe a convoluted
tube as is reprefented in fig. 62, (fee Trumpet); others
a fort of cup, fig. 63. which is concealed under the hair,
and fixed to the head with (traps.
In fcrophulous habits, fuppurations fometimes occur in
the neighbourhood of the ear, and penetrate into the exter¬
nal paflage, or into the tympanum itfelf; after which it is not
unulual for the fmall bones of the ear to lofe their connec-
t»ng membrane, and to be difeharged along with the matter,
and for caries to enfue in the tympanum ; in confequence of
which a high degree of deafnefs is produced, which can never
be removed. In fuch a fituation little die can be attempted
than to preferve the parts clean and free from fmdl, which
is readily done by injeCting a little warm milk and water
morning and evening by means of a fyringe. If this be ne-
gleCled, the matter from the carious hones is apt to become '
offenlive ; and it commonly continues till the difeafed parts
are either diffolved and difeharged, or probably during the
life of the patient.
Befides the affeClions which may arife in the meatus exter-
nus, and maybe the caufe of deafnefs, others may occur innf rhe Eu-
or about the meatus interims or euftachian tube, whichflachian
may have in part the fame effed, though by no means intjbe'
the fame degree. Inflammation and its confequences may
originate
U R
g S
Tht Wry oricinate in the cavity of the tube, or fwtlbngs or ulcers
‘K. 7 -"Srihroat may Jc& it fo as to oaufe fome degre of
  , deafnefs When this is the cafe, it is practicable to mt -
duce a pipe, fig. 64- crooked at the extremity, through
the mouth or nofe, and then to injeft into the mouth of the
euilachian tube any mild fluid which may be thought hmft
for the purpofe, though no great dependence is to be p.attd
v<. "Tormerlv piercing the lobes of the ears was fometimes
of P"h'ri''..ornmc,1,l,(]l„ complaints of the head, and was confldered
lobe, ■tthcas a chirurgical operation; blit it is now never pradtifed,
eats.
Iinlefs for the fake of ornament. As the fubftances fufpend-
cd at the ears are fometimes fo heavy as to tear down the
rarts, the perforation Ihould be made as hijh on the lobes
Scar’ be done with propriety, and care ihould be taken
that the perforations be made exactly m the corre ponding
parts of the ears. Previous to the perforation the lobes
may be marked with ink ; then the patient being featen,
the lobe of the ear ihould be ftretched upon a piece of cork
tne lope oi uic i . t Ar-
placed beneath it, and perforated with an inftrument, $•
The cork is then to be withdrawn with the point of the in-
i lie COTK In rucii   c, , ri
ftrument flicking in it: A fmall piece of lead, or filver, or
■rold-wire, is now’ to be inferted into that part of the inurn¬
ment which remains in the ear, and on being drawn into the
perforation, the wire is to be left in it. By rubbing it with
oil, and moving it daily, the paifage will foon become callous,
and fit for receiving the ornament intended for it.
Chap. XVIII. Of the Wry Neck.
252
Elites of
wry neck.
Wry neck may be owing to different caufes ; as con-
traaion of the flcin in confequence of burns, or other kinds
of fores ; relaxation cf the mufcles of one fide of the neck,
particularly the maftoid, while thofe of the other fide con¬
tinue to aft wdth vigour ; preternatural contradlion of the
mufcles of one fide of the neck, the others having their
ufual power ; or, a bend in the vertebrae of the neck. _
When the difeafe is owing to a contraction of the flan,
this is to be divided through the whole of the contracted
part, guarding againft cutting the external jugular vein.
Treaiunen?.When the contraaion of the maftojd muicle is the caufe of
the difeafe, the mufcle fiiould be divided by gentie itrokes,
io as to run no rifle of wounding the great veffels fituated
under it. When an incifion is made either with a view to
divide the mufcle or the fkin, the head is afterwards, by means
of a machine (fig. 66.), to be kept in a proper pollure during
the cure until new granulations form andfill up the empty fpace.
When the difeafe is merely owing to a curve of the bones of
the neck, the fame kind of machinery may be ufeful with that
recommended for cure in the other parts of the fpine. But
fometimes the difeafe arifes from an affeaion of the bones
of a more ferious nature. Here the difeafe in the vertebne
commonly begins with a flight pain, which gradually be¬
comes worfe, and the head is turned over to the found fide.
As the difeafe becomes worfe, a fulnefs can be obferved
very painful to the touch; and moving the head becomes
fo dittreffing as to be almoft impra&icable. The only me¬
thod which has been found to be effe&ual in this cafe, is
the infertion of a pea-iffue on each fide of the tumor, and
retaining it till the pain and itiffnefs are entirely removed.
Chap. XIX. Of Bronchotomy and Oefophagotomy.
354
Broncho*
tomy.
The operation of bronchotomy is an incifion made in the
trachea, to make way for air into the lungs, when refpira-
tion is obftrudted to fuch a degree that life is in danger.
If the patient’s breathing be already flopped, the operation
ought to be done with the greatell expedition ; uiing any
G E R V. Chap. XIX
inftrumeot which will mod readily make an opening in the «roKh!%
trachea, as the delay of a few moments will often put
period to the perfon’s exiftence. Experience has fhown,^ S01*
indeed, that in by much the greater number of cafes, by a —^
total iloppage of reflation for only five or fix minutes, life
is irrecoverably deitroyed.
In performing the operation, where, from die nature of
the cafe, fufficient time is allowed, the patient is to be
laid on his back upon a table, and properly fecured by af.
fiftants. A longitudinal incifion is to be made, about an inch
and an half long, through the flcin and cellular fubdance ;
beginning at the under edge of the thyroid cartilage ; the
flerno-hyoid and thyroid mufcles arc then to be feparated;
the thyioid gland is to be avoided as much as pofiible, on
account of its vafcularity. As foon as the. trachea is
laid bare, the bleeding-veffels, to prevent coughing, are to •
be fecured ; then, with a common lancet, a pun&ure is to
be made as high as may feem pra&icable between two rings
of the trachea, of fuch a fize as to admit the introduftion
of a double canula (fig. 65.), large enough to allow the
patient to breathe freely, and of Inch a length as neither
to be in danger of flipping out, nor of irritating the back
part of the trachea. Such a canula has long been recom-
mended by Doctor Monro in his courfe of furgery. Pre.
vious to the introdu&ion the canula may be put through
feveral plies of linen comprefs ; or thefe may be full flit
half way down, and applied fo that any of them may
be removed and replaced at pleafure. I his double Ca¬
nute is to be fixed by a flrap round the neck ; and when
mucus obftru&s the pafiage of the inftrument, the inner
tube can be withdrawn, cleared, and readily replaced ; while
the patient is, during this time, breathing through the outer
one ; and by means of a ferew the tubes can be regulated
according to the motions of the trachea. After the canula
is fixed, it ought to be covered with a piece of muflin or
crape, to prevent the admifiion of duft, mfeils, &c. As
foon as the caufes inducing fuffocation are removed, the
canula is to be withdrawn, and the flcin immediately brought
over the orifice, and retained there by a flip of adhefive
plafter. . 5Ji
By ccfophacrotomy is underflood the cutting open the
oefophagus, to allow fubflances flicking in it, and which^
cannot be extra&ed otherwife, to be removed. It is only to
be done, however, in cafes of the moft extreme danger, as
it is attended with much hazard ; and there are only two
in (lances yet on record of its having been performed with
fuccefs, though there are feveral inftances of wounds in the
cefophagus being healed. ri he operation may be rendered
neceflary, where ebllru&ions of the oefophagus become fo
complete as to prevent the paflage of nourifhment into the
flomach, or of air into the lungs. But it is evident, that
when the obflruAing caufe is in the under end of the oefo*
phagus, any incifion becomes ufelefs.
In performing the operation, the patient is to be fecured
in the fame manner as for bronchotomy, and an incifion
made through the fkin and cellular fubflance as direftly
oppofite as pofiible to the part obftrudled. If it be done with
a view to remove an obflrudlion, the mufcles over the
trachea are to be pulled to one fide, and the trachea to
the other, by means of a blunt hook ; by which the cefo¬
phagus will be brought into view. If the obllrudled part now
come in fight, the incifion is to be made diredlly upon the
obftrudting body, which is to be extradled by a pair offma'*
forceps; but if the obftrudlion happen to be farther down
than we can with fafety have accefs to the cefophagus, the
incifion is to be enlarged as much as poffible, that the
forceps may be able to reach and extradl it. When the
operation is performed, the wound will be difficult to
Chap,
Sore Nip.
pies,
XX, SURGERY. t47
heal, as the Tides of it will be frequently feparated by dropfy in other parts of the body ; but the affe£iidn is often Pancen-
the action of deglutition. On this account as great a de- local, and it is then chiefly that advantage is to be derived of rlle
gree of abftinence as poflible is to be advifed ; and nothing from an operation. Befides, in the two great cavities of, °rax‘
but nourifhing liquids, in fmall quantities, are to be allowed, the thorax, colledfions of water* are frequently met with in
The patient flrould be prevented from moving his neck; and the pericardium, and are faid to be fometimes dilcovered
the wound is to be healed as foon as poffible by the fame between the layers ol the anterior mediaftinurn. The dif-Svmpt img
              „7   fame
methods which are uled with wounds in other parts of the
body. On the other hand, if the operation has-been done
for the purpofe of conveying nouriflrment into the ftomach,
when the patient was diftrefled by a tumor either in the
cefophagus itfelf or in fome of the neighbouring parts, it
will be neceflary to keep the wound open during the con¬
tinuance of the tumor, or the life of the patient.
Chap. XX. Of Sore Nipples.
Women are more generally affedted with fore nipples in
fuckling their firil child than at any period afterwards. This
may, in fome meafure, be owing to the fimllnefs of the nip¬
ples ; but very o'ten it arifes from their being unaccuftomed
to the irritation of fucking. In fome cafes, the nipples are fo
flat, and fo much funk in the bread, as to render it difficult
for the child to lay hold of them. Here affidance can
fometimes be given, by the mother preffing back the pro¬
minent part of the bread, fo as to make the nipple project
between two of her fingers. Should this be infufficient,
the nipple may be made to projeft by applying to it a dout
child feveral months old : but when this cannot be done,
bread-glades, fuch as fig. 68. may anfwer the fame purpofe.
By applying thefe to the nipple, and fucking out the air,
the child will commonly be enabled to lay hold of it.
The nipples at this time are liable to excoriations,
cracks, or chops; which, though not attended with a for¬
midable appearance, are frequently more didreffing than
large ulcers. Mild, adringent, and drying applications
are mod to be depended upon in fuch c'omplaints; r.s
port wine, brandy properly diluted, or lime-water; all
ot which ought to be applied warm. After bathing the
parts with any of thefe, the nipple diould be covered with
unguentum nutritum, or Goulard’s cerate ; the fird of which
is confidered as bed. Even a little foft pomatum fre¬
quently rubbed upon the part, and covered with a foft linen
rag, is fometimes found to give conlideiable relief. But
the nipple diould be perfe&ly cleared of thefe applications
before the child is laid to the bread ; and this may be
done with a little port wine, or equal parts of brandy and
vinegar. If proper attention be paid to thefe remedies,
they will commordy be found to have the defired effeft ;
— -      J   — - V. V..» i. - U V i 11 V, HILO
eafe is marked by the following fymptoms : There is a ienfe?f fillids be-
of weight or oppreflion in the thorax, and difficulty of‘"s c0'^-
breathing ; the patient has frequently a more uneafy fen-e ’
fation in one fide than in the other ; has fudden dartings
du ring deep, with a fenfe of fuffocation ; is troubled with
a frequent dry cough ; the pulfe is fmall and irregular;
the fkin diy, and the urine fcanty.
With thefe fymptoms there are commonly other marks
of dropfy; and the patient fometimes, upon any fudden
motion, is ienfible of an undulation within the ched ; and
when the quantity of water is confiderable, the undulation
will even be heard by the bydanders, if the body be fmartly
agitated. For this purpofe, the patient’s body fliould be
uncovered while under examination ; and the furgeon fhould
place his hand upon the bread near the dernum; then an
affidant ought to raife the patient fuddenly from an hori¬
zontal to an eredt podure, or to fland behind the patient
and make fudden jerks; when, if water be prefent, the
undulation will be felt ; but it is neceffary to guard againd
being deceived by the nolle fometimes made by the contents
of the domach.
When the water is collected in one fide only, if the
difeafe be of long danding, for the mod part that fide is
more prominent than the other. If the water be in the
pericardium, the fymptoms are nearly the fame as thofe
above enumerated, with this difference, that the pain is ge¬
nerally felt behind, and to the left fide of the dernum ;
and the droke of the heart is as if buried in water, while
an undulatory motion has been faid to be felt oppofite
to the anterior extremities of the child, fourth, and fifth
libs* 8
In the treatment of this difeafe, little advantage can be internal re¬
derived from internal remedies. Squills, cream of tartar, medics of
mercury, and digitalis, are upon fome occafions attended^tt^ea^va:i"
with advantage ; but the only method from which we cantase*
expedt any degree of fuccefs is the removing of the water
by an operation, which Ihonld be performed as foon as
there is reafon to expedt that danger may arife from delay-
ing it longer. The operation is done in the fame way as
ffiall be afterwards deferibed in the cafe of empyema.
Blood colledted in the thorax is always extravafated thro’
fome wound or rupture of the veffels of the lungs or thorax, leded in *
, ' - - -  j    'vuvio vi lungs ur uiorax. lecled in
but it the contrary thould happen, another remains to be. The breathing becomes oppreffed, the motion of the heart the thorax.
in i fri-i v f rs 4- , f 1. —  “  .  .1  .  '  TT _ 1 1 _ 1 * 1 * 11 , —
-156
l Fluids col-
) leded in
. the thorax.
mentioned, which, in different inttances, has given great
relief: it confifts in the application of a thin /kin to the
nipple, as the neck and part of the body of a fwine’s
bladder with an aperture in it; which, being properly
moiftened and fixed to the breaft, will completely pro-
tedf it in the time of fucking. As long as the nipples re¬
main any way affeaed, fmall cups of glafs or tin are ufeful
for retaining the dreffings, defending the nipples from the
fridion of the clothes, and receiving any milk which may
fall from the breaft.
Chap. XXL Of Paracentefis of the Thorax.
When either the aaion of the heart or of the lunn-s is
impeded by fluids colkaed in the cavity of the pleura, a
difeharge of thefe fluids by a perforation is the only chance
the patient has for relief. The fluids which collea in the
pleura are, ferum, blood, air, or pus. A cofledion of water
«r ferum is frequently found in the thorax, combined with
and arteries feeble and irregular, and all thcle fymptoms
are more diftreffing than colled ions of other fluids. As
it frequently happens, in cafes of this kind, that fome of
the veffels of the lungs are injured, part of the blood is
thrown up by coughing ; which, when confiderable, gives
a temporary relief to the lungs and heart; and while this
is the cafe, no operation is neceffary; but whenever the
adion of thefe parts becomes much impeded by a great ac¬
cumulation of blood, a perforation ought to be made to
difeharge it. When the extravafated blood is too firmly
coagulated to pafs off by a perforation, the wound ought
to be.made confiderably larger ; and if this be infufficient,
injtdions of warm water ought to be thrown in, and allowed
to remain for fome time, to promote the diffolution of the
mais, which is afterwards to be evacuated. If the extrava-
lation has been occafioned by a wound in the lower part of the
thorax, a new perforation will be unneceffary ; an enlarge¬
ment of the wound will be quite fufficient. But if it be
fituated in the upper part of the cavity, a perforation in the
2 middle
148
Paraccn-
tefis of the
Thorax.
260
Air rolteft
ted in the
thorax-
SURGERY. Chap. XXI.
, , , x Anr.p nnon the part where the colle&ion is fuppofed to be Paracen.
mi-ddle and lateral part of the thorax ought to be made, done upon the p r , , _ , .u. tefu.f.,.
1 r jTn or a rin
i6t
Emphycm
or pus col-
}e£led in
the thoiax
that the blood may be freely difcharged. ^ In cafe ofanb
being fraftured, or a veffel ruptured, the inciiion ought to
be made as near as poffible to the part affefted, to allow the
blood to efcape, and loofe pieces of boner, to be removed.
The difcharge of air into the cavity of the thorax pro¬
duces fvmptoms little lefs alarming than thofe proceeding
from the effufion of blood. In general they are, opprefhon
in breathing : a tightnefs of the breaft, attended with pain ;
inability to breathe in the recumbent p oft are ; afluftnng
and fwelling of the- Face ; a feeble, and at laft an irregular
nulfe : The extremities become cold, and cola fweats break
out on the forehead. With thefe fymptoms there is fre¬
quently a fwelling over the external parts of the body, by
air getting from the ruptured lungs into the common cel¬
lular fubftance ; and all thefe complaints increafing, _ the
patient, if not quickly relieved, foon dies; fometimes in a
few hours, with roai ks or fuffocation. ^ til u
Air may be produced in the cavity of the thorax by
wounds in the lungs, by mortification generating air in
any of the thoracic vifeera, by evofion of ulcers, by lacera¬
tion in confequence of fradure in any of the bones of the
We diftinguiih this from other colle&ions by the hidden
<Tnprefiion in breathing, by the fiuftiing of the face, by no
blood being thrown up, and by the emphyfeniatous iwellsng
of the cheft and other parts, which has a crackling noile upon
being preffed. _ . . r 11
The treatment of this complaint confifts in making Imall
pundures in the afftaed part of the fldn, fo as to allow the
air to efcape from the cellular fubftance ; and if the air (halt
have fpread to diftant parts of the body, it will efcape moft
readily by fuch openings. But if this give no relief to the
opprefl'ed breathing, paracenteiis ought to be performed.
In former times, patients labouring under fuch fymptoms
were almoft conftantly left to their fate. Within thefe few
years, however, fome cafes have occurred where the patients
have been completely relieved by an operation being per¬
formed. This is done in the fame way as in the evacuation
of other fluids.
purulent matter is more frequently collefted in the tho¬
rax than any other fluid : it is much moie iiequently fotm-
ed, however, than confined there. As the matter is ufually
fpit up as faft as it is generated, in the difieftions of thofe
who have died of this ipecies of confumption, much extra-
vafated pus is rarely found m the cavity of the thoiax,
though a great portion of the lungs be deftroyed. Cafes
not unfrequently occur, however, which require the opera-
thin ; and thefe may be diftinguifhed by the following fymp¬
toms ; The patient at firft generally complains of a fixed
pain in fome part of the thorax, attended with heat, quick
pulfe, and other fymptoms of inflammation ; refpiration be¬
comes opprefTed ; he is unable to lie on the found fide ;
or, if both fides be affefted, can only lie on his back ; has a
conftant tickling cough, clammy fweats, frequent rigors
or fhiverings. If thefe fymptoms be attended with an en¬
largement of the affefted fide, or witn a foft ceoematous
fulntfs there, and, along with thefe, if there be a feniible
undulation of a fluid, it may be concluded that a colleftion
of matter is formed. The matter is commonly firft formed
in the fubftance of the lungs, and is afterwards difcharged
into the cavity of the pleura, though in many inftances
large quantities of purtuent matter have been found to ori¬
ginate from an inflamed ftate of the pleura.
The operation ought to be performed as foon as there
is evidence of the colleftion. being the caufe of the op-
preffed breathing, and that there are no fig ns of this be¬
ing relieved by expeftoration. The operation ought to be
&
done upon til'--- , r
fkuated i and this may be known by the feat of the previ. '“***«
• Vw the matter beinor diltmiruiihed x-
ous pain, and perhaps by the matter being diftmgmlhed
between two of the ribs. If no matter flow, it is probably j6l
feated in the fubftance of the lungs ; but even in this cafe, Method of
fuch an opening may be ufeful, by taking off the fuppovt, ^forming
and giving the abfeefs an opportunity of burfting. It thet]
undulation of the fluid be general, the operation is to be per- charging
formed in the following manner : The patient is to be laid fluid, from
in an horizontal pofture, with the affefted fide inclining a^ thor«,
little over a table. An incifion is then to be made with a leal-
pel through the fkin and cellular fubftance, between the lixth
and feventh ribs, and half way between the fpine and fter-
num, from one to two inches in length, and in the direftion
of the ribs. '! he muffles are then to be cut through, keeping
as near as poffible to the upper edge of the inferior rib to
avoid wounding the intercoftal veffels and nerves. As there
is no occafion for the bottom of the wound being of the fame
length with the external incifion, it may be gradually con-
trafted, fo as at laft to be only about the half. The pleura
being now txpoftd, is to be divided by flight ffiatches, ta¬
king the afiiftance of a furrowed probe to prevent the lungs
from being injured, in cafe they {hall be found adhering to
the ribs. °If the contrary takes place, the fluid will rulh out
immediately upon a fmall opening being made into the cavity
of the thorax ; but if an adhefion appear, and if it be flight,
which may be known by the introduftion of a blunt probe, as
much of it may probably be ftparated as to allow the fluid to
effape. In cafe it be conquerable, the incifion is cither to
be continued a little nearer to the fternum, or an attempt
made in fome other pait. After the fluid is obiervtd to
flow, it will be proper to introduce a filver canula, fig. 69.
at the opening ; "by which means it will run more readily off,
or can be more eafily flopped in caff the patient become
faint. If the quantity of fluid be not confiderable, it may
generally be drawn off at once ; but if it be great, partial
evacuations ought to be made at different intervals, as cir-
cumftances may diredt.
The canula therefore flrould be fo formed, that by means
of a ft rap put round the body of the patient, it can be
readily fecured. Its mouth is to be fhut by means of a
cork. A pledget of emollient ointment is to be laid over
the wound ; and the whole being fixed by a napkin and
ftapulary bandage, the patient Ihould be laid to reft. 1 he
remainder may be drawn off, probably in a day or two, or
as foon as it is fuppoftd the patient can bear it. After
the fluid is carried off, the canula is to be withdrawn and
the wound healed ; or in cafe the operator be afraid _ of
bad effefts being produced upon the lungs by irritation
from the canula, though of this there will be little danger,
as the lungs will generally be out of its reach, the fkin may
be fo drawn back before the firft iucifion is made as after¬
wards to ferve the purpofe of a valve. And for fome days
alter the operation, the incifion in the integuments may be
brought oppofite to that in the pleura, to allow the matter
to run off, or to produce a radical cure by exciting a cer¬
tain degree of inflammation over the lungs and infide ox the
thorax.
After the matter is evacuated, the wound ought to be
kept open a confiderable time for the purpofe oi dilchar-
ging the matter as faft as it is coilefted. It the wound be
apt to heal up too foon, which will be known by the fymp*
toms of opprefiion being renewed, it will be proper to keep
the paffage open by tents, or to introduce a bougie or fib
ver canuia a few hours occalionally, till the fource of the
matter he dried up ; which, however, ieldom happens for a
confiderable time, and frequently never. By attending to
this circuxnftance, the patient may enjoy good health; where¬
as*
Chap. XXIT.
S U R
Paracen- aS} |,y the nei?Ie£l of it, a repetition of the firft operation
Abdomen wou^ f°on ^e neceflary.
&C»
^ ^Chap. XXII. Of Paracentefis of the Abdomen, or Tap-
ping.
This operation is an opening made into the abdomen,
in order to empty any quantity of extravafated water col-
Jefted in that Ipecies of dropfy called the afeites.
Symptoins A fluid in the cavity of the abdomen is difeoveredby the
of a fluid in fwellin^ which it produces ; by a fenic of tightneis in the
the abdo- part afrecled ; by laborious and difficult breathing, elpecially
when in the horizontal oohure ; but particularly by a fenle
ot fluctuation being.communicated to the fingers placed on
one fide ot the abdomen, while the dwelling is forcibly
ftruck on the oppofite fide. There is befides much third,
a dry fkin, fcantinefsof urine, &c. Vv hatever may be the in¬
fluence of diuretics and other evacuations in the cure of
general dropfical affedtions, they are rarely lerviceable in
local difeafes of this kind, and even the operation of tap¬
ping fcldom cures the diflemper ; but it commonly gives the
patient eafe lor the prefent time, and is attended with very
little pain.
Upon the fuppofition that nothing forbids the extradlion
j ertorming ^ie watetr> the manrser of operating is this : Having pla-
rhe opera- ced the patient in an horizontal fituation, as belt fuited to
t;on of pa- prevent fainting, and to allow the water to run freely off,
I racenteiis.  - v r .1 , . ,,
164
Man
•r of
Plate
the part to be perforated ought to be marked with ink;
and the mod approved pait for the operation Teems to be
at a point lying at nearly an equal didance between the um¬
bilicus and the centre ot the fpine of the os ilium, this be¬
ing mod out of the way of any of the vifeera, and fuffici-
ently depending to allow the water to efcape ; and as the
Ipleen is lefs frequently enlarged than the liver, the left fide
is generally prefeired. Various means have been ufed for
Applying an equal preflure in this operation. Some apply
preflure by the hands of affiftants ; others ufe a broad piece
of flannel, or other kinds of doth, flit a certain way from
each end ; then the ends are drawn by affidants till fuffici-
ent preffure is made. Broad belts are ufed by feme prac¬
titioners ; but one of the bed contrivances for this purpofe
is the bandage invented by the late Dr Monro, (flg. yc.)
Till very lately, a pundure was fird made with alancet,
tnen a trocar of a round form (fig. 71.), and with a trian¬
gular point,' was condantly ufed : but the entrance of this
indrument being always attended with difficulty and painJ
a fiat trocar is now very frequently employed ; and that in¬
vented by Mr Andree (fig. 72.) feems the bed which has yet
appealed, ’i he bandage being-new applied and drawn a
htue tight, the part to be puinffured is to projedT a little
over the edge of the bed'. 1 he operator fixes the head of
the trocar in the palm, while the fore finger direfts the
point of the indrument. He is then to pufh it forwards
tiii he is fatisfied, by the want of refidance, that the end
ot the canula has reached the cavity of the abdomen The
perforator is now to be withdrawn, and the water allowed
to flow as long as any of it can be taken off, the bandane
be.ns- from time to time pulled to favour the difehame.
But it the patient become faint, a bop for a few minutes
ffiouM be put to the difeharge every now and then, by
placmg the point of the finger upon the mouth of the ca-
raua. If any o'f the vifeera happen to flop the flow of
the water before the fwelling is much diminifhed, a blunt
probe is to be introduced, but bent at the end, led it flip
and0 : ,;rity -f the ?rbdomeri- Whtn the ferum is thick
la wgr tin tf’ U imay fometl'mes be necdrary to introduce a
* ger t-ocai than theonefirft employed. When the water does
G E R Y. i49
not flowq becaufe it is colle&ed into cids, the canula is to Paracerr-
be wu’thdrawn, and the wound covered with a pledget of-tejHut t‘ie
Ample ointment. The operation may then be renewed im-^c <:rnen3’
mediately, or on the following day, upon the oppofite fide -v »
of the abdomen, or in the mod depending part of the tu¬
mor, in whatever part ot the abdomen it may be placed.
During the operation it is necedary to keep up a pref-
fore on the abdomen, otherwife the patient w;ill be apt to
fall into faintings from the weighc on the great veffels of
the abdomen being taken off, and the finking of the dia¬
phragm fucceeding, in confequence of which more blood
flow's into the inferior veflels than ufual, the fnperior ones
are left too empty, and thus the regular progrefs of the
circulation is interrupted. To obviate this, die preflTure
mud not only be made during the operation, but be after¬
wards continued. As to the drefling, it has been already
mentioned, that the wmund may be covered with a pledget of
Ample ointment ; but between the fkin and the roller fome
• recommend a piece of flannel dipped in brandy or fpirit of
wine to be applied. 1 he bandaging in this manner mav
even have fome effeft in preventing a return of the dii-
order. When the water again collects, the operation fhould
be repeated whenever the iwelling has acquired a coniider-
able fize : and though this operation does not always ef¬
fect an abfolute cure, yet it fometimes prefcrves life a great
many years, and even a comfortable one, efpecially if the wa¬
ters have been long collected.
After the operation, practitioners advife the abdomen to
be frequently rubbed with aftringent fpirituous" applica¬
tions. I his cannot be done for the firft two days after
the operation, as it would then be imoroper to remove the
bandages ; but after that time, they may be removed daily*,
for about a quarter of an hour ; and camphorated fpirit of
wine, or other applications w'hich may have a fnnilar effect,
may be applied with ftronp- fridlion over the abdomen, the
body being kept, during this period, in the horizontal fit-n¬
ation, and the bandage applied immediately after the fric¬
tion is finifhed. ~
bometimes, inftead of water, w'e find air contained in of Ty mpa'*
the abdomen; and the inflation is of two kinds: Firft,mtes.
that in which the air is contained in the inteflines; in which
cafe the patient has frequent explofions of wind, with a
fwelling of the belly frequently unequal. Secondly, wdiere the
air is collected in the cavity of the abdomen ; and here the
fwelling is more equal, without any ccnhderable emiffion
of air. In both varieties of the difeafe the fwelling is more
tenie than where water is contained, and the belly founds
when ft ruck, and affords to the touch and preffure near¬
ly the fame fenfation as is received from a bladder filled
with air. Qr theie two diforders the former is- by much
tne moft common. Many extenhve practitioners have never
met with an inffance of true abdominal tympanites. A few-
well authenticated cafes, however, have occurred, where the
air was coliedted between the containing and contained parts
of tne abdomen. In fome of them the air was found to
have efcaped by a fmall hole in the inteftines, from which
it has been iuppofed that the other cafes were of the fame
nature. When the fymptoms become urgent, there is as
much neceffity for difeharging the air as for drawing off
tne water in cafes of dropfy. The preffure and perforation '
are to be made in the fame manner as diredled for afeites*
with this difference only, that a trocar of the very fmallefl:
fize ought to be ufed; for by it the air can be as eahly
difeharged, and the wound will heal more readily than when
a large opening is made. After the air has been extrafted,
the treatment ought to be nearly the lame as that reconu
mended in cafes of afcit.es.
CtlABi.
i$0
Hern ire in
general.
s u
Chap. XXIIL Of Hernia.
Sect. I. Of Hernia in general
a66
Deft n if'on
«•£ a hernia.
>67
Siruation
and con¬
tents of her
16 S
Their dif¬
ferent
si amts.
269
Caufes
v hich pro
rdute them
The name of hernia might with propriety be applied to
every fwelling oceaiioned by the diflodgmeut of parts from
thole boundaries within which, in a ftate of health, they
are contained ; but the general acceptation of the term im¬
plies a tumor produced by the protruiion of fome pait or
parts from the cavity of the abdomen.
The parts in which herniae ufually appear are the groin,
ferotum, labia pudendi, tlie upper and fore part of Die
-thigh, the umbilicus, and different points between the inter-
llices of the abdominal mufcles. If the fituation of luch ra-
mors be various, the vifeera which produce them are Itih
more fo ; inllances having occurred of the ftomach, pteius,
liver, Ipleen, and bladder, being found to form their con¬
tents. But a part of the inteftinal canal, or a portion of
the omentum, ate from experience known to be the moft fre¬
quent can fe of their formation. ^
From thefe circumftances of fituation and content i, ad
the different appellations are derived by which hernix are
diftinguilhed. Thus they are termed inguinal, ferotai^ femo¬
ral, umbilical, and ventral; from their appearing in the
groin, feroturr, thigh, navel, or belly. When the tumor is
confined to the groin, the hernia is faid to be incomplete,
and is termed bubonocele; but when the fwelling reaches
down to the bottom of the ferotum, the rupture is then fup-
oofed to he complete, and the drieafe obtains the name of
Jcrotal rupture, or efchlocele.
Of thefe diforders the inguinal hernia is by much the moft
frequent; next to that is the femoral. The umbilical is lel-
dom obferved in men, or even in women who have not bern
children.
The caufes which tend to the produftion of hernia in its
more ufual form are thefe:
I. The containing parts of the abdomen we know to be
elaitic and compreffible ; whatever, therefore, tends to pro¬
duce a diminution of capacity in the cavity of the abdomen,
nurft occafion a proportional degree of rifle of fome of the
contained parts being puihed from their natural htuations.
Violent coughing, crying, laughter, or great bodily exer¬
tion, are attended with more or lefs contradfion of the ab¬
dominal mufcles, and particularly of the diaphragm ; and as
the contraction of thefe mufclcs muff always diminifh the ab¬
dominal cavity, thefe caufes therefore are frequently found
to be productive of hernia.
II. Falls, in confequence of the derangement they pro-
duce in the abdominal vifeera, from the fudden and violent
fhock with which they are often attended, are not unfre*
quently the immediate caufes of hernia.
III. Perfons of a preternatural laxity of frame are very
liable to hernix. The containing parts of the abdomen,
from the want of a fufficient tone and firmnefs, are unable in
fuch people to refill on all occafions the weight of the diffe¬
rent vifeera ; and they are therefore more particularly expo-
fed to diiorders of this kind on the flighted application of
any of the caules already mentioned.
IV. Sprains are apt to induce a laxity of the part injured;
and have therefore a limilar influence in inducing hernix with
general laxity.
V. It has been obferved that the people of thoie countries
where oil is much ufed as an article of diet, are particularly
liable to hernix.
In whatever parts the parietes of the abdomen happen to
be weakeft, thele various caufes will mod readily operate
in producing hernix ; and accordingly we find, that defeents
of the bowels ufually occur only in fuch parts.
R G E R Y. Chap. XXII]
In whatever fituation a protrufion of any portion of the Hernia:in
intedines occurs, except in the cafe of the hernia congenita, general
as all the vifeera are contained within the peritonxum, a '
portion of that membrane, it is evident, mud be carried ^
down together with the parts protruded; and m eve-ofrhelet.
rv fuch inftance, it is this portion of the peritonxum which nial fac.
goes down along with the gut, that is termed the/Wi/
'lac- The fize of this fac is various m different fubjetts, and
jn different flages of the fame diforder. On the firft appear¬
ance of the difeafe, it is commonly of no very confiderable
fize, as fuch fweilings feldom acquire any great bulk at
once : but by repeated defeents of the bowels, it comes
to he puihed lower and lower, till in fome indances its
bulk becomes very confiderable indeed ; and when in this
advanced period of the diforder the fac happens to be
laid open, it is found to contain either large quantities of
omentum or intedine, and frequently large portions of each.
As the peritonxum has this property in common with
many other parts of the body, of thickening according to
the degree of any gradual extenfion applied to it, fo in ma¬
ny initances the thicknefs and firmnefs of the hernial fac are
often really adonifhing. .> 171
All the bad fymptoms which are found to occur in her-Caubf
nix, proceed, as may be readily fuppofed, either froth ob-t^
ftru&ion to the paffage of the fxces when the intedinal ca-^,.^
nal forms the tumor, or from a doppage of circulation
cafioned by ftri&ure on the ptolapied parts : fo that the at-™,
tending fymptoms, it is evident, will be always more or lefs
hazardous according to the nature of the parts fo protiu-
ded. _,
Thus, when omentum alone forms the fubdance of her¬
nial fweilings, as that organ does not appear to be fo imme¬
diately neceffary for life as many of the other vifceia, fuch
tumors accordingly are not fo frequently produ&ive of bad
confequences, at lead they are feldom in any degree fo ha¬
zardous as when a part of the alimentary canal is either pro¬
truded by itfelf or along with omentum.
Although this, however, is in general the cafe, yet it
does iometimes happen, that even an omental rupture is pro-
dudfive of no fmall degree ot danger. When a drietuie fo
complete upon it occurs as to occafion a doppage of circu¬
lation in the protruded part, mortification with all its bad
confequences mud be the certain event: And befides,. the
connexion between the omentum, domach, and other vifee¬
ra, is fuch, that a fudden defeent of any coniiderable portion
of the former fometimes brings on vomiting, hickup, and
other troublefome fymptoms : And ladly, although a rup¬
ture containing omentum only might not o^ itfelf produce
any thing bad ; yet as the paffage through which the omen¬
tum has flipped mud of neceflity continue open fo long as
that vifeus remains protruded, and as that circumftance alone
mud, fo long as it continues, render it more eafy for a por¬
tion of gut likewife to get down, this of itfelf is a lufficient
reafon for intitling even this fpecies of hernia to the ferious
attention of praftitioners.
But whatever the contents of fuch fwellings may be, as
their remaining in fome inllances for a confiderable length
of time without being productive of any bad fymptoms,
mud proceed entirely from the circulation continuing to go
freely on, notwithdanding the derangement of parts; fo,
whenever a dri&ure occurs up the protruded viicera, fo--
ficient to produce either a doppage of the circulation, or
of the fxcal contents of the alimentary canal, when a por¬
tion of gut forms the difeafe, the following in general aie
the fymptoms which accrue.
An eladic colourlefs fwelling is obferved at the part affec-Ens^
ted; a flight pain is felt not only in the fwelhng
but, if part of the alimentary canal is down, an univerfal un'tolUl,
ma.
274
£ Chap. XX11T. S U R
Hernias in eafinefs is perceived over the whole abdomen; and this pain
? , ^eneral is always rendered worfe by coughing-, fneezincr, or any vio-
—v——' j^nt exert;ioa< ']/he patient complains of naufea ; frequent
retching; can get no difcharge by ftool ; becomes hot and
reftlefs; and the pulfe is commonly fojnnd quick and hard.
When the fwelling is formed entirely by a portion of gut,
if no fasces be contained in it, it has a fmooth, equal fur-
face ; and is ealily comprdhble, but inftantly returns to its
former hze on the preffure being removed: but, in gut-rup¬
tures of long (landing, where hard fasces have colledted in
the protruded bowels, conlidetable inequalities are deleted.
When again the tumor is compofed both of gut and omen¬
tum, its appearance is always unequal, it feels foft and fome-
what like dough, and -of courfe is not fo elaftic as when
part of the inteftinal tube only is down ; for although, like
the other, it is comprefiible, it does not fo readily regain its
4 27 a former dimenfions on the preflure being taken off.
1 Nevsr hap- It will be readily fuppofed, that the fymptoms we have
f pen in o- defcribed never can happen from the prefence of omen-
| mental her tum or.[y ; p()r although ftridture produced on a portion
of omentum, even wheft no part of the inteftinal tube is
down, does now and then occafion a good deal of dilirefs,
fuch as pain in the part, (icknefs, vomiting, and twitching
pains through the whole belly ; yet no obftrudtion of the
gut ever occurs from this, and of courfe none of the fymp¬
toms ever prove fo alarming as when any part of gut is af-
fefted. If thefe fymptoms we have defcnbed as being pro¬
duced by a ftrangulated gut, are not now obviated by a re¬
moval of the ftricture which produced them, the naufea and
retching terminate in frequent vomitings, firft of a bilious,
and afterwards of a more fetid matter; the belly becomes
tenie; the pain turns more violent ; a diftreffing con-
vidfive hickup comes on ; the fever, which before was
not apparently of much confequence, now becomes very for-
miuaole ; and a total want of reft, with a verv difagreeable
ftate of anxiety, continues through the whole courfe of the
complaint.--Thefe fymptoms having gone on with violence
lor iome time, the patient is at laft commonly relieved in a
fU'.cien bom all manner of pain ; and then he flatters him-
felf that all danger is over. But indead of that, the pulfe,
from having been hard and frequent, becomes languid and
interrupted ; cold fweat breaks out over the whole body, but
tipecially on the extremities ; the eyes acquire a kind of
languor; the tenfenefs of the abdomen fublides, and the
fwelling of the part affe&ed difappears ; the teguments co¬
vering the parts, which before were either of a natural ap¬
pearance, or had fomewhat of a reddifh inflamed caft, now
acquire a livid hue, and a windy crepitous feel is diftinguifli-
ab!e all over the courfe of the fwelling. If the protruded
parts have not of themfelves gone entirely up, their return
is now in general eafdy effeaed by a fmall degree of pref-
iure, and the patient then difcharges freely by ftool ; but
the cold fweats inereaiing, the hickup turns more vio¬
lent, and death itfelf is at laft ufhered in by its ufual fore-
runners, fubultus tendinum, and other convulfive twitch-
ings.
Thefe are the ordinary fymptoms of what is termed a
Jlrangulated or incarcerated gut-hernia .* that is, when the
parts protruded become fo affeded by ftridure as to pro¬
duce pain ; and do not either return to their natural fitua-
ons on the patient’s getting into a horizontal pofture, or
be lrnmedlatdy reP^ced by the hand; of a prac-
on/vmin^r fuaT'0r a ftranKuIatcd hernia occurs, the
the removal ^ is Cvident’ ^ confift in
the Drotrulf ^ ftTnaUre whfeh Preventp the return of
protrudea parts. It is that ftriaure which ought to
be coandm<1 caufe of all the mifchief; aud udefs it
(’Sjtnpton's
of mortifi-
]cation of
the inte-
ftin e.
.ure.
G E R y. ,5r
be removed, nothing effectual can be done for the relief of Hernias in
the patient. genetal.
Various methods have been attempted by pradfitioners y T"f
for the removal of ftridlure in thefe diforders ; all of which
may be comprehended under two general heads.
I. buch as effedt a redudtion of the protruded parts, with¬
out the interpohtion of incilion or any chirurgieal operation
properly fo called ; and,
II. A divifion of the parts producing the ftridhire, fo as to
a-lmit of a replacement of the deranged vifcera, conftituting
what is termed the operation for the hernia.
The remedies to be employed for accomplifhing the firft
of thele are, a proper pofture of the patient, with the ma¬
nual afiillance of -a pradtitioner; blood-letting, ftimulating
clyfters, opiates, the warm bath, and proper application*
to the tumor itfelfi - If thefe fail, there is then no other-
means of cure left but the operation of dividing the integu¬
ments, and replacing the vifcera.
As loon as the afliftance of a practitioner is dtfired for Mediod o?
the removal of fymptoms in cafes of hernia, the firft circum-rechlcmg
llance requiring his attention is the placing of his patient
in fuch a pofture as will moft probably favour the return
the protruded parts. Placing the patient’s feet over the
fhouiders °f another perfon, while his body is allowed to
hang downwards, and caufing him to be a good deal jolted
about, has on lome occafions anlwered when other means
have failed.
'I he furgeon Ihould at the fame time endeavour to afiift
the return of the bowels, by means of gentle preffure with
his hands and fingers. In the inguinal orfcrotal hernia, this
prefiuie (hould be made obliquely upwards arid outwards to-»
correlpond with the opening in the external oblique mufele;.
111 the femoi?.l hernia it ought to be made directly upwards;;
in the umbilical and ventral hernia diredly backwards.  
i he fvvelling (hould* be gralped with one hand at the bot¬
tom, while with the fingers of the other hand an attempt is.
made to puTh gently the contents of the tumor into their
place, always obferving that the parts lait protruded be firll
reduced. This operation is by authors termed the taxis.
When the means now mentioned liave failed, no remedy-
affords more relief than blood-letting. The quantity to be •
drawn ought chiefly to be determined by. the ftrength of
the patient. J here is icarcely any difeafe, however, where
fuch large quantities of blood can with propriety be taken
from weak people. Blooding till the patient is in a ftate
of deliquium animi,. is frequently known to produce a more
effectual relaxation of the mufcles than can be done by any
other means. On. that account it is fometimes advifed in
cafes of hernia, and the pra&ice is now and then attended'
with advantage.
As an obftinate coftivenefs is commonly one of the molt
alarming fymptoms of hernia, it has been a common prac¬
tice to exhibit a variety of ftimulating purgatives both by
the mouth and anus ; but they are very feldom of much fer-
vice, and m that cafe almoft univerfally do injury, by increa-
hng not only the ficknefs at ftomach, but the tenfion and
pain of the tumor. When they are to be employed, they
ought to be thrown up by the anus. For this purpofe aloes
and other ftimulating fubftances, but particularly tobacco-
fmoke, are employed ; and although this laft remedy, which
is to be thrown in by double bellows, &c. does not always
aff as a purgative, it may be ufefully employed as an ano¬
dyne. Where an evacuation by ftool is wanted, it may in
general be readily procured by the injeftion of warm water,
in which a little Caftile foap is diffolved, in the proportion
of a drachm or a drachm and a half of the latter to a pound
of the former. Warm bathing is another remedy greatly
extolled, either by general immerfion or local application.
152
Hernlae in
generali
477
"Wh’ i! che
operation
i'or >c u-
•cingthe
iMeltme
fliould he
perfoi med
478
Method cf
perfo m-
ing it.
S U R G
by means of warm water put into ox-bladders covered with
flannel, and laid acrofs the abdomen.
To diminifh the fize of the tumor, remedies of an oppo-
fite quality from thefe have been ufed; and though by feme
this practice has been con fide red as hazardous, yet by
others, particularly by the late Dr Monro and Mr Benja-
min Bell, more advantage has been found from cooling ap¬
plications than from thofe of a different nature. Snow, ice,
or cloths' dipped in a recent folution of fal ammoniac in
water and vinegar, or cold faturnine applications, or cold
water and vinegar, have been employed with advan¬
tage. If, notwithftanding thefe remedies, the difeafe be¬
comes worfe, and no probability remains of fuccefs, the di-
viflon o! the parts producing the ftridture can alone lave the
life of the patient.
To determine the exaft time at which to proceed to an
operation, has been confldered as one of the niceft points in
furgery. In general, when every attempt has failed, and
no repetition of the former remedies is likely to lucceec:,
the furgeon ought certainly to proceed to the operation.
A few hours, even when afliftance has been early applied, is
perhaps all the time which ought ever to be confirmed in
trials of this nature. But however neceflary this operation
may be when a patient's life is in danger, as it is always at¬
tended with fome degree of hazard, it ought never to be
pra&ifed where fymptoms of ftrangulation do not exiil.
In that kind of hernia called chronic, the circulation of
the part forming the hernia, as well as the penllaitic mo¬
tion of fuch parts of the alimentary canal as have been pro¬
truded, go freely and regularly on. There are many in-
flances of larcge hernise falling down even to the bottom of
the ferotum, and continuing there for many yeais, without
producing any interruption to the ufual difcharge by ftool.
All that can be done here is, to prevent any accumulation
of faeces in the inteftine, by prelcribing a proper diet, and
the occafional ufe of gentle laxatives ,■ and obviating any in¬
convenience which might ariie from the weight of the tu¬
mor, by the application of a proper trufs or fufpenfary ban¬
dage ; to warn them of the rilk to which they are conftant-
ly liable, and to caution them againft violent exercife, parti¬
cularly leaping, and every fudden exertion. The trufs
ought to be fitted exaftly to the part for which it is in¬
tended, for without the utmoll nicety in this refpedl, it mult
always do more harm than good : for the foie purpofe of a
bandage, in cafes ©f hernia, is to prevent effedtually the fall¬
ing down of fuch parts as have been newly replaced. If
therefore th^ pad or boltter of the bandage does not bear
properly againft the opening upon which it is placed, a por¬
tion of gut may flip out, and be materially injured by the
prefture of the pad. Fig. 74. rqprefents a truis for an in¬
guinal or femoral hernia of one fide, fig. 75. a truis for the
fame difeafe in both fides, and fig. 76.a trufs for an umbilical
hernia.
We fh?.U now proceed to deferibe the circumftances to
be attended to in performing the operation for hernia in ge¬
neral. A table of convenient fize and height being placed
in a proper light, the patient tnuft be fo laid on it as to re¬
lax the difeafed parts as much as poflible, and then fecured
by proper afuftance. To leffen the contents of the abdo¬
men as much as poffible, the bladder ought to be emptied
previous to the operation. An incifion is to be made with
a common round-edged icalpel through the Ikin and part
of the cellular fubflauee, long enough to allow the krkfture
to be fully exqofed. The reft of the cellular fubftar.ee is
then to be divided with the greateft attention. 1 hat part
of the mufcle forming the ItriAure or ring muft next be laid
diftindtly in. view. A fmall portion of the protruding fiac
muft alfo be expofed j after which the directory (fig. 73. )
E R Y,
Chap. XXIII.
is to be raffed between the ring and the fac. A ftraight Hernia: ic
probe-pointed fcalpel is now to be introduced into the groove
of the directory, and by it the ring is to be dilated till the
point of the finger can Lse introduced. The finger is here
confidered as the fafeft dire&or ; for it being iafxnuated
into the aperture in the tendon.immediately above the pro¬
truded parts, the point of the knife is ealily introduced upon
it ; and by keeping the end of the finger always a little be¬
fore the knife, the opening may be enlarged to any necef-
iary extent without rilk of wounding any of the contiguous
Parts-
- Bv the eafe with which the finger is introduced, the ope¬
rator will be enabled to judge when the ring is fufficiently
dilated ; and if the ftrangulation was entirely in the ring, it
will now be evident that every obftacle to the redudiion
muft be removed, and of confequence that the prolapfed
parts may be returned with little difficulty. If the patient
be young, or if the difeafe has continued ?. conliderable
time, fuch a degree of inflammation frequently eniues in the
neck of the fac as to produce thickening and ftraitnefs ; fo
that, after the fac and its contents’ have been entirely freed
from the ftri&ure of the ring, the inteftines cannot be redu-
ced. We judge this to be the cale when, after the ftridlure
of the ring has been removed, tire parts prolapfed do not ex¬
pand into their natural fize, and farther, when they make re-
liftance when we attempt to return them. In this cafe, the
neck of the fac muft be opened with the utmoft caution, to
avoid wounding the parts within it.
If the herniary fac, under the ftraitened place of its neck,
be thin and tranfparent, and there is little or no reafon to
fufpeft an adhefion of the bowels to the fac, -tire bell me¬
thod, as Dr Monro, in his publication on the Burfie Mirco-
fae, obf^rves, will be to make a fmall hole in the fac below
the ftrifture, and then to introduce a fmall furrowed probe,
and to cut caufioufly upon it. But if the fac be thick and
dark coloured, and there is likewife a fufpicion that the
bowels may adhere to it, the eafieft and fafeft manner will
be to make the hole in the peritoneum above the ftri&nre ;
then to introduce a common probe, bent near its point into
a femicircle, with its point directed downwards through the
ftrifture into the fac ; and upon the point of it to make,
with great caution, another {mail hole ; after which we may
either cut upon the probe, or introduce a furrowed probe,
and divide the neck of the fac.
Alter this, the bowels are to be returned by preffure up¬
on the fac, without opening it farther; and the fides of the
wound in the (kin are to be brought together, and kept fo
by means of flips of adheiive plafter, though Hitches made
at the diftance of a finger-breadth from each other will ex¬
clude the air, and prevent the return of the bowels more ef¬
fectually. Over thefe are to be laid feveral fojds of char-
pee, and the whole is to be fecured by a bandage adapted to
the nature of the part. < 2‘9
The patient, upon being carried to bed, fhould be fo pla-TreW
ced as to have the part upon which the operation was per-ahef*
formed higher than the reft of his body, or at leaft as high
as the fituation of the part operated upon will allow, in or¬
der to prevent a return of the difeafe. After the opera¬
tion, opiates are particularly ufeful, and ought to be re¬
peated as circumftances may require. It is likewife ne*
ceffary that the patient be kept cool. In plethoric habits*
blood-letting is proper, together with a rigid attention to low
diet. A frequent ufe of clyfters and gentle laxatives, to
keep the belly moderately open, ought not to be negiefted.
When the conftitution has been previoufly much reduced*
inftead of blood-letting and a low diet, a nouvifhing i'eg1'
men is neceflary. The dreffings ought not to be removed
till the third or fourth day after the operation, when the
' fides
Chap. XXIIT. SURGERY. n
H2trnmi!n the Wol’ntd wiI1. ^ fou,nd adhcn‘flg together} a ligature on the found parts prevLui to the removal of Herni* i
fd ^ attention be paid to the fubfequent treatment, the thofe which are mortified j whilft the ends of the ligature ^n1er“!'
fore will be generally healed in two or three weeks. Aa being left hanging out of the wound, the furgeon has it in
foon as the wound is firmly cicatrized, a truft ought to be his power to remove them when circumftances appear to
property fitted to the part, and ihould never, on any future render it proper. Thefe ligatures on the omentum, how-
’8a ef ljfe, be laidafide. . ever, are frequently productive of bad conlequencea. No
Method of When the hernia is of long {landing, and when there is hemorrhagy of any importance ever occurs from a divifion
fhe opT’a"8 reaif°Kn t0 think adl;efion8 ^ave taken place between the fac of this membrane, even in a found unmortified date ; fuch
tion when ^nd b°weIs’ or that mortification has already begun, or that parts as have become gangrenous may therefore be freely
adhefions fornf filaments run acrofs the fac and prevent the reduction, cut off, and the remaining found parts be afterwards, with.
c°artStifi' Zr nn ^ ^ ^ ^ gUt ^ in, °Ut the ^^tion of ligatures, iafely introduced into the
VZlkn Z ° Tm entfansIed fro1? a Part of Lthe omentum being abdomen. If a veffel of any fize in the omentum has been
place. dov™’ a d'tterent method of operating becomes neceffary. divided, a ligature may be paffed above the veffel itfelf, and
Pat,?t 18 rt0 ubC P ^ ^ al[eady d,lrefted- The the ends left hanging out of the wound ; the threads may be
.,0 away at pleafure. When a rupture ha.
make the {kin tenfe on the fore part of it, while with the
fcalpel in the other he divides the {kin from one end of the
tumor to the other. The cellular fubftance is by gentle
ftrokes to be divided, till not only the ring, but the whole
length ol the fac, is laid bare. An opening is now, in the
moll cautious manner,_ to be made into the fac by flight
{cratches, to avoid hurting any of its contents.
. ^ making this perforation, which is confidered as the
mceft part of the operation, confiderable aflxftance is obtain-
ri*r\rv» >11V, ^C 1 /* 11 1 • o , . _
e<I frnm ..ffiTii 18 °°tam- which will be more convenient than any other inftruraent.
which the fibres of the fae are "to be^eeeffivelv raSand 'g
t • 1 , ri tile puiiiL or
winch the fibres of the fac are to be fucceflively raifed and
uided till an opening is made. The opening is to be en¬
larged till it admit the fore-finger of the left hand, which
ierves as a direftory for conducing the ftraight probe-
pomted fcalpel with which the fac is to' be divided through
its whole length. 0
The fac being laid fully open, the parts contained in it
ought to be examined with the niceft attention, to difeover
whether they are all found or not ; and if, upon an atten¬
tive infpeftion, it is found that they are not evidently in a
gangrenous ftate, even although they feem confiderably in-
hamed, they ftiould be immediately returned into the abdo¬
men. When adhefions take place between different parts
ot the protruded gut, the greatefl caution is neceffary in fe-
been of long duration, it fometimes happens, that from the
preffure made by the trufs, and other circumftances, portions
of the omentum are colle&ed together into hard lumps, tf
thefe be (mail, they may be returned into the abdomen with¬
out producing any inconvenience ; but if from their bulk
and hardnefs they are likely to do mifehief, they ought to
be cut off. When part of the omentum is to be removed,
it ought to be previoufly expanded and divided with feiffars,
which will be more convenient than any other inftrument.
~ r n  .r . • r . .
o r 6 V 1 i^ iiiwx Liticuj vv c
are to endeavour, by means of a needle-ligature, to conned
the found part of the gut immediately above the mortified
fpot to the wound in the abdomen already made. By this
means, when the mortified part feparates, or perhaps what is
better, when it has been immediately cut out, the fseces arc
difeharged by the wound ; and there are different inftances
where, after fuch a dilcharge has continued for fome time,
the wound has entirely healed.
But when the mortified portion of gut is of confiderable
extent, and includes the whole circumference of the intef-
tine, all that can be done is to remove it, and to draw, by
means of a ligature, the upper end of the gut towards the
under, and afterwards conned them to the inner edges of
the wound. This at leaft affords a chance of the ends of
parating them. When one oart ofT^ T W0Un°: J nis at leait attords a chance of the ends of
to anotir as not to be fepara d butwhh u ^ ^ gUi ^ br0U^ht to reuidte 5 and * unfortunately that
much better to return th^^ V ^ n0t tak^ Place’ a Paffa^ the feces will Hill
abdomen, than to run the rifle of hurting the ,Yr ? the be J5cured- AU fuch mortified parts as are to be removed
rially by ufing much force. When adhdions me ^ ^ ,mate' OL!Sht to be cut off, and the remaining found inteftine re-
the hernial fac and the gut, ^between the IT? ’i aT the °peninS in l.he ri?S. can be dilated with
turn, if the filaments producing the connection cannoTbe ganSrJnous portion flip in together with the
otherwife‘removed, as there is no oreat hazard in a‘ Pourid' 1 he parts forming a hernia being all completely
the omentum, and ftill lefs in hurting- the fac a '"n rcP accd’ v'bcn tlie ^ac m which they were contained is found
portion of thefe mnv K^d;fn.>a.j __ g . ’ . . rP ma thick, hard, and much enlarged, as in fuch a ftate no good
port;™ of .here may be dlircaed. anfretuvned with the g“
into the abdomen. When the bowels cannot be reduced
w,theafe the rmg ,s to be dilated by the blunt-pointed
fcalpel m the manner already direfted. After returning the
r„ 1° fCr "““‘Y of the abdomen, if has
been propofed by fome authors to naA ^ r " enj lt1 has 13 commonly firmly connected with the fpei
neck L fac, kitfa '“'"fr‘ 1! bchi"d’ t,“3 J13" °f “ touched.
neck of the fac, with a view of prfturing8: re^nof £
fides, fo as to prevent a future defeent of the bowels : and
have0bee°n or ^f d ^ aftUal and P°tential cauteries,
have been propofed ; but as none of them yet attempted
W been found fufficiently to anfwer the purpofe, the only
thing- that can be recommended is a well made trufs. 7
fuppuration can take place, and as its prefervation cannot
be in any degree ufeful, fuch parts of it as can be cut away
with propriety ought to be removed. All the lateral and
fore parts ot the fac may be cut off with fafety ; but as it
is commonly firmly connected with the fpermatic veffels
a5t Uiing mat can be recommended is a well mad^ tn.fa • i j ^ : V tae general iymptoms ot
Treatment When the bowels are aftually in a ftate of ra ' ^ enn^e^ated, and by a loft and fornewhat
Md.en the the returning of fuch mortified parts might be am^dT’ 'fh3 d'1 'C WC beginning 111 the groin, and defending by
bowels are the verv word   P.. ght be tended with degrees into the ferotum in men, and into th, lak.Y
Sec-t. II. 0/ Bubonocele, or Inguinal and Scrotal Hernia.
T his fpecies of hernia is formed by a protrufion of fomeo„ aS*
of the abdominal bowels through thi rings of the cxterSflS™
oblique mufcles. It is known by the general fymptoms ofceic-
hrr r,?dj 5nume!;ated, and by a loft and fomewhat
bowels are the verv wofft Vo ( PartS miSht be attended with
in a Hate ofn ff y W} oa{eq«ences, a great degree of caution is
Saflgrene> as the exrif!h f He °m.a,tu'n ™ a mortified ftate.
With much Hflr r ?°Tn °f tlusfubllaace is not attended
difeafed parts ’ f iC coPimon Pra<ftice to cut away the
miSt enfue fmm^ V° °b,fe ^“"^nience which
vql. xviii. pft rorrhagr-We a'e to iuake
, . -O ^   auu- uciccnaingf t)y
degrees into the ferotum in men, and into the labia pudendi
iu women. When the hernia contains omentum only, the
iwelling is both more loft, cornpreffible, and more unequal
than when the gut alone is down ; the ferotum becomes
more oblong than in the inteftinal hernia; and when the
quantity of omentum is large, it is alfo much more wei hty
than a gut rupture of the fame ike j but frequently the tu.
^ mor
a o*
» compofed of both Rut and omoowm, th'n *=
or Injuunal difthigulftlng fymptoms of each can never be io clearly
and Scroul , d ‘ , rr
Hernia. ma™1 may be confounded with certain other chf-
but maybl diftinguilbod by the fotlow.ng murk,
H„w 1 whieh .« prefcnt in tbofe dirotde- while the fy= o
U R G
E R Y. Chap. XXIII,
„<■ the body, and fhonld be treated in the manner wbieh H«.»l.
hM been already aireSed. As toon a8 the wound »6rm.
rtow 01- which are preicni ui mvav. - ■> . c
ftinguifhed i ja are abfent : From venereal bubo, by the prefence ot
from other 1 — - . ^ * i t * j_ -.11 CiTrr.111 n rq
tidtaies.
“comprembie hardnefs with which all fuch fweUin.s
are at firft attended, and by the fluidity of matter which m
the fuppurative date is always obfervable : From hernia
humeral is, or fwelling of the teftes, by the abfence o the
hardened and enlarged date of the tedis and epiaydimus,
and likewife of the pain, the tumor of the tedicle being re¬
markably heavy in proportion to the bulk, the fpermatic
procefs being commonly free from the fwelhng. In the her-
nia humeralis alfo the intedines are unobdniaed, and t
general fymptoms of hernia are wanting. From the hydro-
cele of the tunica vaginalis teftis, by the tumor generally feel¬
ing more fmeoth to the touch than in hernia, by t e we ,nrt
here beginning in the under partof the fcrotum and afcendmg,
by the fpermatic cord being always free and diftincl, and by a
fluauation being evident. From hydrocele of the fpermatic
cord, fometimes with much difficulty, and therefore it re¬
quires here particular attention. In every cale of tumor m
the tedes, where the mod perfea certainty is not obtained,
and when it is necedary to have recourfe to an operation,
the furgeon ought to proceed as in a cafe real hernia.
Treatment. The treatment of bubonocele is the fame with that already
advifed in the treatment of hernia in general, only making
allowance for the fituation of the difeafe. In attempting
the reduff ion by means of the hand, the preffure (hould pe
obliquely upwards and outwards, correfponding with the
rin<T of the abdominal mufcle. In performing the operation,
the*3patient {houldbe laid on a table, with his head and body
alipod horizontal, whild at the fame time his buttocks are
fomewhat elevated by pillows placed beneath them. The
legs hanging over the edge of the table ought to be fepara-
ted, fo as to admit the operator between them ; and ffiould
in that fituation be firmly fecured by an affidant on each
fide, who {hould take care to keep the thighs fo far railed
as to relax all the abdominal mufcles. The parts being pre-
-vioufly diaved, an incifiou mud be made with a common
round-edged fealpel through the fkin and part of the cellular
iubdance, beginning at lead an inch above the fuperioi end
of the tumor, and continuing it down to between two and
three inches below the ring.
Although in by much the greated proportion of hernial
dwellings the fpermatic veffels lie behind the protruded parts,
yet on feme occafions they have been found on the anterior
part of the tumor; fo that in order to avoid the rifle of
wounding them, as foon as the {kin is divided, the remain¬
der of the operation ought to be done in the mod cautious
manner, care being taken to avoid every large blood-veffel
which makes its appearance. TKe ring mud now7 be laid
didinftly. in view ; a fmall portion of the protruding iac
mud alfo be expofed; after which the direflory is to be in¬
troduced between the ring and the fac, placing the point of
the indrument obliquely upwards and outwards. A‘blunt
pointed biiloury is now to be introduced into the groove of
the dire&ory, and by it the ring is to be dilated till the
point of the finger can be introduced, i he directory is now
to be laid afide, and the finger ufed in place of it through
the red of the operation. After the operation is finifhed,
the drefiings are to be applied, and the whole fecured by
a T bantLige, or fufpenfory bag, properly duffed with left
lint.
The patient, on being carried to bed, {hould have a pillow
Under the buttockgj to elevate them a little above the red
17 cicatrized, a mtf. outtht to be properly Atted and
olid through the reft of the perfon’s hfe. Female, are
able to this fpeciee of nature a. well a. men; and as the
opening in the external oblique mufcles .. exceedingly fnrn-
hr n both fexes, the treatment of this fpec.es of hernra m
females is very fimilar to what is found to anfwer m men.
When clyfters, blood letting, and the other remed.es for.
merly enumerated, fail, the fame operatton of enlargmg the
opening in the tendon of the oblique mulcle is here equally
PTsr^eft womehn are apt to conceal dlforders of this kind,
they may frequently happen when the furgeon receives no in-
formation about them. Whenever, therefore, fuch fymptom.
of colic occur as give teafon to fufpeft the ex‘ften“ “d
nia, a particular examination ought always to be made, in
order, if poffible, to detetf the caufe of the mifchiet, tiom th.
removal of which alone a cure can be expected.
Sect. III. Of Hernia Congenita.
The teftes In the feetns are, till near the time of delivery,
lodled in the cavity of the abdomen. When they defend
into the tcrotum, they pulh be,ore them a pottion of^he
peritonseum, which afterwards forms the vaginal coat The
paflageS by which they defeend are foon (hut up , but fome
limes the Contrary happens, and then a portion of feme of the
abdominal vifeeta pafling down forms that fpfc'« “j
to which new-born infants are liable, termed by H»lfe tie
forma congenita. The teflicle and protruded mteftme bem^
here in contaA with one another, the tunica vaginalis tettis
forms the hernial fac.
•ms tne nermai lat. , , , „ ^ i8j
It has been affirmed by fome of the lateft writers, that
How till’
^ ^ II ^3 D Cl C11 d A l JL I ^ * 1 J A —-W»— a — • 4 — V Tv ***
hernia congenita cannot be diftinguiffied from that contain-n|a ^
ed in the common herniary fac ; and.that though there ja g-
a difiinftion, it could be of no material ufein praaice.
Dr Monro obferves, that a hernia-congemta may be diitm-^,
guifhed in an adult by an evident external mark ; which
that the bowels pufn down between the ffie and the lore-
part and fides of the tefticle, fo as often in a great meafuie
to conceal it; whereas, in the common hernia, every part ot
the tefticle can be felt dilteftly : And that it is ot materia .
ufe to make the dittmftion; bccaufe m whatever manner we
operate in hernia congenita, unlefs we take the ut.no,l care-
to exclude the air, there will be a more violent mtommatton
and greater diftrefs than m common cafes, becaule the te -
tide will oartake of the inflammation. ..... ... lS<,
In the treatment of ruptures of the congenital kind, littkTreJlK.t
difference occurs from the management of the common fero*
tal hernia; only a trufs ought never to be applied to in¬
fants, unlefs the tefticle can be felt in the fcrotum, alter the
contents of the hernia have been reduced ; as it would en¬
tirely prevent the defeent of the tefticle, which yet remains
in the abdomen. If any operation has been pertormed the
tefticle {hould, immediately after the bowels are reduced, be
covered with the vaginal coat, and at each dr effing care
{hould be taken that the air be excluded. In every other
refpeft the treatment of congenita, hernia is-the fame with
that of hernia in general.
Sect. IV. Gf Fein oral or Crural Hern im
The feat of this fpecies of hernia is upon,the upper and Si^
fore part of the thigh ; the protruded bowels paffing outat j((1
the fame opening through which tire large blood-veffels [,owet, il1
the thigh are tranfmitted from the abdomen, and of con
quence under that part of the tendon at the under end 0 e1
the abdomen known by the name of Poupart's or Fallopius /
ligament* Sometimes the bowels which protrude are fituate ^
Chap. XXIII. S U R G
Femoral immediately over the femora! veffcls, fometimes on the out-
^e-iua1 more frequently they lie upon their inner
* * i fide. The difeafe is more frequent in women than in men,
on account of the width of the female pelvis, and of conic-
quence the length and laxity of the ligament. The femoral
hernia is more in danger of being confounded with inguinal
hernia than with any other ; the tumor, however, is deeper,
and the ring of the abdominal mufcles, which'lies entirely
above the tumor in femoral hernia, completely furrounds
aS8 the parts in that of the inguinal kind.
Treatment. In the treatment of femoral hernia, when fymptoms of
ftrangulation occur, we muft ufe all the remedies commonly
praftifed for hernia in general ; only that here, in attempt¬
ing to reduce the parts by the hand, the preffure Ihould be
made direftly upwards. An inctiion of fufficient length is
to be made through the integuments, fo as to allow that
part of the tendon which forms the ftrifture to be laid fairly
in view; and after dividing the integuments, we are cau-
tioufly to cut the fafcia lata of the thigh, and feparate any
glands which may come in the way till the ftri&ure and part
or the fac diltindlly appear. The ftrifture is then to be di¬
vided, by cutting fibre after fibre fucceffively. The fper-
matic veflels in the male, or round ligament in the uterus in
the female, may be avoided by cutting in a direction to¬
wards the umbilicus, carefully dividing the tendon tranf-
yerfely. Some authors, from a fenfe of the danger attend¬
ing this part of the operation, have recommended merely to
dilate the paffage, inilead of dividing the tendon ; but in
inch a fitBation, to attempt a farther dilatation without the
aifi(lance of the knife, would probably be feldom attended
with any advantage. After the parts are reduced, the wound
is to be dreffed as directed in the treatment of hernia in ge¬
neral: a piece of thin leather fpread with feme adhefive pla-
fler retains the dreflings better, and with much more cafe,
than any other bandage.
Sect. V. Of other Species of Hernia.
^ umbilical hernia the parts protruded pafs out at the
’ feihcal her" um^1^^us’ ar|d commonly the inteilines, or omentum,
cia. , ’ f°m^times part of the ftomach, the liver, and even
the fpleen, have been found in the fac. Here, as in other
ruptures, the peritonaeum forms the fac, and in recent cafes
it is generally very evident; but by the fize of its contents,
or a long continuance of the diforder, it fometimes becomes
lo conne&ed with the furrounding parts, that by many its
n exiltence has been doubted, and fometimes the fwellimr has
• increaled to fuch a degree as to burft even the flcin itfelf.
The difeafe occurs moil frequently in infancy, foon after
lr. a<iult ftate corpulent people are more fubjedl
► t0 11 tlian of a contrary habit ; and pregnant women
are particularly fubjeft to it, on account of the iize of the
f r- 7ne diaSnoJl3 in th^ difeafe is readily made, as
the c i order can fcarcely he confounded with any other. If
*7 / C att1ended to ln time, a bandage properly
fitted will generally effe& a cure; and in fuch fweUings Is
occur in pregnancy, delivery will commonly remove the dif¬
order; but even in cafes of pregnant women, a bandage ear¬
ly apphed and properly ufed will give conilderable relief,
till a cure can be obtained by delivery. In this difeafe the
omentum is more frequently pufhed out than any other vif-
ri uTr umbll,caI hcrnias m general are not produaive of
inch bad fymptoms as uiually occur in the other kinds of
f ft °WTr’ ^ iflteftiqes Protrude’the ufftal
and wh?n tf 3 ftran^rlaud hernb are aPt to be illduced i
into The ab7 mCa5S 7 ^ycd for returning the gut
depend entirel™11 u0t ^uc^ecd, a ,t: evident mail
perforiinn thf °n 3 thorough reirioval °f the fkidure. In
1 ninS thls operation, an indiion through the integu-
h
hii
k
It
■jjiExompha'
E R Y. ,5;
ments is the fitft ftep to he taken, fo as to expofe the ftri©.Other Spe-
ture of the tendon and the neck of the fac. The flri&ure e,es <>f
is to be removed in the manner already deferibed; and as' n‘a’
the tendon completely furrounds the neck of the fac, the ^
undure may be cut wherever it can be moft readily dilated.
A radical cure fimilar to that for the other fpecies has been
pi o poled, but with as little probability of fuceefs. 290
Ventral rupture is a protrufion of fomfe of the bowels Ver,t'ral
through the interftices of the abdominal mufcles, and is^™^
moil frequently obferved in fome of the parts moll contigu¬
ous to the linea alba. The treatment of this fpecies of dif¬
eafe is exa&ly the fame with that of exomphalos.
Hernia of the bladder of urine, though lefs frequent Cyftic her-
than that of the omentum or inteflines, is not very uncom-nia’ or«'up->
mon. The fituation in which it occurs is in the groin,ture ttie
through the •abdominal ring, in the fore part of the thigh,
under Poupart’s ligament, fo as to form inguinal or crural
hernia. Inflances have likewife occurred of the bladder be¬
ing pufhed into the perinamm. Sometimes it occurs by it¬
felf, without any complication; at other times it is accompa¬
nied with inteflines and omentum, both in inguinal and f emo¬
ral hernias : when complicated with bubonocele, the protru¬
ded part of the bladder is fituated between the intefline and
Ipermatic cord.
. rbe. ^ua| fyraptoms are a tumor, attended with fluaua-SynSom*.
tion either in the groin, in the fore part of the thigh, or
perinaeum, which generally fubfides when the patient voids
urine. When the fwelling is large, before water can be
made with freedom, it is commonly neceflary to have re-
courfe to preffure, at the fame time that the tumor, when
in the groin or thigh, is as much elevated as poffible ; but
when the fweihng is fmall, and efpecially when no flridure
is as yet produced, the patient generally makes water with
fVc|at ea*e5 ar|d without any afiiitance from external preffure.
When t the difeafe occurs without any complication, it is
commonly owing to a iupprefiion of urine. In the diagno-
fis care ought to be taken not to miftake it for a hydrocele.
In recent cafes, the part protruding may in general be eafily
reduced, efpecially it we attend to the fupprefiion of urine,
which probably gave rife to the difeafe. A proper truf?
ought afterwards to be worn for a coniiderable time. When
the difeafe has been of long Handing, adhefion takes place
betw een the bladder and cellular fubitance of the ferotum.
In this cafe, therefore, as long as no fymptoms occur to
render the operation neceffary, a fufpenfory bandage, fo fit¬
ted as effedually to fupport theproiapfed part*, is the only
probable means of relief. '
Sometimes the bladder, owing to a fuppreffion of urine, Herma va ’
at other times part of the inteftines, have been found toginahL
protiude through the vagina. In the former cafe a flu&u-
ation of water is perceptible to the touch.
I he reduction is made by laying the patient on her back
with her loins fomewhat railed, and prefiing with the fore¬
finger from the vagina. Defoents may in future be gene¬
rally prevented, by evacuating the urine often, and by the
uie of a peffary introduced into the vagina. Nearly the
fame means are employed in reducing the intefline when it
is found to protrude.
Chap, XXIV. Of Hydrocele.
Every tumor formed by a colledfonof water might with
propriety he named hydrocele, but the chirurgical accepta¬
tion of the term implies a watery fwelling fituated in the
icrotumor fpeixnatic cord. Hydrocele is either anafarcous
or ency.ved. in the former, the ferum is chiefly diffufed in
the cellular fubftance : In the latter, the water is colle&ed
m a diitinct bag. The ferotum with its contents are liable
to
0
t 6 S tr R
JZcm, to both varieties of the aifeafej fo is the fpermatic cord with
Hy Irocclc coverings.
Scrotmn. Sect. I. Mafarcous Hydrocele of the Scrotum,
' As foon ^ water has collefted in any confiderable quan-
Symptoms tity in the fcrotum, a foft, inelaftic, colourlefs tumor is ob-
of thie dif- kfved over the whole' of it; imprefiions are eafily received
eafe' and obtained for fome time ; the (kin at^rft preferves its na¬
tural appearance, and the rugae of the fcrotum are not much
altered but as the fwelling advances, they gradually ddap-
pear, and are at lad totally obliterated. 1 he iwelhng, from
being at firft foft, and of a confidence fimilar to dough, by
degrees turns more firm, and the fkin at lad acquires an un¬
natural white firming appearance. The tumor at lengt
becomes large; and though originally confined to the Icro-
tum, itat lad fpreads up the groin. I he penis l.kewile
becomes affeded, and often fo [welled and didorted as to
excite much inconvenience and diflrefs ; and although the
fcrotum is compofed of parts which readily admit of dilata¬
tion, the tumor fometimes becomes fo enormous that it burds
, , from one end to the other.
Treatment. In the furgical treatment of this difeafe pundures made
with the point of a lancet arc mod advisable, as large fcan-
fications, in anafarcous habits, are iometimes apt to produce
inflammation and mortification ; while fimple pundures rea¬
dily heal, and can be renewed with very little pain as fre¬
quently as may be neceffary : and befides, pundurcs are
equally ufef ul with the incifions; for as the cells of the
tum communicate freely, if the pundures he made
through the fkin, the water drains off very readily, though
not fo foon as by fcarification. Previo”s to the operation,
befmearing the part wdth fome tough ointment of an inno¬
cent nature, and afterwards keeping it as dry as pofiibte by
a frequent renewal of dry foft linen cloths, in order to im¬
bibe the moifture, is here a neceffary piece of attention.
x The v/ant of this feems to be the caufe of much of the mif-
chief which frequently enfues from operations of this kind.
When fcarfications or pundures go wrong by beginning to
inflame and turn painful, &c. a cold folution of faccharum
faturni, applied upon foft linen, proves moft effedual in
putting a flop to the farther progrefs o* the inflammation,
and affords mofl immediate relief to the patient in the pre-
fent diflrefs. Lime water, employed in the fame manner,
proves alfo a very ufeful application. When, however, the
diforder proceeds to gain ground hy a real mortification
coming on, we fhould immediately have recourfe to bark and
196 other medicines ufually employed in fuch affedions.
Sametimes- Although the anafarcous hydrocele, for the moft part, de-
nwing to a pen^s Up0n a general dropfical tendency, fome inflances oc-
iocaicauie. cur 0p a joca| cau(e producing a mere local dropfy of the
fcrotum. Thus, it has been known to happen from fwel-
lings in the groin and in the abdomen obftruding the
paffage of the lymphatics. When this is the cafe, if tu¬
mors producing fuch obftrudions can he extirpated, no
Other means will afford fuch cffedual relief ; but when they
are fo deeply feated as to render any attempt for removing
them improper, the pradice we have already pointed out
of making pundures in the moft depending part of the tu¬
mor muff be employed with a view to palliate fuch fymp-
toms as occur. It fometimes happens in fuppreffion
of urine, wdiether arifing from ftridures in the urethra
or from ftones impaded in it, that the urethra burfts, and
the urine in this manner getting accds to the cellular
texture of the fcrotum, an anafareous fwelling rifes imme¬
diately over the whole of it; nor does it commonly diminiflr
till the caufe by which it is produced is removed.
In order to prevent the formation ol finufes, which in
G E R Y. Chap. XXIV.
fuch circumftances will otherwife be apt to occur, an inei-
fion fhould be made into the tumor, and carried to fuch a
depth as is fufficient for reaching the wound in the urethra. nalisgJ
Irk this manner a free vent will not only be given to the ti,,
mine already diffufed, but the farther colledicm of it may —sn*i
probably be prevented. If a ftone impaded in the urethra
be found to be the caufe of effufion, it fhould be cut out;
and if the obftrudion be produced by ftridures in the ure¬
thra, they muft be removed by a proper ufe of bougies
The caufe being thus removed, if the habit of body of the
patient is good, and untainted with any venereal or other
general affedion, by dreffing the fore properly with foft
eafy applications, the opening into the urethra will probably
heal, and a complete cure will in this manner be obtained.
But when thefe ailments are complicated with any general
affedion, particularly with old venereal complaints, it fre¬
quently happens that neither mercury nor any other medi¬
cine has much influence in remoying them.
Sect. II. Hydrocele of the Tunica Vaginalis Tejlis.
In the healthy flate of the body, a fmall quantity of
aqueous fluid is exhaled for lubricating the furface of the
tefticle, the fuperfluous part of which is abforbed by veffels
appointed for that purpofe. When the fecretion of this
fluid is cither morbidly increafed, or its abforption diminilh-
ed, a preternatural colledion of water is formed in the ca¬
vity of the vaginal coat, and hydrocele of the vaginal (joat
The f'ymptoms are, a fulnefs at firft obferved about
inferior parts of the tefticle, and moft remarkable when the^
patient is ered, becoming gradually more tenfe as the
difeafe advances ; the tumor by degrees changing from the
globular to the pyramidical form; no degree of pieffure
making the fwelling difappear at any period of the difeafe.
In the early part of the diieafe therefore, if it be not com¬
bined with hernia, or with a hydrocele of the cord, the
fpermatic pvocefs may be diftinclly felt, becaufe the [well¬
ing does not extend beyond the fcrotum. In its more ad¬
vanced ftate, it cannot be diftinguilhed : the weight of the
tumor now drags the fkin of the neighbouring parts fo much
as to caufe the penis almoft to difappear; and in this ftate
of the difeafe the tefticle cannot be felt without much dif-
ficulty. On a minute examination, a hardnefs is always
to be felt along that part of the fcrotum where the
tefticle is fituated ; and at this point preflure excites fome
uneafinefs. Fluduation of a fluid may in general be di-
ftinguifhed through the whole courfe of the diieafe. In
late ftages, however, the appearance of a fluid is not very
evident.
The tranfparency of the tumor has been generally iup-
pofed to be the principal criterion of this fpecies of the
diforder ; but this muft depend upon the nature of the
contents, or thicknefs of the fac ; fo that, though the tranf¬
parency of the tumor is a certain fign of the exiltence 0
water, its opacity cannot upon any account be confidered as
an indication of its abfence. Through the whole, courfe
of the difeafe the tumor is not attended with pain, but fome
uneafinefs is commonly felt in the back by the weight of the
fwelling of the fpermatic cord. This is mere particularly
the cafe when a fufpenfory bandage is not ufed.. _ .
I n the radical cure of hydrocele, in whatever way it 15
attempted, fome degree of lever and inflammation will take
place. Under the circumftances mentioned in the progno*
fis, the operation, if properly performed, is generally attend¬
ed with the moft complete fucccfs. But if the patientTe
very old, infirm, and difeafed, an operation may be attended
with fuch a degree of inflammation, .and confequent inp*
puratiwh
299
R Chap. XXIV. S U R
| Hydrocele pupation, as to be in danger of’ dcftroying a conftitution al-
| of the l u. rea^ greatly impaired, and thetefore ought not to be per-
ft1 nica f j ° *
nalU Tef. formed. v _
tis. Various methods have been propofed for the cure of hy-
—v  drocele, all of which may be reduced to two general heads :
Such as have in view only a temporary relief, and which is
therefore termed the palliative cure ; and fuch as are meant
to effedl a radical cure. When the tumor has become fo
large as to be inconvenient from its fize, an evacuation of
the water by furgical means becomes necelTary. In this
^ cafe, if the patient either refufes to fubmit to the opera-
tion for a radical cure, or if his ftate of health render that
| operation improper, the palliative treatment, or a mere eva¬
cuation of the water by pundture, is the only means which
can be employed.
Method of A lancet pointed trocar was many years ago recommen-
for the'jfal-et^ ^°r c^raw“1g water in this manner by the prefent
liative cure '^_r Monro ; and lirce that time it has in an improved ftate
(fig. 77.), been recommended by MrAndree; another (fig.
78.) has been propofed by Mr Bell. With any of thefe an
opening may be made into the tunica vaginalis with fafety.
t The operator with one hand fhould grafp the tumor be¬
hind, to prefs the contained fluid to the anterior and under
part of it. If a round trocar is to be ufed, a pundhire
with a lancet fhould be made where the trocar is to enter ;
but where a. flat trocar is to be employed, the affiftance of
the lancet is unneceflary.
As foon as the inftrument has pierced the vaginal coat,
the ftiktte fnould be withdrawn, and the canula left in the
cift. The water will now run off; and if the tumor be
not uncommonly large, it may be all drawn tff at once ;
but as the hidden difcharge of it, by .taking off the fup-
port, might be in danger of rupturing fome of the veffels,
it mould be difcharged by flow degrees. When the whole
is evacuated, a piece of adhefive plafter fhould be immedi¬
ately applied to the orifice ; and a comprefs of foft linen be¬
ing laid over the fcrotum, the whole fhould be firmly fun-
ported with a fufpenlory bag (fig. 79.) or a T bandage.
1 he patient in this ftate being laid in bed, all kind of un-
eaunels is in a few minutes commonly gone, and he is able
to follow his ordinary bufinefs without interruption.
The intention of every means now in ufe for the radical
cure of this fpecies of the difeafe, is to induce fuch a degree
of inflammation on the parts in which it is feated as may
obliterate entirely the cavity of the tunica vaginalis, by
making it adhere to the furface of the tefticle. The means
at prefent generally employed for effeaing a cure are, e-xci-
1 lion or the tunica vaginalis ; the application of cauftic the
. ot * fet.°lnli a fimple incifion of the fac ; and the iniec-
„ ,CI, f-a TT .int° the tUnica va?lnalis, after drawing
f.1 u hC Which 11 contaified- The method of cure, by
vaginaVa^,nal coat’ is» firft to lay open the va-
• ’ glIial J°Jt.’_and th4" to cut ^ away by different fnips of a
P11. °Lf^ffarJ 1 h j .lac ,bemff removed, the parts are to
be dreffed and treated in the fame manner as in the opera¬
tion wnere Ample mcifion is ufed. ^
The cure by cauftic is attempted in the following man¬
ner : 1 he fcrotum bung fhaved, a piece of common pafte
cauftic, properly fecured with adhefive plafter, is applied, of
about a finger s breadth, the whole length of the tumor •
and if, on removing the cauftio, it has mot penetrated into
the vaginal coat, an opening is made in it with a Icalpel, fo
^ to evacuate the contents lay bare the tefticle, and admit
of p,ope, dreffings. But MrElfe, one-of the lateft writers
is noVneceffitthr T ^ Cauftlc’ that ^ere
many have^/ ^ cx[enFtve application of cauftic as-
S T^°mmen edVthat 30 ^har of the fize of a
ft «g i, fufficient j that this may be always fully obtained
300
for the ra¬
dical cure.
it-
3°» _
Cduftil.
G E R Y. i57
by the application of cauftic pafte of the fize of a fixpence, Hydrocele
which is to be laid on the anterior and under part of the
fcrotum, and to be properly fecured by plafter, in order to
prevent it from fpreading. The cauftic commonly produces tis.
all its effects in five or fix hours, and may then be removed. ■»—y-— +
At this time digeftives, or an emollient poultice, muft be
applied over the fcrotum, and the whole fufpended with a
bandage. Inflammation, Mr Elfe obferves, is foon induced
over the whole tunica vaginalis ; and the febrile fymptoms
which fucceed, he advifes to be kept moderate by blood¬
letting, injedtions, emollient poultices, and a low regimen.
In a few days the efeharofthe fcrotum feparates, and comes
away ; and in a gradual manner, in the courfe of four, five,
or fix weeks, the whole tunica vaginalis comes off, when the
wound for the rpoft part foon heals, and a complete cure is
obtained.
Where Jt is intended to treat hydrocele by means of aBy a ktoBt
feton, it may be done in the following manner : An opening
is made with a fcalpel, or the fharp-pointed biftoury, in the
fuperior part of the tumor, large enough to admit with
eale a thick cord of common white fewing filk. A di-
reftor, with an eye at one end, in which the cord is in-
feited, is introduced at this opening ; and its farther ex¬
tremity being carried down to the moft depending part of
the tumor, an opening is there made, of about half an inch
in length, by cutting upon the diredlor with the biftoury j-
the diredfor being now drawn till a fufficient quantity of
filk is left hanging out below, the operation is in this man¬
ner finifhed.
Another very fimple method of introducing a feton is by
means of a filver canula and perforator. 304
. thc operation for a radical cute by incifion, the pa-By incifion*.
tient being laid upon a table of convenient height, and pro¬
perly fecured by affiftants, with the fcrotum lying nearly on
the edge of the table, the operator with one hand fhould
grafp the tumor behind, fo as to keep it firm and make it>
fomewhat tenfe anteriorly : With a common round edged
fcc.lpel in the other hand, he fhould now divide the external'
integuments by one continued incifion from the upper to-
the under end or the tumor. An opening is next to be made
in the vaginal coat with a large lancet, or a lharp pointed
biftoury (fig. 80.), at the upper end of the firft incifion.
This opening fhould be of inch a fize as freely to receive-
the finger of the operator, which is to conduft a blunt
pointed biftoury, fo as to divide the fac down to its bottom,
which is confidered as being of advantage, by preventing,
partial adhefions and the rifle of a return of the difeafe.
I he incifion being completed, the tefticle is now brought-
fuhy into view ; and if the tunica vaginalis be found, the-
drolling may be finiftied immediately. But if the fac be;
difeafed, it is to be removed, which may-be readily accom-
plifhed by a fcalpel or biftoury.
When the hydrocele, as fometimes happens, affeds both
fides at the fame time, if, when the operation is done on
one fide, an opening be made into the vaginal coat of the^
oppoiitc fide, at the upper part, through the feptum feroti,
and the incifion carried down to the bottom of the tumor,
the cift can be equally well laid open, the water as com¬
pletely evacuated, and a return of the difeafe as much pre¬
vented, as when the operation is done in the ufual manner,
and at different times.
In whichever way the incifion is made, if the tefticle be
iound, the wound ought to be quickly dreffed; for it is-
found, that on this much of the fuccefs of the operation
depends. For if the vaginal coat be merely applied to the-
jur’ °r United hy futurcs> as fome have advifed, partial
adhefions are apt to take place, before a decree ot inflam--
mation is produced over the whole fufficient for making
complete"
,5S S U U G
Hv.1rorf.fe corrvpkts cwr«. In tins manner cavities are left, which
i f tJie Tu- flu v,Jth pus during the cure, and require to be laid
ilka Vaei- ^ Rr xhey, ^ftj^wards give life to colleftions of water,
and thereby eccafion a return of the difeafe. The praftice
'of ftufFmg the cavity of the fore with dreflings is alfo a fre¬
quent eaufe of mifchief, by exciting too great a degree of
inflammation in the part. But whea the dreffings are pro¬
perly managed, fymptoms of violence almoft never occur.
The latcft authors advife, that in dreffing the parts alter the
operation, two pieces of lint or foft old linen are to be dip¬
ped in oil, or in a liniment of wax and oil, and then, by the
help of a probe, are to be inferred into the bottom of the fac
on each fide of the teilicle, leaving a fnfiicient quantity of
the pledgets hanging out of the wound, fo as to admit of
being eafdy withdrawn at the tirft or fecond drefilng. The
•edges of the wound are next to be dreffed with pledgets
of cerate, and the ends of the oiled pledgets turned over on
each fide. Several pieces of foft lint are then to be laid
over the wound, and thefe fhould be more or lefs numerous^
in proportion to the heat of the feafon. A. comprefs of
linen is now to be laid over the whole, and the dreflings
fupported by a T bandage or fufpenfory bag properly fit¬
ted. The patient is then to be carried to bed ; an anodyne
fhould be given, efpecially if there be much pain ; and he
ought to be advifed to lie as much as poffible upon his
back for a few days after tlte operation.
In the third or fourth day after the operation, all the
dreflings, except thofe between the tefticle and tunica vagi¬
nalis, are to be removed ; and if this cannot be done readi¬
ly, as the parts are otherwife apt to become uneafy, a fponge
dipped in waim water fhould be applied. On fome occa-
iions, at the firft drefiing, and always at the fecond or third,
the pledgets inferted between the tunica vaginalis come
away ; and whenever this happens, they fhould be renewed.
It is alfo proper to renew them daily for the firft fourteen
or fifteen days after the operation ; not however of the
fame depth as the firfl, for during the latter part of the
cure they need only to be inferted as far as to prevent the
divided edges of the tunica vaginalis from adhering to the
tefticle, before the adhefive procefs has taken place in the
parts more deeply feated. Particular attention however is
neceflary to this part of the treatment; for when the
difeafe returns, it has been found to be chiefly owing to
the edges of the vaginal coat being allowed to adhere to
the tellicle, before adhefion had taken place between the
deeper parts.
A complete adhefion of the two coats of the tefticle, the
tunica vaginalis, and tunica albuginea, takes place moft fre¬
quently about the third week after the operation. Previous
to this time, inflammation continuing gradually to increafe,
the tumor becomes larger till it acquire fomewhat of the
fize of a fwelled tefticle from gonorrhoea ; but after this
period it gradually fubfides, and the fore produced by the
incifion, and now reduced to a line, heals in fome time
between the fourth and eight week, according to the ha-
bit of body, age of the patient, and other circumftances.
Ccnipara- Having thus given an account of the methods ufually em-
live advan-ployed in the cure of hydrocele, we fhall now make a few ob-
lacfTof fervations on the comparative advantages of the three laft.
From the teftimony of many authors of credit, it is evident,
that any of thefe methods, in moft inftancds, prove effeftual;
but every praftitioner being apt to be prejudiced in favour
of a particular method, he generally continues to follow
that mode and no other ; and finding it commonly fucceed,
be by degrees perfuades himfelf, that other methods of cure,
with which he has not had fuch opportunities of becoming
acquainted, are liable to objections, which "thofe who have
pra&ifed them do not find to be the cafe. The icfult of
thefe me-
ahods.
E R Y. Chap. XXIV,
Mr B. Bell’s obfervations upon this fubjeft is, that although Hydrocele
all the three modes of operating, by cauftic, the feton, and 'n^ahe Tu*
fimole incifion, are perhaps equally capable of producing a
radical cure ; yet, that of the three, the latter, viz. the tis,
mode by the fimple incifion, is liable to feweft objeaions, and —^
effeas a cure, both with leaft trouble to the operator and
leaft rifle to the patient: and of the other two, the treat¬
ment by cauftic appears to be the beft. He has feen all the
three produce troublefome fymptoms, fuch as, pain and
tenfion of the abdomen, inflammation, and fever ; but hefi-
tates not to lay, that the feton is more frequently produdive
of thefe effeas than any of the other methods. ^
Befides the methods already mentioned, another has been Radical
lately revived, viz. the injeding of irritating liquors into the cure by
vaginal coat of the tefticle. This method is particularly de.in)e«.
feribed by a Monfieur Lambert of the laft century, and may
be of much older date for any thing which is known to the
contrary. From fome caufe or otfier it feems to have been
entirely laid afide till about the middle of the prefent centu¬
ry, when it was pradifed by Mr Monro (afterwards a phy.
fician-general in the Weft Indies), under the landion of
the late Dr Monro, and favourably received and followed
by fome of the firft furgeons of this place. But in ge¬
neral, though the cure appeared complete, the difeafe re¬
turned.
The preference is ufually given to wine, and commonly
that is fomewhat diluted ; but where no pain is excited by
the injedion, the liquor fhould be difeharged, and a ftronger
one uied. For where no pain takes place, a cure is not to
be expeded.
The following is the moft approved method of perform-
ing the operation : The operator fhould be provided with a
fiat trocar and canula, and with a bag of refina elaftica, fit¬
ted with a flop-cock and pipe, which ought exadly to fuit
the canula. See fig. 81.
The patient being laid in an horizontal pofture, either
upon a bed or a table, the water fhould be drawn entirely
off from the tumor by a flat trocar paffed into the under
and fore part of it. The operator fecuring the canula with
the one hand, is with the other to pals the tube of the in-
jedion-bag fairly through it, and with gentle preffure to
force in as much of the liquid as may reach the whole fur-
face of the vaginal coat, as well as the whole furface of the
tefticle. The bag fhould now be removed, leaving the tube
within the canula of the trocar, fo that by turning the ftop-
cock the injedion may be retained in the cavity of the tu¬
mor. The canula of the trocar ought ftill to be kept fixed,
otherwife it might recede, by which the liquid would inli-
nuate into the cellular fubftaiice of the ferotum. The li¬
quor fhould likewife be brought into contad with every
part of the cavity; and after remaining about tour, or at the
moft five, minutes in the fac, it fhould be entirely difeharged
through the canula of the trocar, after withdrawing the tube
of the elaftic bag.
Sometimes intenfe pain is felt immediately after the li¬
quor is thrown in. When this is the cafe, it fhould be dif¬
eharged as foon as it has pafied over the difterent parts of
the tunica vaginalis. Some recommend a repetition of the
fame kind of injedion immediately after the firft has been
difeharged, and to be retained for the fame period, though
this is not commonly pradifed.
The whole of the injedion fhould be completely difehar¬
ged, after which the ferotum fhould be covered with a
pledget of cerate, a comprefs being applied over it, and re¬
tained with a fufpenfory bag. The patient ought to be in
bed for feveral days, and fupport the ferotum in the bandage
by means of a fmall pillow.
Though it is difficult to afeertain the proportion of thofe
. who
Chap. XXIV. S U R C
Hydrocele who are cured by the method of inje&ione, and though it
ofthe. is to be regretted that hitherto the difeafe is found to return
PCord.tlC *n a ^reat ProPortiOIi thofe .upon whom this operation
has been performed; yet, on account of the facility with
which it can be done, the comparatively fmall pain with
which it is attended, the quicknefs of the cure, and chiefly
becaufe it does not, in cafe of a return of the difeafe, pre¬
clude the future operation of incifion, it appears a method
which, in all probability, will be more and more adopted in¬
to pra&ice.
.tor
Anafarcous
■ hydrocele
of the fper-
znatic cord.
Sect. III. Of Hydrocele of the Spermatic Cord.
308
Symptoms
r 3f encyfled
ll-lydrocele
dpf the fper-
»acic cord.
310
Symptoms.
Anasarcous hydrocele of the fpermatic cord fometimes
accompanies afeites, and at other times it is found to be con¬
fined to the cellular fubilance in or about the fpermatic cord.
The caufes of this difeafe may be, obftru&ions in the lym¬
phatics leading from the part in confequence of feirrhous af-
feftions of the abdominal vifeera, or the preffure of a trufs
applied for the cure of hernia.
When the affe&ion is conne&ed with anafarca in other
parts, it is then fo evident as to require no defeription.
When it is local, it is attended with a colourlefs tumor in
the com fe of the fpermatic cord, foft and inelaftic to the
touch, and unaccompanied with flu&uation. In an erett po-
fition of the body it. is of an oblong figure ; but when the
body is.recumbent, it is flatter and fomewhat round. Ge¬
nerally it is no longer than that part of the cord which lies
in the groin, though fometimes it extends as far as the te-
fticle, and even ftretches the ferotum to an uncommon fize ;
an inftance of which is. related by Mr Pott, who from a
hvelling ot this kind difeharged 11 Englifli pints at once.
y premire, a great part of the fwelling can always be made
to recede, into the abdomen. It inftantlv, however, re¬
turns to its former fituation on the preffure being with¬
drawn.
When the tumor is conne&ed with general anafarca of
the lyitem, it can only be cured along with the reft of the
dileafe ; but when the fwelling is local,, the remedy is alfo to
be locally applied. An incifion is to be made of fucb a fize
as may be fuffioent for difeharging the whole of the water ;
in the performance of which, attention is neceffary to guard
again ft hurting, the fpermatic veffels. The contents of the
tumor being difeharged, the fore is to be treated like any
other limple wound. J
Encyfted hydrocele of the fpermatic cord fometimes be¬
gins in the upper, but generally at the lower part of the fper¬
matic cord. On its fir ft appearance it is fo frruT as to <nve
utle or no trouble ; hence it is feldom particularly attended
to till it has acquired a confiderable fize. By degrees it -ex-
*!niS a,S as abdominal mufcles, and fometimes reaches
.0 om o the ferotum; and to a perfon unacquainted
with the appearance of the diforder may be miftaken for a hy¬
drocele of the tunica vaginalis. But here the tumor is al¬
ways above the tcfticle, which is diftinftly felt below; and
fnVethenh " ^ ftate °f Hie difcafe the teft;de !'s f™nd
in the bacK part.of it perleftly unconneded with the fwel-
Img; whereas, in the advanced ftages 0f hydrocele in the
vaginal, coat, although fome hardnefs is difeovered where
the tumca vaginalis adheres to the tefticle, yet when the
fwelhng is great the tefticle cannot be diftinftly fek. In
the eneyfted hydrocele of the cord, the figure and fize of
ZSY ^ fered 5 ,whereas’ « cafes ^of common hr-
oth-r refn^^r d^PP^s almoft entirely. In
times hanne8 ^ rimi,ar- Xt fome-
cdls inPPZ V' ,the Water J9 contai'ned in two diftinft
diminilhcd'lf jf ***** "P. or
when • leter- ^ fl^dar appearance alio oc-
'rhul th,s van«J of ths difeafe is conaefled with by-
Sect. IV. Of Hamatocele Scroti.
curs
We ftiall mention in this place the difeafe called hamato-
cele feroti, which is occafioned by blood extravalated in the in¬
ner fubftance of the ferotum, in the tunica vaginalis, or in
the fpermatic cord; but the ufual fituation is in the tunica
vaginalis teftis.
J umors of this kind may be produced by any thing-
which ruptures the blood veffels of the part, but they are
commonly the confequence of external violence. In the tu¬
nica vaginalis this difordermay be produced by the point of
a trocar or of a lancet in tapping for hydrocele. In fuch.
a cafe, we are commonly informed of the accident by blood
being difeharged alorfg with the water; though fometimes
it does not appear till tne whole of the water is evacuated,
and then a tumor of a confiderable fize fuddenly takes place!
Sometimes it happens where the quantity of water has been
fo. uncommonly great that the hidden difeharge of it, by ta¬
king away the fuppurt which the veffels have been accufto-
rned to receive, has been the caufe of their rupture; and it:
feems certain, that whenever a tumor is produced either in
the ferotum or cord fuddenly after the water of a hydrocele'
has been evacuated by tapping, that it is entirely owing to
an extravafation of blood.
In the fpermatic cord injuries of the fame kind will be at¬
tended with a fimilar effeft upon the veffels of the fac con¬
taining the water. The diftin&iorr between blood and wa¬
ter in the fubftance of the ferotum is readily made by the
colour; for where the difeafe is produced by blood, it form®
a .real efehymofis. The tumor feels heavier in the tunica va¬
ginalis when filled with blood'than where it is filled mere¬
ly with water; the treatment is* nearly, the fame with
that m hydrocele. In the commencement of the anafarcous
or diffufed hematocele, when produced'from flight external
violence, the application of ftimulating or aftfnieent fluids
will fometimes di.fcufs it; but if this prove ineffediml, the
tumor is to be laid open, and treated exadly-as was dire&cd
for hydrocele ; only, if a ruptured veffel be difeovered, it
mult be lectired by ligature. In like manner, all colledtions
of
ti.
T*
E R rY.
drocele of the tunica vaginalis, which fometimes takes Hacmato-
place. * cele Scro-
i he only other tumors with which this one may be con¬
founded are, the anafarcous hydrocele of the fpermatic cord,
and a real hernia. But in neither of thefe is the flu&uation
a fluid perceptible, and to the touch they are both foft
and inelaflic *, whereas, in this variety of hydrocele, the tu¬
mor has a fpringy feel, and a flu&uation is fenfibk to the
touch ; and in both the one and the other the fwelling re¬
cedes fomewhat upon preffure, which it never does here.
. From hernia it is chiefly diftinguifhed by the tumor be¬
ginning fome way down the cord. In hernia the tunfor
turns lefs when the patient is in an horizontal pofture, and
is.confiderably affe&ed by coughing and fueezing ; but this
kind of hydrocele is not altered in fize by any fuch cir-
cumftances, nor has it the common fymptoms which attend a
hernia.
Infants are frequently fubjedft to this difeafe, as well a*
to an anafarcous fwelling of the cord, and an oedematous tu¬
mor of the ferotum. But here the complaint is feldom per¬
manent ; for in moft inftances it readily yields to gentle
fridlion, with any ftimulating or aftringent application, as a
ftrong folution of fal ammoniac in vinegar, &c. But in
adults, the cift, in every variety of encyfted hydrocele, be¬
comes fo firm as not to be affefted by external applications;
fo that when the tumor becomes large, it is necefi'ary to ufe
means for producing either a palliative or radical cure, iir
the fame manner as is done for a hydrocele in the vao-inal
coat.
160 s tr R
Viricficele, 0f blood either in the vaginal coat or fpermatic cord are to
C rcoccle, be jaid Q n and treated as in hydrocele. It bleeding vel-
Spermato. ^ ^ u„ Sr.
cc)ernind‘ fels appear, they are to be fccur'ed. Sometimes, however,
Pneumato thefe cannot be detefted ; an oozing takes place which it is
ce’e. difficult to reftrain, even by the ufe of bark, vitriphc acid,
and other means generally employed in fuch cafes. It has
been uniformly found, that local remedies prove chieily uie-
ful here, particularly the application of ardent fpints, aether,
or t huff are of myrrh, to the furface of the fore. Pledgets
of foft lint, foaked in one or other of thefe, not only feive
to check the difcharge of blood, but in general tend to pro¬
mote the formation of good matter.
Chap. XXV. Of Varicocele, Circocelc, Spermatocele
and Pneumatocele.
Varicocele. Varicocele is a preternatural diftenfion of the veins of
the ferotum, which in this ft ate form a tumor of hard,
knotty inequalities, feldom painful, and generally atten e
31 z with no inconvenience excepting what arifes from its bu
Circocele. ,Circ0cele is fimilar in its nature to the former, but fitua-
ted in the fpermatic cord, extending from the abdominal
ring to the fuperior part of the ferotum, and produced by
a varicofe ftate of the fpermatic vein. Both of thefe dif-
©rders are occafionally produced by obftruftion in the veins;
but are moft frequently owing to a relaxed ftate of thefe
veffels; to which we may add, that on account of. the
fmallnefs of the correfponding artery, they are not fufficient-
ly affeaed by its influence. The tumor produced by thefe
diforders is fometimes fo large as to appear like a hernia
or hydrocele; but we diftinguifh it from thefe by the touch,
for varicofe veins are like worms filled with elaftic matter.
We have another mark upon which we can ftill more de¬
pend : The tumor in the ered pofture of the. body is
much increafed, while in the horizontal lituation it almoit
313 entirely difappears.
Cftollec- Another diforder is obferved by late authors, where a
blood with-colleft‘on of blood fometimes found within the tunica al-
in the tnnl-buginea teftis, and is fuppofed to be a kind of haematocele,
nica albugi*or more probably varicocele. Sometimes the colledtion is
Dea- fo confiderable, that a fluauation refembling that of an
hydrocele of the vaginal,coat of the tefticle is obfervable.
When this is miftaken for hydrocele, and an opening is
made into it with a trocar, a difcharge is produced of a
duffiy-coloured blood, fomewhat refembling thin chocolate :
But though the tumor may be diminifhed by the evacuation
thus obtained, yet the alteration is iriconliderable; nor is
the patient ever relieved, but on the contrary made* worfe
by fuch an operation. Caftration, after this, becomes ne-
ceffary ; but even this has been found ineffedfual: fo that
the patient had better be advifed to truft to nature, affifted
by a proper fufpenfory bandage, than to fuffer the attempt
of a radical cure; for it has been obferved, that in forne
inftances they have remained ftationary for many years,
whereas they never fail to become much worfe by any at¬
tempt to evacuate the fluid.
When tumors, er the preffure of a trufs, has been the
caufe of fuch complaints, a proper attention to thefe ought
to be the firft attempt towards a cure. But when -a relax¬
ed ftate of the veins is fufpe£ted, we ought to recommend
a fufpenfory bandage, an horizontal pofture, the cold bath,
and the application of a folution of alum and other aitrin-
gents. By a proper exhibition ol thefe, the difeaie may
at lead; be prevented from increaiing, fo as to render any
3*4 operation unneceflary.
Spermato- gy fpermatocele is underftood a morbid diftenfion of the
£5je* vas deferens and epidydimis. The difeafe may arife from
tumors, ftriflture, or inflammation about the vas deferens,
G E R Y. * Chap. XXV
or its termination in the penis} hut more probably from
inflammation there. When an inflammatory ditpoiition is'^irihet
difeuvered, general and topical blood-letting, gentle laxa-
tives, a low cooling diet, and reft of body, will com- ^
monly be found the belt remedies. When tumors are
found to prefs upon the vas deferens, they ought either to
be brought to a ftate of fuppuration, or entirely extirpated,
if that can be properly effected. If the diieafe proceed
from a venereal caufe, nothing can be fo uleful as a courfe
of mercury properly direfted. ^
By pneumatocele is underftood a diftenfion of the fero- Pceum^
turn from a collection of air. cde.
The principal caufe of this difeafe, which rarely hap.
pens, is wounds in the lungs, by which air pafles through
the common cellular fubftance into the ferotum ; but from
whatever caufe the tumor is produced, the difeaie is to be
treated by making fmall punCtures with the point of a
lancet, as in the cafe of anafarcous fwdlings formed by
water.
Chap. XXVI. Of Sarcocele, or Scirrhous Tejlicle.
Sarcocele implies a flefhy,, enlarged ft ace of the tefticle,
much Hrmer and harder to the touch than is obferved in her*
hia humeralis or inflamed tefticle.
The fymptoms vary exceedingly in different patients;
but the following are the moft general: The firft iymptom
is commonly a imall enlargement, without much pain, and
no difcoloration of the part. The tumor becomes gra¬
dually larger, and the hatdnefs increafes; but tor a confi¬
derable time the furface remains fmooth; and when the
conftitution is otherwife good, the diforder will fometimes
remain in this fituation for a conftderable number oi years;
and in a few rare inftances, by a moderate diet, keeping
the belly open, fufpending the tumor properly, and avoid¬
ing violent exercife, or any thing which may confiderably
increaie the impetus of the blood, the diforder has not only
been prevented from incrcafing, but has in a gradual man¬
ner difappeared entirely. More commonly, however, the
tumor increafes in fize, and becomes ragged and unequal
on its furface. Smart and fevere (hooting pains are fre¬
quently felt through its fubftance. Sometimes ferum is
extravafated in the vaginal coat, or matter is colle&ed in
different parts of the tumor. The ferotum, now much dif-
tended, burfts, and thin, fetid, bloody matter difeharging,
the difeafe terminates in an ulcerated cancer of the worft
kind.
The fpermatic cord is commonly unaffe&ed till the tu¬
mor has acquired a confiderable iize, and generally not till
colledlions of matter have been formed. After this, irora
being at firft only (lightly fwelled, it gradually increafes in
hardnefs and bulk ; after which it becomes very painful, knot¬
ty, or unequal through its whole extent. The difeharge
from tire ferotum ftill continues ; but although the matter
increafes in quantity, the flze of the tumor is not thereby
diminiftied, but, on the contrary, continually increafes; the
edges of the fore become hard, livid, and retorted, and fun¬
gous excrefcences puftr out from every part of it; the
health of the patient becomes entirely deftroyed, and he 13
at laft carried off in great mifery.
Hernia humeralis produced by venereal infection has been
coniidered, by fome authors, as a frequent caufe ol the
worft kind of feirrhous' tefticle ; but the fadt is very much
otherwife ; and fuch an idea has this bad tendency, thut it
prevents the perfeverance in the ufe of fuch remedies as
might have removed the difeafe without the neceflity of
extirpation.
Another caufe mentioned by authors as producing
feirrhus
S U R O
316
fn what
cafes t!' e
fated.
Chap. XXVI. „ w
f >thC ,ten;ck’ ^Mrocelc of the vaginal
Teibcle, H lh(,m-h /arcoede ,8 frequently combined with
this dJieale, theie is every reafon to think that the pri¬
mary diforder was in the tefticle itfelf, and that the water
is only a confequence of the other complaint. When the
hydrocele happens to be the original difeafe, the tefticle
is alfo found frequently altered in its appearance. It is
here paler than in its natural date. It is fometimes dimi-
nilhed, but more frequently enlarged. I'he enlargement
hov.ever is foit, harmlefs, and tree from pain; and in
.inch a ntuation ftiould never be extirpated. To this point
particular attention ought to be paid, otherwife we run
the ri.k of committing a miftake, into which praftitioners
have been too frequently led_the extirpation of a tefti-
cne which ought to have been faved. To keep free of
-:c::r0r’ ought to attend to the following circum-
• dIfea.re begins in the tefticle itfelf, efpecially
tefticle mavand ^ I ° j °r £'.andu ar Part> or when it becomes hard
betxtir-d. c‘l!arded. Previous to any colleftion of water in the
wTlT’ lt.1.s 1° be couhdered as of a different nature
from that in which an enlargement of the part fucceeds to
the teft ele Ko r Jv / , pon evacuatmg the water,
the ttfticle he found hardened, enlarged, and attended with
pam and other marks of feirrhus, efpecially if the furface
™TZd 0rThTr ext!rpwjti°n “rtainly to S
thourh ra’rel R f7mptoms above mentioned fometimes,
, ■' rarel7» begin in the epidydimis. In fuch cafes
tr^a:xtiri>fr"iU ?idom be «.he,c ii
'Z'JZL a ‘u,P‘c,on of a rfeaion ; and then
?n r™rl-rYr 11 mTeans,t0 tr7 the remedies commonly ufed
and habit of Th 1 d tht' profnofi8j we attend to the age
, habit of the body, as well as to the ftate of the difeafe
and ength of time it has continued.
W hen the patient is young and the conftitution unbroken
we may always hope for a cure, although the Cptoms’
ftouldbe veryconfitobJe. whereaSj in dd
and m habits attended with an emaciated look, with iadi-
I UcTft addr 0,ther fymPtoms of °bftrufted vifeera, whatever
Xcrft f'afe ma5' hC tWe " i11 be b“‘ a fokl oltance
if the d’feafe has fubfifted for a long time without con
of am f. lncrearm\in '■'f • - “ay rfafo„abr; ,h "L it is
^ long as the tefticle is Zt^tr
mat.on of matter, we may exped a favourable event ■ but
where colledums of matter have already formed, either in
oSXS TLt tz l
cord (hould be'conliderably^nb'!-!;™'"* ,t..t!'ouS.h the
not evidently partake of the difeafe id t
itaieofth^SStL^hfl C"Iarged .i'1
part merely either a’ varicrfc datcTih™1 •“ f°r the moft
tltfpofttion of the cellular fubftanee. ^ Ve,“S’ °r “ WatCry
:J Method of But fuppoJing no obftaclf> ter ti,
doing it may he til m'-
! tabie^of a'liout three gf? ''S ba,^ aPon
?eaTn'r ! Which> as wcllTth “reft ‘S’bft8 ‘^ft
^the fatftr^?! -Z he laid acftaTed
Vol. xviil.part I ” h iuefiouis to
be
itfl
15 R Y.
begun above the rings of the abdominal mnfcles, that Sa.cnc.le,
there may be room afterwards to fecure the veflels; thenor^c
carrying it through the membrana adipofa, it muft be Teflicie*
continued downward to the bottom of the ferotum. A
rum, waxed, flat ligature, compofed of fmall threads, is
next, by means of a curved needle, to be p'affed round the
permatic cord, at leaft an inch above the difeafed part, or
as near the abdominal ring as poffible; after which the
veflels are to be fecured by a running knot, and divided
about a quarter or half an inch below the ligature. The
cord and tefticle are then to be removed from the furround-
ing parts by differing from above downwards, and no in-
ftrument is better for this purpofe than the common fcalpel.
After the difeafed parts are removed, the knot upon the
cord muft be flackened to difeover the fpermatic arteries
and veins ; both of which, by means of the tenaculum or
a common forceps, are to be taken up. The ligature upon
the fpermatic cord is now to be left loofe, fo as to aft as
a tourniquet if a hemorrhagy fhould enfue ; nor is there
more occafxon for leaving the ligature tied than for leaving
a tourniquet firmly applied to one of the extremities after
amputation ; befides, where patients have fuffered fuch pain
as is fometimes mentioned by authors, it has been found
to be owing to the tightnefs of the ligature rather than
to any other caufe. In dividing the ligatures of the blood-
vef.ds at the extremities of the cord, they, muft be left of
Inch a length without the wound as to be readily removed,
however much the cord may retraft in the time of the
In Separating the tefticle, a confiderable hemonW
fometimes enfues from the divifion of the fcrotal arteries.
n uch a cafe, they ought always to be fixed with ligatures
before proceeding in the operation. The parts being re-
moved and the blood-veffels fecured, the wound is to be
cured if poffible, by the firft intention ; and for this pur-
fn 1 fl 5 0t the fcr“tUm are to be b™'ght together
n the moft accurate manner, beginning at the under end,
an, Securing the parts by adhefive plafter as we proceed
upwards, and in fuch a way that the Sides of the fore may
be kept properly together. About two inches of the
hgatures of the cord are to be left out, and this part of
the wound treated in the fame manner as the reft; the
whole to be fecured by a comprefs of linen and a T
bandagt
317
The patient fhould now be laid to reft, and an opiate T 3J* .
inZmi V"nd/f> ^ ^ feCOnd - third da^iy SeTrhe^
mfthnd 7 fniUe’ they are tobe removed by aeration.
method commonly employed upon thefe occafions; as to
pical blood-letting, gentle laxatives, and keeping the part
conftandy moift with a Solution of Sugar of ifad. The
dreffings ought not to be allowed to (hift, elfe the-cure will
be greatly retarded They are to be exLtned aboul four
or five days after the operation ; and if nothing material has
happened, they may be allowed to remaia^wo or Three
> s longer, by which time generally the ligature can bp
readily removed; and the wound will be healed by the firll
intent,on, excepting feme fmall opening i„ the (kin n „„
efpecially where the ligature, werf placed. Thefi Ire to
be drawn together by adhefive ftraps, and drelfed in the
fame manner as formerly. In this wav if , 6
otherwife hpaltftv ^ } tms way, ft the patient be
uuicrwue nealthy, a cure may be excefted In
than a fortnight 7 expected in little more
The method of dreffing moft frequently pr?aifed ic
apply a quantity of foft lint to the fore an/.ft d 1
pielsof linen frit, and to Uure ,Te “dmle'wifh “ T
to reftge °i a fpenfo.ry ba^- The patient is then laid
!q] a f’ r Bn °piate ^lven- The ‘is not to be touched
till a free fuppuration take, place, which will commonly it
about
i6z
S U R
C E R Y-
Chap, XXVII.
Stone in
the Blad¬
der.
a^out the fifth cr fixth day, and then the drefTmas are to
be removed, and renewed from time to t.me ; once every
tWo days, or oftener, as the quantity of matter may render
'it neceflary. Sometimes after the operation the patient
complains of pain in the fore, and of tenfion and uneafme s
in the belly. In fuch a cafe, warm fomentations ihoukl
be applied'to the abdomen, and the lore covered with
an emollient poultice, and this repeated as often as may be
necefiary.
Chap. XXVII. Oft be Stone.
Sect. I. Of Stone in the Bladder.
3*9
Caufes of
the forma-
A variety of caufes have been affigned as tending to the
thelorma- formation of calculi in the bladder of urine ; as, a decom-
ti'in of cal- pofition of a fuperabundant quantity ot earthy matter Irons
culi. [he blood, on account of a fedentary life 5 certain articles oi
diet or drink, containing a greater quantity of earthy mat-
ter than others; a continued ufe of folid food without a
fufficient ouantity of drink ; the peculiar aftion of ab-
forbent velfels ; the particular ftrudluve of the kidney ; the
nature of the different excretory vefiels; the time the
urine may remain in the kidney ; the habit of retaining
the water in the bladder; particles of blood getting
into the kidney or bladder, and attracting the hony mat¬
ter fo as to form a nucleus. A certain change or the
vcffels of the kidney forming the urine has by iome been
confidered as a more probable caufe than any of the former.
'Hie formation of calculus fometimes begins in the kidneys,
at other times in the bladder.
After a calculus has begun to be formed, it fometimes ac¬
quires a great lize in a few months from the fit It obvious
fymptoms ; but fometimes it remains in the bladder for
310 many years without arriving at any confiderable fi/.e.
Sympnms The fymptoms commonly come on gradually,^ and bear
efcalculuj. fome kind of proportion to the hze and inequalities of the
ftone. One of "the firft commonly taken notice of is an
tineafy fenfation at the point of the urethra, which for fome
time is perceptible only upon making water, or upon tiling
violent or jolting exercife. This fenfation gradually inerta-
fes ; and there is along with it a frequent defire to make
water, which is commonly voided in Imall quantities, and
fometimes only in drops. When running in a full ftream,
ir often fuddenly Rous, though the patient is coiiicious ih it
a confiderable quantity Hill remains, and feels a ftrong incli¬
nation to void it. If the ftoite be large, the patient has a
conftant dull pain about the neck of the bladder, and fre¬
quent delire of going to ftool. J be urine is generally of a
limpid colour; but it is frequently thick, depohtmg a mu¬
cous fediment, and when the difeaie is violent it is o tea
tinged with blood. All thefe complaints are greatly in-
creafed by exercife, efpecially by riding on horfeback ; and
from a long continuance of pain, the patient s health by de¬
grees becomes much impaired, and unlefs efleiftiial means are
employed for removin g the caute of the diiorder, death aione
puts an end to his mi (cry.
We are rendered certain of the exiilence of calculus when
fmail pieces of Hone ar'e frequently palled along with the
urine. When this does not occus we cannot be certain
thlrt the fymptoms do not arde from an ulcer op tumor in
the body 01 neck of the bladder, or from the pveflure of tu*
Krors in the neighbouring parts. In doubtful cafes, how¬
ever, we have one mark by which we can judge with cer¬
tainly, and that is by means of founding.
TWdvxl of This is performed by introducing an inflrument called a
founding, fodnd (\g 82. formed of fled finely polifhed, and having
the natural curvature or the urethra, The patient vs to be
laid upon a table or acrofo a bed, witl. hU (boulders raifed * «
upon 'a pillow, to britMj the done to the neck of the bled- ^
dm and his thighs a little elevated and .eparated from eacn ______
other.- A found adapted to the fize of the urethra is to be
chofen ; and previous to the introduction it is to be laid in
warm water till it be of the heat of the body, and then
wiped and nibbed over with bland oil, butter, or axunge.
The furueon lays hold of the penis with his left hand, wh, c
with hisWht he introduces the found with its concave fide
towards the abdomen. He is now with his left hand to
draw the penis gently forward upon the mllrument, which
is to be gradually pufhed into the bladder. If any difficulty
occur about the neck of' the bladder, this may be obviated
by introducing the finger into the anus, and railing ttie point
of the inflrument ; or the fame purpofe is mote readily an-
fwered by depreffing the handle ot the found. If Rill it
does not pafs with eafe, much force ought by no means to
be ufed, leR the inRrumeot perforate the membranous part
of the urethra.
As loon as the inRrument enters the bladder, if it hap¬
pen at once to touch the Rone, a tremulous motion will be
communicated to the fingers of the operator, and the buli-
pefs of founding is then aecomplifhed, the nature O; the dit-
eafe being now afeertained. Great care, however, is here
always necefiary, as a ew particles of fand, or a hardened
Rate of the bladder, have fometimes communicated the lame
fen fat ion. If the Rone be not foon dif'eovered, the inRru¬
ment is to be moved in all directions ; and fhould the ope¬
rator be Rill unfuccefsful, one of the fingers of the left hand
is to be introduced into the reClum, fo as to raife that part
of the bladder in which a ftone may probably' be concealed.
If even this attempt prove ineffectual, the body ot the pa¬
tient is to be put into different pofitions, and perhaps one
of the beft is depreffing the (boulders and railing the pelvis.
By this mean a Rone may generally be felt, providing it
not contained in a cyR, which very rarely happens. L af¬
ter all thefe different attempts the futgeon fhould fail m dif-
covering the Rone, the inftruraeot is to be withdrawn ; and
if fymptoms of Rone be Rrongly marked, and it appear that
neither feirrhus nor inflammation, which might give rife to
thefe fymptoms, do exiit, a iecond or even a third trial is
to be made on the fallowing days. ^
Various lithontnpties have been recommenced for diflol*
ving the Rone in the bladder; fuch as lime-water, c?.uftiefl;pt;c,
alkali, foap, &c. but none of them can be conveyed in fuch
a Hate into the bladder as to be much depended upon, as
they undergo the greatell change in the couife the circu¬
lation. To obviate thefe changes, it has been recommended
to injedt certain fluids of this clafs through the urethra into
the bladder; but this has not been attended with any mate¬
rial advantages, and has generally been round to do injury to
the bladder. The only effectual method of removing Rones
from tire bladder is by means of a chirurgical operation
the fuccefs of which depends much upon the dexterity of
the furgeon, as well as on the conilitution of the patient. jjj
When the confutation has been fo much impaired tliat^m
the patient complains greatly of ficknefs and oppreffion
ftomach, with naufea and an inclination to vomit, efpecially 11 0
uoon taking food ; when he has likewife a conilant third,
and the pulfe is as high as a hundred Rrokes in the minute—
an operation is improper till thefe fymptoms are removed.
The operation is improper alio when the patient labours
under a fevere fit of the Rone; for then inflammation or the
bladder is apt to enfue to fuch a degree as to produce iup-
poration. By frequent attacks and continuance ot thefe
fits, the coats of the bladder are apt to be thickened an
greatly contracted. This lail circumftance may be known
by the introduction of the found; for then it will Rop
Store in
the Bid¬
der.
324
High ope¬
ration.
Chap. XXVII. S U R G
ter getting paft the fphln&er of the bladder, and cannot be
pufhed farther witliont confiderable force, and at the fame
time giving the p itient the moil exquifite pain. Nor ought
the operation to be performed when die bladder is ulcerated,
efpecially where the patient is old and much debilitated,
and where the difeharge of matter is great.
Children more readily recover from the operation of li¬
thotomy than adults ; and old people from the age of 55 to
that of 70, whofe conftitutions have not been broken, are
in lefs danger than thofe in the full vigour of life, probably
owing to inflammatory fymptoms being more apt to proceed
to a dangerous length in the extremes of age than at the
middle period of life. When the conftitution, however, is
not much impaired by the continuance of the diieafe, the
operation may be undertaken with a probable degree of fuc-
cefs almoft: at any period of the patient’s life.
Several methods have been recommended for performing
this operation ; but there are only two which can be prac-
tiied with any propriety. One is, where the operation is
to be performed immediately above the pubes, In that part
o" the bladder which is not covered with peritonaeum : the
other, where it is done in the perinreum, by laying open the
neck and lateral part of the bladder, fo as to allow of the ex¬
traction ot the done.
Franco, a French furgeon, finding a done in a child of
two years of age too large to he extracted through an open-
ing in perinaeo (the place where the operation was then
performed), was induced to make an incidoa into the blad¬
der above the pubes ; but though the done was extracted
and the child recovered, Franco, who publifhed the cafe in
lydi, never attempted the operation again, and even dif-
fuades others from doing it. It does not appear indeed
to have been much praCtifed anywhere till fome time after
the commencement of the prefent century, about the year
1720, when it was adopted and frequently performed in
Britain and other parts of Europe for the fpace of about
12 or 15 years. The lateral operation came then to be
more generally known, and fince this period the high opera¬
tion has been feldom praCtifed.
In performing the high operation, the bladder mud be in
perform.ng a didended date, fo as to make it rife above the offa pubis,
to allow an incihon to be made into that part of it which is
uncovered by the peritonaeum, and thereby to prevent the
abdomen from being opened or its contents expofed. Some
days, or even weeks, previous to the operation, the patient
ought to be dtfired to retain his urine as long as he can, fo
as to didend the bladder till it can hold at lead a pound
and a half, when the perfon is an adult and of an ordinary
fr/e; or tlie penis may be tied up to allow the urine to coi¬
ned. As thele methods may be attended with gieat diftrefs,
fome prefer didending the bladder by injeding warm water
by flow degrees till the bladder is fufficiently full, which
may be eaflly known by relaxing the abdominal mufcles and
feeling above the pubes.
When the operation is to be performed, the patient is to
be laid upon a table of convenient height, with the pelvis
higher than the (boulders, that the parts may be fully on
the dreteh, and^to prevent the bowels from preding upon
the bladder, i he legs and arms are to be properly held
by aflril ants. An incilion is to be made through the fit in,
the vcry middle of the under and fore part of the abdo¬
men, from iome way under the umbilicus to the fymphyds
?ubts. The cellular fubdance, the tendon of the oblique
mutdes, the miifcuii redi and pyramidales, are now to be
ieparated ; and it is better to make this feparation from the
pubes upwards, fo as to be in no danger of cutting into the
abdomen. The furface of the bladder will now appear un¬
covered by the peritonaruni. Then the operator, with a
16
325
Method of
Stone in
tile bi ai¬
der.
e r y.
common fcalpel, or an ubfeefs lancet, or, what is better,
with a concave (harp-pointed knife, makes a perfora¬
tion into the mod: prominent part of the bladder, till the
fore finger of the left hand can be introduced. The liga¬
ture is now to be removed from the penis ; then with a
probe-pointed bidoury, making the finger ferve as a conduc¬
tor, the wound is to be made fulficiently large for the ex¬
traction of the calculus, taking particular care, however, not
to carry the incifion fo high as to cut the peritonaeum.
This part of the operation being finifhed, the done is to be
extracted with the finger ; or if that be impracticable, the
forceps are to be employed. Should it unfortunately bao-
pen that the itone is broken in the extraction, the pieces
are to be removed entirely by the fingers rather than by
fcoops, which were iometimes ufed. The edges of the
wound in the integuments are now to be drawn together by
means of the twilled future, leaving about an inch and a half
immediately above the pubes for the difeharge of any urine
which may be there evacuated. The patient is to be laid
in bed, with the pelvis dill kept higher than the fhouldets.
Gentle laxatives are to be occadoually given, and the anti-
phlogidic plan driCtly adhered to. _ ^
The advantages of this method are, that larger ftones can Advantage!
be extracted by this than by the lateral operation, and that and difad.
fiUnions fores are lefs apt to enfue. The difaclvantages are, va.rUa^cs °-
the danger of opening or wounding the peritonaeum, and operi'
thereby expofmg the abdominal bowels ; the frequent oc- ’
currence of inflammation about the beginning of the ure¬
thra, fo as to occafion the urine to be diffufed in the cellular
fubfiance on the outfide of the bladder, and thereby produ¬
cing finufes difficult to cure ; the extreme difficulty of heal¬
ing the wound, efpecially in bad conftitutions ; and, laftly.
the fmall number of patients, after the age of thirty, who
have been found to recover from this operation.
biere Jacques, a French pried, was the inventor of thel.a^eral
lateral operation. He fit ft appeared at Paris in 1697, and0Perat,on.
afterwards operated in a great number of cafes.
He introduced a found through the urethra into the blad-prere
der with a flraight biftoury, cut upon the ftaff, and carried Jacques’s
his incifion along the ftaff into the bladder. He then in-method of
traduced the fore finger of the left hand into the bladder,fefiformin8
fearched for the (tone, which, having withdrawn the found, th°t0m)‘
he extracted by means of forceps.' The patient was now
carried to bed, and the after treatment left to the attend¬
ants.
Profeuer R?.u of Holland improved upon this method,improved
by making a groove in the ftaff, which enabled him, withbyProfeffer
greater certainty, to continue his incifion into the bladder : RftU>
but inftead of dividing the urethra and proitate gland, the
latter of which he was arraid of wounding, he differed by
the fide of the gland, till the convex part of the ilaff was
feit in the bladder, where he made las incifior, and extraCl-
‘- I-* ftone , but this method was too difficult to perform,
and attended with too many inconveniences and dangers ever
to be generally received. It fuggefted, however, to the ce-Sugiefted
1c,anted Cheftlden the lateral method of cutting, as it. isd113 lateral
now with a few alterations very generally praCtifed. ’yy’e0Pt^a.tion.
(hall attempt to deferibe the different fteps of this operation
m its prefent improved ftate.
. The manner of preparing the patient depends upon a va-,, 3^T -
mty of circumftances. If he be plethoric, a few ounces of.^'nn^
blood (hould be taken away, and at proper intervals thethe patilit.
bowels ought to be emptied by any gentle laxative which
will not gripe. The diet ffiouid confift of liiffit food ftm
fome time previous to the operation. If the pain be vio-
hnt, opium is neceftary. Sometimes it is relieved by keep¬
ing the patient in bed with the pelvis raifed. fo as to remove
the ftone from the neck of the bladder. Jie ought not to
* fit
X
,64 . , ,S U..RT1
Stone in fit up, or take any exercife, in the time of prepaiation. The
the Blad- war^ bath ought to be ufed two or three times, and the pa-
de^ , tient fhould remain in it half an hour at each time. A lax-
^ ative ought to be given on the day preceding the operation,
and an injeaion a few hours before it is performed. The
patient ought to drink plentifully of fome diluent liquor, and
to retain the urine feveral hours previous to the operation.
If this cannot be readily affedted, a flight cornpreffion, by
means of a ligature, may be made upon the penis, fo as to
have the bladder fufficiently diftended, that there may be no
danger of the pofterior furface being hurt by the end of the
gdrget. The perinfeum and parts about the anus inouldbe
well Ihaved. . t f
tv,. 33 r of A table fomewhat more than three feet m height, and oi
performing fufficient ftrength, is now to be firmly placed, and properly
ths opera- covered with blankets, pillows, See. Upon this the patient
tion* is to be laid and properly fecured ; and for this purpofe
there ought to be two pieces of broad firm tape, each about
five feet in length, which are to be doubled, and a noole
formed upon them. A noofe is then to be put upon each
wrift* and the patient defired to lay hold of the middle of
his foot upon the outfide. One end of the li gature is to go
round the hand and foot, and the other round the ankle and
hand, and crofs again fo as to repeat the turns in the re¬
verie way. A. running knot is then to be tied, by which
the hand and foot will be properly fecured. The buttocks
are then to be made to projeft an inch or two over the
table, and to be raifed confiderably higher than the fhoulders
by a couple or more pillows, and one ought to be put un¬
der his head.
The operator is now to introduce a grooved ftaff(fig. 81 )
of proportionable fize, and open to the very end, through
the urethra into the bladdei ; and having again fully fatis-
fied himfelf of the exiftence of a ftone, he inclines the ftaff,
if the furgeon be right-handed, obliquely over the right
groin, fo that the convex part of the ftaff may be felt in the
perinasum on the left fide of the raphe. He then fixes it,
and delivers it to his afiiftant, who is to hold it with his
right hand, defiring him to prefs it gently, in order to make
the fulcus of the ftaff projea in the dire&ion in which he
received it. Wfth his left hand the fame affiftant is to raife
and fupport the ferotum.
The thighs of the patient being fufficiently feparated by
the afiiftants, and the futgeon being leated upon a chair of a
proper height, and in a convenient light, he makes an inci-
fion with a common convex edged fcalpel through the flrin
and cellular fubftance, immediately below the fymphyfis of
the ofla pubis, which is a little below the ferotum, and where
the crus penis and bulb of the urethra meet, and on the left
fide of the raphe, and continues it in a flanting dire&ion
downwards and outwards to the Ipace be ween the anus and
tuberofity of the ifehium, ending fomewbat lower than the
bafis of that procefs, by which a cut will be made of three
or four inches in length. This incifion ought not to be
Shorter than is here dire&ed, otherwife there will not be
loom for the reft of the operation. As foon as the integu¬
ments are thus divided, he ought to introduce two of tne
lingers of the left hand. With one he keeps back the lip
of the wound next the rafftie, and with the other he preffes
down the re&um. He ought likewife particularly to guard
againft cutting the crures of the penis, which he can readily
feel, and feparate at their under part with one of the fin¬
gers. He next makes a fecond incifion almoft in the fame
dire&ion with the firft, but rather nearer to the raphe and
anus, by wdu’ch he preferves the trunk of the arteria pudica.
By this ineifion he divides the tranfvei falls penis,. and as
much of the levator ani and cellular fubftance within thefe
as will make the proftate gland perceptible to the finger.
G E R Y. Chap. XXVlIi
If any confiderable veffel be cut, it is immediately to be stone ;a
fecured, though this is fcldom neceffary. After this he will th<^*
have a view of the membranous part of the urethra, which _ "
ig diftinguifhed from that covered by the bulb by being very
thin. He is now to fearch for the groove of the ftaft with
the fore finger of his left hand, the point of whieft he preffes
along from "the bulb of the urethra to ths proftate grland,
which furrounds the neck of the bladder. He keeps it
there ; and turning the edge of the knife upwards, he cuts
upon the groove of the ftaff, and freely divides the membra¬
nous part of the urethra, from the proftate gland to the
bulb of the urethra, till the ftaff can be felt perfe&ly bare,
and that there is room to admit the point of the finger t
and as the finger affifts in keeping the parts ftretched, and
effe&ually prevents the re&um from being hurt, the incifion
into the urethra may be made with perfe& eafe and fafety.
The next part of the operation, viz. dividing the pro¬
ftate gland and neck of the bladder, might, by a dexterous
operator, be fafely performed with a common fcalpel, with
the edge turned the oppoiite way. But to guard againft
accidents, a more convenient inftrument, called the cutting
gorget (fig. 84.), is now in general life. It was originally
invented by Mr Hawkins of London, and fince his time has
undergone various alcvations. Fig. 85. is a double gorget
invented by Dr Monro. The inner plate, which is blunt,,
is made to flip forwards to prote& the back part of the
bladder. The membranous part of the urethra being now
divided, and the fore-finger ftil! retained in its place, the
point of the gorget, previoufly fitted to the groove, is to
be dire&ed along the nail of tne fin ter, which will fcive
to condu& it into the groove of the ftaff; and as this is
one of the niceft parts of the operation, the moll particular
attention is here required that the point oi the gorget be
diftin&ly heard to rub in the bare groove, and that nothing
is interpofed.
In the introdu&ion of the gorget into the bladder, if the
affiftant could be depended upon, the ftaff might be allowed,
to remain in his hand : the operator, however, generally
choofes to manage it himfelf. He now rifes from his feat,
takes the ftaff from the affiftant, raifes it to near a right
angle, and preffes the concave part againit the lymphyfis of
the offa pubes ; fatisfies himfelf again that the point or beak
is in the groove, and then pufhes on the gorget, lollowing
the dire&ion of the groove till the beak flip from the point
of the ftaff into the bladder. The gorget is not to be push¬
ed farther than this, otherwife it may wound the oppoiite
fide of the bladder, &c.
The gorget having now entered the bladder, which is
readily known by the dilcharge of urine from the wound,
the ftaff is to be withdrawn, and the finger introduced along
the gorget to fearch for the ft. ne, which,, when telt, will
point out the dire&ion to be given to the forceps; at any
rate, the introdu&ion of the finger ferves to dilate the
wound in the bladder ; and this being done, a pait of for¬
ceps fig. ^6.) of a proper fize, and with their olades as
nearly together as their form will allow, are to be introdu¬
ced, and the gorget withdrawn flowly, and in the fame di¬
re&ion in which it entered, fo as to prevent it from injuring
the parts in its return. After the forceps are introduced,
and paired till they meet with a gentle refiftance, but no
farther, the handles ought to be depreffed till they are fome¬
what in an horizontal dire&ion, as this will moft correfponu
with the fundus of the bladder. One blade of the forceps
is to be turned towards the lymphyfis of the pubes to de¬
fend the loft parts there, the other of confequence will guard
the return. After they have diflxn&ly touched the ftone,
by moving them a little in various dire&ions, they are then
to be opened, and the itone laid hold of, which may
* Chap. XXVn.
s ‘ ir r
N Stone in
tile Biad.
* der.
333
Treatment
after the
operation.
rally be done with canfiderable eafe. It frequently hap-
pens, however, that when the ftone is fmall, it is not readi-
 ly lelt with the forceps ; and inftances may happen v/here
the under and back part of the bladder may be fo depreffed
as to conceal the ftone. In Inch a fituation, nothing will
more readily bring it in the way of the forceps than to intro-
duce the finger into the redlum, and elevate this part of the
bladder. Straight forceps are generally ufed; crooked ones,
in fome very rare cafes, however, may be neceflary, and there¬
fore the furgeon ought to be provided with them.
After the forceps has la:d hold of the ftone, if it be
fmall and properly placed, it may readily be extracted ; but
if, on the contrary, the handles of the forceps are now ob-
ferved to be greatly expanded, it is certain the ftone is im¬
properly fixed, or that it is remarkably large: in either cafe
it fhould not be held faft, but allowed to move into the moft
favourable fituation ; ©r the finger is then to be introduced
fo as to place it properly for extraftion. If this cannot be
done with the finger, it ought to be allowed to flip out of
the forceps, in order to get it more properly fixed ; and as
the mofl common form of the ftone is flat and oval, or
fome what like a flattened egg, the forceps fhould have hold
of the fmalleft diameter, while an end prefents to the neck
of the mftrument. The ftone fhould be grafoed with no
greater firmnefs than is merely fufficient to bring it fairly
out- Xt ft011^ be extracted in a flow and gradual manner.
W hen a ftone is broken in the bladder, all the larger pie¬
ces are to be extrafted by the forceps, which are to be in¬
troduced by means of the finger ferving as a dire&or. The
imailer parts are to be removed by means of a fcoop (fig.
or probably the finger may be more convenient; and
aS n j mV pa/ticIe. aUowed to remain, or which is not
warned off by the urine, may ferve as the nucleus of another
itone, a large quantity of water, properly warmed, is to be
injected by a bag and pipe, or by a fyringe; and for this
purpoie the body of the patient fhould approach at leaft to
an upright pofture ; and to give the particles of ftone an op.
portumty of collefting near the inciiion of the bladder, the
Thrown iT7 bC ft°PPed f°r 3 little after the inieaion is
When a ftone is extrafted of a regular, firm, and rough
^ ,tr.feld°m haPPens that any others remain in the
l 'e “frary, when it is of an irregular fhape,
a d fmooth and pohfhed, particularly in certain places,
with impreffions formed upon it, there is the greateft pro¬
bability of others remaining. There are exceptions, how-
\ei, to thefe rules ; and therefore the operator, inftead of
ru ting to them, fhould introduce his finger, which will an-
fwer the purpofe without any other fearcher!
mnrb °Pfration> anY confiderable artery bleeds
much, it is to be taken up with a ligature ; but if this be
impiafticable, the hemorrhagy ought to be flopped by means
o preffure, and for this purpofe a firm roller introduced at
P^todiedTT" 3nd t0 any ftop-
P . d,^harge of urine, a fiber canula, covered with
caddis and Gufted over with ftyptic powder, may be introdu¬
ced into the wound with advantage.
it,ha*',Pens that a confiderable quantity of
Z ™ T bladder m,y produce very dangerous
vT,„ i, r<>pr'r™t,th>«a» "“ch as poflible, immcdiate-
‘I ' ttle operation being i imbed, the oatient's oelvis
ftodd be madc conSderabl, lower than the re^ This b^dv
fetd r n *hf T"rd Wi" be k'‘'' » ipendLg
But if it h f bloJGdl w'11 efcaF ’■eadily by the wound
the blaJde t muff h'1 bl°0d1Js ^ ,od^d ^ the cavity of
C oidcae., It muff be immediately extrafted
As foon as the blooding is flopped, the n;
og is flopped, the patient is to bo
G E R Y. 165
untied, a piece of dry faft charpee put between the Kps of Stone in
the wound, and often renewed, and the thighs brought toge-
ther. He is then to be laid in a bed, in fuch a way that
the pelvis may be confiderably lower than the reft, of the
body, to give a favourable direftion to any blood which may
afterwards flow from the wound. A confiderable dofe of
laudanum is now to be given. From 30 to 50 drops for
an adult will commonly be neceflary. From this period,
unleis the ftone has been large and difficult to extiait, the
patient commonly falls afleep, or at leaft lies quiet !or a few
hours ; but afterwards generally begins to complain of pain
in the under part of the abdomen. Anodynes are now to
be given both by the mouth and anus, and warm fomenta¬
tions, by means of flannels or bladders filled with warm wa¬
ter, are to be applied to the region o’ the bladder, as the af¬
fection feems to be of the fpafmodic kind.
If by a continuance of thefe remedies the pain abates,
no anxiety needs be entertained concerning it ; but if it in-
cieafe, and efpecially if the abdomen become hard and
fwelled, and the pulie full and quick, and thefe fymptoms
become gradually worfe, great danger is to be apprehended,
as they moft commonly take place in confequence of inflam-
niation. In this fituation, as much blood ought to be ta¬
ken as the patient can bear. A large injection of warm
water and od, or hnfeed tea, fhould be given every fix or
icven hours, and the fomentations continued at the abdo¬
men. If the fymptoms continue to grow worfe, the pa¬
tient. fhould be immediately put into the femicupium or
halt bath.
% a Proper continuance of thefe means, with a low diet
and p/enty of diluent drink, the above fymptoms may fre¬
quently be removed. The reverie, however, is iometimes
the caie. i he wound becomes floughy and ill conditioned ;
all the fymptoms, in fpite of every effort, continue to in-
creaie, and ioon terminate in death.
But where matters end favourably, the wound by degrees
puts on a better appealance ; the urine, paffes almoft from
the beginning by the urethra (moft frequently, however, it
is chfeharged by the wound tor the firft two or three
Aur ’ t^e pabl tbe a^domen gradually abates, the feve-
nfh fymptoms are foon removed, a complete cicatrix is form¬
ed, and the wound is fometimes cured in a month ; though
upon other occafions three, will be neceffary. But it muft:
depend greatly on the nature of the conftitution.
. Excoriation of the buttocks may be prevented by pla¬
cing a fheet under them feveral times doubled, the breadth
to be 18 or 70 inches, and to be all rolled up, except the
pare which is to be laid under the patient, the reft of the roll t®
be by his fide, which is . to be unrolled as the nurfe draws
the wet part irom under him. If, after the ufe of this, exco¬
riations fhould ftill happen, the part may be waffled with
cold water; or the parts round the wound, after being well
dried, .may be rubbed with any tough Ample ointment’
In patients of a debilitated conftitution incontinence
o urine frequently occurs-after this, operation. In gene¬
ral, this is removed as the patient acquires ftrenuth.
Nouriffling diet cold bath, the bark, and other tonics, are-
o much iervice here; but where thefe are afterwards found
n i ual, inEruments for compreffing the penis, or others
for receiving the urine, have been found uieful, and are
'r .Urh f convenIent wa7 a* to allow them to be
co ftantly ufed fo long as. they may be found neceffary.
An operation for ftone in the bladder is much feldomerLhhTmr
required in women than in men, on account of the fhortneiain females>
It n T" tJ‘.e/on”er a^owinff a.readier paflage for
the (ma 1 cakul, which get into, or a,e termed in, the bind-
”, it Ab; hke^lle m women more fimple, and of courfe
more readily performed. It might be done in the fair«
manner
i66
Stones in
the Kid-
neyf.
s u R o
manner &s In the male, but there would be the rrreateft pro¬
bability of wounding the vagina. In a few cafes the opera¬
tion has been performed from the vagina itfelf; but it is by
no means advifable, as itones would not only be ext rafted
with greater difficulty, but, on account o. the tluanefs of
the parts, the urine would mod probably form a fxltu.ous
opening, and a communication be maintamed between the
bladder and vagina; or cicatrices here might be attended
with great inconvenience in child-labour. , .
In the method commonly praftifed, the patient being p a-
ced and fecured in the fame manner as in the operation upon
the male, the operator introduces a ihort giooved Hair,
(lightly curved (fig. 88.), into the bladder; then by means
otfthe common gorget already mentioned, with its point
paffed along the groove of the ilaff, he laYs °PcnrJ“e
•whole of the urethra and the neck of the bladder. I he
ilaff is now to be removed, the finger introduced upon the
gorget, and to feel for the ftone, which is to be removed as
already direfted for the operation on the male fubjeft.
Where incontinence of urine occurs after the wound is heal¬
ed, a peffary is to be ufed within the vagina, or a fponge ap*
plied, or a tin machine to receive the urine.
Sect. II. Of Stones in the Kidneys.
The fvmptoms of ftone in the kidneys are, pain in the re¬
gion of the kidneys, ficknefs, and vomiting, the urine fome-
times mixed with blood, at other times with mucus or even
purulent matter ; but the fame fymptoms are often induced
by other caufes, efpecially from inflammation and luppura-
tion of the kidney. Nephritic complaints have frequently
fubfifted for a long time, where ftones have been blamed as
being the caufe of them ; and yet upon diffeftion purulent
matter alone has been detefted. From this circumftance,
ES well as from the great depth of the parts and the large
fize of the blood veffels o1' the kidney, the operation of
nephrotomy could not be performed, but with the grtateft
uncertainty and moft imminent danger, and is therefore
never attempted, A. few caies indeed have appeared \\lure
inflammation induced by a ftone in the kidney terminated
in abfeefs, and the ftones were taken out ; but it was not
till they had worked their way out of the kidneys into the
cellular fubftance, fo that it only remained to open the ab¬
feefs and extraft: them ; but otherwiie the operation is never
to be thought of.
E R Y, Chap. XX VIII,
For this purpofe certain inftuttnents have been contrived, *o
particularly a tube containing a pair o. ekilic iorceps ^hg^ ^
go t to be introduced into the urethra fo as to lay hold of
the ilone. In fume cafes they certainly might anfwer the
purpofe, but they have not been found very uieful; and as
they may increafe the irritation already prefent in the ure-
thra, they are feldom, if ever, employed, Inftead of them,
the furgeon ufes gentle preffure on the penis to pu r the
ftone outwards ; and as calculi larger than a field bean
have fometimes been paffed by the urethra, an operation
ought not to be performed till gentler means have been
perfiffed in for forr.e time. When thefe means have tailed, an
inciiion ought to be made immediately upon the itone,
which is then to be removed by a probe, or with a pair of
fmall forceps.* When a ftone is lodged near the neck
of the bladder, after the patient has been placed and
fecured in the fame manner as for the lateral operation,
while an afliftant fupports the icrotum and penis, the ope-
rator introduces a finger oiled into the anus, to lupport the
ftone in its place, and prevent it from flipping into the blad-
der. An incifion is then to be made, and the ftone turned
out. The after treatment will be nearly the fame as mat
after the operation of lithotomy. . .
When, again, a ftone has advanced further m the ure¬
thra, the bell method is to draw the fkm ftrongly fo.! wares
or backwards, and then to cut upon it and turn it out,
when the flan will Aide back fo as to cover the wound, and
prevent the urine from paffing through it ; and by this
means it will generally heal by the firft intention. 'If part
of the urine pafs through the wound, and infinuate into the
cellular fubftance, an attempt is to be made with the hand
to prefs it back. If that prove infufScient, a cut is to be
made threu-.'h the flan oppofite to the incifion of the me-
thra ; but this will feldom be found neceflary. If a itone
is fixed near the point of the urethra, it may be removed
with a pair of forceps ; or, if this fail, the urethra is to be
with * fralnel : and if this alfo be mfufficient, an m-
Sect. III. Of Stones in the Urethra.
Those who are troubled with calculous complaints fre¬
quently pafs fmall ftones along with their urine ; and when
„, thefe are angular or of confiderable fize, they fometimes
Symptoms ftick, and give much uneaiinefs. I he fymptoms are at
of ftones in firft pain, then inflammation and fwelling, attended with a
the urethra, partial or total fuppreffion of urine, which, if long neglefted,
is apt to terminate in a rupture of the urethra, when^the
urine will be difeharged into the neighbouring parts. The
greateft attention is therefore neceflary to get the frone ex-
e trafted as foon as poffible.
Method of When a ftone is in the urethra, unlefs it be of a large
extradling fize, or has been long impacted, and the inflammation great,
attempts ought to be made with the fingers to pufh it out;
but previous to this, the penis ihould be relaxed as much as
poffible, fo as to remove a certain degree of fpafm which the
prefence of ftone here probably creates. Blood ought to
be drawn by general or local means, according as the pa¬
tient may be of a plethoric or emaciated habit. He fhould
be immerfed in a warm bath, and get a full dofe of lauda¬
num, and warm oil ought alfo to be thrown into the urethra.
After thefe remedies have relaxed the parts as much as may
$>e| the extraction is to be attempted.
dilated with a fcalpel ; and if this aifo be mfufficient, an in-
cifion is to be made as above direfted. When the cuie is
nearly completed, a tube formed of filver or elaftic gum,
or a hollow bougie, may be ufed to keep the uretha of a pro¬
per fize. „ n n- 1 • •
The word part of the urethra for a ftone to ftick in is
that immediately behind the icrotum ; tor then the urine is
apt to pals by the incifion into the cellular fubLance o. the
ferotum, fo as to occafion large iwellings there. i o pre¬
vent this, a ftone fo fituated ought, if poffible, to be puffed
forwards with the fingers; or if tins be imprafticable, it
fhould be puffed back into the perineum by means ot a
ftaff. If both methods fail, a cut is to be made at the
under part of the ferotum, which is to be well lupported,
and at one fide of the feptum, and continued upwards till
the flone is felt, when an ineifion is to be made into the
urethra, and the Hone extracted as before direfted.
Chap, XXVIII.
Of Incontinence and Supprejfionof
Urine.
them.
Incontinence of urine may arife from various c3iifts,Ca^
as, from a lots of power in the fphinfter of the hla^runc;^
while the natural tone of that organ remains ummpan >
or from irritation about the neck ol tne bladder, pto
by the friction of ftones contained in it ; or from a acer
tion of parts by the operation oi lithotomy ; or from
preffure of the uterus in a ftate oi pregnancy. . , f 33!
When the difeafe is owing to a want of temem Tieat»
fphinfter, the cure is very difficult, becaule the con lU'
ft . . r  , „ir,xran mnft uffful reined*8
inhmeter, tne cure is very    ~
in general is freauently affefted. I he moil uiefu tern
h  L. 11   wu /.lialvheate waters,
ait tonics, efpecially peruvian bark, chalybeate waters,
Chap. XXVIIT. .S U R
incont!- tht? cold bath, both generally and locally applied.
^nence and f^hflaneej applied to the perineum are perhaps of greater
of Uni.e0. ^trvI'ce than any thing elfe, as cloths wet with vinegar and
w_—v— cold water, or with a droop, folution of faccharuar laturni
in vinegar; but the bed method of applying cold is to
dafli water immediately from the fountain upon the anus
and perinreum. When it arifes from the irritation of (tones
in the bladder, opiates and mucilaginous liquors plentifully
iifed frequently give great relief. When incontinence of
urine is owing to a laceration of parts in performing the ope¬
ration of lithotomy, the difeafe is nearly of the fame nature
as that from the caufe iirft mentioned, and therefore the
lame remedies are of fervice. When thtfe remedies fail in
either of the cafes, comprefiion of the urethra prevents any
inconvenience ariftn r from the conftant dripping of the
urine; and for thispurpofe an inftrument termed jugum penis
Plate (%• 9°’) ‘S applied to the penis; or, to prefs aiaintl the
CftCCXC,.ure#tl‘rathe female, neflaries (fig. pi.nand.'') are contrived,
which are made in fuch a way as to be introduced into the
vagina, and there to prefs upon the urethra. They
are fbmetimes made of fpouge, but thofe of ivory or wood
wed polifhed are more generally preferred. A final! bot¬
tle n.ade of elalfic gum, and open at both ends for the pal-
fare of the menflrua] difeharge, anfwTers the purpofe equal¬
ly well. Certain cafes however occur where preiiure upon
the urethra is improper, efpecialiy where there is a conftant
defire to pafs water ; and here much relief is obtained front
the ufe of receivers, which are now fuited to both fexes.
I' ig. Q2. reprefents one for the male, and fig. 93. one for the
female.
(VV e fhall here treat enly of that foec.es of fopprefuon of
urine where the urine is collected in* the bladder, but from
fome obft racing can it- is prevented from being difeharged-
It ar/fes from a var-ety of caufes.
^ , f ^ W hen it anfes from; a want of tone in the body of the
1 lie-"from ladder, it is often connected with palfy cf ihe lower ex-
>59
•jOf fu 1 ref.
Son of u-
540
I're if.r.ent
n^.-nt of
trernities; it is frequently owing alfo to retaining urine too
.n ti e long. The catheter, in this cafe, is commonly an effectual
t tv!y c,f tU remedy, and ought to he employed as foon as the fuppredion
rt> JS ^.dently formed, and repeated from time to time, till the
tone of the fyttem is recovered by the ufe proper reme¬
dies. The method of introducing the catheter is the fame
with that already directed for t unding for (he Rone,
rig. 94. a catheter for the male, fig. 05. one for the fe¬
male.
When the affection arifes from fpafm about the neck of
the bladder, opiates, warm water thrown into the rectum
and afterwards the warm b.th, are the belt means of m o
cueing relief. When it proceeds from feirrhus f the pro-
ftate gland, or from other tumors, < r from obstructions of
the urethra in confequence of gonorrhoea, the treatment to
be afterwards defcribed wiil be found bed fuited for fuch
complaints. When the fupprdBon arifes from the d refill re
of the uterus in the latter months of pregnancy, chan e of
po ft are is fometimes found to have fome effect ; but it this
■ am immediate relief can commonly be ttiven by the intro-
duct 1 cm of the catheter, which in women is for the moft
part readily done.
Suppreflion of urine from inflammation affedin r the neck
of^the bladder is one of the molt alaiming varieties of the
G E R Y. , (S7
Cold leeches fhould be applied to the perimsum. Opiates ought fnconti-
to be given in large dofes. Injections of warm water Tence ar!cl
Should be frequently thrown up the redtum, and the wholetj'rTie'*
body fhould be immcried in the warm bath. If thefe 1
means be properly ufed, they will very feldom fail of fuc-
cefs ; but when they do not prove effectual, when the blad¬
der becomes painfully diltcnded, and when every attempt
to introduce the catheter has failed, nothing is to be de¬
pended upon but a punCture made into the body of the
bladder, in order to difeharge the water contained in it.
Vaiious methods have been propofed for effecting this Mefh4*] 0f
operation. PunTuring the bladder above the pubes has puncturing
been recommended by many refpeCtable authors. The the bladder
following is the method of doing it: A lancet-pointedah ve til4
trocar, about two inches long, is to be at once introduced pLlbcS'
through the integuments, about an inch and half above the
pubes, into the body of the bladder. The flilette is to be
removed as loon the water beirins to flow through a
groove formed in it, and the urine allowed to flow through
the canola, which is fecured to the body by means of* a
bandage. A cork is to be fitted to the canula, that the
urine may pafs off at intervals only. The canula is to be
retained till the caufe which produced the obitruCHon is fo
far removed that the patient can difeharge the urine in the
natural way. It ought to be removed every three or four
dajs, and cleared from the fordes which adheres to it,
otherwife it foon becomes covered wuth a calculous cruft
which renders the ex trad ion exceedingly difficult. On
thetc oecafions a firm probe, of Efficient length, ought to
be palled through it into the bladder, upon which it may*
aSa*a ^ eafily returned as foon as it is properly cleaned.
i. his method of pundenng the bladder is not altogether
free rtom objections: the bladder being fufpended for a
long time on the canula, its tone is fometimes deftroyed ;
and if it happen to flip off the cauula, the operation muff
be repeated ; befides, the urine may be diffufed in the fur¬
rounding cellular fubflance.
t V*v'14:11 t^ie bladder is to be pun£tured from the perinsetrm, rf
the trocar, which ought to be longer than the one for pane puncturing
luring above the pubes, is to be introduced at a little di-*fom
fiance from the rapha perinati, and then paffed into the body beui‘aiuin*
of the bladder, a little to the upper and outfide of the
proftate gland, carrying the point of the indrument a little
upwards, to avoid wounding the ends of the ureter or fe-
mtnal veficls. Pun Turing from the anus, or the vagina ia
females, are attended with fo many inconveniences that they
ought never to be attempted.
Chap. XXIX Difeafe s of the Penis.
Sect. I. 0/ OhJiruBtm of the Urtthra.
Obstructions of the urethra frequently occur after re-c •,f44
neatc-d or fevere attacks of the venereal difeafe. They obifruc-^
34*
r un in-
immatio
dw i eck u > _ —-    vrtiK-ues 01
bU-- ff ’ as ,t Produces P*,n> aad filch a degree of fwellimr
’ the b
V.
• , . i 7   ui 1 welling
tS t0render the lntr°du<ffion of the catheter in-
Imnt h Vh y°m tbe ^ter m gonorrhoea
fmmoi. f r-S- ^ C0^ °f the llrethra' An
imp.oper uie 0f injections has likewife frequently produced
W a's ° V1" Thc is ILfy the
hodv 7>, complaints in other parts of the   
J-lood-letting fhould be employed, and particularly flammation
may be owing to caruncles or ficfhy excrefcences in the dm> of the
urethra ; to tumors in the lining membrane, or parts conti-uretbra-
rm-us to the urethra, in confequence of inflammation; to
f pal mod ic atfeciions of the urethra; or to fbr inures properly
fo called. r r 7
fill of late years almoft every inflance of obftruaion in
the nretnra has been attributed to caruncles, but their oc¬
currence is much lefs frequent than was-foimcrly imao-ined
Fhey are rarely found except near the point of the urethra*
1 hey are confidered to be nearly of the fame natureAvith
the warts which grow upon the prepuce or root of tlm
glans in vene eal cafes. Tumors obftrufting the paffaae
m the urine may be occafioned either immediately by in-
or in confequence of old fores within the ure-
thray
x68
Ohftme-
<k> srf the
IJiethra.
345
Methods
cure.
S U R G
tlira ? or tumors, from whatever caufe, may he feated in the
corpora cavernofa contiguous to the urethra, and may pvefs
UDon it in fuel) a manner as to caufe an adhefion or its.fides,
and therehy produce ftoppage of the urine. Spafmodic
ftn&ures of the urethra fometimes arife from ftone in the
bladder. Sometimes in gonorrhoea there is fuch a degree of
cent raff ion that neither ftaff nor bougie can enter. This
-variety of obftruftion is known by its coming on fuddcnly,
and going off fometimes aim oil completely in the fpace of a
few hours. Of the permanent ftriefure, or ftriffure pro¬
perly fo called, Mr Hunter ohferves, that in moft of the
cafes of this kind which he has feen the difeafe extends no
farther in breadth than if the part had been furrounded with
a piece of packthread. He has however feen the urethra
irregularly contradfed for above an inch in length, owing
to its coats or internal membrane being irregularly thicken¬
ed and forming a winding canal. He farther obferves, that
a ftndfure does not -anie, in all cafes, from an egual con-
tr aft ion of the urethra all round ; but in feme, from a con-
traftion of one fide, which throws the paffage to the oppo-
fite fide, and often makes it difficult to pafs the bougie.
In feme few cafes, he fays, there are more ftriftuves than
one ; he has feen half a dozen in one urethra, and finds
that the bulbous part is much more fubjeft to llriftures
than the whole of the urethra befides ; that they are i'ome-
times on this fide of the bulb, but very feldom beyond it ;
and that they are often flow in forming, it being frequently
years from the time they are perceived before they become
very troublefome. Contrary to the opinion of others, Mr
Hunter doubts very much if the ftrifture commonly, or even
ever, arifes from the effefts of the venereal difeafe, or the
method of cure ; for ftriftures are common to other paflages,
and fometimes happen in the urethra where no venereal com¬
plaint had ever been.
of When obftruftions are occafioned by caruncles in the
urethra, bougies (fig. 96.) ffiould be introduced rubbed oVer
with bland oil until a refiflance is met with. When a bougie
cannot be introduced far enough, one with a {mailer point is
to be ufed, but not till the day following, left the part be too
much irritated. They ought not to be allowed to remain
long at firft, particularly when they occafion a coniider-
able degree of pain.
When fuppreffion of urine arifes from fwellings in or
about the urethra, in confequence of inflammation, an at¬
tempt fhould be made to difeufs thefe immediately, or bring
them into a ftate of fuppuration, and difeharge the pus as
loon as it is formed. But when the nature of the tumor
is fuch as not to terminate in either of thefe ways, extirpa¬
tion of the difeafed parts, when this is found prafticable, is
the only probable means of relief. Bougies ftiould at the
fame time be ufed to affift in the cure.
When fpafmodic affeftions are prefent in the urethra, the
remedies to be employed are, warm emollients, as rubbing
the part with warm oil; anodynes, as opium given by the
mouth, but more efpecially by the anus; blood-letting in
plethoric habits, and this to be generally and locally ap¬
plied; blifters put to the penis or perimeum; eleftricity,
after plethora has been removed. Some cafes may be treat¬
ed with bougies ; but where the difeafe is purely fpafmodi-
cal, they are generally found to be hurtful; though in other
cafes, when the violence of the difeafe is fo far removed, if
they can be introduced, they are of fervice, by relieving any
obftruftions which may remain after the remedies above-men¬
tioned have been exhibited. Coftivenefs ought likewife to be
guarded againft. The permanent ftrifture is to be cured
by bougies.
Bougies aft folely by preffure, and by fupporting the
part; hence they fliould be fo large as to fill the paflage,
e R Y.
contraftedcX,
?4?
Cmt.
Chap. XXIX,
and fjfficicntly flexible to be cafily introduced. They are PhynwIU
formed of various materials, as a compofidon of diachylon “J4 Hu,
platter, oil, and wax melted’and put upon linen, which is
afterwards properly rolled up ; or they are formed ofleather
capmt, &c. properly prepared : but the beft of any are
thofe which are formed of elaftic gum. _ Bougies, when
properly made, can fometimes be kept in for fix or eight
hours together; but the length of time proper for their re-
tention muft depend much upon the feelings of the pa-
tient. At all times when they give much pain they ought
to be removed, and not introduced again till the part is in
a ftate fit for receiving them. They fhould be gradually
increafed in their fize, till the paffage returns to its natural
dimenfions. They ought to be continued for fome time
after, till it appear that there is no danger of a return of the
complaint.
Sect. II. Gf Phymofis and Paraphymojis.
In phymofis the prepuce is thickened,- and _   
before"the glans, fo that it cannot be readily drawn behindphymois,
it. In fome people there is a conftitutional pbymofis from
the natural ftraitnefs of the prepuce. Sometimes it arilcs
from the matter fecreted by the odoriferous glands at the
root of the glands being confined and becoming acrid;
fometimes from an anafarcous fwelling of the ferotum and
penis ; but moft frequently from venereal virus.
The cure muft depend upon the nature of the caufe pro-
ducing the difeafe. If the fymptoms be inflammatory and
of no long continuance, fomenting the parts frequently with
warm emollient decoftions, or bathing them in. warm
milk, and then applying emollient poultices, or keeping the
difeafed parts conftantly msift with a cold aftringent folu-
tion, and turning the penis upwards and fupporting it a-
gainft the belly, commonly give relief. II the inflamma¬
tion has arifen from a venereal caufe, part of the fluid ought
frequently to be injefted, by means of a fyringe, between
the prepuce and glans, fo as to wafh off any matter which
may* there be concealed ; but if the inflammation (till con¬
tinues to increafe, blood-letting is neceffary, both general
ami local. The veins of the penis are fometimes advifed to
be opened with a lancet; but this is unfafe on account of
the nerves. Beeches may be applied; but care muft be ta¬
ken, in venereal cafes, left the bites of thefe animals, by ab-
forbing venereal matter, turn into chancres. Along with
the remedies already advifed, gentle lexatives, low diet, and
abftinence, ought to be preferibed. But if, after a due per-
feverance in thefe means, it is found that they have had lit*
tie effeft in removing the diforder, or perhaps that the
fymptoms are conftantly incrcafing, and that chancres are
confined under the prepuce ; in that cafe it is neceffary to
flit open the prepuce, which is beft done by a (harp-pointed
biftoury, concealed in a grooved direftory, fig. 98. Ih’S
is to be introduced between the prepuce and glands, till
the direftor is found by the finger to have reached the up¬
per or back part of the prepuce. The operator is now to
keep the direftor firm with one hand, while with the other
he pufhes forward the knife, till its point paffes through the
prepuce ; then drawing the inftrument towards him, he cuts
the prepuce through its whole length.
The operation being performed, the parts are to be waft*
ed and cleaned with warm water, and the fore drefled with
a little foft lint, and a comprefs of linen laid over it. The
whole may be retained by a fmall bag properly adapteft
and fecured by two ftraps to a bandage put round the
body. Tins bag may be left open at the under end,
allow the patient to make water, without removing the
dreffings ; but if this be found imprafticable, the dreflin^®
may be removed with little inconvenience. If the glans *
and Para
piiynKiis,
Chap. XXIX. S U R
Phymofis rr.uch inrlamM and #xcorlatod, care fhould be taken to
infert lint fpread with emollient ointment between the
plana and prepuce, otherwife troublefome adheiions are apt
to enfue. It is evident, that when this difeafe is of the
venereal kind, the fore will not readily heal till the poifon
be eradicated from the conftituticm.
In fome cafea of phymofis the preputium is fo remarkably
long, and the contradlion fo much confined to the point,
that a circular incifion is preferable to a longitudinal one ;
and it is eafily effefted, by feparating fuch a portion as
may be found neceflary of the whole circumference of the
prepuce. The drefiings in this cafe are the fame as when
the prepuce is flit open.
Paraphymofis is the reverfc of ph^mofis, being form¬
ed by a retrattion of the prepuce, producing ftridfure be¬
hind the glans of the penis. Like the former difeafe, it
arifes moft frequently from a venereal infe&ion, but may
be produced from whatever preternaturally enlarges the
glans or conftrifts the prepuce.
In the incipient ftate, the patient may generally be re¬
lieved by the furgeon pufhing the glans gently back with
his thumbs, while with his fingers he brings the prepuce
gradually forward. But a. more effe&ual method than this
is to inclofe the glans with one of the hands, and prefs
gently on all fides, by which the fluids forming the enlarge-
ment will be pufhed into the body of the penis behind the
nncfure. If this method be perfevered in for a confider-
able time, it will generally be found to anfwer the pnrpofe :
but fhould it prove inefFedual, we may try the effects of
cold applications ; and the heft feem to be thofe of the
faturnrne kind. When the penis is evidently much fwelled
and rnflamed, the patient fhould be kept cool, gentle laxa¬
tives and low diet fhould be preferibed, and a number of
leeches applied to the penis. Should the difeafe {till con-
tmue to rncreafe, and an oedematous fwelling appear about
tiiig rj,
I’tini?
34*
Df para-
phymofis
„ 349
treatment
G E R Y. i6()
A circular incifion is flrA to be made through the found Arrpura-
fkin a little beyond the difeafed parts; the {kin is then to
be drawn back by an aflidant, and the body of the penis i
divided by one ftroke of the knife (fig. 99.) immediately
at the edge of the retracted {kin. The principal arteries,
which are two or three on each fide, are next to be fecured
by ligatures ; and if an oozing of blood {fill continue, the
furface of the fore ought to be dulled with fome ftyptic
powder. To allow the patient to make water, a filver ca¬
nola (fig. 99. a) is to be introduced into the urethra, and
retained there by two fmall ligatures fixed to the fide of the
canula, their other extremities being faltened to a bandage
put round the body. The wound is to be drefled with foft
lint, kept in its place by a piece of linen previoufly perfo¬
rated for the introduffion of the canula. The dreflings
are to be kept on by a narrow roller pafied a few times
round the penis, which, by gently compreffing the penis
upon the inllrument, will effedlually prevent any farther dif-
charge of blood. The after treatment of the fore fhoulcj
be fimilar to wounds in other parts of the body. But it
will not be necelfary to make any farther compreflion of the
penis upon the canula, as the difeharge of blood will, pre¬
vious to this time, be entirely {lopped. The tube is to be
allowed to remain in the urethra during the whole time of
the cure.
Before any operation of this kind is attempted, the
furgeon ought to examine attentively, whether the difeafe
be in the penis itlelf, or only in the {kin, as the prepuce
alone is frequently fo much enlarged and otherwife difeafed
as to give caufe for fufpicion that the glans and body of the
penis are likewife affedled. This precaution is the more
necellary, as feveral inllances have occurred where the glans
and body of the penis have been removed, and, after the opera¬
tion, have been found perfectly found. Previous to ampu¬
tation, therefore, where there is any caufe for fufpicion, the
the under naw nf auuuL uicrcrore, wnere mere is any caule tor tulpicion, the
prevent a mortMr,tlnn ?rCpU“’■<> necefTary to prepuce flrould be flit open, and the glans examined, fo as
prevent a mortihcation from takinsr Diace in the cr ans. An t,.    L .1 1T.
# i J. '   [ 
prevent a mortihcation from taking place in the glans. An
inci ion is to be made on each fide of the penis immediate-
v behind the glans, fo large as completely to divide the
itnCture.. The wound ought to be allowed to blood freely;
after which a pledget fpread with' Ample ointment is to be
applied, and an emollient poultice laid over the whole.
Sect. III. Of an Incomplete Urethra,
. children, efpecially males, the urethra is fometlmes
incomplete, ending before it reaches the ufual place of ter¬
mination. Sometimes it does fo without any external open¬
ing, at other times it opens at a. diftanee from the com-
mon termination. In the firit cafe, a fmall trocar is to be
introduced in the diredion the urethra ought to take till
VEafter-thcbe
rJ] P ^ by the -1 e of bougIes* tHl the fides be rendered
callous and an opening preferved. In the other cafe, as the
P - ing which is already found affords a temporary paflaee
for the urine, it will be better to delay doiW a^opera
fZf thCf be fa^her advanced in life, Ihe'n t'
is to be performed as in the former cafe.
Alter the operation, a piece of flexible catheter may be
. trod need, ^as well for the purpofe of rendering the palfa-re
made! ** " °ff the vvater a cure's
Sect. IV. Of Amputating the Penis.
VZ ™foand acceflary in certain difeafes which
will t • . 10nvcenarj
not yield to other remedies: as in cafe* nf . n «•'” *"T ““ “‘“Y? ‘^uary; ana tor tins purpofe
«.on and canc, Us foIlowing is ^ *5* fo .«• «<* .P* .he
to avoid amputating more than what is abfolutely diftafed. .450
It fometimes happens that the frgenum of the penis is fg^ ftort-
Ihort as to give confiderable uneafinefs in time of an ereftion. r efs of thc
When this is the cafe, it may be fafely divided by a pair ^
ot faffars, or by a {harp-pointed bifloury, and the wound
drefled with a little charpie.
Sect. V. Of Flflula in Per mao.
The term implies a fin nous ulcer in the perinseum, com¬
monly communicating with the urethra, hut fometimes open-
mg into the bladder. 1 he lame term is alfo applied to fimilar
lores opening into the ferotum, or into any part.of the penis.
Ihe difeafe may arife from wounds in the bladder, andCaufesof
or the urethra, from external violence; from a laceration of ^ula in
parts when performing the operation of lithotomy; fromperinseU3
incifion into the urethra for the extraftion of calc’uii im-
pafted there ; from linufes producing matter capable of cor¬
roding the membranous part of the urethra ; from fuppiua-
tion 111 the penmeum in confequcnce of inflammation ; from
the urine paffing through an opening in the urethra into the
perineum or other neighbouring parts, and rendering the
edges of the fore callous ; and moil frequently the difeafe is
occafioned by venereal complaints.
In the treatment of this difeafe, .when it is the confe-Tr-k-f * *
quence of a general affedion of the fyftem, a removal of the
primary diforder is necelTary before a cure can be attempted.
When the complaint is of a local nature, a Ample indfion
into the finus is all that is neceCTary; and for this purpofe
it;
Vol. XVIII. Part L
opening at which the urine is difeharged. A probe, or a
hnall dire&or, is now to be Faffed at the external opening of
Y the
170
S U R G
E R Y.
Chap. XXX.
■ 71J . . , I,, any other caufe. If eaollic is to be nfed, care r.hl,
Heniorr- the fore till it reach the ftaff; on .ht to be taken that it do not injnre the tettum.
lioids
PI
to be laid‘open through iu -hole length tm it .erminate
tn he laid ooen mruu^u ivo ,, ,, •.rip
either in the urethra, or, if neceffary, m the bladder itfet .
' When more openings th^n one are prefent, they arc to be
treated in the fame m^ner ; and if the fmufes are iound to
be remarkably hard', the removal of a fmall portion of e
difeafed part will expedite the cure, though the confequent
inflammation and fuppuratlon will render this feldom necef-
farv A+ter the operation, the wound is to be drtflhd with
Pledgets of emollient ointment, fo as to allow it to fill up
completely from its bottom. The whole is to be covered
witha pledget of emollient omtment; and proper comprefte
being applied over it, the drefiings are to be fupported by
“ nbfymToms of inflammation be violent, an emollient
poultice if to be applied in the courfe of twenty-four hour.
Tter the operation ; and as footi as free fuppuration is foim-
‘ed, light eafy dreffings are to be ufed till the fore is com-
pktely healed.
Sect. III. Of Fijlulain Ano.
Chap. XXX. Difeafes about the Anus.
Sect. I. Of Hemorrhoids or Piles.
The treatment of piles has been already conhdered under
the'article Medicine ; but it fomelimes happens that al¬
though the means mentioned there have been employed, the
difeafe becomes fo violent as to require the afiiltance of the
furgeon. Where the difeharge of .blood is fo great as to
endanger the life of the patient, we ought to attempt to
flop it either by compreffion, or by fecunng the bleeding
veltels by a ligature; and here the tenaculum is pte era e
to'the needle, becaufe, when the latter is ufed, a portion of
the rectum is apt to be included m the ligature. When
piles arrive at fuch a fize as to obitruft the paffage of the
fseces, or to produce great irritation, the removal of them
by the knife or by ligature becomes neceffary. i he tirlt
of thefe may be ufed when their fize is of fuch a nature as
pot to threaten a dangerous hemorrhagy ; but when this is
the cafe, they ought to be removed by ligature, the manner
of applying which has been confidered under the treatment
of Polypi. The dreflings are to be of a Ample nature.
Sect. II. Of Condylomatous Excrefunces, tfc. of the Anus
The fiftula in ano is a finuous ulcer in the neighbourhood
of the ie£tum. When it opens externally, and has likewile
a communication with the gut, it is termed * complete
rPula ■ but if it has no communication with the rectum, it
is called incomplete. When the ulcer communicates with the
gut, but has no external opening, at is named an internal
or o-cult ft fluid. It is likewhe diftmguifhed into Ample and
compound. The Aril is where one or more Anufes commu¬
nicate with the internal ulcer, but where the parts in the
neighbourhood are found. The compound Aftula is where
the parts through which the Anus runs are hard and Celled,
or where the ulcer communicates with the bladder, vagina,
os facrum, and other contiguous parts. , 3SJ
The caufes producing the difeafe may be, whatever tended
to form matter about the anus, piles, condylomatous tumore,
hardened fasces, or any caufe which produces irritation and
inflammation, fo as to end in fuppuration. As foon as a
dwelling about the anus appears to terminate in fuppuia-
tion every thing ought to be done which can accelerate the ^
formation of matter. A proper degree of heat, warm!*
poultices, fomentations, and the fleams of warm water, are^'P.
the means belt Anted for this purpofe ; and as loon as mat*oftk
ter is formed, it ought to be difeharged by a free mciiion^
in the loweft part of the tumor. Much depends upon theftuh
proper treatment here ; for if the opening be made too
fmall, or if long delayed, the matter gets into the look
cellular fubftance, and inftead of producing one, produces
many flnufes, and thefe fometimes running to a great depth.
The parts ought then to be covered with foft lint ipread
with mild ointment, and an emollient poultice kept conr
ftantly over the whole. By this any remaining hardneis
will be removed, the cavity will All up like impoflhumous
tumors in other parts, and a complete cure will in geneiai
foon be made. r,. • „
It more frequently happens, however, that the praAitio
er is not called in till the abfeefs has burft of >tfelf, and ti
matter has inAnuated into the furrounding cellular iuoitance,
and formed one or more real fi.-.ulas. > . .
The Arft thing to be done now is to difeover the real
courfe of the different Anufes, and the probe is the belt ia-
n  . r -rgo If there be openings m the ex-
Excmscences are fometimes produced about the anus, l.^tht
,vhich from their figure get the name >^r"d*hy the if ,ty run dong the perineum or the mufcles, the probe
but they are all of the fame nature, anc to be cu. 7r lf ... ^ ty.pm if they follow the direftion
?ame means. They fometimes grow with,,, the gut ,t e , method is to introduce the fore finge,
but more frequently are fituated at the verge 01 ® reaum, while the probe is entered at the «■
T'“ey ’SmeUmette; terna. orifice. If there he a communication between thejat
ence. oomccimcb lacy ext
but commonly all the flein about the anus becomes covered
with them. They vary in Aze from that of ordinary warts
te that of fplit garden beans. They feem originally to be
produaions of the fkin, though at laft they lometimes pro¬
ceed as deep as the mufcles. They frequently remain long
without producing much uneaAncfa. When this is the
cafe, they ought not to be touched ; but fometimes they
become fo troublefome as to render their removal neceflary.
The lofter kinds can frequently be removed by rubbing
them often with gentle efchatotics, as crude fal ammoniac,
or pulvis labinae ; but the harder kinds are to be removed
chiefly by lunar cauftic, or by the knife ; the latter o
which is greatly preferable, and may be done with the ut-
moftfafety. , ,
The fores are afterwards to be treated like wounds pro-
3!.'
ternai onncc. ai tacit   --
and the Anus, the probe may be made to pais till its po
is felt by the Anger in the re&um. We difeover with cer¬
tainty if a Anus "communicate with the gut, when air or
fseces are difeharged, or when any mild fluid injected return
by the anus. fr/aitf"1
After the courfe of the Anus has been difeovered, tne ^[i#
thod of cure is next to be-confidered. Aftringent
efcharotic injeCtions, preflure, and fetons, are infupporta e,
on account of the violent pain which they produce. I ne on J
method therefore of bringing on a proper degree o 1
flammation is a free inciAon along the whole courle o
flnus. The courfe of the different Anufes having been pre-
vioufly difeovered, a laxative ought to be given on the m
preceding this operation, and a clyfter an hour or two
fore performing it. The patient is to be placed wi
Chap.
>.XXX, S U R
Fiftula in back towards a window, while his body leans upon a bed,
Ano- table, or chair. The finger of the furgeon is to be rubbed
u— v—— wjt}j and introduced into the reftum. The end
of a crooked probe-pointed birtoury (fig. ico.) ia then to
be palfed into the fiftula, and pufhed againft. the finger in
the re£tum, if the fiftula be complete. But in cafes of in¬
complete fiftulse, the point of the inftrument muft be made
to perforate the gut before it can reach the finger. Some
make the perforation with a fharp-pointed biftoury, which
can be made to flip along the fide of a probe-pointed one,
as at fig. id. After the biftoury haa reached the cavity
of the reftum, the point of it is then to be brought out at
the anus, and a cut made downwards to lay the finus com¬
pletely open. In this operation the fphin&er ani mufcle is
commonly cut, if the finus be high; but no inconvenience is
found to arife from this circnmftance. It fometimes,
though rarely, happens, that the finus goes beyond the
G E R Y, 1.71
one end to the other by one or more incifions as circunv FAra in
ftances may require. Sometimes, from negledt or improper v Anc’ t
treatment, the matter coilefted does not find a proper out¬
let, and then the parts moft contiguous to it infiame, be.
come painful, and gradually acquire fuch a morbid callofity
as to put on a fcirrhous appearance. In fuch cafes a cure
may be effefted by giving free vent to the matter, prevent¬
ing every future colle&ion, and inducing and preferving a
fuppuration in the fubftance of the parts chiefly affedled.
To accomplifh this laft circumftance, however, it may fome¬
times be necefl'ary not only to lay the finufes freely open,
but to cut in upon the obdurated parts. 358
The different finufes having been laid open, care muff be Treatment
taken to apply the necefl'ary dreffings. Upon this much ofa,ter lay“
the fuccefs attending the operation depends. Dry lint, till^e finufo*.
lately, was much ufed by pra&itioners ; but it has been
found to produce fo much irritation, efpecially when too
inuugii rareiy, nappens, mat me nnus goes oeyona me xuuuu to prouuce 10 mucu irritation, eipeciany wnen too
reach of the finger, and even as high as the upper end of much crammed in, as to be one of the caufes of that di-
t np TPPnirvo r! np f-Viir^rr «¥rVrir»Vo r»fan flora JH'l'nibPS IX/ntPM to FvPm 1 Pn f iTr f tro 11 lol P Fr > ry% P raffPr* r«ro (o
fa
the facrum. The only thing which can be done in this
cafe is to cut as high as the finger can go, fo as to give a
free and eafy vent to the matter.
Some practitioners, with a view to prevent troublefome
hemorrhagies, and others to free the patient from the dread
of the knife, have pr,opofed to open the finufes by means of
ligature (fig. 102.). By introducing one end of apiece of
filver or leaden wire into the finug, then bringing it out at
the anus, and twifting the ends together, the contained parts
may be fo compreffed as to produce a complete divifion of
them. But this is both more painful and tedious than the
356 fcalpel, and appears to be by no means neceffary.
Method of When the prefence of an occult fiftula is fufpefted, its
the pre-11 ^ exi'Hence ought firft to be fully afeertained, by examining
fence of an whether the matter which is paffed by ftool proceeds from
occult filtu-an ulcer in the bowels or from an abfeefs at the fide of the
anus. It is difeovered by matter from the bowels being
mixed with the faeces, and no pain about the anus. In oc¬
cult fiflula, a hardnefs, fwelling, and difcoloration, are ob-
ferved upon fome fpot near the anus, and there is a fenfa-
tion of confiderable pain upon preffure being made upon it.
i he operation in this is the fame with that in the other
two varieties of the diforder ; only that an opening is pre-
vioufly to be made, by a lancet or fcalpel, in that fpot
where the matter appears to be lodged. By this the fore
will be reduced to a complete fiftula, and the reft of the
operation will be eafdy performed.
In this manner the different finufes are to be operated
upon, when in a fimple ftate ; but in thofe of a compound
nature, where the parts in the vicinity of the fores have'
been feparated from each other by an tffufion of matter into
the cellular fubflance, and where all the under end of the
redum has, in fome rare cafes, been attached from the fur¬
rounding parts, two modes of operating have been re¬
commended ; either to remove a confiderable portion of the
external integuments, fo as to give free vent to the matter ;
or to extirpate all the lower end of the redum which is
tound to be detached from the furroundtng parts. But
from the pain and fubfequent diftiefs which they occafion,
thefe methods are judicioufly laid afide. All that is necef¬
fary to be done here is to lay the detached portion of gut
completely open, as in cafes of fimple fiftuhe ; but if this
be infufficient for allowing the gut to apply properly to the
contiguous parts, another incifion fhould be made on the
e'Ppoiite fide. If the neighbouring bones be found found, and
trie conftitution in other refpeds be unimpaired, a complete
rurei wlfi probably be obtained.
1 he matter fometimes infinuates itfelf between the fkin
and mufclesof the perineum, or of the hip. When this is
^ 357
rreatnunt
sn com¬
pound fi-
i.tuia.
arrhcea which is frequently fo troublefome after operations
of this kind. Inftead, therefore, of this fort of drefling,
pledgets, lint, or foft old linen fpread with any fimple oint¬
ment, are to be preferred. After the fores have been clear¬
ed from clotted blood, the pledgets are to be gently infi«
nuated between their edges, but not to fuch a depth, or
with fuch force, as to give any uneafinefs. This being done*
and a comprefs of foft linen with a T bandage being ap¬
plied over the whole, the patient is to be carried to bed ;
and the drelfings being renewed, either after every ftool, or,
when thefe are not frequent, once in the twenty four hours,
the fores will generally fill up from the bottom, and will
at laft cicatrize in the fame manner as wounds in any other
part of the body. Sometimes, however, they acquire a foft,
flabby, unhealthy afpedl, and the matter difeharged from
them is thin, fetid, and occafionally mixed with blood.
rl hefe appearances may fometimes arife from fome part of
a finus having been overlooked. In this cafe advantage
may follow from the part being laid completely open. But
it more ufually proceeds from fome affe&ion of the general
lyftem; and till this is eradicated the fores cannot be expefted
to heal.
In the cure of fores in other parts of the body, pra&i-
tioners have fometimes found great advantage to arife from
the ufe of iliues. The fame thing is now found to be ap¬
plicable here. Wherever therefore fiftulas are of long
ftjanding, while any diforder exilting in the conftitution 13
properly attended to, pratftitioners recommend, that an
iffue, in proportion to the quantity of the matter difeharged
by the fores, fhould be immediately employed. In this
way, if the bones in the neighbourhood are not difeafed,
there will be reafon to expert that a complete cure will ba
obtained.
Sect. IV. 0/~Prohpfus dnt.
This is a protrufion of part of the reftum beyond the
anus. It is often occafioned by debility of the parts, but
is moft frequently owing to violent exertions made in the
reaum in confequence of irritation. The redudion fhould
be efft-aed as foon as poffible ; for although this part of the
inteftine can bear expofure to air much longer than any of
the reft, yet allowing it to remain a long time out would lie
attended with great uneafinels, and probably with danger.
In the reduction, the tumor ought to be fupported witli
the palm of one hand, while with the fingers of the other
the part of the gut laft protruded is to be returned. If the
gut has been long expofed previous to the reduaion, vene-
leaion may become neceflary, and gentle aftringents may
be applied to the part. The patient during the reduaion
obferved, the fac priced bv it Ihonld be 1 T • t0 -the parJ: The patlent durinS the reduaion
iac produced by it ihould be laid open from 15 to be kept in a reclined rofture. Ae foon as the bowels
y 2
are
,7J S U R G
Imperfora- are returned, a proper bandage (fig. 103.), is to be aPP^ed-
ted Anas. Such remedies are afterwards to be exhibited as molt tend
'rv ‘ to recover the tone of the parts.
Sect. V. Of Imperforated Anus.
This diforder, though not frequent, now and then occurs;
and when prefent, unlefs fpeedy relief be given, mult prove
fatal. In fome cafes, the end of the redum protrudes at
the ufual filiation of the anus, and is only covered with the
common integuments ; but in others, no termination of that
eut is difcoverable. Sometimes the reftum ends within an
inch of the ufual feat of the anus ; at others, it reaches no
farther than the top of the facrum. In fome cafes it ter¬
minates in the bladder; in others, in the vagina. In the
moa favourable cafes, where the reaum protrudes, an open¬
ing may be readily made by a fcalpel or lancet ; but when
no direaion of this kind is met with,. an incifion is then to
be made in the place where the anus is ufually fituated, and
is to be continued in the direaion of the os coccygis
and facrum, which is the courfe the inteRine commonly
takes. The finger is to be ufed as a direaor along it ;
the parts are to be cut either till feces are ebferved, or till
the incifion has been made the length of the finger.. It
ftill the feces do not appear, a lancet-pointed trocar is to
be pufhed forward upon the finger in fuch a direaion as
the operator thinks will moll probably reach the gut. An
artificial anus is likewife to be attempted, where the gut
terminates in the bladder or vagina. After the operation,
the greateft attention is necefl'ary to preferye the opening
which has been made. Subftances which irritate lead are
the mod ufeful; fuch as doffils of lint moidened m oil, and
rolls of foft bougie plader.—We fhall conclude this chapter
with two fhort fedions of imperforated hymen and prolapfus
uteri, though they do not properly come under it.
Sect. VI. Of an Imperforated Hymen.
When the hymen is imperforated, the mod troublefome
fymptoms,, at a certain period of life, may be produced by
the accumulation of that fluid, which ought to be difeharged;
for then a tumor is formed, by which the mod violent bear-
ina--down pains are occafioned. Thefe incmafe in feverity
to^fuch a degree, as fometimes to be midaken for labour-
pains. They difappear, however, during the intervals of
the accudomed periods. In the treatment of this difeafe, all
that is necefl'ary is to make either a Angle or a crucial in¬
cifion into the obdruaing membrane, and then to prevent
the accretion of its edges by dofiils of lint fpread with fome
emollient ointment till the parts are healed.
Sect. VII. Of Prolapfus Uteri.
This is a falling down of the uterus, occafioned by de¬
bility or by excefiive draining in the time of parturition.
The difordcr feldom occurs before child-bearing, and is com¬
monly met with in thofe who are fomewhat advanced in life.
The parts protruding are to be reduced by gentle preffure,
while the patient, is put in an horizontal podure. Peflanes
( fig. 91. a and i) are to be employed, which ought to be made
of the lighted materials, finely polifhed, ana fomewhat com-
preflible ; and none pofFefs thefe qualities in a more perfect
degree than a pefl'ary made of the ekdic gum-bottle. I his,
or whatever elle may be ufed to anfwer the purpofe, i» to
be retained by a proper bandage till by tonic medicines the
parts recover ftrength to retain their natural htuation.
Chap. XXXI. Of Luxations.
Sect. I. Of Luxations in general.
A bone is faid to be luxated when that part of it form-
E R Y.
Chap. XXXI
in<T a ioint is moved out of its place. When the bone is
forced entirely out of its cavity, the luxation is termed com.
thte . when this is not the Cafe, it is partial or incomplete. ^
When there is alfo a wound of the foft parts communicating
with the joint, it is called a compound, and when there is
no wound, z fmple luxation. . , 359
The common fymptoms of a diflocatea bone are, inability Sytnptonn
to move the injured limb ; pain, tenfion, deformity in the-f lm,ia
part affedted ; and fometimes inflammation, fubiultus tendi-
Lm, and fever : and thefe three lad are greateft in partial
diflocations. The {welling which firft appears is always inflam¬
matory; but afterwards a fecondary fwelling comes on, ieem-
ingly cedematous, and probably owing to the preffure of the
lymphatics by the diflocated bone.
In judging of the pradlicability of reducing a luxation,
we ought to attend to its nature and extent, the other cir-
cumftances with which it may be complicated, and the
length of time which it has continued. When a bone is
only partially diflocated, it is evident that it may be redu¬
ced with much more eafe and certainty than where it is
comoletely difplaced. It is evident alfo that fradlure at¬
tending diflocation mud render redudtion much more dim-
cult and uncertain. Indeed, when both the bones torming
the joint are broken, there is the greated hazard of its re-
maining.diff during life, even when the greated attention
has been paid. Luxated bones are mod eafily reduced im¬
mediately after they are difplaced : the difficulty indee- of
reducing them is generally proportional to the time that has
•intervened fince the accident happened. When a bone has
been fome time lodged among the contiguous mutcles, it
forms a focket for itfelf, and is firmly grafped by the fur-
rounding foit parts. The cavity, too, from which it was dii-
lod red may be partially filled with fome of the furrounding
foft parts, or at lead diminifhed by the conftant aaion of
the contiguous mufcles on its cartilaginous brim. Diflec-
tions, however, fhow, that infpiffated. fynovia does not, as
was formerly fuppofed, fill up this cavity. In delicate con-
ditutions and advanced periods of life, when the mufcles
give little refinance, diflocations are more eafily reduced
than in the vigour of youth or in robud conflitutions. . ,,-
In the treatment, we ought, 1. To reduce the diflocation I^jl
with as much eafe and expedition as poffible; 2. Retaintheojj:
bone in its fituation till the parts have recovered their tone;
and, 3. Obviate all uneafy fymptoms.
1. When the furrounding fkin and mufcles are much con-
tufed and inflamed, we ftiould endeavour to remove the in¬
flammation by local blooding, faturnine applications, and
laying the limb in an eafy podure, before we attempt to re¬
duce the bone, as confiderable injury may be done by dretch¬
ing a limb while the parts furrounding the joint are infla¬
med. The upper part of the limb fhould be kept fleady
while the furgeon endeavours to replace the under bone,
which alone is commonly difplaced. This is not eafily done;
for the contraaile power of the mufcles ads drongly againit
every attempt, and not only draws it beyond the contiguous
bone againd which it fhould be placed, but frequently forces
it out of its natural fituation, and fixes it firmly in fome neigh¬
bouring cavity, from which it is with difficulty remove
To prevent this reiidance as much as poffible, the mulcles
ought to be put into a date of relaxation. If this is pro¬
perly done, the force neceflary for reducing a luxated bone
may generally be obtained from affiftants alone ; fometimes,
however, machinery is required, and various inflruments
have been invented for this purpole. Freke’s mac me
is the mod generally ufed. The force ought always to be ap
plied in a gradual manner, and to the diflocated bone alone? al‘
not to any more diftant parts of the limb.. After the end o
diflocated bone is brought into a line with that to whic
Chap, xxxr. S U R G
is oppofed, the redu&ion is eahly completed either by the
a£ion of the mufcles aloiie> or, if that is not fufficient, by
E it Y.
^71
the parts have recovered their tore.
3. The moft urgent fymptoms which accompany difloca-
tis are, pain, inflammation, and [welling, 'i’hele ufually
Luxations
of the a<a;
th^Head gent^ pieffure.
and Neck. 2. After the redu&ion there is feldom any difficulty in
1 v—' retaining the bone in its place, unlefs it has often been dii-
located before. All that is neceflary is to place the limb in
a relaxed poll are, and to fupport the bone with a bandage
till the parts have recovered their tone.
. 3
tions
abate foon after the reduftion. If any degree of inflamma
tion remain, the ufe of leeches is the belt remedy.
When diflocated bones are accompanied with fradlme
near the joint, the fradture mull; be allowed to heal before
redu&ion be attempted. This, however, is not always necef-
fary in very fmall bones, as thofe of the fingers. When the
frafture is at a diftance from the joint, the diflocation may
Treatment generally be reduced immediately. Compound luxations are
cf com- to be treated nearly as compound fraftures. Alter the
a dons ^UX" ^or,e replaced, leeches fhould be applied to abate the in¬
flammation ; alter which the fore fiiould be drefled with
Goulard’s cerate, or any other mild ointment, and the pain
moderated by opiates and a low regimen : care ought alfo
to he taken that no matter lodge about the joint. When
luxations are produced by tumors or colleftions of matter in
the neighbourhood of the joints, they may be confidered as
incurable : when they proceed from too great a relaxation
of the ligaments and tendons of the joint, the bone can hard¬
ly be prevented from being now and then difplaced ; but
the inconvenience may be fomewhat obviated by fupportiRg
the limb with a proper bandage, by the ufe of the cold bath,
and by electricity.
563
Luxations
of the
bones of
the crani¬
um. 1
364
Of the
bones of
the nofe.
365
Sect. II. Luxations of the Bones of the Head and Ned.
If the bones of the cranium be feparated by external in¬
jury, all that can well be done is, to fupport the parts by a
bandage, to prevent inflammation, te keep the patient quiet,
and in a proper pofture during the cure. The*bones of the
nofe are feldom luxated without frafture : when they are,
the injury js eafily dilcovered by the touch. When one of
the bones is driven inwards, it may be raifed and reduced by
pulhing a tube of a proper fize, and covered with foft lint,
into the noftril; which may be afterwards retained till there
is no danger of the bone being again difplaced. If the
bone be luxated outwards, it may be reduced by the fingers,
Of the low-and retained by a double-headed roller. The lower jaw is
cr jaw. luxated moll frequently when the mouth is opened widely ;
it can only take place forwards and downwards, which are
leaft furrounded by the neighbouring parts : both fides are
generally luxated at once ; and in that cafe the mouth is
opened wide, the chin thrown forwards and towards the
breaft. When only one fide is diflocated, the mouth is dif-
torted, and wideft on the found fide of the jaw, which is
Otawn a little towaids the contrary fide. The patient Ihould
be feated, and his head fupported. The furgeon fhould pufh
Ins thumbs, prote&ed by a covering of ftrong leather, as far
as poffible between the jaws, and then with'his fingers,, ap¬
plied on the outfide of the angle of the jaw„ endeavour to
bring it forward till it move a little from its fiiuation. He
ffiould then prefs it forcibly down, and the condyles will im¬
mediately flip into their place. The thumbs ought to be
initantly withdrawn, as the patient is apt to bite them in¬
voluntarily. The patient fhould for Tome time avoid much
r 366 Ipeaking or opening his mouth wide.
CHh. W men th, head UlMated, it commoriv Talk, forward on
tne breait, the patrent is inftantly deprived of fenfe and mo¬
tion, and foon dies if the luxation be not quickly reduced.
In reducing the luxation, the patient fhould be placed on Luxationtj
the ground, and fupported by an afiiftant: the furgeon g°n^Q4
Handing behind fhould gradually pull up the head, while the GnCCygi°,
fhoulders are prefled down by thfe affiflant till the bones are Clavicle,
brought into their place, which is known by a fudden crack and Ribs,
or noife : if the patient be not dead, he immediately recovers ¥ "'' J
his faculties, at leaft in fome meafure. He fhould then be
put to bed with his head elevated and retained in one pof¬
ture. He fhould lofe a quantity of blood, and live for fome
time on a low diet.
Sect. III. Luxations of the Spine, Os Coccygls, Clavicle,
and Ribs.
The vertebrae are fometimes partially, but hardly ever Luxations
completely, diflocated without fradlurc. When they occur °fthever-
high up, they are attended with the fame fymptoms as dif-te^tffi‘
location of the head : when farther down, befides diftortion
of the fpine, paralyfis enfues of every part of the body fitu-
ated under the luxated bone; there is commonly alfo either
a total fuppreffion of urine, or it is difeharged involuntarily
together with the faeces. As luxations of this kind are ge¬
nerally owing to falls or violent blows, the difplaced verte¬
bra is driven either forwards or to one fide ; it is therefore
very difficult to reduce it. The heft, as well as the fimpleft
method, is to lay the patient on his face over a cylindrical
body, as a large calk, and at the fame time to attempt to re¬
place the bone with the fingers. If the bone be very much
difplaced, there is very' little reafon to hope for fuccefs. ,<5g
The os coccygis is more liable to diflocation than any other Of the oi -
part of the fpine. It is fometimes forced outwaids in labo-00**?^’
rious births. 'I his is difeovered by the great pain which is
felt at the connexion of the os coccygis with the facrum,
and by the bone appearing to be difplaced when examined.
It may generally be eafily reduced by preffure with the fin.
gers. I he belt fupport afterwards is a comprefs, with the
1' bandage. When the coccyx is luxated inwardly, the
patient complains of fevere pain, tenefmus, and a fenfe of
fulnefs in the reft urn ; the fasces are pafled with difficulty,
and in fome cafes a fupprefiion of urine takes place. The
injury is eafily difeovered by introducing the finger into the
anus. In this cafe the bone fhould be prefied outwards, by
introducing the fore and middle fingers of one hand dipped
in oil into the redlum, and fupporting the parts which cor-
refpond with it externally till the redu&ion is accomplifhed.
Diflocations of thefe bones are apt to excite inflammation,
which often terminates in dangerous abfcefi’es ; it ought
thererore to be guarded againft by every means in our
power..
.The clavicle is moft frequently luxated at its junaionOf thtfda-
with the fternum ; becaufe the violence which produces theviclc*
injury is generally applied to the flioulder. The luxation is
diicovered by pain in the part, by the projeftion of the
bone, and by the immobility of the fhoulder. It is eafily
reduced by pufhing the bone into its place with the fingers,
while an affiftant draws back the arms and fhoulders. It is
not fo eafy to retain the bone in its place. When it is the
inner extremity of the clavicle which has been diflocated,
the flioulder fhould be kept in its natural fituation, neither
railed nor deprefled : the fore arm fliould be fupported, as
fhould alfo the head and fhoulders, and a moderate preffure
fhould be made upon the difplaced end of the bone. For
this purpofe the machine reprefented fig.. 104. the invention
of Mr Park of Liverpool, anfwers heft. But when the
outer extremity of the clavicle has been diflocated, the
fhoulder mull be confiderably raifed, the arm fupported ia
a fling, and the bone kept in its proper fituation by a
fmall compfefs placed over its end, and fecured by a rol.
lei forming the figure 8 ; or it may be retained by the
machine:
174 S U R G
luxations xnaclui’iC ?.l)Ove mentioned. Fixe bandage ought to be re-
of the tained for a conbderable time. _
Bones of_ Luxations of the ribs are exceedingly rare. The fymp-
Ext re-1* toms are nearly the fame with thofe ariling from fratdure,
mitifi. oniv that the pain is more fevere at the articulation, and
that no other fpot but that will yield to preffure. All that
can be done is to bend the body forward over a calk or lome
fuch body, in order to affift the vifcera in preffing out the
rib. Bandages are of little ufe. The patient Ihould be
kept quiet, and fed on a low diet : inflammation Ihould
be prevented, and opiates given if he has a troublefome
cough.
Sect. IV. Luxation of the Bones of the Superior Lx-
tremities.
37°
Ofihe ribs
W
L’.ixai ion
of ti e head
< f the os
humeri.
374
Method of
redutdioi..
The head of the os humeri is moft frequently diflocated
forwards and downwards, fometimes downwards and back¬
wards, but never upwards without a frafture of^that part
of the fcapula which is placed above the joint. . The luxa¬
tion is difcovered by the patient’s inability to raife his arm,
by violent pain attending the attempt, by the luxated arm
being of a different length from the other, by the head of
the humerus being felt out of its natural fituation, while a
vacuity is perceived under the acromion, and by the fiatnefs
of the injured joint, while the found one has its natural ful-
ncfs. When the luxation is of long Handing, the whole arm
is apt to become ecdematous.
The patient fhould be feated on a chair, and his body fe-
cured by a broad belt paffed round it, and held by affiilants.
The elbow Ihould be bent, in order to relax the mufcles on
the fore part of the luxated joint. A firm leather belt four
or five inches broad, with ftrong flraps, and lined with flan¬
nel, is to be tied round the arm immediately above the el¬
bow : afliffants are to extend the arm gradually, by pulling
thefe ftraps, while another affiftant draws back the fcapula.
The furgeon Hands on the outflde of the arm, direfts the
affiflants, and varies the direftion of the extenfion, accord¬
ing to the fituation of the head of the bone. As foon as
the head of the bone has cleared the brim of the focket, the
mufeles draw it into its place, a crack is heard, the patient
is relieved, and the anterior part of the (boulder acquires its
ufual fulnefs.
Various-other methods of extending the arm have been
extendin'/^ ProPofed in difficult cafes; as, fufpending the patient by the
luxated arm over the Hep ot a ladder or the top of a door,
railing him up by the arm with ropes running over pulleys
fixed in the ceiling of a room, &c. The jerk produced by^
the body being fuddenly railed and let down again on a fea¬
ther bed, has fometimes fucceeded when other means have
failed. A gentler method is to lay the patient en the floor,
while two or three Hout men Handing on a table lay hold ot
him by the arm and pull him up. But all theie methods
arc in danger of lacerating the foft parts by the iuddennefs
with which the force is applied, and even fometimes of
breaking the end of the humerus if it be preffed againll the
neck of the fcaoula. Mr I reke’s improvement on the ambe
cf Hippocrates has been confidered as the beil machine for
extending the arm. But machinery is very feldom neceflary;
even cafes of long Handing may by proper management be
reduced by means of affiftants, provided reduibion be at all
practicable. Inflammation after the operation (hould be ob¬
viated by the ufual remedies. If the bone be apt to Hep
out again, which fometimes happens after repeated difloca-
tions, the arm fliould be fupported in a fling till the parts
have recovered their tone. Illiflers, fridtion, Himulating me¬
dicines applied to the fhoulder, and cold water po^/ed on
it, have fometimes been ufeful in refloring the Hrength of
the joint.
E R Y. Chap. xxxr.
Luxations at the elbow mod commonly happen upwards Uiution,
and backwards ; and then the fore-arm is (hortened, the the
end of the ulna projeds behind, and is higher than ufual,
while the extremity of the humerus can be felt in the Extren^0f
bend of the elbow. The furgeon fliould take hold of tie*.
the wriH with one hand, and the upper part of the fore-' v-J
arm (which is to be moderately bent) with the other, and^j*
gradually pull the top of the fore-arm downwards, while atot the el(
the fame time he increafes the curvature of the elbow todif-bow.
engage the ends of the bones from each other. He (hould
then pull the bones forward into their fituation. When the
luxation happens upwards and forwards, it fhould be redu-
ced while the arm is extended. After the redu&ion, the
mufcles of the fore-arm ffiould be kept relaxed by bending
the elbow a little till the parts have recovered their tone.
When the bones of the fore-arm are diflocated from each
other, which happens moH frequently at the wriH, the ro¬
tatory motion of the hand is deflroyed. . After the reduc¬
tion,” the bones Hould be bound together by a tight flannel
roller, or a couple of fplinta (hould be applied along the
fore-arm, and the arm fupported in a fling. _ ^
The bones of the wrilt are not fo often luxated as might Luutiou
be expefted from the fmallneis of their flze. When they«the
are, great fwelling and pam enfues, and the motion of the
joint is entirely deflroyed. Great attention is neceffary,
left luxation {hould be miftaken for a fprain. I he arm
and hand (hould be fupported by affiftants, but not ftretch-
ed ; and then the bones (hould be pufhed into their place,
and afterwards retained by proper bandages and fplints.
The bones of the metacarpus, when they happen to be dif¬
located, which is very feldom, are to be reduced in the fame
manner. Hiflocations of the thumb or fingers are eaiily
difeoveted. To reduce them, an affiftant ftiould bold the
phalanx from which the diflocation happened, while the fur¬
geon endeavours to elevate the bone from the one contigu¬
ous to it, and to pafs it into its place.
Sect, V» Luxations of the Bones of the inferior Extre¬
mities.
3’3
Various
- . . r ^
From the great Hrength of the hip joint, it was for-LunM
merly believed’that the head of the thigh-bone was never
luxated by external violence; but it is now known that it!
happens by no means unfrequently. Ihe ball in Harting
from its focket generally paffes forwards and downwards in- ^
to the foramen thyroideum. When this happens, the limbspipw®11
is conllderably lengthened, the head of the bone is lodged
near the under and fore part of the pelvis, the large tro¬
chanter is obferved on the lore part of the thigh, a vacancy
is perceived where the head of the bone and the trochanter
(hould be, and the toes are turned outwards. ^ When the
bone is difloeated upwards and backwards, the limb is fhort-
enqdj the great trochantei higher than ufual, the knee and
foot turned inwards. Wflen it is diflocated upwards and
forwards, the leg is (hortened, the ball ot the bone is felt on
the os pubis in the groin, and the great trochanter on the
upper and lower part of the thigh ; a vacancy is difcovered
in the correfponding part of the hip; the knee and toes are
turned outwards. Wflien the ball flips downwards and
backwards, the leg is lengthened, the toes turned inwards,
and the great trochanter is lower than that of the other
limb. If the ball flip direftly downwards, the leg is length¬
ened, but the knee and toes keep nearly their natural fitua¬
tion. It is fometimes difficult to diftinguifh between luna¬
tion and frafture of the neck of the bone. In fradur.es the
bone is moft frequently puffied upwards, and the leg (hort¬
ened, the knee and point of the'toes are turned inwards,
and may be moved much more readily outwards and inward*
than when the bone is diflecated. _ _
6 rt"
E R Y.
Chap. XXXI. S U R G
Luxations For redu&feti, tKe patient Should be laid on a mattrefs
r. i /z j ~  i _ __ i . . * /-
of toe
-*■ ^*    7 uvjtx a iix.iLWiLio
the found fide, and a wooden roller covered with feveral
379
Luxation
of the pa¬
tella.
Bones of “ wuuvatu luticr cuvcreu wicu ieverai
the Inferi- flannel placed between his thighs, and fixed firmly
cr Extre ni- by {traps to the wall. A ftrong bandage of buff leather, or
< tie8, fomething fimilar, (hould be applied to the under end of the
K-~ys thigh, with {traps fixed to it to make the exteniion. The
Muhod of trunk of the body {hould be properly fecured, and the joint
induction, of the knee bent. The extenhon {hould be made at firlt
gently, and increafed gradually, while, at the fame time, the
thigh is made to roll in different direc?tions. When the ex-
tenfion is fufficient, two affiftants {hould lay hold of the rol¬
ler, and attempt to raife the bone; the extending force
fhould then be flackened, and the furgeon {hould pu{h the
head of the bone upwards and outwards, while an affiftant
preiTes the knee forcibly inwards. The mufcles themfelves
will then commonly bring the bone into its place; and this is
done with fuch a jerk and noife, that it is heard by the by-
ftanders. If the reduction be not obtained, the extenlion
mud be repented with greater force. Inftead of the roller
a broad itrap or table cloth is frequently ufed. The limb
{hould not be ufed for fome time after reduftion, and inflam¬
mation fliould be prevented by the proper remedies.
1 he patella can neither be luxated upwards or down¬
wards, without rupture of the tendons of the extenfors muf¬
cles,. or of the ftrong ligament w'hich fixes it to the tibia :
but it may be luxated to either fide. The luxation produ¬
ces lamenefs, and much pain on attempting to move the
joint. In recent cafes the injury ;s eafily difcovered ; but
when the furgeon is not called immediately, the fwelling
may be fo great as to tender it more difficult. For reduc¬
tion, the limb {hould be kept extended ; the furaeon, by de-
preffing the edge of the patella molt diftant from the joint,
is enabled to raife the other, and puffi the bone into its
place.
It may be neceffiuy to remain a day or two in bed till
the knee recover its tone. Sometimes, after the bone has
been ditplaced, returns of the fame complaint become fre¬
quent. In fuch calcs, proper machinery applied to the fide
witf^dvTmg; thc b0"c is apt to fta,t out’is “fed
of the tibia r i<r°m ^ thre j010*:’ and tIie great length of the
at the igaments, luxations of the tibia from the os femoris rarely
knee. f)CCur- Wlien it does, it is eafily difcovered by the pain,
lamenefs, and deformity of the limb. The patient ffiould
b!t °ma table’Lth1e mufcIes rfclaxed, and the thigh fecu¬
red by affiftants; the limb ffiould then be extended, and the
bones cleared of each other, when they will be eafily repla-
ced. After the reduftion, the limb ffiould remain for fome
ime perfectly at reft; and inflammation, which is very apt
b°e affiduoufly ^“gatft.^
Iffth)e.an1kle j(dnt be difiocated forwards, the fore part of
. ?° .1S L^tlened; if backwards, the foot is ffiortened
and th heel lengthened (this is the molt common vaiiety
if to either itde, there is an uncommon vacancy on the oie
fide, and a prominency on the other. Diflocatien, however
^a^f,P'aCe
For reduftion, the limb (hould be firml h |d b ffif
rrecim„U/Cie81.rC,a,X,ed’ till thebonea
re cleared of each other, when the aftragulus will ealilv
redi,lnt° Plaee;~The ^ame rules ffiould be obferved in
•f th?4t”orcfS'r8 o' thdboMs °ff08'- L“xa'im>s
metatarlal bones and toes are reduced exaftlv in tb*
l™ manner as the bones of the metaea^l^^
*75
Fratfcm •es
in general,
> v-"
3 So
Luxation
3St
Luxation
oi the
ankle-joint
Chap. XXXII. Of TraFtures*
Sect. I. Of FraBures in general.
The fraBure is generally confined to fuch divilioos
in bones as are produced by external injury. When the
integuments remain found, the fra&ure is called ftmple ; when
it communicates with a wound, it is called compound. ^gj
I he general fymptoms of fradture are pain, {welling, and ^ymptomj
tenfion in the contiguous parts. A grating noife when the'>f frac'
part is handled, diftortion, and a certain degree of lofs oftUre*
power in the injured part, accompany almoft every fradture,
except when it runs longitudinally, and the divided parts are
not completely feparated from each other. When there is
only a {ingle bone in a limb, a fracture is eafily detedted ;
hut where only one of two bones of a limb has fuffered, it
is often difficult to judge with certainty, efpecially if the
contiguous loft parts be tenfe and painful before the prac¬
titioner is called. In that cafe, the opinion muft be regu¬
lated, not only by the attendant fymptoms, but, ift, By
the age and habit of the patient; for bones are more eafily
fradhired in old than in young perfous. Different difeafes,
too, induce brittlenefs of the bones, as the lues venerea and
fea-feurvy. 2d, By the fituation of the part; for bones are
more apt to be fradlured in thc folid parts of their bodies
than towards their extremities, where they are more foft
and pliant. 3d, By the pofture of the limb ; for a weight
may fracture a bone lying on an unequal furface, which it
would have fuftained without injury if equally fupported.
rradlures are fometimes attended with a great decree of
echymofis, occafioned by the ends of the'fradured bones
wounding fome of the contiguous blood-veffels. „g
In giving a prognofis of fra^ure, various circumftancesPro^noflfc
are to be attended to. It is evident that {mail fradtured
bones are more eafily healed than large ones, and that the
fracture of the middle of a bone is not near fo dangerous as
near the extremity. A cure is effected much more readily
in youth than in old age, and in good conftitutions than in-
ad. We ought alfo to attend to the concomitant lymp-
toms, and the injury which the neighbouring parts may have
iuttained. The more moderate the fymptoms, the more fa¬
vourable our prognofis may be.
. Thc trrat"K"t g fractures coniift of three particulars (Treatment,
replacement, retention, and obviating bad fymptoms.
1 • When bones are fi adured directly acrofs the parts, they
are often very little moved from their natural fituation ; but
when the frafture is oblique, they are apt to p.fs over each
other, and to produce much uneafinefs and deformity • tbt:
contiguous mufcles are feverely injured, and the pain Lag_
gravated by the ft.ghteft motion. The furgeon {hould nut
t ic limb into the beft pofture for relaxing all tl*e mufcles
cotme&ed wUh it, according to the practice firft introduced
by Mr Pott. If it be properly attended to, the ends of the-
bones will in general be eafily replaced. When any difficulty
occurs, a fmall degree of extension may be made, taking
care to keep the mufcles as relaxed as poffible. Much at
tention ffiould be paid to replacing the bones properly, other-
wife the limb will remain for ever after diftorted.
• 2- Afte; tbe b^nes are ^placed, the limb {hould be laid
m the eafieft pofture, and the bones- afterwards retained
m their fituatmn by proper compreffes and bandages, not
applied too- tightly, till the cure be completed. The time
neceffary for this purpofe depends on the ftae of the bone*
the age and habit of the patient, the fteadinefs with which
the hmb has been retained m its place, and the violence of
the-
iy6
Fra<5>uf?e
iv geuera'.
s
^5
Fraifture
•the nofe.
the it*pr:d?r.fr fymp-tomt. Tn middle-aged perfons, and un¬
der favourable drcumftances,, a frafture of the thigh bone,
or of the bones of the leg, may be cured in two months ; of
the arm bone, or bones of the fore arm, in fix weeks ; of the
ribs, clavicles, and bones of the hand, in three weeks. In
infancy the cure will take a fiiorter, and in old age a longer,
time than this.
3. In fimple fra&ures the inflammatory fymptoms gene¬
rally fubfide in a few days. When they become worfe,
which is fometimes the cafe, aftringent applications (hould
be employed. If thefe fail, fclood ought to be drawn from
the parts affe&ed. This is of fo much advantage, that it
ought never to be omitted where the furrounding foft parts
are much injured. Friftion with emollient oils, warm ba-
thing, the ul'e of Bath and other fimilar waters, are alfo of
much fervice. The limb fometimes puts on a clumfy ap¬
pearance from an overgrowth of callus. When this tenden¬
cy appears, ardent Ipirits and other aifringents are confider-
ed as ufeful; fometimes preffure on the part by a thin plate
of lead fixed by a bandage may be advantageous. Many
inftances occur, however, where no remedies prove fuccefs-
ful: The patient ought therefore to be acquainted be¬
forehand with the probable event, to prevent unpleafant re¬
flexions afterwards.
Sometimes the ends of the bone remain loofe long after
they might have been reunited. This may be owing to
fome conftitutional difeafe, to the bones not being kept
fteadily in contaX, to fome of the foft parts getting in be¬
tween them, or to the bone being broken in different pla¬
ces, and the intermediate fraXures being too fmall to ad¬
here. Pregnancy has alfo been mentioned as a caufe. By
removing thefe obftruXions, a perfeX union may in recent
cafes be accomplilhed. But where the cafe is of long Hand¬
ing, callus of the bones becomes fo hard and fmooth as to
move with the eafe of a joint, fo that no advantage can be
derived from laying them together, In that cafe, an inci*
flon {hould be made through the foft parts, and a fmall por¬
tion of the ends of the bone removed with a faw. If this
be properly performed, nature will fupply the deficiency.
When Imall pieces of bone remain long loofe, they {hould
be extraXed by making an opening. The intervention of
mufcles or other foft parts is known by the very ievere pain
and tenfion, and by particular motions of the limb cauiing
great pain and twitching of the mufcles which move it.
The limb {hould be put into all the variety of fituation; and
if this does not fucceed, an opening muft be made, and the
foft parts removed. Sometimes in fraXures blood-veffcls
are ruptured by the iharp fpiculte of the bone : this happens
moil commonly in compound fraXures. When the eftufion
of blood is great, the part fwells fo much that it is necef-
fary to lay it open, and to fecure the divided veffels by a li¬
gature. When the {'welling is not great, the abforption of the
blood is trutled to nature. When the blood remains long
in contaX with the fraXured bone, it fometimes prevents
the formation of callus ; the ptriolteum feparates from a
confiderabie portion of the bone, and a thin fetid fanies is
difeharged at the wound. When this happens, no cure
can be expeXed till the parts of the bone deprived of peric-
iteum have exfoliated, or have been feparated by a faw.
Sect. II. Fractures of ihe^Bones of the Face.
of Fractures of the nofe may impedeTefpiration, affeX
the fpeech and fenfe-of fmelling, give rile to polypi and te¬
dious ulcers, and may befides be dangeious from their vi¬
cinity to the brain. When any part of the bones of the
. nofe has been railed above the reft, it is to be prefl’ed into
its place with the fingers ; if it has been pufiied into the no-
ftril, it is to be .railed with the end of a fpatula or other ft-
R G E R Y. Chap. XXXII,
milar inftrument. If any portion be almoft entirely fepara- Frafturt,
ted from the reft, it {hould be removed ; but if it adheres "1,^^
with confiderabie firmnefs, it is to be replaced. If the SreJ
bones, after being replaced, do not remain in their proper andSpii.^,
fituation, they are to be retained either by tubes introduced1 ^
into the noftrils, or by a double-headed roller, with pro¬
per comprefles as the cafe may require. Inflammation {hould
be prevented by the proper remedies.
Much care is ncceftary in replacing the fraXured bones
of the face, and in drefling them, in order to prevent defor¬
mity. The dreflings may be retained by adhefive plafters.
Inflammation, by which the eyes, nofe, or antrum maxillare
is apt to be injured, {hould be prevented. When matter
colleXs in the antrum, it is to be removed by the methods
formerly deferibed. .
For replacing fraXures of the lower jaw, the patient FrAra
{hould be feated in a proper light, with his head firmly fe-° ' ^
cured. The furgeon {hould prefs with one hand on the in-
fide of the bone, while with the other he guatvls againft. in¬
equalities on the outfide. If a tooth come in the way, it
{hould be extraXed ; when any of the others are forced out
of their fockets, they {hould be replaced, and tied to the
neighbouring teeth till they become firm. The fraXured
parts being kept firm by an afliftant, a thick comprefs of
linen or cotton {hould be laid over the chin, and made to
extend from ear to ear over it; a four-headed roller flrould
be applied firm enough to keep the fraXured parts in con¬
taX. The patient {hould be kept quiet during the cure,
and fed upon fpoon-meat. The dreflings fhould be remo¬
ved as feldom as pofilble. When the traXure is accompa¬
nied with an external wound, the parts {hould be fuppoited
by an afliftant during the drefiing of it.
Sect. III. Fradures of the Claviclest Ribs, Sternum) and
Spine. jj,
A fracture of the clavicle is eafily difeovered by theFrate
grating noife in the fraXured bone upon moving the arm^. tct
freely, by the ends of the bone yielding to preffure, and by
the motion of the humerus being impeded. All that can
be done is to raife the arm, and fupport it at a proper
height, either by a fling, or, which is better, by the leather
cafe recommended in cafe of luxation of this bone. By this
the fraXured parts will be brought together, fo far at lead
as to prevent deformity, and render the bone fufficiently
ftrong. . 3".
FraXures-of the ribs are difeovered by preflures with the Of the'*
fingers. The fymptoms are commonly moderate, and the
patient foon gets well. In fome cafes, however, the pain
is fevere, the breathing becomes difficult, attended with
■cough, and perhaps with fpitting of blood, and the pulfe
is quick, full, and fometimes oppreffed. Thefe fymptoms
arile from the ribs being beat in on the lunge.
In the treatment, it is proper in every cafe to difeharge
fome blood. If one end of the rib rife, it ought to be re-
prefled by moderate preflure ; and to prevent its rifing again,
a broad leather belt'{hould be applied pretty tight, and con¬
tinued for fome weeks. When a portion of the rib is for¬
ced inwards, an opening fhould be made over it with a fcal-
pel, and then it fhould be elevated with the fingers or a for¬
ceps. When diftrefling fymptoms proceed from air or
blood colleXed in the cavity of the cheft, thefe fluids ought
to -be difeharged by an operation.
The fymptoms of a fraXured fternum are nearly the fameofr6
with thole of the ribs. It requires great attention from thenu
vicinity of the heart and large bkiod-veflels. I he patient
ought to lofe a quantity of blood, and be kept on an anti-
phlogiftic regimen. If the pain, cough, and opprefled brejlt
ing, do not yield to thefe remedies, an iaciiion fhoum
Chap. XXXII.
j'-afture of ma4e on the injured part, and       
X&c ^ >''es, vv‘t^ a ^evator' Should this be infufficient, it may be affec-
i ^ - . ted by means of the trepan : tin's indeed requires the great-
eft caution, but it may certainly he attended with advantage
when the patient’s lire is in danger.
Of ;ht°ver-. Fractures of the vertebra; generally end fatally. We
leixa;. judge of tue extftence of tradture there by examining the
parts, by the feverity of the pain, and by paify occurring in
the parts fttuated below the injured part.
4vhen any parts of the vertebrae near the integuments are
Joofe, they may be replaced with the fingers, and retained
by proper bandages. \\ hen this is impofiible, fome of the
htdl authors think it advifable to make an incifion, and raife
any portions of the bone which may be deprefled.
Sect. IV. Fraclure of the Bones of the Superior Extre¬
mities.
s U R G E R Y»
the deprefted piece rafted of the humerus to the points of the fingers.
3»i
Fracfu
391
C5f the og
humeri;
the fca • ^ Fapula is feldorsi fractured; when it is, the fracture
f is eafdy dftcovered by the pain, the immobility ot the arm,
an - hy the touch. 1 he parts may be replaced \y.ith greater
eale it the mufcles connected with them be relaxed. They
are retained with difficulty. A long roller thould be em¬
ployed for this purpofe, with which the head and fhoulders
are alio to be iupported. The arm fhould alio be fufpend-
ed to relax the mulcles as much as pofllble, and inflamma¬
tion^ particularly pnarded againft by local bloodin s.
t raftures of the humerus are eatily difeovered by the
pain, the immobility of the arm, and a grating noife on
handling the parts. In reducing the fracture, the mufcles
fhould be completely relaxed by bending the arm and rai¬
ding it to a horizontal p.fllure. Extenfiou, if neceffiary, may
oe made by one affiftant graiping the arm between the frac¬
ture and the fhoulder, and another between the frafture and
the elbow. After the reduction, one fplint covered with
flannel f.iou.d be laid along the whole outflde, and another
along the whole mfide of the arm ; and then a flannel roller
applied lufficiently tight to fupport the parts without in-
ten upting the circulation. The arm may either be fup-
ported in a fling or Mr Park's leather cafe, fig. 104). The
bandages ffiould not be removed -or fever?.! days, unlefs fome
urgent rymptoms render it ntceffiary. In about a week, how¬
ever the arm fhould be examined to lee whether the bones
have been properly let.
When both of the bones of the fore-arm are broken, the
fracture is eafily dfficovtred ; but when only one bone is frac¬
tured, efpectally if it be the radius, the firmnefs of the other
renders the difeovery more difficult; the grating noife, how-
ever, on moving the bone in different direClions, will generally
be a iuffic.ent iymptom that a fracture has taken place. When
the fraclure happens near the wrift, particular attention is
heceliary in order to prevent a ftiff joint.
177
,       The nre (rf
fhould be hiing by the patient s fide, to which it fliould l>et, e es>
fixed by means of ftraps. To prevent the confequtnoos of a kC'
ftiff joint, the dreffiings fhould be removed about the eighth
or tenth day, the fore-arm for fome time flowly moved
backwards und forwards, and the joint rubbed with an emo-
lient oil. t3y a repetition of this at proper intervals, a ftifF
joint may be prevented.
■ ' nchylofts, or ftiffnefs of the joint, commonly fucceed«of he
frathires of (he bones of the wrift, owing to the great in-baie,of the
flanimation which enfucs, and to their not readily reuniting Wll^»
from their fmallnefs. To prewnt this as much as poflible,
after replacing the hones, the injured parts fhould be leech¬
ed hetly, and in proportion to the violence of the fymp-
toms. Splints fhould he applied exactly as in fractures of
the fore arm, and the arm fupported by a fling.
^ ■^11 baaurts of the metacaipal bones, a firm fplint fhouidCJf *hc
oe applied over the whole palm and infide of the arm, from*1'11 cs°f'he
the points of the fingers to the elbow, in order to prevent ln^ers>
the action of the flexors of the fingers. The heft iplint fipr
a rraCiured finger is a piece of firm pafteboard properly fit¬
ted and foftened in water till it can be readily moulded into
the form of the part. 1 his fhouli he applied along tlie
whole length of the finger, and fecured with a narrow rol-
er. At the fame time, a large roller ffiould he applied over
the infide of the hand to prevent the parts from being mo¬
ved To prevent ftiftneis, the dreffings fhotild be removed
about the end o' the fecond week, and the joint cautioufly
bent; and tins fliould be repeated daily till the cure be com¬
pleted.
Sect. V. Ensures of the Borrs of the inferior Extremities.
bRACTUREs of the body of the thighbone are readily F of
difeovered by the grating noife when the ends of the bones,the hl«h“
are forcibly rubbed together, by the fhortnefs o-the limb *
i. the raCture be oblique, and by the limb being unable to
fuftain the body Lut fraCtures of the neck of the bone
393
;Oft!
br.i e-i f
the fore-
aim :
. -- -- LHC UUI1C
are o ten not eafily diftinguifhed from diflocation of the
joint. In general they may be diftinguiflied 1 y the circum-
fiances mentioned in treating o1 luxations of this hone In
forming a prognolis, we ought to confider that no fraCtures
are more apt to difappoint our expectations than thofe of
the thigh, efpecially when the neck of the hone is broken,
owing to the difficulty of dffcovering the place of the frac¬
ture, and of retaining the hones even after they have been
1 1 f '> — ^ wiLVi tiicy iiavc oecn
replaced. In order to reduce fraCtur * of the thf rh the
J 1 , ’ Lilt,
ending the joints
mufcles are to be relaxed by moderately
of the thigh and knee : when this is done, units'the^'be
much pain and tenfion, the hones are eafily replaced ' y one
affittaru holding the upper part of the thi^h, while anther
tupp ns and gently pulls down its lower extremity, while
1. r 1 " *— jvwm. In order to re¬
place the parts, the mufcles are to be relaxed hv hendm.T a ' , . " '-ALieuiuy, wnuc
the joints of the elbow and wrift, and the limb extended a h . (ur:reon,.'® ^ployed in adjufting the fraCtured pieces,
little above and bd<»w the fraaure. After reduftion a n§ more dlfficu!t [cduce fraCtures o- the neck of the
iplmt re ching from the elbow to the ends of the Ws i t °r ^ preat llrenhrth and various direc-
to be apolied along.the radius, and anther alot tEL • S^ ^ ^ ^raI> h—er, we
and both are to be fecured with a roller or twelve J ed f13 1 ll,cceed extenfion, if we take care previouf-
bandage. When the fplints are applied the Sms ffio fid LclS tJ\mUfcle8 as niUch as P0® ^ : if we do not
be turned towards the breaft as the rnoft rnnv / n ‘ lucceed, we muft have recourfe to machinery.
The arm ftould be hung in ailing. A oarill drAni!,'^ “ f° “r tht b‘>"« in their fitua.
, 394
the ole-
:iai.um;
in an extended ^ “r ^
‘ <>f the elbow, readurlg IrL %te 7th," ^
Vft#.. XVIIi. Part L
aS ‘mm ^ r'Uow ftould L P7t ^ togSal
Z the
BUR
&c
178
Fra a u re of the thi.-h. The fplinta and bandages may be put on in the
the Bone?, f0ilow;n,r manner : The patient being placed on a firm hair
mattrefs^with his knee mode-atdy bent, the long fplint ban-
dacre ai d pillow are to be applied to the outfxde of the thigh,
and the patient (hould be turned lomewhat towards the af
fedted fide, with the knee and leg raifed a little higher than
the body : the fhort fplint fhould then be applied along the
infide of the thigh, and the bandage already placed without
the other fplint, applied fo tight as to make an equal mode¬
rate prelime over the whole : (See fig. 106.). lo make the
part ft ill more fecure, it is proper to infert a long firm fplint
of timber under the middle of the pillow, and to fix it by
two broad ftraps to the upper part of the limb. To pre¬
vent the limb from being airefted by involuntary ftartmgs,
the pillow fhould be fixed to the bed by ftraps : to keen off
the weight of the bed-clothes, a frame with hoops fhould be
placed over the thigh. The parts fhould be examined after
fome time to fee that the bones be not difplaced. When
there is pain, fwelling, and inflammation, leeches and other
remedies1 fhould be applied. To render the fituation of the
patient as eafy as polfible during the cure, he may be allow¬
ed after the fecond week to turn a little move towards his
back, and at the lame time to extend the joint of the knee
in a fmall degree : after this time a little flexion and exten
lion of the limb may be daily repeated to preferve the ufe of
the joint.
The method here deferibed generally fucceeds. Sometimes,
however, notwithftanding all our care, the ends of the bone
flip over each other. To prevent the derormity which this
occafions, it has been attempted to make extenfion and coun-
ter-extenfion by machines: but the pain and irritation have
always been fo great that little advantage has yet been de¬
rived from 'fuch means. The invention (fig. 107.) of
the late Mr Gooch of Norwich, improved by the late Dr
Aitken of Edinburgh, has been recommended as one of the
bell machines for oblique fra&ures of the thigh. Alter
endeavouring to remove the pain, fwelling, and inflamma¬
tion, which are fometimes fo great as to preclude the appli¬
cation of the Ample ft bandage, this machine may be tried.
But if it be found impra&icable to ufe it, the cure mull be
conduced in the ufual way with the chance of the fraftured
pieces overlopping one another, and of eourfe the limb being
fomewhat fhortened.
The patella is moll frequently fraftured tranlverfely,
fometimes lengthwife, and fometimes into feveral pieces.
Fractures of this bfine have been laid commonly to end in
?. ftiff joint; but this is perhaps moft frequently owing to
the limb being kept too long in an extended pofture. In
the treatment of fraftures ot this bone, the kg Ihould be ex¬
tended to relax as much as poflible the foft parts eonnedfed
with the bone. The patient fhould be placed on a firm
mattrefs, and a fplint be placed under the limb long enough
to reach from the top of the thigh to the under end of the
leg, to which the limb fhould be fixed by a number of ftraps
to keep it in a Hate of extenfion. The f ra&ured bones are
then to be brought together, and fuch a number of leeches
applied to the joint as will remove as much blood as the pa¬
tient can bear ; and as long as much pain and tenfion con¬
tinue, faturnine and other allringents are to be ufed for re¬
moving them. When this is accomplilhed, and the parts
properly adjufted, a large pledget of Goulard’s cerate
fhould be laid over the joint, and a hooped frame employed
to keep off the bed-clothes. In a longitudinal fraGure the
parts are eafily kept together by a common uniting bandage
or adhefive plafter; but in tranfverfc fra&ures more force
is ncceftary. Vr.rious bandages have- been employed for
drawing the pieces together in fuch fra&ures ; one of the befl
©f thefe is. that reprefented fig- We need not be
39s
Fradiure
of the pa¬
tella.
G E R Y. Chap. XXX!!,
anxious, however, about bringing the pieces very clote to-Sratore of
crether as a cure may be made though they remain at a^ Bones
confiderable diftance. The bandages, unkfs particular iymp-
toms occur, fhould not be removed till the end of the fecond
week ; after which the joint fhould be cautioufly bent every
fecond day to prevent fiiffnefs. , , . nf;W
The leo is commonly fr-&ured near the lower end, this0* tboegi
beimr the we a ke ft part o‘ the bones. In the treatment of a
fra&ured leg the fame rules apply which were given for a
fraftured thigh-bone. The mufcles fhould be relaxed by
bending the knee ; but little advantage can be derived from
bending the foot, for in proportion as the mufcles behind
are relaxed thofe before are put on the ilretch : the pa-
tient may be therefore allowed to keep the foot in the eafieft
pofture. The bones are commonly replaced by the gentue
extenfion of the upper part of the limb by an afiiftant, while
another fupports it at the ankle. The bones being repla¬
ced, and the limb laid on its outfide with the knee bent, two
fnlints (fi,T. ioq.) are to be applied, long enough to reach
from the upper part of the knee to the edge of the foie, fo
as to prevent the motion both of the knee and ankle. I he
fplints are to be retained by a twelve-tailed bandage, as at
the cafe of fra&ured thigh bone. See fig.
If the patient be either very reftlefs or troubled with ipai-
modic affedlions of the mufcles of the leg, an additional
fplint, lhaped to the form o> the leg, fhould be applied along
the outfide of it, and fixed by a ilrap at the upper, and an-
other at the under part of the leg. When the patient can.
not reft when lying on either fide, he may be placed on his
back, and the curved Hate of the knee ilill prelerved by
raifing the leg a little above the level of the body on a frame
made for the purpofe. This variety of pofture may like-
wife be ufed in fraftures of the thigh. The patient may
from the firft be laid in this pofture, or he may alternately
change from the one to the other. No change of pofture,
however, fhould be allowed for the firft ten or twelve days.
When the fibula only is fraftured, it is apt to be confidered
as a fprain of fome of the mufcles; but this ought to be
particularly attended to, as the mi flake may be followed by
bad couleeuences. When both the bones oi the leg are
broken, the portion next the foot is commonly drawn towards
the back part of the leg, fo that a prominency is produced
by the fraftured part of the upper portion of the, bone;
and this is improperly termed the rifing end ot the fraftured
bone. The appearance is entirely produced by the inferior
portion falling back. Hence no advantage is derived from
preffure being made on the upper end of the bone : the, in¬
ferior portion fhould be raifed fo as to bring the parts into
contaft, and then by proper bandages they ought to be lup-
ported till they are perfeftly united.
Frafturcs of the bones of the toot and toes are t,ea^e(:i|1on£f0(il(
nearly in the lame manner as fraftures of the hand and fin-^^
gers. Befides the fplint which may be neceffary for thett{i.
particular part, a large one fhould be appled over the fok,
nor fnould any motion be allowed for a confiderable time
either in the foot or ankle, otherwife the bones may be dib
placed, and a proper cure prevented.
Sect. VI. Of Compound FraBures. <0,
Bv compound frafture is now generally meant a fraiftn''e
of a bone communicating with an external wound in t e
  . , ,rf()r3:f
in ---—    j
They are much more dangerous than fimp^
The generality of authors have confidered am in^,
integuments
fraftures. ' ^ —, — , po¬
pulation as indifpenfable in cafes of compound fraftures,
while a. few, particularly Mr Bilguer, furgeon-general to t e
armies of the late king of Pruffia, affirm that it is fcarce y
ever neceflary. Both feem to have carried matters too
f ar. Some of the late ft and beft furgeons have
Chap. XXXII. S U R
Compound mended never to amputate immediately in private pra&ice,
Fra&uren. uniefs when the bones are fo much {battered that they can.
' v ,m' not reunite, or the texture of the foil parts completely de-
ftroyed; becaufe, even if amputation be at laft neceffary,
the patient will have a greater chance of recovering than if
it had been performed immediately after the accident: for
the tfate of weaknefs to which he is generally reduced ren¬
der the attendant fymptoms lels violent. On the other hand,
it has been confidered as no bad rule in the army or navy,
w here patients cannot be kept in a proper fituation,and where
fufficient attention cannot be given, to amputate immediately
in cafes of compound fradlures of the large bones of the
extremities. When amputation is not performed immedi¬
ately, it is not, for feveral days at lead, admiffible. It may af¬
terwards be rendered neceffary by hemorrhagies, which can¬
not be hopped but by means more dangerous than amputation
itfelf; by extenflve mortification ; or by the ends of the frac¬
tured bones remaining long difunited, while a great dilcharge
of matter endangers the patient’s life.
40Z In treating compound fra&ures, all extraneous bodies
Treatmcm Should be removed, as alfo all thofe fmall pieces of bone
pound frac-which wil1 Probably n°t unite with the reh. For this pic¬
tures. pole the opening, if neceffary, Ihould be enlarged with a
fcalpel. The next hep is to replace the bones by relaxing
the mufcles as in fimple fra&ures. Sometimes part of a
bone projedfs fo far through the integuments that it cannot
be replaced without either fawing off the end of it, or en¬
larging the wound. If the fradtured bone be lono-, Iharp,
and projecting much, it is beff to faw it off; for though it
were reduced, it would not readily reunite, and it would
be apt to excite much pain and inflammation ; But if it
be broad at the bafe, and of no great length, it ought cer¬
tainly to be fawed, even though it cannot be reduced with¬
out enlarging the wound. For the moft part, it is only the
fkin which it is neceffary to cut ; but even the mufcles ought
to be divided, though as much as poffible in the diredtion of
their fibres, when the bone cannot otherwife be replaced.
After the redu&ion, a pledget of feme emollient ointment
is to be laid over the wound, and the limb placed on a
hrm iplmt, and ftill kept in a relaxed pofture. In dref-
iing the wound, the limb ought not to be moved : the many-
tailed bandage, therefore, fhould be ufed rather than a
roller Various contrivances have been fallen upon to ah
low the hmb to be at reft while the furgeon is dreffing it
I he fra&ure box, invented by the late Mr Rae furgeon in
Fdrnburgli, is one of the belt. When the leg is laid on
this, it may be dreffed with tolerable facility without moving-
it. We are happy to have it in our power to announce to
the gentlemen of the medical faculty, that another machine
has lately been invented by Mr Samuel James furgeon in
Hoddefden, Herts, which, we are told, will effe&ually relax
the mnicies, and retain the bones in ‘their natural fituation
without pam to the patient or the leaft inconvenience to the
operator. See fig. 11 o.
It is of the greateft importance to prevent inflammation,
winch is apt either to produce mortification, or to give rife
• to extenfive abfeefles. The dreffings Ihould be removed
once or twice daily according to the quantity of matter,
-he common application of warm poultice , on account of
their inconvenience, may be deferred till they become ne-
ceffary by the approach of inflammation, which they are to
be conficered as the fureft means ©f preventing by exciting-
aTa Tr Wfhen£Ver lhe “Nation f»l2
oth, ,0 Th rf, fn ,PU‘ 'S Prod““<i. •1'= poultices
Dam t “s ’ left th'y d0 harm '’y baling the
fore ouff! 1 “I exciting to° ^pmus a difeharge. The
P^e X t 10 ^ r" n,iId -d the
Le nafiap-e ft dia Wlth t0nic medicines. A
g .ou be given to the matter by putting the
Plate
C-cccxcn
G E R Y. ,79
limb in a favourable pofture, and by making a counter open- ft;Portion*•
mg, if neceffary, to the moll depending part. But this may '   1
be frequently avoided, by covering the fore with foft lint
or fponge to abforb the matter. If the difeharge become
cxceffive, and cannot be leffened by- the means above-men¬
tioned, it will be found to proceed from a portion of
loofe bone which has not been earlier noticed, by the re¬
moval of which it may be ftopt. If, inftead of producing
matter, the inflammation terminate in gangrene, the danger
is ftill greater than under the moft extenfive abfeefles. For
the treatment of this, the reader is referred to Chap. III.
Se&. 2d. r
Chap. XXXQI. Of Dijlortions. ,
. Distortions o'7 the bones may arife from external in- Caufe?of
juries, from difeafed conftitutions, from a morbid ftate of thediftoruon.
bones, or a contra&ed flate of the mufcles, or both ; but
the affe&ion is moft frequently owing to a u-eakly, delicate
conftitution, as in rickety or fcrophulous cafes.
In the treatment of diftortions of the fpine, particular at-Trelmieni:
tent ion ought to be paid to the caufe of the diforder. Ifof diftor
it appear^ to arife from the patient continuing too long inMon °f th*
any particular pofture, every habit of this kind fhould befpine*
guarded againft on the firft appearance of the difeafe. If
the patient has turned too much to one fide, the reverfe of
this fhould be advifed. He ought to fleep upon a firm
hair mattrefs, that his body may lie upon an equal furface.
He mould ufe an invigorating diet, the cold bath, bark, and
other tonics. By a ftrift attention to the ufe of thefe re-
meefies the difeaie has fometimes been retarded in its pro-
grels. . Various machines have been invented for removing-
diftortions of the fpine by preffure; but confiderable cau¬
tion is here required, otherwife much injury may arife from
it. _ borne advantage, however, in certain cafes, has been
derived from the ufe of the common collar (fi r. x, . or
the ftays and machinery adapted to them (fig. n^V Jn.
vented m France, and afterwards brought into ufe “in this
country by Mr Jones of London, are found to be ftill better
fuited to this purpofe.
The fame caufes which produce diftortions of the fpine of
rti7dift F fT diftor.tIons of the n««bs. Sometfmeslimb'.
the diftortion takes place with the original formation of the
bones, at other times it occurs in infancy, and now and then
at a more advanced period of life, In early infancy the
bones are fo pliable as to be readily affe&ed by the poftures
of the body When a child is too foon allowed to attempt
to walk, ,ts legs are apt to become crooked from their inabi¬
lity to iuppert the weight of the body. Certain difeafes like
wife efpecially rickets, foften the bones fo much, that they
oOh* re of the body’ “”d to aaT
When the diftortion of a limb is owing to a curvature in
‘f tl?e cafe be receRt, and efpecially if ft occur in
c ifldhood, it may frequently be removed, without much
fficulty, by making a gradual but conftant preffure by
ufe of machinery, on the convex fide of the hmb till ft
recovents natural appearance. When the deformity occurs
in the leg, a method has been ufed in feveral .'nft
wluch is so a fi„„ fplint of iron, w^hTallie X’
Ihoe, on the concave fide of the leo- the ntfip • 1 r A
£ “ :bif
dlfa and conMc'rabl'
Along with the curvature above mentioned
mooly happens that the feet and ankles are affeaed. Wh«
the bones of the leg are bent outward, the fore part of th
loot ,8 turned inward, and the inner e&e uLX. I
the reverie, if the leg be bent inward. In thefe Xs theX*
Z a
tiorif
4©6
Gaufe- ren¬
dering aw.
putation
weccffary.
s U R
tions of the feet are generally owin-r to the curvature of the
bones of the leg. By removing the curvature of thele, the
foot will commonly regain its natural fituatmn and the fphnt
above mentioned will for the moil part be fufhctert tor the
tmroofe. But in cafes where the foie of the toot is turned
much out of its natural direction, it may be necefTary to
fix the fplint and (hoe to a frame (fig. 114.), which will
render the cure ftill more effectual. _
Befides the iaftrument already mentioned, fomehave uled
a kind of boot, cut lengthwite, made of hardened leather or
of metal, &c. which may in feme cafes fufficientiy anfwer
Ip c^fes of club foot, where the diftortion is in the middle
of the foot, a pair of fhoes, fuch as are reprefented in fig.
1 1 e have been found utefui. After the feet are hxed in
the" 'fhoes, the fore part of the hiet may be feparated by
lutans of a ferew in two plates, which are fixed to the io.e.
Chap. XXXIV. Of Amputation.
Sect. I. Of Amputation in general.
In amputation, which in fureery fignifies cutting off
a limb, the great end to be aimed at is, the procuring of
a handfome ftump, in which the bone may not protrude,
but be well covered with flefit ; fo that no excoriation or
rawnefs may be «ipt to. take place. As long ago as the year
*679, it was propoied by Jacob Young, an EngLfh furgeon,
in a treatife intitled Currus Triwnohahs ex Terebinibino, to
preferve a flap of flefh and fkm, which was to be folded over
the bone, and which, uniting to the parts of the wound alter
amputation, would effectually cover the Done, and prevent
the inconveniences above mentioned. No traces of the luc-
cefs of this method, however, can he found till the year
1696 ; when a Latin diflertation was publifiied upon it by
P. Adrians Verduin, an eminent furgeon in Amfterdam.
The moil fanguine expectations were formed of its f uccefs ;
and it was even thought that the flap would prevent the
nectfiity of tying up the blood-veffels. However, it does
pot appear that the method as at that time praCtiled either
did or could fucceed ; and accordingly it was entirely laid
afide ; but it has been lately revived with confiderable im¬
provements.
Amputation may be rendered neceffary when a member
is fo much diieaftd as to be utedefs, or when it puts life in
danger. _ .
The caufes in general rendering this operation neceffary
are, bad compound fraCtures ; exteniive lacerated and con-
tufed wounds ; part of the limb being carried off by a can¬
non ball or otherwufe, the bones being unequally broken and
not properly covered ; extenfive mortification ; white fwell
G E R Y. Chap. XXXIV,
difeafe be {topped ; the firft fign of which is, the appearance Aimpwa.
of an inflamed circle between the difeafed and found parts, hon.
i\s foon as the difeafed begin to feparate from the found ^
parts, amputation of the limb ought to be performed, and
no time ought now to be loll, left the patient fuffer from
the abforption of putrefeent matter.
No part or furgery is brought to greater perfeftion than
the manner of performing amputation. Before the inverw
tion of the tourniquet, and the method of fecuring the vef,
fels by ligature, the operation was feldom undertaken ; and
a great proportion or thofe upon \vhom it was performed
died foon after. In the preient improved method, one death
does not happen in twenty, or even thirty cafes. In per¬
forming the operation, particular attention is to be paid to
the fpot where the incifion is to be made ; the quantity ot
{kin and cellular fubftance neceffary to be faved, fo as to
cover the muffles and bone completely, without being flreUh.
ed ; cutting the muffles in fuch a manner that they may
unite with each other and entirely cover the end of the bone;
the prevention of hetnorrhagies during the operation ; the
tying of the arteries alone, without including the nerves or
any of the contiguous parts ; feeuring the integuments fo
as to prevent them from retracing after the operation , and
a proper fubfequent treatment of the cafe. . 40J
The following are the general ifeps of the operation : MeM rf
. ^ , °t 1 vi rr ri A nerftttmio
The patient being properly placed, with affiftants to attend,^
and the apparatus in proper order, the flow of the blood to.ion(
the limb is to be flopped by the tourniquet (fig. x6.). The
firft incifion is to be"made through the ikin and cellular fub*
fiance by one, or rather by two, ftrokes of the amputating
knife reprefented in fig. 116. The it are next to be fepa-
rated from the muffles, as far as may appear fufficient for
covering the Hump. The feparated {km or flap fhould be
ftromdy drawn up, or what perhaps anfwers better, turned
up alt round the limb, leaving this part of the muffles quite
bare. The flap is to be kept in this fituation by an affifl*
ant, while the operator makes the next incifion at the edge
of the refkaed fkin, and cuts till he comes to the bone.
This incifion fhould be begun on the lower fide of the limb,
that the blood may not prevent the eye from readily follow¬
ing the edge of the knife during the whole cut. . The
muffles are' now to be ieparated from the bone as high as
may enable them afterwards completely to cover it. I he
fo t parts in general are then to be drawn up by retradors,
which may be either of leather, as in fig. 117. or metal, asia
fio- 118 u and L The periofteum is to be divided at the place
where the faw is to be applied ; but no part of the bone is
to be denuded *of this membrane, which is afterwards to
cover the ftump, othervvife troubleffme exfoliations may
enlue. At this place the faw (fig. 119.) is to be applied,
and the bone divided with long iteady ftrokes. In this part
not properly covered; extentrve mortincatron ; wnne rwcu- “‘V , P , V n ,•* rtt
Lsot the oints; large txattofes i ulcers attended with ex- of the operation a good deal depends upon the fteadnefs
ings or Lire joints, intgv . . V , , _ . ■ r 1 • who holds the limb : ror if it be held too
tenfive caries; cancer or other incurable ulcers; varicofe kinds
pf tumors ; particular diftortions of the bones.
Amputation may alfo be fometimes neceffary from violent
hemorrhagies of fome principal artery during the cure ot a
fradured limb, or from fuch a profufe diicharge ot matter
taking place that the ftrength 01 the patient is exhaufted.
Laceiated and contufed wounds may require amputation,
pn account of hemorrhagy enfuing which cannot be flop¬
ped. Exteniive mortification may take piace, and fuch large
quantities of matter be formed, that the patient will be un¬
able to bear up under the diicharge
of the affiftant who holds the limb ; ror if it be held too
high, the motion of the faw will be impeded ; while the bone
may be fplintered if it be not fufficientiy railed. Any
points or iplinters which may be left fhould be immediately
removed with the pincers (fig. 120.). The retradors are
now to be laid afide, and the principal arteries feparated
from the nerves, and ffeured by the tenaculum (fig. i7-)»
or forceps (fig. 1 20. a), and ligatures.
The tourniquet fhould next be a little flackened, to allow
the different branches to be dilcovered : The clotted blood
is to be cleared away with a warm fpon > e. The patient
Where part of the limb is carried off, it is neceffary ta fhould get iome warm cordial drink, fnd the arterraJ
amputate Lber up, fo as to cut the bone, a. well as the branches which can be d.fcovered ought to be take" UP-
roffoat ts in Inch a manner a. may admit ot a much [pcedier The ends ot the ligatures arc then to be cut of fuch a length
andPfafer cure. When mortification occurs, every thing as to allow them to hang without the bps ot t e worn •
ought to be done for the fupport of the patient till the The mufdes and fkm an now to be drawn down, and bioujt^
S U R
Chap.XXXlV
into clofc conta^, that the ftump may be completely cover¬
ed. The parts are r.ext to be iecured by proper banda¬
ging ; and if the operation has been properly performed, the
, cure "
An-p ta
ting the
Arm and
J;ore arm.
will commonly be inade by the firft intention, and may
be completed in the oourfe of three or tour weeks, and
fometimes in a fhorter period. This however muft depend
jnuch upon the conftitution of the patient, as well as the
manner of performing the operation.
Sect. II. Gf Amputating the Arm and Fore-arm.
Amputation of the arm is performed according to the
rules already lard down. No more of it fhould be removed
than is difeafed; for the longer the llunm is, the more ufe-
ful it proves. The tourniquet is to be applied a little above
tne part where the operation is to be performed : As much
of the integuments {hould be laved as may be perfectly fuf-
fccknt for covering the fore. In taking up the artery,
after the bone has been divided, the operator ought to be
attentiven ot to include the radial nerve, which may be
readily drfeovered and fcparated, as it lies clofe upon the
408
Method of
fore part of the artery. The ore atm is to be amputated
neatly in the fame maimer as the leg ; only that the ftump
may be covered by amputating with the double incifion,
without the afiiftance ot a flap, which it is neceffary to form
in the leg.
Sect. Ill,
Of Amputating the Thigh.
performing this oseration, the patient ought to be
rh”gfrd/ip°na tabkof ord;™ry height, with the difeafed
tatiou, unb fupported and fecured bv an afTAant feared before
4® 9
Umb fupported and fecured by an afliifant feated before
him, while other affiilants take care of the other leg and
the arms. I he c urfe of the bipod is to be flopped by
applying the tourniquet over the trunk of the femoral ar-
tery, near the upper part of the thigh. No more of the
thigh. (>ught to he removed than is tendered necefiary by the
d feaie, as the more of it is left, the more ufeful it will be
tit the patient. An affiftant fhould grafp the limb with
both hands a little above the place where the fkin is to be
divided, and draw it up as far as poffible ; while the opera-
tor. Handing on the outiide of the limb, makes a circular
in cm on down to the mufcles by one or two ftrokes of the
kmte. As much of the integuments is then to be differed
with a fcalpci from the mufcles as may cover the flump
completely ; and this part of the flcin may either be turned
back, or drawn tightly up by an affiftant. The mufcles
may then be divided quite acrofs to the bone by the edge
of the (km, m the common way, or cut obliquely upwards,
according to the method of AHanfon, fo as to lay the bone
bare two or three fingers-breadth higher than is done in the
common way. The mufcles are next to be feparated from
the Lone with a fcalpel ?. little way, that a fufficient quan¬
tity may be left lor covering the end of it. The reft of
the operation is to be performed exaftly according to the
general rides laid down in the firft fe&ion of this chapter.
J he mufdes and integuments are to be drawn over the end
the bone, and applied clolely together, that the fkin may
irf'ffi. ‘0Wr„,b^ftum,P’ antl n:tai"ed lhls Nation
l) an aflilUnt till a flannel or cotton toller, record inn to
te fra on of the year, which has been previonfly fixed
round the body be applied in fuel, a manner as to fuppo.t
a-< nx them, for which purpofe it (hould be palled two
•r three times, in a cncular direflion, round the top of the
dowt’ne”d f10,^ °t!fTt‘rCh fpiraI turns' be brou8ht
and i, ftl U l • ?{th‘ 1"mp and faftencd with 1
the nhX™ 1101 bC ■,fihter tha“ mar tK Efficient to affilt
ine platters m preventing r^tradion
t ne ends ot the divide -»
Of diefling * be enN°c**he d^id5d mufcles are now to be laid exaft.
tibefiump. f over the bonej and the edges of the fltin are to be
G E R Y. igi
brought into contadl, either fo as to form a ftrarght longr-Amptua-
tudinal line,-according to the method of Mr B. Bell, &c. ;riTT tlie
or they are to be placed horizontally, “that the wound may rh u^'
appear only in a line with the angles at each fide,” as ad-^ v "
vifed by AHanfon. The ligatures may either hang over
the edges of the wound, or be brought to the angles.
After the edges ot the fkin are in this maimer exadlly ap¬
plied to each other, either a few flips of adhefive plailer are
to be laid acrofs the face of the flump, or two large pieces
ot adhefive plafter, with ieveral pieces of tape fixed to them,
are to be applied to the furface of the flcin. The tapes are
then co be tied with a running knot immediately over the
wound ; by which the parts will be kept fo clofely together
as to prevent any colledlion of matter from being formed.
J'he whole furface of the flump fhould next be covered
with a large pledget fpread with an emollient ointment, over
which a comprefs o*- line tow is to be put, and retained in
its place by a broad crofs ftrap of old linen, paffing feme
way up the thigh, fo as to be fecured by the roller,^which
is now to be pafTcd two or three times round the ftump ;
and the prtflure formed by the crofs ftrap may afterwards
be increated or dimimihed at pleafme, by drawing it with
more or lei's tightnefs, and fixing it with pins to the roller.
While the flump is drtffiug, the tourniquet is removed, hue
replaced again loolely to enable the attendants to cluck any
hemorrhagy which may afterwards enfue. ....
ei'l • . ' - _ . 4 {O'
x he patient is now to be laid to reft, and the limb is to Tret., enC
be placed upon a little tow covered with linen, or uoon aof the Pa*
thin fo‘t pillow; and to prevent the patient from involun-i‘fter
tardy moving the limb, and to guard again ft fpalmodic ftart- uon!?t'*’
ings, which frequently happen after this operation, it may
be rxed to the bed by two ftraps. A bafket or hooped
tiame ought to be placed over the ftump to proteft it from
tae bed-clothes. 1 he patient fhould immediately get an ano-
dy ne draught, which will generally procure eafe through the
re.t.o. the day. For this purpofe, no more light fhould be
iU into the room than is merely neceftary for allowing the
attendants to pay attention to the flump. As hemorrhagies
iometimest appear feveral hours after the operation, the per-
ion who takes the charge of the patient fhould watch this
circumilance with the sweated attention. If there be on¬
ly a flight oozing of blood, there is no occafion for bein<*
cilrirmpfl • Knf txr V. f*-     « x- ^
- v , . : ^  ^vcui^u :ur DCinir
alarmea ; but whenever it appears to proceed from a large
artery, it muff be fecured. The fpafmodic affections which
frequently occur after amputation are feldom troublefome.
unlefs fome nerve has been included in fecuring the arteries •
but when they do appear, laying the limb in the eafieft
pofture, and giving opiates, are the principal means of pro¬
curing relief. ^
. Tol P-event ^flammation as much as pcffible, the patient
js to be kept upon a flria antiphlogiflic regimen, and his
bowels kept open by laxative clyflers, till the inflammatory
flagcis over, which will generally be in a few days. If
notwithflanding this treatment, the flump fwells, and the
patient complain of pam and tightnefs, we ou-Tht to en¬
deavour to difeover from what caufe the ureafinefa origi¬
nates. If it be owing to the ftraps being too tightly fixed
hey mull be flackened. If the flump be found much
fwelled a faturmne folution fhould be applied by means of
f vend folds of linen ; and if the patient be young and ple-
ronc, he ought to loie a few ounces of blood from the
atm ; but if he is weak and emaciated, a different mode nf
treatment muft be followed. “iirerent mode of
At the end of the third, or fourth day at fartheft the
ftump fhould be examined ; and if it appear fomewhatopen
anc flaccid, the parts muft be brought clofer .together and
fecured more firmly. After this time the dreffing8
be renewed every day* or every lecond day. Ia" about a
week
s8i S U R G
Ampiua- week after tke operation the ligatures may generally be re-
tir.R the moved with cafe ; but if they do not feparate readily, they
Leg’ may be aently pulled at eveiy dreffing, when they will, m
^ a fliort time, be brought away, and the wound will be foon
healed by the firft intention. 1 he roller Aiouid be cleaned
and renewed as often as it is found fullied ; nor fhould it be
laid entirely aiide till the end of the third or fourth week
after the operation. When the roller is removed, we may
depend upon the ftraps or tapes for keeping the parts to-
o-cther till the cure be quite accompliihed. When the in¬
flammatory fymptoms are entirely gone, no medicines ought
to be given which would debilitate the patient, nor is any
thing more neceffary than to keep the bowels gently open
till a complete cure be made.
Sect. IV. Of Amputating the Leg.
The leg may be amputated for a difeafe in the foot at
two different parts; the one a hand-breadth under the
knee, the other a little above the ankle. The former
makes a fufficient fupport for the body to reft upon an ar¬
tificial leg ; but the latter does that equally well, andhkewiie
preferves the motions of the knee.
Amtira- In performing the operation a little way under the knee,
tion'of the the patient is to be placed and fecured in the fame manner
leg near the as in 0perat;ng upon the thigh. rlhe tourniquet is to be
iEIiee* placed a little above the knee, with the cuftuon upon the
artery in the ham. The furgeon places himielf upon the
infide of the leg, and makes a circular incifion through the
integuments down to the mufcles. The place where the
incifion ftiould be made muft depend upon the length of the
limb ; but in general it may be between fix and (even inches
under the top of the tibia in an adult, or far enough down
upon the limb to fave as much integuments as will cover the
flump. After the integuments are cut through in the manner
already dire&ed, as much of the mulcles are to be divided by
the knife as can be done by a circular incifion ; and the
interoffeous parts are to be divided by a lealpel or catline,
(fig. 121.). The retractors are then to be applied, and
the bone fawed off immediately below the infertioh of the
tendons of the flexor mufcles. In fawing, the operator
ought to begin upon both bones at the fame time, that he
may finifh upon the tibia, left iplinters fhould be formed.
The veffels are next to be fecured; the foft parts drawn
over the bones ; the adhefive plafters and other bandages
applied in the fame manner as direfted for amputating the
thigh, only that here the roller need not be applied fo high
as in the former operation. Two or three turns above the
knee, however, are neceffary to prevent the drelfings from
flipping down.
In amputating upon the ankle, the operator fhould lix
At the an- upon that fpot which will leave the flump of fuch a length
as may be moft convenient for being fitted with an artificial
machine refembling the other leg. Nine inches f rom the joint
of the knee, in a leg of ordinary length, was found by Mr
Wilfon, a late ingenious artificial limb-maker in Edinburgh,
to be the beft part fuited to this purpofe, on account of t ic
equal preffure it makes upon the furface of-' the leg, without
making any upon the end of the tender flump. ie ope
ration is performed in the fame manner as that a little below
the knee.
Sect. V. Of Amputating at the Joints of the Extremities.
The circumftances moft to be attended to in performing
amputation at the joints are, firft to flop the circulation by
the tourniquet ; or, where that is impracticable, to take up
the trunk of the artery by a ligature ; to make a circular
incifion in fuch a place as may, after the operation is over,
te fufficient to cover the wound: Then a longitudinal in*
41*
E R Y. Chap. XXXIV
cifion is to be made upon the oppofite Tides of the limb, ex- Amputa.
tending from the joint to the circular cut, and as deep as thetl“! * the
bone, by which two flaps will be formed to cover that parted
of the joint which remains after the operation is finifh.mit c. ''
ed The ligaments of the joint are next to be divided,1 ^
and the afteaed limb or part of the limb removed.
After this part of the operation, it was formerly a fre¬
quent praaice to ferape off the remaining cartilage, to unite
the parts more firmly together. But this is now found
to be unneceffary ; for when the fleffi is applied properly
to the bone, if it do not grow to it, the union at leaft
is fo clofe that it afterwards gives no inconvenience to the
Pd Any branches of arteries which may have been cut during
the onegation are now to be fecured ; clotted blood is to
be removed ; and the mufcles and fkin are to be brought into
clofe contad with the ends of the ligatures hanging out of
the wound. The parts are to be retained by adhetive pla*
Hers, or twifted future, or both ; and proper bandages
applied in fuch a way that a cure may be made by the hrit
A mputating the arm at the Ihoulder jo.nt has always beenA.,*
confidered as a dangerous as well as a difficult operation. It'" *
fhould never be attempted, when the lame purpoie can be ac-j^
complilhed by operating lower down. But cafes occafion*
ally occur, where the life of the patient cannot, in any other
manner, be laved. . r ..
Amputation may become neceffary here in confequence
of abfeeffes of the joint; caries of the humerus reaching to
the joint ; compound fradures, efpecially thofe from gun-
ffiot wounds, extending to the head of the bone; and ot
mortification. .
In performing the operation, the patient jhould be laid
upon a table of convenient height, covered with a mattrels.
I-Ie is then to be brought as near to the edge ot it as poiii-
ble, and fecured by affiftants. The circulation of the bbod
in the arrn is next to be Hopped, by an afiiftant preffing
llrongly with a fitm comprefs over the fubclavian artery
where it paffes over the firft rib ; or an incifion maybe made
along the courfe of the artery, which may be lecured after
feparating from it the contiguous nerves. When the arteiyis
compreffed, it will readily be known whether the compreffion
proves effedual, by obferving when the pulfe at the waft is en¬
tirely flopped. As foon as this is the cale, a circular incifion »
to be made through the integuments at the infertion ot the
deltoid mufcle into the humerus. An afiiftant then draws
the fkin a little back, and at the edge ot the retraded fkin
the mufcles are to be cut in a circular diredion to the bone.
If the artery has not been taken up at the beginning ol
the operation, it is now to be fecured, as well as any branches
which come in the way.
The amputation-knife is now to be laid aiide, and tne
reft of the operation finifhed with a ilrong fcalpel. ' per
pendicular incifion is next to be made at a little dihance
from the outfide of the artery, beginning at the acromion,
and terminating in the circular incifion, cutting as deep as
the furface of the bone. A fimilar incifion is to be mace
upon the back part of the arm, fo that the flaps may e
nearly of an equal breadth. The arterial branches are
here to be fecured ; the flaps are to be feparated from the
bone, guarding agau-ift wounding the trunk of the artery,
. the flaps are to be fupported by an affiilant ; and the cap n
lar ligament of the joint is to be cut from, the fcapula . an
thus the arm will be entirely feparated. _
After the arm has been feparated, any arteries whic a?
pear about the joint are to be tied, and all the ligature
brought over the edges of the wound i he parts are to
cleared of clotted blood, and the two flaps drawn overu^
Chap. XXXIV.
yvmputa. wound, and fecured by the twifted future. A pledget of
tir.g at the any emollient ftiould then be applied, and a fufficient cu-
th^Extre- ^1'on I'nt’ a comPrefs °W ^nen’ Put Pver tllC
unities whole A moderate preffure is next to be applied by a
w—y—i- flannel roller ; by which the parts will be fupported, their
union facilitated, and matter moil likely prevented from be¬
ing lodged. The treatment is then the fame with that af¬
ter amputation in other parts of the extremities, hor two
or three days after the operation, it is neceffary that an al-
fiflant fit with the patient to comprefs the artery in cafe a
bleeding fhould enfue.
At the When it is neceffary to amputate the whole hand, the
vrrift. operation may be performed at the wrift, fo as to leave as
much of the member as poffible ; and the fame rules hold
here as in amputating at any of the relb of the joints. The
tourniquet is to be applied to the artery in the arm, and
the cure is to be completed by the firft intention. When
any of the carpal bones are affebbed, the fore will not heal
till they either work out by fuppuration, or are cut out by
the knife. When the middle of any of the metacarpal
bones is difeafed, while their extremities are found, the
trepan may be applied, and the difeafed parts removed, While
the remaining found parts are preferved. But if the whole
bodies oi one or two of thefe bones be affedbed, while the
reft remain found, all the afferfted bones ought to be remo¬
ved. In performing the operation, an incifion is to be
made along the courl’e of the part affefted ; and if the ope¬
rator have it in his choice, the incifion fhould be made upon
the back part, fo as to fave the great veffels and nerves fitu-
ated in the palm. The integuments are then to be diffefted,
and turned to each fide ; after which the difeafed bones or
parts of bones are to be removed, guarding as much as pof-
iible againft wounding the principal arteries or nerves which
lie near them.
The difeafed parts are next to he feparated ; any arte¬
ries which happen to be cut are to be fecured; and, on ac¬
count of the free communication which they have with
neighbouring branches, they ought to be tied at both cut
ends. If after this a bleeding ft ill continue, comprefs, fiyp-
tics, and other remedies proper for (topping blood, are im¬
mediately to be ufed. The fides of the wound are to be
brought together, and an attempt made to cure them by
^1(, the firft intention.
At the In amputating the fingers, it was formerly the practice
joints of theto operate upon the bodies of the bones in the fame manner
lingers. as jn the larger extremities; but at prefect the removal at
the joints is more frequently praftifed.
In performing the operation, it is necefiary to fave as
much fkin as may cover the flump, a-d this ought to be
done upon the fide next the palm, fo as to guar d againft
the effects of friction. The general fteps of the opera¬
tion are the fame with thofe for amputation of the larger
joints.
A circular incifion is to be made on the finger by a
crooked biftoury, about the middle of the phalanx, and it
may he carried at once to the bone. Another incifion is to
be made with a common fcalpel at each fide of the finger,
oeginning at the circular one and continuing it to the joint,
by which two flaps wall be left to cover the flump. The
ligaments of the joint are now to be divided, and the bone
removed. The blood-veffels are to be fecured by ligature,
and the flaps exadtly applied to each other; but in order to
proted the end of the bone completely, a fmall portion
may. be cut from the uppermoft flap. The flaps are to be
retained by adhefive plafter, or by the twifted future ; but
if the^ latter be ufed, the tendons ought to be avoided. O
ver the fore an emollient pledget is to be applied, and
then a comprels and roller. If the diieafe. held fituated,
1*3
that inftead of amputating at the cavity of the joint, the Amputa-
furgeon fhall think proper to operate upon the body of the11"^*1 tbe
bone, flaps are to be formed as above, and the bone is to be Ex[re<>
divided by means of a fmall fpring faw, fig. I 2 2. , mities.
The amputation of the thigh, at the hip joint, has always 1 w—
been confidered as one of the moft formidable operations in ^
furgery ; fo much fo, that very few cales appear on record ;0gu>
of its having ever been put in practice. In the Medical
Commentaries of Edinburgh, an inftance is recorded wdiere
the thigh was amputated at this joint, and where the pa¬
tient furvived the operation 18 days, and then died from a
different caufe, when all rifle of hsemorrhagy was over, and
when the fore had even a favourable appearance, which
fhow's at leaft that the operation has been done with fafety.
It certainly ought never to be done, howrever, unlefs as the
laft refource, and when the life of the patient is in abfolute
danger ; and then only when as much fkin and mufcles
can be faved as wull cover the fore, and when there is alfo
a probability of being able to flop the hemorrhagy, and pre¬
vent it from returning.
When the operation is to be performed, the patient is to
be laid upon his back on a table, and properly fecured by
affiflants; one of whom fhould be ready with a firm cufhion
to prefs, if neceffary, upon the top of the femoral artery,
juft after it paffes from behind Poupart’s ligament to the
thigh. A longitudinal incilion is now to be made through
the flein, beginning immediately under the ligament, and
continuing it downwards along the courfe of the artery for
about fix or feven inches. The aponcuroliiof the thigh is
then to be divided by gentle feratches till a furrowed probe
can be introduced, when the opening is to be dilated by
means of a fccflpel, till two ©r three inches of the artery
be laid bare. A ftrong ligature is now to be put un¬
der the artery by the affiilance of a curved blunt-pointed
needle.
The part where the ligature fhould be paffed is immedi¬
ately above the origin of the arteria profunda; for if that
artery be not affefted by the ligature, the patient might fuf-
fer by the lofs of blood during the reft of the operation.
The ligature is now to be fecured by a running-knot: An¬
other ligature is to be introduced a little below the former,
and likewife fecured ; the artery is then to be divided be¬
tween the ligatures. A circular incifion is now to be made
through the integuments of the thigh, about fix inches from
its upper end. The retraced flein is then to be pulled at.
leaft an inch upwards; and at the edges of it the amputa¬
ting knife is to be applied, fo as to cut the mufcles down to
the bone. This being done, a cut is to be made upon the
pofterior part of the thigh, beginning a little higher than
the great trochanter, and continuing it down to tli£ circular
incifion, and as deep as the joint. A fimilar cut is to be
made on the anterior part of the thigh, at a fmall diftance
from the artery, and this reaching likewife down to the
bone. The two mufcular flaps are to be feparated from
the bone and joint, and held back by an affitlant. Eve¬
ry artery which appears is now to be fecured. Then the
capfular ligament, and next the round one, are to be fepa¬
rated from the acetabulum ; by which means the limb will
be removed from the body. The acetabulum and neigh¬
bouring bone are next to be examined ; and if they appear
found, the cafe will be more favourable ; but at any rate, a
cure is to be attempted by the firft intention. For which
purpofe, after removing all the clotted Blood from the fur-
face of the wound, and bringing the ligatures over the edges
ot the fkin, the mufcles are to be placed as nearly as pcf*
fihle in their natural fituation -; and drawing the flaps toge*
thtr, fo as to cover the wound in the moft accurate manner^
they are to be kept in this-fituation by adliefive plailer, and
bj
SURGERY.
41?
At 'he
joints of
the ioyt,
1S4 S' U R.
K errfwihft tlie twlfle’t! fnlntT and other drettinys, ?.« in amputating
the Ends * f at t^e vm^er part 0f the thigh, 'i he dreffin:.’* are to be re-
Eo^e-Tn the taint'd by a broad flannel roller paffe^l three or tour times
joint. round the body, and fpirally over the flump, and fecured.
.—-v  The patient is then to be laid in bed on the found hde, and
treated as for amputation in other parts of the body; only
that greater attention is neceflary, as there is no afiillance
from a tourniquet. Uncommon attention will alio r e necet-
fary to prevent inflammation, and every iymptom ol lever
which may lucceed to the operation.
When the foot is fo much difeafed as to reejuire amputa¬
tion, the operation might ! e performed at the point oi the
ankle; but for the realons given, when treating of am-
putation of the leg, it is found better to do it above
the ankle. When 'a confiderable part remains lound, it
ought to lie laved. If any 01 the tarfal fones are aft!cted,
thefe are to be removed. When the middle or whoiq body
of any of the mttatarfal bones are diieafed, they are to be
removed in the lame manner as dnedted for iimilar opera¬
tions in bones of the hand ; and if even two of them re¬
main found, provided they be (o placed as to fuppoit the
toe*> they ought to be preferved, as it is known that, by
proper treatment, an ofteous matter may a terwards Ml a con-
flderable part, if not the whole, < f the void ; or if any cavi¬
ty remain, it may be fo Itufted that the ufe of the foot may
ftill fe enjoyed. _
In performing an operation of this kind, tne patient
fhould be laid upon a table, and the tourniquet applied in
the ham to prevent bemorrhagy. An incihon is then to
be made along the affe&ed part ; and if the feat of the dif-
eafe admit it, the incifion flundd be made upon the upper
fide of the foot fo as to fave the Idle. ^ The integuments
are to be feparated and turned to each fide, to allow the at-
fefted parts to be completely removed.
e principal vtfTcls and nerves are to he faved as n'incli
as poftble ; but if any particular artery be cut, it is to be
fcoured, and the part treated as after the removal of hmilar
.l8 parts of the band.
Of the toes. The amputation of the toes is exa&ly ftmilar to that of
the fingers.
Sect. V. Of removing fhe Ends of Carious Bones in th$
faints.
In compound fraffures, the ends of bones, when they
protruded in fuch a manner that they could not other
wife be returned, have - equently been lawed through ; and
/ their place has frequently been fupplied by a renewal ot
bone, fo as to preferve the ordinary ufe of the hmb. Many
cafes have likewife happened, where a large part of the bo¬
dy of the bone has been thrown out by fuppuration, and its
place fupplied ; and a few are upon record, where either the
whole of a bone, or that end next the joint, has been thrown
out, and its Diace filled up with callus, fo that no inconve-
F.ience has been felt. From thefe circumftances, Mr White
ot Mancheffer was-led to preferve an arm by iawing off the
head of a difeafed humerus ; and Mr Park of Liverpool, to
fave a limb, by iawing off the ends of the bones, in a cafe
ot white fwelling of the knee. W hen therefore it happens
that the end of a bone is difeafed, while the other parts
are found, the difeafed part may be removed, and the Lound
one faved, fo as in a great mealure to preferve the free ufe
of the limb. ^ . * ,
in performing the operation, the fuff ftep fhould be, to
* ufe (uch means as may enable the operator to have a full
management of the circulation of the part affefted. I hen
a longitudinal incifion of fufficient length, and perhaps ano¬
ther acrofs it, may be neceffary to be made through the ioft
parts of the joint; and this opening ought to be at a di-
S'-iyical u«
e 4tK>l!S.
C E R Y. Chap, XXXV,
fiance from the large blood-veffels, that they may be in noDinuniih.
danger of being injured. After the end of the diieafed‘'!iH
bone is fofficiently laid bare, it is either to be brought
out of the joint, or a fpatula or fome other proper
fubflance is to be introduced between the bone and loft
parts, fo as to defend the latter in time of Jawing the bone.
After the difeafed part of the bone is removed, the arteri .1
branches are to be iecured, and the wound treated like any
other wound of equal fixe.
During the cure the limb ought to be kept in the poilme
mofl favourable for the removal of the oor*e, and afterwards
for the prefervation of the natural motion of the joint.
In this way a hmb may fometimes be faved which would
otherwife have been removed. But though the removal
of the difeafed end of one bone may be readily tffe&ed, the
removal of all that part of the bones which cute's into tne
CQmpofition of a joint muff be at.ended with fo much in¬
convenience, that it can feldom be ufeful, unlefs it be where
the ends o'- bones are deftroyed by external violence; for
then it appears that this opeiation may be performed with
confiderable luccefs. .
Chap. XXXV. Of Diminifhing Pain in Surgical
Operations.
The pain induced by furgical operations may be leffened
in two different ways. The firil is, by diminifhing the na¬
tural feniibihty of the fyllcm ; and for tins purpoie narcotics
of different kinds, and particularly opium, have, ! een uled ;
but thefe are apt to induce difagreeable fymptoms, efpecial-
ly fickncls and vomiting, which might be attended with bad
confequences after fome operations. 1 hey arc theiefore
ftldom employed before an ooevatuon. When, however,
they are given immediately after it, and repeated as circuni-
ftances may requite, they often give great relie'.
The other method ot diminifhing pain is, by lifTenmg the
fenfibility of a particular part of the body, it has long
been known, that the feniibility of any part may not only
be leffened, but entirely fufpended, by compreffing the
nerves which fupply it. From a knowledge or this cncuni-
ftance, an inftrument (fig. l23-) was invented fome years
ago by Mr James Moore of London, by which the princi¬
pal nerves of a member might oe fo compreffed as to render
the parts below perfectly infenfible. A difficulty, however,
ariies here ; for as the nerves muff be compreffed at haft
an hour previous to the operation, in order to render the
parts quite infenfible, and as it is extremely difficult to com-
prefs the nerves without at the fame time affefting the
veins, the latter are therefore in danger of being burft. To
prevent this inconvenience, Mr Mooie propoies to open a
vein ; but this might be attended with bad confequences in
weakly conftitutions. Befides, it is faicfot hat by con.preffng
the nerves in this m-anner, although lefs pain may be felt id
the time of the operation, it is proportionally greater after
the compreffion is removed. In certain parts 01 the body,
however, where fufficient compreflion can be made upon
the nerves without aiding much upon the veins, it wrould
appear that the method may 1 e praftiled with advantage ;
though it has not yet been done, excepting in a tew in*
flances.
, Chap. XXXVI. Of Bandages.
The proper application of bandages is an objeid of great
importance in furgery : and though dexterity is only to be
acauired in this branch by praiftice, yet a few genera
rules may be found ufeful. Bandages are employed for
the retention of dneffings, for flopping hemonhagies, foi fo;
^ moving
41?
Bandages
for the
head.
Chap. XXXVI. S U R
f^u'diige- movin'! deformitJc#. and for efTcding the union of divided
U'“’v“w parts. They ought to be fortr.t'd of fitch materials as arc
fufficientty firm, while, at the fame time, they give no un-
^ eafind’s to the parts to which they are applied. They may
be compofed either of linen, cotton, or flannel. Of late
years the two laft have been preferred by many for their
warmth and elaflicity, on which account they are certainly
mofl proper, efpecially in winter; and likewile in cafes
where the parts are liable to fvvelling and inflammation, as
in wounds, luxations, and fraftures. Befides, they more
readily abforb any moifturc which may be difeharged from
the fores.
When firft applied* they fhould be clean, fufficiently
flrong, and as free of feams as pofiible. They fliould be fo
tightly applied as to anfwer the purpofe for which they are
intended, without being in danger of impeding the circula¬
tion. Ihey fhould be applied in fuch a manner that they
may be eaiily loofened, and the parts examined with as
much accuracy as pofllble ; and they fhould be laid afide
as foon as the purpofe for which they are intended is ac-
complifhed ; for when longer continued, they frequently
impede the growth of the parts upon which they are ap¬
plied. r
With refpeft to bandages for particular parts, we fhall
begin with the head, and then proceed to the trunk and
extremities. . The couvre chef of the French, which is a
fquare napkin folded cornerwife, is moft frequently nfed
where a bandage is wanted for the head; but a nightcap,
having a band to go round the head, and another to tie un-
er l^e chin, appears to be more fuitable for this purpofe.
For making compreffion on any particular part of the head,
as for flopping of bleeding veffels, the radiated bandage may
be employed. 1
I'or keeping the edges of wounds together, as in cafes of
longitudinal cuts of the head, or of any other parts, the uni¬
ting bandage is ufually employed, and is. always to be pre¬
ferred to futures, where it retains the edges of the wound
with fufficient exaftnefs. For retaining dreffings upon the
eyes, feveral turns of a roller have been ufed, and it is term¬
ed monoculus Or binoculus according to its being applied to
one or both eyes ; but the eouvre chef and the nightcap al¬
ready mentioned, are lefs apt to Hip, and therefore found
more convenient for this purpofe.
l or fractures of the nofe, or wounds there, or on any
other part of the face, the uniting bandage anfwers beft.
And in cafes of fraaure'of the lower jaw, a four-headed
roller is moft convenient: the hole in the centre of the rol¬
ler receives the chin, and aftifls in preventing the bandage
from fhiftmg. The two upper heads are to be carried
backwards; and being made to pafs each other at the occi¬
put, they are afterwards brought once or twice round the
ita . I he two under heads of the roller being reflefted
over the chin, are then to be turned upwards and fixed on
the upper part of the head.
The bandages neceffary for the neck are, the machine al¬
ready mentioned after the operation of bronchotomy, and
one ufed in cafes of wry neck. For every other puroofe
of band-aging a common roller may anfwer perfe&ly well.
for fractures of the fcapula the application of a long rol¬
ler may be of fervice. b
For retaining dreffings upon the thorax the napkin and
capulary are commonly, and very properly ufed ; and when
die napkin is employed merely for retaining dreffings, it
need not be longer than to pafs once round.the body ; but if
for making preffiure over a fraftured rib, it ought
breadth "0 />r 1 tree times round. For both purpofes its
1 ought to be fix or feven inches for an adult.
16aU0 UlW&r raakinS Pref‘
410
For the
face.
41T
For the
mtk.
For the
brt aft.
G E R Y. • ,8f
fare on the abdomen, as in cafes of umbilical or ventral her* Method .of
nia ; and to keep the bandage properly placed, a fcdDulary
is ufed for preventing it from flipping down, and one or two dt34
{traps connected with it behind, are brought between the
thighs, and fixed to it before to prevent it from moving no. For rh,
A bandage of flannel, and different kinds of belts, are^con-bei!y-
trived for compreffing the abdomen in the operation of tap¬
ping ; and truffes of various conftru&ions are ufed for the re¬
tention of the protruded bowels in cafes of hernia.
Bandages of cotton or flannel are ufed for fupporting the Forthe
ferotum in the various difeafes which may occur there, as ferotum
well as after the operations performed upon it. and l)eni3*
One ol the bell bandages for the penis is a linen or cotton
bag, fixed by a roller round the body.
Tor retaining dreffings about the anus, or between thatFor^the
part and the lerotum, the I bandage is commonly ufed;anus-
and it is made either with one or two tails, according to the
fituation of the part to which it is to be applied. °
In Ample fraifures, and moll of the other dileafes of theF,,r Ira-c-
arm, fore-arm, and hand, the roller is the bandage common-*urt3’
ly ufed ; but in compound fractures of thefe parti, as well as
in the different kinds of fraftures of the lower extremities,
the i 2 or 18 tailed bandage is neceffary.
For longitudinal wounds of the extremities, the uniting For wounds
bandage is ufed with the fame advantage as has been alrea-0^tbe e*-
dy mentioned for wounds of a fimilar nature upon thetremitlCJi
head. r
Chap. XXXVII. The Method of opening a dead Body,
Surgeons are often called, in order ta invefh’gate the
caule and feat ol- diieaies and death, either by the relations
of the deceaftd, or the magiftrates to whom a report is to be
made ; therefore, at the time of performing this ooeratiori,
minutes flrould be taken of what is obierved. The inftru-
ments, and all things neceffary, fhould be difpofed in order,
as or any other operation ; as knives, a razor, a great and
Imall faw, feiffars ftraight and curved, elevators, needles
threaded, fponges, tow, faw-duft or bran, bafons with w'a-
ter, towels, and receivers for the vifeera when they are to
be taken out of their cavities The body is to be laid upon
a fuitable table, advantageoufly placed for the light, having
a cloth thrown over the parts which decency demands fhould
be concealed, efpecially in females.
When it is intended only to mfpe%the abdomen and its
contents, a longitudinal ir.cilion from the xiphoid cartilage
to the tis pubis, interfe&ed by a tranfveife one at the navel
will give a fair opportunity of anfwering thefe puroofes!
when the angles are reverfed. Should it he required to exa!
mine all the three cavities, and the parts contained in them
we are to begin by opening the bead, making an inPifion Me-hod of
qiue crofs to the bone, from ear to ear; which fedlion is opening
pielerable to the crucial, commonly made on this occafion •the cra*
then the fcalp may be eaiily diffeaed from the flcull, and turn-aiuin’
.V d”WU 0,v’tijr r*ce’ a'ld Awards the neck, giving room for
c faw. I ne head muff be held very fteadily by an affiftant
during the fawing, which fliould be begun on the middle of the
rental, proceeding to each temporal bone, and fo to finiih
the circle upon the middle of the occipital bone ; which may
general.y je done conveniently enough, by raifing the head
and inclining it forward after having proceeded as far as
this bone ; or the body may then be turned prone, fhoald
that pofture be found more convenient to complete the circle.
1 re cap of the flcull is then to be raifed with the elevator
occaconally cutting the adhefions of the dura mater ; after
his the encephalon is to be removed, carefully fcparatinp-
-In. «ther attachments of the membrane.
In order to bring the thorax and abdomen, with the parts
* ^ A contained
i86
S U R G
Method of contained in thefe cavitiw, under one view, an inciOon is to
openmi; a made on each fic’e of the fternum, in the cour e of the car-
dead Body. tQage3 0f ribs which are annexed to it ; differing from
thence the mufcles with the teguments, the fpace of two or
Of opening three inches towards the fpine ; then cutting t roug ^ e
the thorax cartilages, which will be leen, and eafily divided with a
and abdo* a’};ttle curved near the point; then the incihons are to
melU be continued from the fternum through the abdominal cavi¬
ty, in an oblique direftion, to each ilium or inguen after
v'hich the clavicles are to be feparated from the fternum,
or this bone divided at its fuperior cartilaginous jun&ion,
with a ftrong knife, differing it from the mediaftinum, and
turning it downwards with the mufcles, &c. of the abdo¬
men. This is the moft eligible manner of opening theie
cavities, and gives an opportunity of iewing them up with
a better appearance for any perfon’s view afterwards. That
kind of flitch called by fempftreffes the herring-bone or
Jlat feam has a very pretty and neat efteft upon thefe oc-
If it is propofed to take out the thoracic and abdominal
vifeera together, for further examination, the diaphragm is
firft to be cut down to the fpine on both fides ; then, to
avoid being incommoded with blood, &c. two very ftrong
ligatures are to be paired round the cefophagus and large
bfood-vefiels, in which the trachea may be included ; tying
them ftrait, and then dividing thefe parts between the liga¬
tures : the fame meafures are to be taken in refpetl to the
inferior veffels upon the lumbar region, a little above the bi¬
furcation of the aorta, including the vena cava •, and alfo
upon the re&um. After having obferved thefe precautions,
the vifeera, with the diaphragm, are to be removed by a
wary difieftion, all the way clofe to the fpine ; and by
gently drawing them at the fame time, the feparation will
be greatly facilitated.
When the thoracic and abdominal vifeera are to be taken
out feparately, in the firft cafe ligatures muft be made, as
have been deferibed upon the veflels, &c. juft above the
diaphragm, and in the other juft below it, and upon the
reftutn.
men the Should we be called upon to perform this office when the
Wy is be- body is become very putrid, it will be ablolutely neceffary
c™,e Pu'. to have fuch parts of it well wafhed with warm vinegar and
1*40 be ms-brandy, and then fprinkled with lavender-water or fome
iiaged, fuch odoriferous antiputrefeent liquor, before the examina¬
tion, in cider to correft the ftench, and defend us ayainft the
noxious quality of the effluvia ;-a precaution, the neglect of
which may be attended with very direful effects.
E R Y, Chap, XXXVII!
them up ; and then the cavities are to be ftitehed very clofeEmbalmiBj
with the glover’s or fpiral future. Large and deep inciiions dea!|
a-e alfo to be made in all the moft fiefhy parts, cleaning and
waffling them with the tinaure in the fame manner, filling ^
them with the antifeptic fpices, and Hitching them up.
Then the head, trunk, and limbs, are to be perfedly well
covered with cerecloth ; putting a piece under the chin, to
be fecured by fewing on the top of the head, after having
well adjufted the cap of the fkull, fewed the fcalp together,
and cleaned the mouth, as has been directed for the other
parts, and putting in fome ot the fpices. T he cerecloth 13
to be prepared, according to art, with a compofition made
of wax, rolin, ftorax, and painter’s drying oil. After the
apolication of the cerecloth, with great care and exattneis,
cut into fuitable pieces according to the refpeaive parts,
and clofing them well everywhere, the face being dole Iha-
ved, is to be covered with fome of the above compoiition
melted, and laid on with a bruffl of a proper degree of heat,
and of a moderate thicknefs ; which may have a faint neffl-
colour given it with vermilion; and when it is grown cold and
{lift upon this part, it may be lightly covered with hard
varniffl ; or this varnifh, applied thick, may here ferve the
purpofe alone. A cap is to be well adapted to the head, fall-
ina down upon the neck, and to be fewed under the chin,
making a few circular turns about the neck with a roller of
a proper breadth. All the reft of the corpfe is to be inclofed
in a ffleet, to be artfully cut, and fewed on very clofe and
fmooth, with the fineft tape, and the/^/ww mentioned m
the preceding chapter ; over which an appropriate drels is t»
be put, as the relations or friends think fit to direct and ap¬
point, and then laid into the coffin, which fflould be in rea-
dinefs : but when it is fome great perfonage, who is to lie m
ilate for public view before the funeral rites are folemmzed,
the drefs muft be appropriated to his dignity and character.
'The brain and other vifeera are to be put with fome of the
fpices into a leaden box. Sometimes the heart,_ prepared
as has been dire&ed, to preferve it from putrefaction, is de-
polited in an urn by itfelf.
. 430
Explanation of Platfs.
Chap. XXXVIII. Of Embalming dead Bodies.
In the early ages of the world, the praftice of embalm¬
ing dead bodies was very common, particularly among the
Egyptians; but it has long, been ddufed in almoft all coun¬
tries, except for great perfonages. See Embalming. I he
following directions are taken from Mr Gooch, to whom
they were communicated by a perfon of great character, and
well acquainted with the modern pra&ice of embalming in
this kingdom. _ _ . .
After evifeeration, as has-been directed in opening a dead
body, and continuing the incilion farther upwards, even into
the mouth, and, if practicable, without cutting the fldn of
the neck, all the cavities are to be well cleanfed, and the
humidity fucked up with fponges^ then waffled with tinff.
myrrhs^ and filled with a fpecies compounded oi fragrant
herbs, aromatic drugs, and gums reduced to. powder not
very fine, firft reftoring the heart to its former reiidence, af¬
ter having opened its ventricles, cleanfed and wafted them
with the tinCture, fluffed their, with the fpices, and fewed
Plate CCCCLXXXVIL Pig- i- A lancet and cannla
for difeharging the contents of an abfeefs by means of a ie-
ton. See n° 50. . r u
Fig. 2. A direftor for difehargmg the contents oi an ab¬
feefs. See n° 50.
Fig. 3. An abfeefs lancet.
Fig. 4. A forceps for extrafting polypi. See n? 113-
Fig. 5. A flit probe for conducting a ligature to the root
of a polypus. See n° 114.
Fig. 6. A ring for affifting in fecuring a ligature upon
the root of a polypus. ’See n° 114..
Fig. 7. A double Canada for fixing a ligature upon the
root of a polypus. See n-* 114.
Fig. 8. The moft approved form of a lancet for the ope¬
ration of blood-letting. Seen0 131.
Fig- 9. A jugum cervicis recommended by feme practi¬
tioners in venefeCtion in the neck. See n° 137.
Fig. iq. A bandage for making compreffion after per¬
forming the operation of arteriotomy at the temples, oee
n9 14,5.
Fig. 11. A fcarificator with 16 lancets, ufed in the ope¬
ration of cupping. See n° 146.
Fig. 12. A cupping.glafs. See n° 147°
Fig. 13. A feton needle. See n° 153. ^ .
Fig. 14. The common crooked needle ufed in making *
tures. See n° 1 54.
ires* a* * t r 1 9 the
Fig. 15. d, Two pins of different forms ufed
See n5
See
s u R G
Sx^lsna- twifted or hare-lip future, The firft commonly made of fd
°Pj0f tfie ver> VVJt^ a movahfe fted point; the other of gold.
Fig. 16. The tourniquet now moft generally ufed
n° 160.
Fig. 17. The tenaculum ufed in fecuring the mouths of
bleeding veffels. Seen0 162.
Fig. 18. A common fcalpel. See n0 174.
Fig. 19. A large lancet ufed for opening cavities of diffe¬
rent kinds. See n° 174.
Fig. 20. A blunt-pointed biiloury. See n® 174.
Plate CCCCTXXXVIII. fig, 21. A rafoatory for re¬
moving the pericranium in the operation of the trepan. See
n 186. ■
E R Y, ,87
Fig, 44. A trocar for making an artificial parotid du&. Evplana-
See Chap. XVI. Se&. i tien of the
Fig, 45. Forceps fometimes ufed for laying hold of the f
lip in the operation for harelip. Seen0 231.
Fig. 46. A pair of ftrong fciffars ufed in the operation
for hare-lip. Seen0 231.
Fig. 47. Pins ufed in the operation for hare-lip. See n°
231.
Fig. 48. Gum-phleme. See n° 232.
Fig. 49* ^ trocar for perforating the antrum maxillarc.
See Chap. XVI. Se&. vi.
Fig. 50. An inftrument of a tubular form for perforating
the antrum maxillare. See as directed in Fig. 49.
Fig. 22. The trephine with all its parts conne&ed and
ready for ufe. a, The centre-pin, which can be raifed or
depreffed by the Aider i. c, The part where the law is
united to the handle by means of the fpring d. See n°
186.
Fig. 23. Handle of the trepan into which the head of
the trephine is to be inferted at a. See n° 186.
. Fig. 24. A perforator, which can be joined to the handle
either of the trephine or trepan. See n° 186.
Fig. 25. A brulh for cleaning the teeth of the faw.
See n° 186.
Fig. 26. Forceps for removing the piece of bone when
r.early cut through by the trephine or the trepan. See nQ
186.
, Fig. 26. a, A levator alfo employed in removing the
piece of bone. See na 186.
• Fig. 26. b. Lenticular for fmoothing the ragged edg-e of
the perforated bone. See n° 186. ' 6
Fig. i*]. A common probe. See n° 187.
Fig. 28. A dire&ory. See no 187.
Fig. 29. A fpeculum ufed for keeping the eyelids fepa-
rated, and the eye fixed, in performing various operations
upon that organ. See n° 205.
Fig. 30. A flat curved hook for elevating the upper eye-
ltd, and fixing the eye, in performing various minute opera¬
tions upon its furface. See n0 20 e. r
Fig. 31. A couching needle. See n° 216.
Fig. 32. A couching needle for the right eye, fitted for
the operator’s right hand. See n° 217.
Fig- 33. A knife for extraaing the catara&. See n°
218.
Fig. 34. A flat probe for fcratching the capfule in ex¬
tracting the cryllalline lens. See n° 218.
Fig. 35. A flat probe or fcoop for afiifting in removing-
the catarad. Seen0 218. 6
. Fig. 36. A knife for extrafting the catarad from the
nght gye. See n° 218.
Fig. 37. One of Anel’s probes for removing obllru&ions
of the lachrymal duds. See n° 224.
Fig. 38. A fyringe and pipe (by the fame) for inje&ing
e liquid into the lachrymal du&s. See ^224. h
Fig. 38. a, A crooked pipe which fits the fyringe See
224. °
Fig. 39. An inftrument for compreffing the lachrymal fac.’
oee n° 220.
Fig. 40. A trocar and canula for perforating the os un¬
guis in the operation for fiftula lachrymalis. See n° 229.
l<1g- 41* 42> 43- Liftruments employed by Mr Pellier in
he operation for fiftula lachrymalis. Fig. 41. A conduc-
uC “rr1 dua’ F‘g- 42' A ““ica! tube to
'he
Plate CCCCLXXXIX. Fig. 51. r° i, 2, 3, 4, 5.
I, A file for removing inequalities upon the teeth. 2, 3,
4, 5, Different forms of inftruments for removing tartar, See.
from the teeth. See n° 235.
Fig. 52. n° 1, 2, 3. 1, 2, Inftruments for ftuffing a
hollow tooth. 3, The handle which fits the different in¬
ftruments reprefented by fig. 51, 52. See n° 337.
Fig- S3- Inftrument termed a key for extracting teeth.
See n° 338.
Fig. 54. Forceps for extracting teeth. See n° 338.
Fig* 55' ^ punch or lever for extra&ing ftumps of teeth.
See n° 338.
Fig. 56. Mr Chefelden’s needle, with an eye near the
point, for tying a knot on feirrhous tonlils. See n%
242.
Fig. 57. A fpeculum oris firft propofed by Mr B. BelL
See n° 244.
Fig. 58. Mr Mudge’s inhaler for conveying fteams of
warm water, See. to the throat and breaft. See Chap. XVII.
SeCt. xi.
Fig- 59- & fcarificator for fcarifying the amygdale, and
for opening abfeeffes in the throat. See Chap. XVII.
SeCt. xi.
tig. 60. Forceps for extracting extraneous fubftances
fiom the outer paffage of the ear. See n° 246.
Fig. 61. A fyringe for wafhing the outer paffage of the
ear. See n° 247.
Figs. 62, 63. Inftruments ufed for concentrating found in
cafes of deafnefs. See n° 249.
Fig. 64. A tube by which the Euftachian tube may be
wafhed in certain cafes of deafnefs See n°
250.
Fig- 65. An inftrument for perforating the lobes of the
ear. See n5 251.
Fig. 66. An inftrument recommended by Mr B. Bell for
fupporting the head after the operation for wry-neck. See
nu 253.
Fig. 67. An inftrumertt invented by Dr Monro for fixing
the canula after the operation of bronchotomy. See n° 254.
Fig. 68. A glafs for drawing milk from the breafts of
women. See Chap. XX.
Fig. 69. A filver canula for carrying off pus colle&ed ia
the thorax. See n° 262. ^ e> r
Plate CCCCXC. Fig. 70. A bandage for the paracen-
tehs of the abdomen, originally invented by the late Dr
Monro. See n° 264,
Fig- 71 • The common round trocar, with a triangular
point for tapping for the afeites. See n* 264.
Fig..72, Mr Andre s lancet-pointed trocar, the canula of
Which is made of two hollow plates of fteel ferewed together
at the larger extremity. See nQ 264.
Fig- 73* A <3ffe6lor ufed in the operation for hernia. See
278,
Aa 2
Fig.
V
surgery.
Fir. 74.. A fprine trtif. for an inguinal or femoral hernia praaitiowr. in the operation for fiftul. .o ano
1.88
Explana- ^ ^
tionofthe of Qne fide> Seen0 277- , . , p ...
t 1 latef- , pjg. ^ A fprin^ trufs for an inguinal or femoral hernia
of both lides- See n° 2J 7- c
Fig. 76. A fpring trufs for an umbaical henna, bee
Fig. 77. Mr Andre’s trocar for evacuating the contents
of an encvfled hydrocele. See n' 299.
Fig 78. Mr B. Bell’s trocar for operating in hydrocele.
See n? 299.
Fig. 79. A fufpenfory bandage for the ferotum.
Ti0 299.
Fig. 80. A ftraight-edged fharp-pointed biitoury.
n°3o4.
Fig. 81. A bag of refina elaftica, with a ftop-cock and
Ihort pipe, which fits the canula of the trocars fig. 77, 78.
for the purpofe of injefting wine and other fluids into the
cavity of the tunica vaginalis in the cafe of hydrocele. See
n° 306.
Fig. 82. A found ufed in fearching for the ftone. See
321*
Fig 83. A grooved ftaff for the operation of lithotomy.
See n° 332.
See Exp’ano
timi of th«i
of the i’!utr9> ,
See
See
Fig. 84. A cutting gorget. See n° 332.
Fi
' 332
85. A double gorget invented by Dr Monro,
See,
Fig. 86. Extratting forceps. See n° 332.
Fig. 87. A fcoop. See nv 332.
Fig. 88. A grooved ilaff for. the operation of lithotomy
in females. See n° 3 34- ■
Fig. 89. A tube containing a pair of elaftic fox ceps for
extracting flones from the urethra. See nv 336.
Plate CCCCXCI. Fig. 90. A jugum penis ufed in
cafes of incontinence of urine in men. Sec n3 338.
Fig. 91. Peffaries for fupporting the uterus in cafes of
prolapfus uteri in females, a. A peflary of wood <|r ivory.
1), One of refina elaftica. .See n° 338.
Fig. 92. A receiver, which has been lately ufed with ad¬
vantage in cafes of incontinence of urine in the male. See
n°3 38. _
Fig. 93. A receiver, which has been lately ufed, in a few
cafes, with advantage in the female. See n° 338.
Fig. 94 A catheter for a male. See n° 340.
Fig. 95. A catheter for a female. See n° 340.
Fig. 96. A bougie. See n° 345.
Fig. 97. Mr Hunter’s cauftic conductor.
Fig. 98. A biftoury ufed in the operation for phymofis.
See 347.
Fig. 99. A biftoury ufed in amputating the penis. See
Chap. XXIX, Seft. iv.
Fig. 99. rt, A filver canuk for coadufting the urine af¬
ter amputation of the penis. See lb.
Fig. 100. A biftoury, with a probe of flexible filver join¬
ed to it, to be ufed in the operation for fiftula in ano. See
n° 3 sg. 1
Fig, xo 1. A biftoury, which has been lately ufed by fome
355*
Fig. 102. A wire of filver or lead, with a tube _
fame metal, for laying open a fiftula in ano. See nu 355.
Fig. .103. A bandage for_fupporting the end of the rec¬
tum fn cafes of prolaofus ani. See Chap. XXX. Seft. vii.
Fig. 104. Mr Park’s leather-cafe for fuppoiting the fore¬
arm after luxations of the joints or fractures of the bones of
the fuperior extremities. See n 39 2.
Fiu 105. <«, £, Splints of wood glued to leather, and af¬
terwards cut, as reprefented in the figures They are ufed
for fraftures of the bones of the extremities, particularly for
thofe of the fore arm or leg. See n° 397.
Fig. 106. Reprefents a fraftured limb drefted with an
eighteen-tailed bandage, and placed in the manner recom¬
mended by Mr Pott See n° 397* . , , ^ a •
Fig IC.7 Mr Gooche’s machine, improved by Dr Ait-
ken, for keeping a fradured thigh-bone properly extended.
The upper circular bandage goes rosmd the waift, the un¬
der one fixes immediately above the knee. See n 397*
Fig. ro8. A bandage for a fra&ured patella. See n° 398.
Fig. 109. A wooden fplint for a fradtured leg. See
n° 399.
Plate CCCCXCII. Fig. no. Mr James’s machine,
which is an improvement upon one invented iome years ago
by Mr White of Manchefter for retaining fraftured thighs
or bones of the leg in their natural fituation. See n° 402.
Fig. in. The common collar ufed in diftortions of the
fpine. See n° 404.
Fig. 11 2. Stays recommended by Mr Jones for diftor-
tions of the fpine. See 0^404.
Fig. j 13. An apparatus for a diftortion of the leg. Set
nQ 404.
Fig. 114. An apparatus for a diftorted leg, where the
foie is turned much out of iis natural dire&icm. See
^404. • , . v
Fig. 115. Shoes which have been ufed with advantage in
cafes of club-feet. See ii°4')4. ^
Fig. 116. An amputating knife. See 407.
Fig. 117. Retractor of cloth or leather, ufed in amputa¬
ting the larger extremities. See lb.
Fip . 118. Iron retractors recommended by Dr Monro m
amputation of the larger extremities.-. See lb.
Fig. 119. The amputating faw now moft generally ufed.
See lb. .
Fig. 120. Pincers for nipping off any points of bone
which may .remain after the faw has been ufed. See lb.
Fig. 121. A catline ufed in an amputation of the leg.
See n° 411. _ .
Fig. 122. A fpring faw employed in amputating the fin¬
gers. See n° 415.
Fig. 123. An inftrument invented by Mr Moore of Lon¬
don for compreffing the nerves, and thereby diminifhing
pain in performing various ooerations upon the extremities,
See Chap. XXXV.
Fig. 124. An apparatus invented by the late Dr Monro
for the cure of a rupture of the tendo Achillis. See n° 24-
I N B E
Plate CCCCI/XXXVTL
O.
20.
SPIUIEMY.
SURGERY.
PI ate C L XXXVIII.
, r4Se// M . //,/?,
/
S FH GEKX.
Plate CCCCXC.
-F-v/ .
Ylate CCCCXCI
p UBCtKKY
I N
D
E X
A.
jrfBDOMEN, wounds of, r°
I 16, How treated, 26.
Collection of water in, 263,
2^4. Of air in, 265. Of a
dead perfon, how to be open¬
ed, 429.
Abfcefs lumbar, ch, v. fed. iv.
/Uifcejfa in general, how to be
treated, n°47—50. In the
globe of the eye, chap xiii.
fed. iv.
Abfctjfus in me-dulla, n° 119.
Achilles, tendon of, wounds of
it, how cured, n° 24.
Amputation in general, ch. xxxiv.
feCt. i. Amputating the arm.
and fore-arm, feCf. ii. The
thigh, left.hi. The leg, fed. iv.
At the joints of the extremi¬
ties, fed. v. At the fhoulder
joint, n° 413. At the joints
of the fingers, 415.
Ariel's probe and fyringe, ac¬
count of, n°2 24, 225.
Aneurlfmsy ch. xh True or en-
cyfted, n° 165. Falfe or dif-
fufed, 166. Varicole, 167.
Caufes, diagnofis, prognofis,
&c. 168—171. Remarkable
one cured by Mr John Bell,
172. Operation for, how to
be performed, 174. How the
patient is to be treated after¬
wards., 180, dec.
Ani prolapfus, ch. xxx. feCt. iv.
Antrum Maxiilare, abfcefTes in,
ch. xvi. fed. vi.
Anus, difeafes of, ch. xxx. Con-
dylomatous excrefcences of,
fed. ii. Imperforated, fed.
v.
Arm, amputation of, ch. xxxiv.
fed. ii.
Arteries, wounds of, n° 1 1. Me¬
thod of tying them, 162, 163.
Tumors from, ch. xi.
Afteriotomy, ch. viii. fed. iii.
B.
Bumdager, ch. xxxvi. For the
head, n° 419. For the face,
420. For the neck, 421.
For the bteaft, &c. 421.
Bladder, (lone in, ch. xxvii.
Blood-letting, ch. viii. Confe-
quences vYhich fometimes at¬
tend it, 18. Opinions con¬
cerning the caufes of thefe
confequences, 19—22. How
to be obviated, 23.
JB-bi/s of the gums, n° 240.
Bones, difeafes of, ch. vii. Ca¬
rious in the joints, how the
ends are to be removed, ch.
xxxiv. fed. v.
Brain, aifedions of, from exter¬
nal violence, ch. xii. Com-
preffion of, fed. i. Concuf-
fions of, fed. ii. Inflamma¬
tion of, fed. iii.
Breajls of women, inflammation
of, ch. v. fed. i. Cancer of,
n° 76—78. SezThorax.
Brittlenefs of the bones, n° l 22.
Bronchocele, or tumor on the
fore part of the neck, ch vi.
fed. v.
Bronchotomy, or incifion made in
the wind-pipe, n° 254.
Buboes, venereal, ch. v fed iii.
Bubonocele, or rupture in the
groin, ch. xxiii. fed. ii.
Bums, confequences and cure of,
ch. iv. fed. v.
Burfa Mucofa, fwellings of, ch.
vi. fed. ii.
C.
Calculus. See Stone.
Concersr c\i. iv. fed. ii: Uf the
eye, ch. xiii. fed. vii.
Cancerous lip, how extirpated,
ch. xvi. fed. iii.
Capfular ligaments, Colledions
within, ch. vi. fed. iii.
Carious bones, how the ends of
are to be removed, ch. xxxiv.
fed. v.
Catarad of the eye, ch. xiii. fed.
viii.
Chilblains, nQ 8f>.
Circocele, n° 312.
Clavicle, fradures of, n° 387.
Luxation of, 369.
Concujfion of the brain, n° 189,
190.
Contufions andfprains, ch. v. fed.
vi.
Cornea, fpecks on, n° 204,
Corns, n* 107.
Cranium, fradure and deprefllon
of, ch. xii. fed. i. How to
open it, n° 428.
Cupping, n° 146. Dry, 45.
Cyjlic hernia, n° 291.
D.
Dead £ttt/y,howopened, c. xxx vii.
How embalmed, ch. xxxviii.
Deafnefs, caufes and cure of, ch.
xvii.
Diflocatian. See Luxation.
Dflortion, ch. xxxiii. Of the
f&ne, n° 404. Of the limbs,
405.
Dropjical favtilings of the joints,
n0 95—99* Of the eye, r;8
2©9.
Drtpfyi operation for, n° 264.
Dropfy of the lachrymal lac,
nQ 220.
E.
Ear, difeafes of, ch. xvii. Lobes
of, how perforated, n* 1
Elbow, luxation at, n° 374.
AwWmin§r,rnethodof,ch. xxxviii.
Emphyema, or pus celleded in
the thorax, n9 261.
Ey es, diieafesof, ch.xiii. Specks,
films, or excrefcences on, fed.
iii. Abfcefles in the globe of,
fed. iv. Dropfical fwellings
of, fed. v. Cancer of, fed. vii.
Catarad of, fed. viii.
Eyeball, protrufion of, fed. vi.
Wounds of, n° 199.
Eyelajh es, inverfion of, n° 201.
Eyelids, wounds of, nG 198. Dif¬
eafes of, ch. xiii. fed. ii.
Eujlachian tube, affedions of, n°
250.
Excrefcence on the white of the
eye, n° 206.
Exomphalos, n° 289.
Exojlqfis, or excrefcence from a
bone, n° 1 ry.
Extremities, fuperior, fradures of
the bonesof,ch. xxxii. fed. iv.
Inferior, fradures of the bones
of, fed. v.
F.
Fabricius ah Aqvapendmte, ferew
invented by, n° 226.
Fingers, fradure of, n° 396.
Amputation at the joints of,
.4I5\
Fijlula in perinso, ch. xxix. fed.
v. In ano, ch. xxx. fed. iii.
Lachrymalis, ch. xiv.
Ffares, or fimple fradures of
the fkull, ch. xii. fed. iv.
Foot, fradure of the bones o^,
n° 400. Amputation at the
joints of, 417.
Fore-arm, fradure of the bones
of, n° 393.
Fradures in general, ch. xxxii.
fed. i. Of the nofe, n3 385,
Of the lower jaw, 386. Of
the clavicles, 387. Of the
ribs, 388. Of the fternum,
389. Of the vertebrae, 390.
Of the fcrpula, 391. Of the
humerus, 392. Of the bones
ot the fore-arm, 393. Of the
olecranum,394. Of theboncs
of the wrifl, 395. Of the fin¬
gers, 396. Ot the thigh-bone,
397. Compound, ch. xxxii.
fed. vi.
Fungi in the brain after being
trepanned, n° 188.
G.
'Ganglions, ch. vi. fed. ii.
Gangrene, ch. iii. fed. ii. Dry,
nu ci. White, 32. Means
of preventing, 54, 55. In
cafes of hernia, 281.
Goitre, or fwelling on the neck,
ch. vi. fed~ v*'
Gummt, or foft tumor on the
furfaee of a bone, n0 117.
Gums, boils qnd excrefcences of,
ch. xvi. fed. v.
Gunpowder, burns occafioned by,
how cured, n’’ 81.
Gun-Jhot wounds, n° 30—36.
H.
Hematocele Scroti, or colledion
of blood in the ferotum, ch.
xxiv. fed. iv.
Hamorrhagies, n° 17.
Hemorrhoids, or piles, ch. xx»
fed. i.
Hare lip, ch. xvi. fed. ii.
Head, wounds of, n 27. Lux¬
ation of, 366.
Hernia, or rupture or the in-
teftincs, ch. xxiii. fed. i. In¬
guinal and fcrotal, fed. ii.
Congenita, fed iii. Femoral
and crural, fed. iv. Umbili¬
cal, n° 289. Ventral, 290,
Cyftic, 291. Vaginalis, 293-
Hip-joint, luxation of, n° 376.
Amputation at, 416.
Hijlory of Surgery, n° 2—6.
Hydrocele, or watery fwdling of
the ferotum, ch. xxiv. Ana-
farcous of the ferotum, fed.,
i. Of the tunica vaginalis
teftis, fed. ii. Of the fper-
matic cord, fed. iii. Ana-
farcous of the fpermatic cord,
n:> 3°7> 308. Encyfted of
tlie fpermatic cord, 309,
310.
Hydrops facculi lachrymalis. See
Fijlula lachrymalis.
Hymen, imperforated, ch. xxx^
fed. vi.
I.
faw, lower, luxation of, n0
365. Fradure of, 386.
Imperforated nojlrils, ch. xv. fed,
iii. Anus, ch. xxx. fed. v.
Hymen, fed. vi.
Indolent tumors, ch. vi. Steato-
niatousand farcomatous, fed.
i. Scrophuleus, fed. v.
Inflammation and its confequen-
ces, ch. iii. Of the breafts
cf women, ch. v. fed. i. Of
the tefticles, fed. ii. Of the
brain and its membranes, ch,
xii. fed. iii.
Intejlines, rupture of, ch. xxiii.
Injlruments, furgicah See d.x-
planation of the plates, p. 187,
Joints, wounds of, n° 28. Drop¬
fical fwellings in, n° 93—9 A
Concretions in, 99—101. Of
the extremities, amputation
at, ch. xxxiv. fed. v.
IJJjtti) ch. is...
KU
f go
ic.
Kukeys, (tones in, ch. xxvii. fed.
•ii.
Knee-pan, luxation of, n°379.
Fradureof, 398.
L.
Lachrymalfac, dropfy of, n022O.
Leeches, when to be ufed, n’
149.
Leg, fradure of, n° 399. Ampu¬
tation of, ch. xxxiv. fed. iv.
Ligature of arteries, ch. x. fed.
ii.
Limbs, diftortion of, n° 405.
Lingua: frcenum, divifion of, c'h.
xvi. fed. ix.
Lip, filfure of, or hare-lip, ch.
xvi. fed. ii. Cancerous, ex¬
tirpation of, fed. iii.
Lithotomy in men, u0 324. In
women, 3 34.
Lumbar abfcefs, ch. v. fed. iv.
Luxations in general, ch. xxxi.
fed. i. Of the bones of the
cranium, n° 363. Of the
bones of the nofe, 364. Of
the lower jaw, 365. Of the
head or neck, 366. Of the
vertebra, 3by* *;^ie 03
coccygis, 368. Of the cla¬
vicle, 369. Of the ribs, 370.
Of the head of the os hume-
ii, 37£—S73* At the el¬
bow, 374. At the wrift, 375.
Of the hip-joint, 376—379.
Of the patella, 379. Of the
tibia at the knee, 380. Of
the ankle joint, 381.
M.
Jtfarhs on the bodies of children
at birth, n° 106.
JVIatter, figns of, formed, n° 46.
Meatus a.uditorius externus im¬
perforated, nQ 245.
Medulla, abfceffus in, n° 119.
Mollifies OJJium, nQ 127.
Mortification, cafes of, how to
be treated, n° 56. In cafes
of hernia, how to be treated,
280.
Mouth and throat, affedions of,
ch. xvi. Ulcers in, fed. viii.
Mu files, wounds of, n° 10.
N.
Kivvi Materni, or marks on the
bodies of children at birth, n°
106.
Neck, wry, ch. xviii. Luxation
of, n0$66. Swellings in, 104,
105.
Nerves, wounds of, n9 12. How
cured, n°'23.
Nipples, fore, ch. xx.
Nodes, venereal, how removed,
na 118.
Nofe, affedions of, ch. xv. He-
morrhagies from, fed. i. Lu¬
xation of the bones ofj n° 364.
Fradure of, 385,
Noflrils, imperforated, ch. xv.
fed. iii.
O.
Oefophagotomy, or cutting open
the gullet, n° 255.
Olecranum, fradure of, n° 394.
Opening a dead body, ch. xxxvii.
Os Coccygis, luxation of, n° 368.
Os Humeri, head of, diflocated,
how fet, n° 371.
Ofiium Mollities, n° 127.
Ozsena, or ulceration in the nofe,
ch. xv. fed. ii.
P.
Pain, method of alleviating, in
furgical operations, ch. xxxv.
Palfy of the lower extremities,
n° 128.
Paracentefis of the thorax, ch.
xxi. Of the abdomen, ch.
xxii.
Paraphymojis, n° 348 and 349*
Paronychia, or whitloe, n°85.
Parotid duS, divifion of, ch.
xvi. fed. i.
Patella, or knee-pan, luxation of,
n° 379. Fradure of, n“
398. ^
Penis, difeafes of, ch. xxix. Am¬
putation of, fed. iv. Warts
on, n3 109.
Perinaeo, fittula in, ch. xxix.
fed. v.
Phlebotomy, ch. viii.
Phymofts, n° 346, 347.
Piles, ch. xxx. fed. i.
Pneumatocele, n° 315.
Poifoned wounds, n° 37, 38.
Polypi, or flefhy tumors, ch. vi.
fed. vii.
Prolapfus ani, ch. xxx. fed. iv.
Uteri, fed. vii.
200.
Pus, formed, figns of, n° 46.
R.
Ranula, or tumor under the
tongue, ch. xvi. fed. vii.
Rheumatic white fwelling, n°.
71*
Ribs, luxation of, nQ 3 70.
Fradures of, 388.
Rickets, n° 123 —126.
Rupture, or hernia, ch. xxiii.
S.
Sarcocele, or feirrhous tefticle,ch.
xxvi.
Sarcomatous tumors, n° 93.
Scapula, fradure of, n° 391.
Scrophulous tumors, ch. vi. fed.
v. White fwelling, n° 68.
Scrotal hernia, ch. xxiii. fed. ii.
Scrotum, anafarcous hydrocele of,
ch. xxiv. fed. i.
Set on, n° 153.
Shoulder, diflocation of, n° 371.
Shoulder-joint, amputation at, nQ
443*
E R Y,
Slall, ti-»aure» of, ch. xii. feft.
iv.
Spermatic cord, hydrocele of, ch.
xxiv. fed. hi.
Specks upon the eyes, ch. xiii.
fed. iii-
Spermatocele, n° 3I4*
Spina bifida, ch. vi. fed. iv.
Spina ventnfa, or caries of the
bones, n° 119.
Spine, luxation of, n° 367. Di¬
ftortion of, 404.
Sprains, ch. v. fed. vi.^
Steatomatous tumors, n° 92.
Sternum, fradure of, n° 389.
Stone in the bladder, ch xxvii.
fed. i. In the kidneys, fed.
ii. In the urethra, fed. iii.
Suppuration, how prevented, n
42. Methodbf promoting, 44.
Surgery, hiftory of. Among the
Greeks, n° 2. Among the
Romans, 3. Among the A-
rabians, 4. Writers on, in the
16th century, 5. In the 17th
century, 6.
Sutures, ch. x. Interrupted, uO
154. Quilled, 155. Twill¬
ed, 156- 159.
T.
Tapping for the dropfy, ch. xxii.
Teeth, affedions of, chap. xvi.
fed. iv. Derangement of,
how correded, n°233. Loofe,
how fattened, 234. How
cleaned, 235'. Extradionof,
238. Tranfplanting of, 239.
Tendons, when wounded, how to
be treated, n° 24.
Tejlicle, inflammation of, ch. v.
fed. ii. Scirrhous, ch. xxvi.
Thigh-bone, fradure of, n° 397.
Thorax, wounds of, n0 13 and
25. Paracentefis of, ch. xxi.
Blood colleded in, n° 259.
Air colleded in, 260. Pus
colleded in, 261. How
thefe are to be removed, 262.
Of a dead perfon how to be
opened, 429.
Throat, aftedions of, ch. xvi.
Scarifying and fomenting,
ch. xvi. fed. xi.
Tibia, luxation of, n° 380.
Toes, fradure of, n® 400. Am¬
putation of, 418.
Tonfils and uvula, enlargement
of, ch. xvi. fed. x.
Toothach, n° 236, 237. See
teeth.
Tophus, or foft tumor of the
bones, n° 116.
Topical blooding, ch.viii. fed. iv.
Tongue, tumor under, ch. xvi.
fed. vii.
Tourniquet, manner ofufmg, n°
160,161.
Pterygium, or excrefcences on the Thigh, amputation of, ch. xxxv.
white part of the eye, n° fed. iii.
Index,
Tumors, indolent, ch. vi. Stea¬
tomatous andfarcomatousjch,
vi. fed. i. Scrophulous, ch.
vi. fed. v.
Tunica vaginalis teftis, hydro,
cele of, ch. xxiv. fed. ii.
Tympanites, or air colleded in
the abdomen, n° 265.
U.
Ulcers in the mouth, ch, iv,
fed. i.
Umbilical hernia, ch. xvi. feft,
viii.
Urethra, (lone in, ch. xxvii.
fed. iii. Obftrudbions of,
ch. xxix. fed. i. Incomplete,
fed iii.
Urine, incontinence and fuppref.
fion of, ch. xxviii.
Uteri prolapfus, ch. xxx. feft.
vii.
Uvula, enlargement and extir¬
pation of, 243, 244.
V.
Varicofi aneurifms, n° 167.
Paricocele, n° 311 -
Venereal buboes, ch. v. fed. iii.
Nodes, n° 118.
Venefidion, ch. viii. fed. ii.
Ventral hernia, n° 290.
Vertebra, luxation of, n® 367*
Fradure of, 390.
W.
IVarts, n? jo8. On the penis,
109.
Wax, fuperabundance of, how
removed from the ear, n8
247. Deficiency of, how
fupplied, 248.
White Swellings, ch, iv. fed. ii.
Rheumatic, nJ 66, 67, 71.
Scrophulous, 68, 69, 72,
Caufes of, 70.
Whitloe, n3 85.
Women, operation for the ftoiif
in, n° 334.
Wounds, iimple, ch. ii. feft* >*
Mortal, 7. Of the Skin
and cellular fubftance, 9'
Of the mufclcs, 10. Of tke
arteries, ligaments, nerves,
and tendons, 11,12. Of the
thorax audits vifeera, 13’.^’
Of the abdomen and its vifee*
ra, 14. Treatment of, '5*
16, and 26. Hemorrhagic
from, 17. Of the head, 27*
Of the joints, 28. Contufei
and lacerated, 29. 9un"
fhot, ch. ii. fed. iii. Poif°n'
ed, proceeding from the bite
of animals, n3 37, 38. 0
the eyelids, 198. Of the
eyeball, 199.
Wrifl, luxation of the bones
at, n° 378. Fradure of_tW
bones at, 395- Ampdatlon,
SURINAM
Surinam
II
Surname,
S U R [ igr 1 8 V R
SURIMAM, the capital of the Dutch fettlements in period, and feem t« have been formed at firil by adding the Surname
Guiana, fituated on a river of the fame name, in N. Lat. 6. name of the father to that of the fon TMo M,aa tKe ' ■1 'u •>
116. W. Long. 56. o. It gives name to the country for
100 miles round; and hands on a river of the fame name,
which is navigable for 30 leagues up the country. A fet-
tlement was formed at Surinam in 1650 by the Dutch,
who preferred pc ffeffion of it ever fmce. The chief trade
•■ynal's
confilts in fugnr, cotton, coffee of an excellent kind, to¬
bacco, flax, fkins, and fome valuable drugs for dyeing.
, Four hundred and thirty plantations have been already
formed on the banks of the Surinam and the adjacent coun-
nts and try, which in [775 yielded 24,120,000 weight of rough
■ade of the fugar, which were fold in Holland for 347,225 1. Selling ;
. 15,000,387 lb. weight of coffee, which fold for 3 57,538 1.;
ejt "^"-pyojooo lb. weight of cotton ; 790,85 4 lb. weight ofcoc-
coa; 152,8441b. weight of wood for dyeing. The fum
total of thefe produftions amounted to 822,905 Sterling,
and was brought into the harbour? of the republic in 70
veffels. The number of (laves employed in the fame year
was 60,000, who belonged to 2824 mafters, exclufive of
the women and children. The white people were of differ¬
ent countries and different religions.
Connefted with Surinam, we may mention the colonies of
Demerary, Iffequibo, and Berbice, which lie a little to the
weft. The two firft furrendered to the Britifh troops in
1781; but being left defenceless, were retaken by a French
frigate. Demerary has lately been taken a fecond time by
the army of Great Britain. It is confidered as a valuable
acquifition, being a flourifhing colony. In 1769 there
were eftablifhed on the banks of the Demerary 130 habi¬
tations, in which fugar, coffee, and cotton were fuccefsfully
cultivated, and fmee that period the number of plantations
hath increafed much.
Iffequibo is a very inconfiderable fettlement. Berbice,
which lies between Demerary and Surinam, contains
about 104 plantations, moft of them fmall, and fcattered at
great diftances from one another upon the banks of the
Berbice or of Conje. When Raynal publifhed the laft
edition of his Hiftory of Settlements and Trade in the Eaft
and Weft Indies, the population confifted of ycoo Oaves of
every age and fex, 250 white men, exclufive of the foldiers.
Fhe coffee, fugar, and cotton produced was conveyed to
Holland in four or five (hips, and fold for about 40 or
50,000 I.
SURMOUNTED, in heraldry, is when one figure is laid
over another.
SURMULLET. See Mu ulus.
SURNAME, that which is added to the proper name
for diftinguifhing perfons and families. It was originally
- diftinguifhed hom Jirname, which denotes the name of the
fire or progenitor: thus Macdonald, Robertfon are fir-
names exprefiing the. fon of Donald, the fon of Robert. The
word furname, again, fignified fome name fuperadded to
the proper name to diftinguifli the individual, as Artaxerxes
Longimanus, Harold Barefoot, Malcolm Canmore. From
this it is evident that every firname was a furname, though
the reverfe was not fo. In modern times they are con¬
founded ; and as there is now no occafion to preferve the
diftinftion, Dr Johnfon has rejeaed the word Jirname alto¬
gether. See Name.
Surnames were introduced among all nations at an early
name of the father to that of the fon. This was the prac¬
tice among the Hebrews, as appears from the feriptures.
Caleb is denominated the fon of Jephunneh, and Joihua the
fon of Nun .That the fame thing was cuftomary among the
Greeks, every one who has read the poems of Homer mull
remember. We have an inftance of it in the very firft line of
the Iliad : n^aiw, « Achilles the fon of Peleus.”
This is perhaps the general origin of furnames, for it has
been common among moft nations (a).
The Romans generally had three names. The firft called
pranomen anfwered to our Chriftian name, and was intended
to diftinguifh the individuals of the fame family ; the fecond
called nomen correfponded to the word clan in Scotland, and
was given to all thofe who were fprung from the fame
(lock; the third called cognomen exprefled the particular
branch of the tribe or clan from which an individual-
was fprung. Thus Publius Cornelius Scipio, Publius cor¬
refponded to our names John, Robert, William ; Corneiiut
was the name of the clan or tribe, as Campbell was former¬
ly the name of all the Duke of Argyle’s clients, and Dou¬
glas the name of the retainers of the Duke of Hamilton's
progenitors. Scipio being added, conveyed this informa¬
tion, that Publius, who was of the tribe of the Cornelii,
was of the family of the Scipios, one of the branches or
families into which that tribe was divided. Refpe&ing
the three names which were common among the Romans,
we may fay that the firft was a name and the other two
fumames.
Du Chefne obferves, that furnames were unknown in
France before the year 987, when the lords began to aflume
the names of their demefnes. Camden relates, that they
were firft taken up in England, a little before the conqueft,
under King Edward the Confeflbr : but he adds, they were
never fully eftabliftied among the common people till the
time ©f Edward II. ; till then they varied with the father’s ■
name ; if the father, e. gr. was called Richard, or Roger^
the fon was called Richardfon, or Hodgfon ; but from that
time they were fettled, fome fay, by aft of parliament. The
oldeft furnames are thofe we find in Domefday-Book, moft
of them taken from places, with the addition of de j as
Godefridus de Mannevilla, Walterus de Vernon, Robert de
Oyly, &c. Others from their fathers, with fiiius, as Guliel-
musf/ius Olberni; others from their offices, as Eudo Da*
pifer,' Gulielmus Camerarim, GilTebertus Cocus, &c. But
the inferior people are noted limply by their Chriftian
names, without any furnames at all.
They feem to have been introduced into Scotland in the
time of William the Conqueror by the Efiglifh who ac¬
companied Edgar Atheling when he fled into that king¬
dom. Thefe had their proper furnames, as Moitbray, Lo¬
vell, Lifle, ufing the particle de before them ; which makes
it probable that thefe furnames had been derived from the
lands which their anceftors or they themfelves had poiTeiled.
In Kenneth IPs. time in 800 the great men had indeed
begun to call their lands by their own names ; but the or¬
dinary diftinaions then ufed were only perfonal, and did
not defeend to fucceeding generations, fuch as thofe em¬
ployed by the Hebrews and Greeks : For example, John
the fon of William ; or the names of office, as Stewart ; or ac¬
cidental diftindiions from complexion or ftation, as Black,
White’ .
(a) This might be fupported by examples borrowed from many nations,
as Utzherbert, Fitzfimmons, the fon of Herbert, the fon of Simmons.
1 He Sf'ntoh   1 J 71 rr ^ ^ , , ,
The old Normans ufed Fit-z, which iignifies
The Iriffi ufed 0; as O'Neal, the fon of
Neal. The 1UU, Ui oimmons- me mm uied u ; as U'Neal, the ion of
1 of the father’s name! l^WinSn ^5 ^ Macdonald’the lou ot ^nald’ The Saxons added the word/™ to >
S U R
[ i92 1
S U R
''Surrender.
• Snrrrme White,’ Lon^, Short; or the name of their trade, as Taylor,
11 Weaver. ' „ r i • \xr ^
• It was long before any furnames were ufed m Wales, ex-
cent that of fon, as Evan ap Rice, Evan the fon of Rice ;
Evan ap Howel, Evan the fon of Howel: but many of
them have at length formed feparate furnames, as the Eng-
lilh and Scots, by leaving out the a in op, and joining the
p to the father’s name : thus Evan ap Rice becomes Evan
Price; Evan ap Howel, Evan Towel.—We are told, fur-
names were unknown in Sweden till the year 1514, and
that the common people of that country ufe none to this
day ; and that the fame is the cafe with the vulgar Infh,
Poles, and Bohemians.
When we come to inquire into the etymology of fur-
names, we m-uft allow that many of them were originally
fignificant of the qualities of mind, as Bold, Hardy Meek ;
fome of the qualities of body, as Strong, Low, Short; othei s
expneffive of the trade or profeflion followed by the perfons
to whom they were applied, as Baker, Smith, Wright ;
Butler, Page, Marfhal. But the greatefl number, at leaR
of the ancient furnames, were borrowed from the names of
places. Camden fays, that there is not a village in Nor¬
mandy but has given its name to fome family in England,
He mentions as examples, Percy, Devereux, Tankervil,
Mortimer, Warren, &c. They were introduced with Wil¬
liam the Conqueror. Several have been derived from places
in the Netherlands, as Gaunt, Tournay, Grandifon ; and
many from the names of towns and villages in England and
Scotland, as Wentworth, Markham, Murray, Aberdeen.
Many have been formed from the names of animals, as qua¬
drupeds, birds, hflies ; from vegetables, and parts of vege¬
tables, as trees, fhrubs, flowers, and fruits ; from minerals
of different kinds. Others are formed from fuch a variety
of accidents that it is impoffrble to particularize them.
SURPLICE, the habit of the officiating clergy in the
church of England. By Can. 58, every minifter faying
the public prayers, or miniflering the facrament or other
rites of the church, fhall wear a decent and comely furplice
with fleeves, to be provided at the charge of the parifli.
But by 1 Eliz. c. 2. and 13 and 14 Car. II. the garb pre-
feribed by aft of parliament, in the fecond year of_ king
Edward the Sixth, is enjoined : and this requires that in the
faying or fmging of matins and even fongs, baptizing and
burying, the minifter in parifh churches and chapels (hall
ufe a furplice. And in all cathedral churches and colleges,
the archdeacon, dean, provofts, matters, prebendaries, and
fellows, being graduates, may ufe in the choir, befides their
furplices, fuch hoods as pertain to . their feveral degrees.
But in all other places every minifter (hall be at liberty to ufe
a furplice or not. And hence in marrying, churching of
women, and other offices not fpecified in this rubric, and
even in the adminiftration of the holy communion, it feems
that a furplice is not neceffary. Indeed tor the holy com¬
munion the rubric appoints a white ALB plain, which
differs from the furplice in being clofe-tteeved, with a veft-
ment or cope.
SURREBUTTER, in law, is fecond rebutter ; or the
replication of the plaintiff to the defendant’s rebutter. ,
SURREJOINDER, is a fecond defence of the plain¬
tiff’s declaration, by way of anfwer tq the defendant’s re¬
joinder.
SURRENDER, in common law, a deed or inftrument,
teftifying that the particular tenant of lands and tenements,
for life or years, doth fufficiently confent and agree, that
he who has the next or immediate remainder or reverfion
thereof, {hall have the prefent eftate of the fame in poffef-
flon ; and that he hereby yields and gives up the fame to
ifcim, fo that the eftate for life or years may merge or drown
by mutual agreement of the parties. Of furrenders there Snimif
are three kinds; a furrender properly taken at common law ;
a furrender of copyhold or cuttomary eftates \ and a fur-
render improperly taken, as of a deed, a patent, &c. 1 he m
firft is the ufual furrender, and it is ufualiy divided into that
in deed, and that in law.
Surrender, in deed, is that which is really made by
exprefs words in writing, where the words of the leffee to
the leffor prove a fufficient affent to furrender his eftate back
again.
Surrender, in law, is that wrought by operation of
the law, and which is not adlual.—As if a man have a
leafe of a farm for life or years, and during the term he
accepts a new leafe ; this a& is, in law, a furrender of the
former.
Surrender of a bankrupt. See Commission of Bank¬
ruptcy.
SuKFtNDF.R of Copyholds is the yielding up of the eftate
by the tenant into the hands of the lord, for fuch purpofes
as are exprefled in the furrender: as to the ufe and behoof
of A and his heirs, to the ufe of his own will, and the like.
This method of conveyance is fo effential to the nature of a
copyhold eftate, that it cannot poffibly be transferred by ^
any other affurance. No feoffment, tine, or recovery (m Coma
the king’s courts) hath any operation upon it. If Ival.ii,
would exchange a copyhold with another, I cannot do it
by an ordinary deed of exchange at the common law, but we
muft furrender to each other’s ufe, and the lord will admit
us accordingly. If I would devife a copyhold, I muft fur-.,
render it to the ufe of my laft will and teftament; and in
my will I muft declare my intentions, and name a deviiee,
who will then be entitled to admiffion.
Surrender of Letters Patent and Offices. A furrender may
be made of letters patent to the king, fo that he may grant
the eftate to whom he pleafes, &c. and a fecond patent
for years to the fame perfon for the fame thing is a fur-
render in law of the firft patent. 10 Rep. 66. If an
officer for life accepts of another grant of the fame office, it
is in law a furrender of the firft grant ; but if (uch an officer
takes another grant of the lame office to himfelf and ano¬
ther, it may be otherwife.
SURREPTITIOUS. See Subreptitious. .
SURROGATE, in law, denotes a perfon that is fubfti-
tuted or appointed in the room of another.
SURRY, a county of England, bounded on the weft by
Berkfhire and Hampfhire, on the fouth by Suffex, on the
eaft by Kent, on the north by Middlefex, from which it is
parted by the Thames, whence it had the name of Suth-rey
from the Saxons, i. e. the country on the fouth fide of the
river. It is 38 miles in length from eaft to weft, 23 infW
breadth from’ north to fouth, and 112 in circumference. _ R ^
contains 13 hundreds, 140 parifhes, of which .35 'mar- J
ages, 13 market-towns, 4.50 villages, 592,000 acres, and
about 170,000 inhabitants. The members lent from it to
parliament are I4> which two are fent by each of the fol¬
lowing boroughs, 'viz. bouthv^uk, Bleechingley, Ryegate,
Guildford, Gatton, Haflemere, and two for the county.
The air of this county* towards the middle, which con lifts t
moftly of hills and heath, is fharp, but pure and whole-
fome. AJiout the fidrts, where it is more level, and the
foil richer, the air is milder, but alfo falubrious. In the
middle parts the foil is barren enough in general ; but to¬
wards the extremities, and where the country is open anc
champaign, it is fruitful in grafs and corn, particulaily on
the fouth fide in Holmfdale,'in which meadows, woods,
and corn-fields, are agreeably intermixed. 'I he foil is alio
very fertile along the Thames, efpecially towards London,
where it greatly ^contributes to maintain plenty in the Lon-
z
gurfolid
Survivor-
fhip-
S U R [
don markets. It has feveral rivers, abounding with fifli,
the chief of which are the Wye, the Mole, and the Wandle.
SURSOLID, or Surdesolid, in arithmetic, the fifth
power of a number, or the fourth multiplication of any
number, confidered as a root.
SURVEYING, the art of meafuring land ; that is, of
taking the dimenfions of any traft of ground, laying down
the fame in a map or draught, and finding the content or
area therof. See Geometry.
SURVEYOR, a petfon who has the overfight and care
of confiderable works, lands, or the like.
Surveyor, likewife denotes a gauger ; as alfo a perfon
who fm veys lands, and makes maps of them.
SURVIVOR, in law, fignifies the longeft liver of joint
tenants, or of any two perfons jointly interefted in a thing.
SURVIVORSHIP, is that branch of mathematics which
treats of reverfions payable provided one or more particular
perfons furvive certain others. By reverfions are meant pay¬
ments not to take place till fome future period. Survivor,
fhip forms one of the molt difficult and complicated parts of
the dodfrine of reverfions and life-annuities. It has been
very fully treated of by Mr Thomas Simpfon in his Select
Exercifes ; and brought to a ftate of very great perfection
by Dr Price and Mr Morgan, who have bellowed a great
deal of attention on this fubjeft.
The calculations are founded on the expectation of lives
?.t different ages, deduced from tables formed from bills of
mortality, of which fee feveral examples under the article
Bills of Mortality. By the expectation of lile is meant
the mean time that any tingle or joint lives at a given age is
found to continue ; that is, the number of years which, ta¬
king one with another, they actually enjoy, and may be con¬
fidered as hire or enjoying ; thofe who iurvive that period
enjoying as much more time in proportion to their number
as thofe who fall fhort of it enjoy lei's. Thus, fuppofing 46
perfons alive all 40 years of age, and that one will die every
year till they are all dead in 46 years, half 46 or 23 will be
the expectation of each of them. If M. de Moivre’s hypo-
thefis were true, that men always decreafe in an arithmeti¬
cal progreffion, the expectation of a finglelffe is always half
its complement(A), and the expectation oftwo joint lives one-
third of their common complement. Thus, fuppofing a man
40, his expectation would be 23, the half of 46, his com¬
plement; the expectation of two joint lives, each 40, would
be years 4 months, or the third part of 46.
The number expreffingthe expectation, multiplied by the
number of fingle or joint lives (of which it is the expecta¬
tion), added annually to a fociety, gives tfy? whole number
living together, to which fuch an annual addition would in
time grow. Thus, fince 19, or the third of 57, is the ex¬
pectation of two joint lives, whofe common age is 29, twen¬
ty marriages every year between perfons of this age would
in 37 years grow to 20 times 19, or 380 marriages, always
exiiting together. And fince the expectation of a fingle life is
always half its complement, in 57 years 20 fingle perfons add¬
ed annually to a town will increafe to 20 times 28.5, or 57c;
and when arrived, at this number, the deaths every year will
juft equa.l the acceffions, and no farther increafe be poffible.
It appears from hence, that the particular proportion that
becomes extinCt every year, out of the whole number com
ftantly exifting together of fingle or joint lives, mult, where¬
ver this number undergoes no variation, be exaCtly the
fame with the expectation of thofe lives, at the time when
their exiftence commenced. Thus, was it found that a 19th
part of all the marriages among any bodies of men, whofe
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
193 ] s u It
numbers do not vary, are diffolved every year by the deaths Su-yivor*
of either the hufband or wife, it would appear that 19 was,,
at the time they were contracted, the expectation of thefe
marriages. In like manner, was it found in a fociety, limit¬
ed to a fixed number of members, that a 28th part dies an¬
nually out of the whole number of members, it would ap¬
pear that 28 was their common expectation of life at the
time they entered. So likevvife, were it found in any town
or diftriCt, where the number of births and burials are equal,
that a 20th or 30th part ol the inhabitants die annually, it
would appear that 20 or 30 was the expectation of a child
juft born in that town or diftriCt. Thefe expectations,
therefore, for all fingle lives, are ealily found by a table of
obfervations, Ihowing the number that die annually at all
ages out of a given number alive at thofe ages ; and the
general rule for this purpofe is, to divide the fum of all the
living in the table, at the age whofe expectation is required,
and at all greater ages, by the fum of all that die annually at
that age and above it ; or, which is the fame, by the number
(in the Table) of the living at that age ; and half unity
fubtraCted from the quotient will be the required expecta¬
tion. Thus, in Dr Halley’s table, given in the article an¬
nuity, the fum of all the living at 20 and upwards is
20,724, which, divided by 598, the number living at the
age of 20, and half unity fubtraCted from the quotient, gives
34.15 for the expectation of 20.
In calculating the value or expectation of joint lives, Mr
de Moivre had recourfe to the hypothefis, that the proba¬
bilities of life decreafe in a geometrical progreffion ; belie¬
ving that the values of joint lives, obtained by rules derived
from it, would not deviate much from the truth. But in
this he was greatly miftaken ; they generally give refults
which are near a quarter of the true value too great in find¬
ing the prefent value of one life after it has furvived ano¬
ther in a fingle payment, and about yths too great when
the value is fought in annual payments during the joint
lives. They ought therelore to be calculated upon the hy-
pothdis (if they are calculated on hypothefis at all), that
the probabilities of life decreafe in arithmetical progreffion,
which is not very far from the truth. Even this hypothefis
never correlponds with the faCt in the firft and laft periods
of life, and in fome fituations not in any period of life.
Dr Price arid Mr Morgan therefore have given tables of the
value of lives, not founded on any hypothefis, but deduced
from bills of mortality themfelves. Some of thefe we {hall
give at the end of this article. Mr Morgan has likewife
given rules for calculating values of lives in this manner.
M. de Moivre has alfo fallen into miftakes in his rules for
calculating the value of reverfions depending on furvivor-
fhip : thefe have been pointed out by Dr Price in the third
effay in the firft volume of his Treatife on Reverfionary
Payments ; who has alfo given proper rules for calculating
thefe values, the molt important of which are comprehend¬
ed in the following paragraphs. r
Suppole a fet of married men to enter into a fociety in Method of
order to provide annuites for their widows, and that it is finding the
limited to a certain number of members, and conftantly keptuum^er
up to that number by the.admiffion of new members as theth^twoT*
old ones are loft ; it is of importance, in the firft place, to come on a
know the number of annuitants that after fome time willf°ciety-
come upon the eftabliftiment. Now fince every marriaue
produces either a widow or widower; and fince all marri¬
ages taken together would produce as many widows as wi¬
dowers, were every man and his wife of the fame age, and
the chance equal which lhall die firft; it is evident, that the
B b „ number
life.
^ complement of a life is meant what it wants of 86, which M. de Moivre makes the boundary of human
inus u a man be 30, the complement of his life is 36.
S U R
C 194 1
S U R
Survivor-
ftiip.
When the
number of
annuirants
airive at
its maxi-
mum.
number of widows that have ever exifted m the world,
would in this cafe be eaual to half the number of mam-
And what would take place m the world muft alfo,
on the fame fuppolitions, take place in this^ fociety.^ In
other words, every other perfon in fuch a h)cietyr leavingr a
widow, there muft arife from it a number of widows equal
to half its own number. But this does not determine
what number, all living at one and the fame time, the fo-
ciety may cxpetft will come to be conftantly upon it. Iu is,
therefore, neceffary to determine how long the duration of
furvivovfhio between perfons ol equal a.ges will be compared
with the duration of marriage. And the truth is, that,
fuppofing the probabilities of life to decreafe uniformly, the
former is equal to the latter ; and corfequently that the
number of furvivors, or (which is the lame, fuppohng no
lecond marriages) of widows and widowers alive together,
which will arife from any given fet of fuch marriages con¬
ftantly kept up, will be equal to the whale number of
marriages; or half of them (the number of widows in par¬
ticular) equal to half the number of marriages. Now it
appears that in meft towns the decreafe in the probabilities of
lifers in fadf nearly uniform. According to the B reflaw Table
of Obfervation (fee Annuity), almoll the fame numbers die
every year from 20 years of age to *77. After this, indeed,
fewer die, and the rate of decreafe in the probabilities of life
is retarded. But this deviation from the hypothelis is in-
confiderable ; and its effeft, in the prefent cafe, is to render
the duration of furvivorfhip longer than it would otherwife
he. According to the London Table of Obfervations, the
numbers dyiniT every year begin to grow leis at go years
of age ; and from hence to extreme old age there is a con-
ftant retardation in the decreafe of the probabilities of life.
Upon the whole, therefore, it appears that, according to the
Breflaw Table, and fuppofing no widows to marry, the
number inquired after is forncwhat greater than half the
number of the fociety ; but, according to the London Ta¬
ble, a good deal greater,. This, however, has been deter-
termined on the fuppolition that the hufbands and wives
are of equal a^es, and that then there is an equal chatice
who fhall die firft. But in reality hufbands are generally
older than wives, and males have been found to die fooner
than females, as appears inconteftably from feveral of the
tables in Dr Price’s Treatife on Reverftons. It is there¬
fore more than an equal chance that the htifband will die
before his wife. This will increafe confiderably the dura¬
tion of furvivorfhip on the part of the women, and confe-
quently the number which we have been inquiring after. 1 he
marriage of widows will diminifh this number, but not fo
much as the other caufes will increafe it
If the fociety comprehends in it from the firft all the
married people of all ages in any town, or among any clafs
of people where the numbers always continue the fame, the
whole colleftive body of members will be at their greateft
age at the time of the eftabliftiment of the fociety ; and the
number of widows left every year will at a medium be al¬
ways the lame. The number of widows will increafe con¬
tinually on the fociety, till as many die off every year as are
added. This will not be till the whole colleftive body of
widows are at their greateft age, or till there are among
them the greateit pofiible number of the oideft widows ; and
therefore not till there has been time for an acceffion to the
cldeft widows from the youngeil part.
Let us, for the fake of greater precifion, divide the whole
medium of widows that come on every year into different
claffes according to their different ages, and fuppofe fome
to be left at 56 years of age, fome at 46, fome at 36, and
fome at 26. The widow's, conftantly in life together, de¬
rived from the firft clafs, will come to their greateft age,
and to a maximum, in 30 years, fuppofing, with M. de Survive,
Moivre, 86 to be the utmoft extent of lile. The lame w ill ihT
happen to the lecond clais in 43 years, and to the third in
50 years. But the whole body compofed of thefe claffes
will not come to a maximum till the fame happens to the
fourth or youngeft clafs ; that is, not till the end of 60
years. After this the affairs of the fociety wall become fta-
tionary, and the number of annuitants upon it of all ages
will keep always nearly the fame.
If a fociety begins with its complete number of members,
but at the fame time admits none above a particular age :
If, for inftance, it begins with 200 members all under 52,
and afterwards limits itfelt to this number, and keeps it up
by admitting every year, at all ages between 26 and 50, new
members as old ones drop off; in this cafe, the period neceffary
to bring on the maximum of annuitants will be juft doubled. ,
'To determine the fum that every individual ought to pay Whata
in a fingle prefent payment, in order to intitle his widow tornanT*
a certain annuity for her life, let us fuppole the annuity 31.
per annum, and the rate o! intereft four per cent. It is evi-mtutto
dent, that the value of fuch an expeftation is different, ac-entitlefc
cording to the different ages of the purchafers, and thew^°'v 11,1
proportion of the age of the wife to that of the hufbaui.
Let us then fuppofe that every perfon in fuch a fociety is
of the fame age with his wife, and that one with another all
the members when they enter may be reckoned 4a years
of age, as many entering above this age as below it.' It
has been demonftrated by M. de Moivre and Mr Simpfon,
that the value of an annuity on the joint continuance of
any two lives, fubtrafted from the value of an annuity oa
the life in expeeftation, gives the true prefent value of an¬
nuity on what may happen to remain of the latter of the
two lives after the other.
In the prefent cafe, the value of an annuity to be enjoyed
during the joint continuance of two lives, each 43, is, by
Table II. 9.826, according to the probabilities oflife in the
Table of Obfervat'ons formed by Dr Halley from the bills
of mortality of Breflaw in Silefia. The value of a fingle
life 40 years of age, as given by M. de Moivre, agreeably
to the fame table, is 13.20 ; and the former fubtrafted from
the latter, leaves 3.37, or the true number of years purchafe,
which ought to be paid for any given annuity, to be enjoy¬
ed by a perlon 43 years of age, provided he furvives another
perfon of the fame age, intereft being reckoned at four per
cent, per annum. The annuity, therefore, being 30 L the
prefent value of it is 33 multiplied by 3.37, or 101 1. 2 s. 4.
If, infteadof a fingle prefent payment, it is thought pre-WM^
ferable to make annual payments during the marriage
what thefe annual payments ought to be is eafily determi-j^a[pay.
ned by finding what annual payments during two joint lives menu-
of given ages are equivalent to the value of the reverfkmary
annuity in prefent money. Suppofe, as before, that the joint
lives are each 40, and the reverfionary annuity 301. per an-'
num. An annual payment during the continuance of two
fuch lives is worth (according to Table 11.) 9.82 years pur¬
chafe. The annual payment ought to be fuch as* being
multiplied by 9.82, will produce lot.i 1. the prefent value
of the annuity in one payment. Divide then xoi.i by
9.82, and 10.3 the quotient will be the annual payment.
This method of calculation fuppofes that the firft annual
payment is not to be made til! the end of a year. If it is
to be made immediately, the value of the joint lives will be
increafed one year’s purchafe; and therefore, in order to find
the annual payments required, the value of a prelent fingle
payment muft be divided by the value of the joint lives in¬
creafed by unity. If the fociety prefer paying part of the
value in a prefent fingle payment on admiffion, and the reft
in annual payments ; and if they fix thefe annual payments
3 at
J
s U R ' [195
Survivor- ^ a particular fum, the prefent fingle payment pa’d on ad- lives
. ''‘'t’- mifiion is found by fubtradling the value of the annual pay¬
ment during the joint lives from the whole prefent value of
the annuity in one payment. Suppofe, for inftance, the
annual payments to be fixed at five guineas, the annuity to be
30 I. the rate of intereft four per cent, and the joint lives each
40; the value of the annuity in one prefent lingle payment
is lot.t h The value of five guineas or $.15 per annum, is
(5.25 multiplied by 9.82 the value of the joint lives) 51.55;
which, fubtrailed from 101.1 1. gives 1. 49.5, the anfwer.
]
S U R
be each 30, the term feven years, the annuity 1. to,
intereft four per cent. The given lives, increafcd by feven
years, become each 37. The value of two joint lives, each
37> is (by Table II.) 10.25. value of a fingle lire at 37
is (by the table under the article Annuitj) 13.67. The
former fubtradled from the latter is 3-42, oi4 the value of att
annuity for the life of a perfon 37 years of age, after an¬
other of the fame age, as has been ftiown above. 3.42 dil-
counted for feven years (that is, multiplied by 0.76 the
value of 1 L due at the end of feven years) is 2.6. The
finp.
' . . ~ t>  -ryou, 11. uuc a\. Luc cnu or 1 even years; is ?.o. i ne
If a iociety takes in all the marriages among perfons of probability that a fingle life at 30 lhall continue feven years
a particular profeffion within a given diftri<ft, and fubje&s is ^ (b). The probability, therefore, that two fuch lives
them for perpetuity to a certain equal and common tax or frail continue feven years, is y4f£, or in decimals 0.765 ;
annual payments, in order to provide life annuities for all and 2.6 multiplied by 0.765 is x.989, the number of years
the widows tiiat frail refult from thefe marriages ; fince, purchafe which ought to be given for an annuity to be en-
at tbe commencement of fuch an eftablifrment, all the oldeft, joyed by a life now 30 years of age, after a life of the fame
as well as the^yoimgeft, marriages are to be intitled equally age, provided both continue feven years. The annuity then
to the propofed benefit, a much greater number of annui¬
tants will come immediately upon it than would come up¬
on any fimilar eftablifrment which limited itfelf in the ad-
miffion of members to perfons not exceeding a given age.
*1 his will check that accumulation of money which frould
take place at firft, in order to produce an income equal to
the difourfements at the time when the number of annui¬
tants comes to a maximum ; and therefore will be a parti¬
being 10I. its prelent value is 1.19.89.
Suppofe the value is required of an annuity to'be enjoyed Method of
for what may happen to remain of one life after another, pro-finding the
vided the life in expectation continues a given time, j, value of an
Find die prefent value of the annuity for the remainder of the ma ^
life in expectation after the given time, which is done in this happen'to
this fome compenfation mull be provided ; and the equi¬
table method of providing it is, by levying fines at the be¬
ginning of the eftablifrment on every member exceeding a
given age, proportioned to the number of years which he has
lived beyond that age. But if fuch fines cannot be levied, and
it every payment mult be equal and common, whatever dif-
parity there may be in the value of the expectations of dif¬
ferent members, the fines muft be reduced to one com¬
mon one, anfwering as nearly as poffible to the difadvantage,
and payable by every member at the time when the efta¬
blifrment begins. After this, the eftablifrment will be the
fame with one that takes upon it all at the time they marry;
and^ the tax or annual payment of every member adequate
to its fupport will be the annual payment during marriage
due from perfons who marry at the mean age at which, upon
an average, all marriages may be confidcred as commencing.
I he fines to be paid at firft are, for ervery particular mem¬
ber, the fame with the difference between the value of the ex¬
pectation to him at his prefent age, and what would have
been its value to him had the fcheme begun at the time he
married. Or, they are, for the whole body of members, the
difference' between the value of the common expectation,
to perfons at the mean age of all married perfons taken to¬
gether as they exift in the world, and to perfons at that age
IQ t-v-,   _ 1 1
* o  7       nappci! iu
manner : Multiply the prefent value of the life at the given remain of
time by the prefent value of il. to be received at that time,one life
and rmiftinlv flip nvortnA -.rr-.."-. k—   1—unit-. . after ano-
, , , . ' ------  .. uy LUl_ picicuL vaiue 01 11. to De received at tnat time. c u‘c
cular burden upon'the eftablifrment in its infancy. For and multiply the produCl again by the probability that the\fterr anc
this fome compenfation muft be provided : and the enui- life in evneA^ti^r. ..rill c.. 1  r '•  _ ther.pro
which is to be deemed their mean are when theV marrv h litv Z f30’ “ T* ^ Thc Proba*
Suppofe we wifr to know the orefent value nfl ,4° ye^ °f ^ {ha ! llve.11 7ears> is’ b>'
lile in expectation will continue fo long. L.et the given time vided*the
which the life in expectation is to continue be 15 years, and fife in ex-
let the perfon then be arrived at 50 years of age. A lifePe<aftion
at fifty, according to M. de Moivre’s valuation of lives, and j°n;,jaue8
reckoning intereft at tour per cent, is worth 11.34 yearsferm.en
purchafe. The prefent value of i 1. to be received at the
end of 15 years, is 0.5553, and the probability that a life
at 35 will continue 15 years is Thefe three values
multiplied into one another give L. 4.44 for the prefent
value oi the life in expectation. 2. Find the value of the
reverfion, provided both lives continue the given time, by
the rule given in parag. 5th. 3. Add theie values together,
and the lum will be the anfwer in a fingle prefent payment.
We frail now illuftrate this rule by an example.
An annuity of 10I. for the life of a perfon now 30, is to
commence at the end of j 1 years, if another perfon now 40
frould be then dead ; or, if this fhould not happen at the
end of any year beyond 11 years in which the former frail
happen to furvive the latter: What is the prefent value of
fuch an annuity, reckoning intereft at four per cent, and ta¬
king the probabilities of life as they are in Dr Halley’s
table, given in the article Mortal it v ?
d he value of I o 1. per annum, for the remainder of the life
of a perfon now 30, after 1 x years is ‘L. 69.43. The proba-
Method of Suppofe we wifr to know the prefent valu of a a n £ Dr Halley’s S ^ The KTt Z ‘ V™'
Sna the to be enjoyed by one life, for what mav h,nnen ZZ I 1 he probability, therefore, that he
ivicuiot! 01 1 * • j , - r ^ ainiuity jur xiaiiey s table, 444. The
finding the to pe enjoyed by one life, for what may happen to remain will die in tt vear- ;0 53s rT- xi j Y • ' 
prefent of it beyond another life, after a given tenn • that is mo 1 ‘£ V h ^1 ' r f f4Ti ^btra<^fcd. trom unity (c), or
value of an vided both lives continue fmm P i 33,T ’ ^hl.ch multiplied by 1. 69.43, fflves 1. 17.16.~Thc
:™“ty,:n4dfd!,o;htlivc,rt!nue,rr totWri value 0fA» rev«&o,
'-‘iW i:/ZVr° rSi and this value addedTiTfo,*^ ifi Jh
liy one life ^ ind the value of the annuity for two lives, greater bv the value i-ermlred 1 r ’ . .* o. the
after the given term of years than the given lives : difrmmr thY Line L 1 C Prefent payment ; which payment
filter the
fipiration
of ano¬
ther.
given term of years than the given lives • difeount this va e divided 2 I 3 lg Tr mn'CM ! w“,ch
fur the given term • and then n-uiYr i ,, the value of two joint lives, aged to and
that the^Zg v^ li s (id bolSnue he 4°’ T'' ^ ^ 3 '• * «r the value required in
and the prod^t „i,l be ^ ^^ 1—to
Bb
Ta
BLE
the^ fra6Uon,^vhofe'numerator ia'the 2T T' ‘"X numbcr,»f Tf* «>««* » given age, is (as is wett known)
nominator, the number oppofite to the prefcnt agroflhTgiven life oWer™ltms °PPote to the given age, and de.
probability that it will not happen! ^ ^U: Ira^illJ11 exPre®ng the probability that an event will happen, gives the
S U R
S U R
[ 196 1
Sarvlvcr-
fhip.
Table T. Stowing the Prefent Values of an Annuity c/L. I
an a Single Life> according to M. de Moivre's Hypothecs.
Age.
i *
9
x 1
12
13
M
r5
x6
i?
18
19
20
21
22
23
2+
25
26
27
28
29
33
3 per Ct. hiper Ct
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
33
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
19,736
19,868
19,868
i9>736
19,604
19,469
i9*331
19,192
19,050
I 8.90 s
18,7 s9
18,610
18,458
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
18,305
18,148
17,990
17,827
17,664
17*497
I7*3'7
* 7>I54
16,979
16,800
16,620
16,436
16,248
16,057
15,864
15,666
15*465
15,260
15*053
14,842
4 per Ct. 4-|perCt.
18,160
18,269
18,269
18,160
18,049
17*937
i7*823
17,707
17,588
17*467
17*344
17,220
i7*093
16,963
16,830
16,696
i6,559
16,419
16,277
16,133
15,985
i5»835
15,682
16,791
16,882
16,882
16,791
16,698
16,604
16,508
16,410
16,311
16,209
16,105
15*999
15,891
61
62
63
14,626
i4*407
,4*i85
,3>958
13*728
13*493
i3*254
13,012
12,764
12,511
15,526
15*367
15,204
1 <>039
14,871
14,699
14>524
I4*345
14,163
i3’978
15,781
15,669
15*554
15*43
15*318
15*197
15*073
14,946
14,816
14,684
12,255
1 r»994
11,729
ii,457
11,183
10,902
10,616
10,325
10,029
9*727
9*4i9
9,107
8,787
'3*789
13*596
13*399
I3,'99
12,993
12,784
12,571
' 2*354
12,131
11,904
14*549
14,411
14,270
14,126
M*979
13,829
i3,676
i3*5i9
13*359
iS*^6
15*595
15,672
15*672
15*595
i5*5i7
‘5*437
15*356
i5*273
15,189
15,102
15,015
14*923
'4*83l
14*737
14,641
'4*543
14,442
14*340
14*235
14,128
14,018
13*905
13*79!
5 per Cf.
M*544
14*607
14,607
14*544
14,480
I4J41 2
14,342
14,271
!4*197
i4*i 23
14,047
13,970
13»891
L3>
673
13*553
13*430
13*304
'3*175
'3*044
12,909
12,771
12,630
12,485
6 per Ct
12,790
12,839
i2>839
12,790
12,741
12,691
12,639
12,586
12*532
12,476
12,419
12,361
12,301
11*673
n,437
11*!95
10,950
10,698
10,443
10,181
9*9i3
9,640
9*36i
9,076
8,786
8,488
13,028
12,858
12,683
12,504
12,322
12,135
li,944
11,748
11,548
ii*344
12,337
12,185
12,029
11,870
11,707
11,540
• 1,368
11,1 2
11 / 12
10,827
13,81c
13,727
'3*642
13*555
13,466
‘3*375
13,282
13,186
13,088
12,988
12,855
12,780
12,673
12,562
12,449
12,333
12,2x4
12,091
11,966
i'*837
11,705
n*57o
n*43i
1 j ,288
11,142
10,992
10,837
10,679
10,515
10,348
ii*!35
10,921
10,702
10,478
10,248
10,0x4
9*773
9*527
9*275
9,017
8*75-3
8,482
8,205
10,638
io,443
10,243
10,039
9,829
9,614
9*393
9,166
8*933
8,694
12,239
12,177
12,112
12,045
11,978
11,908
11*837
11*763
11,688
11,610
i'*53o
n*449
11*365
11,278
11,189
11,098
11,003
10,907
10,807
10,704
10,599
10,490
10,378
10,263
10,144
0,021
9*895
9*765
9*630
9*492
8.449
8,197
7*938
10,176
9*999
9,817
9*63o
9*437
9»239
9*°36
8,826
8,611
8,389
8,161
7*926
7,684
9*349
9,201
9,049
8.891
8,729
8,561
8,387
8,208
8,023
7,831
7*633
7,428
7,216
Age.
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
3 per Ct.
per Ct. 4perCt.|4iperCt,
8,462
8,132
7*794
7*45°
7*099
6,743
6*378
6,008
5*631
5,246
4*854
4*453
4,046
3*632
3*207
2,776
2*334
1,886
1,429
0,961
0,484
0,000
8,185
7»875
7*558
7>234
6,902
6,565
6,219
5,865
5*5°5
5,136
4*759
4*373
3’978
3*575
3*i63
2*74'
2,309
7*92i
7*631
7*333
7,027
6,714
6,394
6,065
1,867
M11
o,955
0,483
0,000
5,728
5*383
5,029
4,666
4*293
3,912
3»52°
3*111
2,707
2,284
1,850
1,406
0,950
0,481
0,000
7*672
7*399
7*"9
6,831
6*534
6,230
5*9i8
5*596
5*265
4,926
4*576
4,2i7
3*847
3»467
3»c76
2*673
2,259
1,832
i»394
0,943
0,479
0,000
5 per Ct.
7*435
7*179
6,915
6,643
6,362
6,073
5*775
5*468
5*I52
4,826
4,489
4*i43
3*784
3*4'5
3»°34
2,641
2*235
6 per Ct
Survlvsr.
ftip-
6,997
6,770
6,535
6,292
6,040
5*779
5,508
5,228
4*937
4*636
4*324
4,000
3,664
3*3!5
2,953
2,578
2,188
1,816
1*384
0,937
o~,476
0,000
1*783
1,362
0,925
0,472
0,000
Table II. Showing the Value of an Annuity on the Joint
Continuance of Two Lives, according to M. de Moivre’s
Hypothefis.
•<>
£ a
Vilue at 3,Value at 4
per Cent
per Cent.
20
IO
15
20
25
3°
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
15
20
25
3°
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
20
25
3°
15.206
14.878
14-503
14.074
13-585
13- 025
12.381
11.644
10.796
9.822
8.704
7.417
5-936
14- 574
14.225
3.822
J 3*359
12.824
12.207
11.496
10.67 c
9.727
8.632
7-377
5-932
I3-9°4
13-53I
13.098
Value at 5
per Cent.
13.342
13-°93
I 2.808
I 2.480
12.102
l I.665
11.156
IO.564
9^71
9.O59
8.IO5
6.980
5.652
12.860
'2-593
12.281
11.921
11.501
11.013
10.440
9.767
8.975
8.041
6-934
5.623
12341
12.051
1 11-711
11.855
11.661
11.430
T I.182
IO.884
10- 537
10 128
9.646
9.O74
8.39I
7 572
6.585
5- 39'
11- 478
11.266
11.022
10.736
10.402
j 0.008
9.541
8.985
8.318
7-5I5
6- 544
5-36-1-
11.067
10.840
10.565
S U R
$ui vlvor*
fhip.
S U R
[ *97 ]
QN
20
25
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
M'S
Value at 3 Value
per Cent
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
25
3°
35
40
45
5°
95
60
65
7°
3
35
4J
45
5°
55
60
6 5
7-
7^
35
4-
45
50
55
6o
65
70
40
45,
5°
55
60
65
7°
45
50
55
60
65
_7£.
5°
55
60
65
70
55
6o
65
7£
60
65
70
65
.21
70
12-594
12.008
11.325
10.536
9.6x7
8-549
7.308
5.868
13.192
12.794
‘2-333
11.770
I I • X 3 3
io-374
9.488
8.452
7,241
5.826
at 4
per Cent.
‘2-434
12.0x0
11.502
10.898
10.183
9-338
*■338
7.161
5 777
11.63 *
11.175
10.622
9-955
9.156
8.202
7.066
5-7‘8
10.777
10.283
9.677
8.936
8.038
6.951
5.646
9.863
9-331
8.662
7-831
6.807
5-556
8.892
8.312
7.568
6.623
5-442
7.849
7.220
6-379
5.201
6-737
6.043
5-o8i
5-547
4-773
11.314
10.847
10.297
9.648
8.879
7.967
6.882
5.590
Value at j
per Cent.
4.270
i I./86
11.468
l I.0Q3
IO.655
10.13 I
9.509
8.766
7.880
6.826
5-551
£ ].l82
IC.838
IO.428
9936
9-345
8.634
7-779
6.748
5-505
10.530
,0-‘57
9.702
9. >49
8.4 6
7.658
6.662
5.450
7-332
6.781
6.036
5-053
6-35 ‘
5-73°
4.858
5-277
4-571
4.104
10 278
9.870
9.420
8.880
*•233
7.448
6-495
5-333
10.621
10.367
10.067
9.708
9 278
8.76.
8.134
7-371
6 440
5.294
‘0-133
9 854
9.514
9112
8.620
8.018
7.2»D
6-373
5-254
9.600
9.291
8.913
8.450
7-^79
7.172
6.294
5.203
9.014
8.67 t
8.244
7-7‘c
7-039
6.198
5-‘4I
8.370
7.987
7.500
6.875
6.080
5-063
7.660
7.230
6 664
5 920
4.984
6.673
6.386
5-724
4 833
C.001
5-444
4-653
5-03^
4 3d5
3-952
Table III. Showing the Values of Annuities cn Sing/e Lives,
among Maks and Females, according to the Probabilities of
the Duration of Life in the Kingdom of Sweden.
Sumvor-
fliip.
Males.
Ages. 4 per Ct. 5 per Co
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
‘3
'4
‘5
16
‘7
18
‘9
20
21
22
2 3
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
3‘
32
33
34
3 5
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
16.503
I7-355
17-935
18.328
‘8-503
18.622
18.693
18.725
18.715
18.674
18.600
18.491
18.378
18.246
18.105
‘7-958
17.803
‘ 7-643
17.492
‘7-335
17.192
17.042
16.887
16.742
16.592
16.436
‘6.274
16.105 s
.J.930!
‘5-751
‘5-575!
‘5-395
15.208
15.014
14.812
14.601
14.382
‘4-154
‘3-9‘6
13.668
13.426
‘3-‘96
12.984
12.763
‘2-535
12.297 ;
12.051
11.795
11.528
I 1.267
11.030
10.785
53 ; 10-53‘
54 110.269
5? 1 9998
9-7‘7
56
97
58
59
60
61
9.425
9.140
8.845
8.540
8.241
14.051
14.778
15.279
15.624
15.786
15.901
‘5-977
16.021
16.030
16.014
‘5-970
15.896
15.819
15.724
15.624
‘5-5‘7
15.404
15.285
‘5175!
15-c59
‘4 955 i
14.846 j
14.732;
14.627 !
‘4.517
14.402
14,282
14.156
14.024
1 3.889
‘3.756
1 3.6 IQ
‘3-477
‘ 3-327
13.17°
I3.O06
‘2.833
1 2.652
12.462
12 26;
12.065
I 1.880
x i.710
“.532
“•347
“•‘53
10.951
‘o-738
10.516
10.298
10.100
9.895 |
9.682
9.460
9.229
8.988
8.736
8.489
8.232
7-963
7.700
Females.
4 per Ct. 5 per Ct.
1 6.820
17.719
18.344
18.780
18.927
19.045
19.131
19.162
*9-‘5‘
19.109
19.041
18.952
18.840
18.707
18.568
18.424
18.290
18.151
18.013
17.872
17.725
‘7-573
‘7.414
17.252
17.087
16.915
16.751
15-588
16.427
16.261
16.104
‘5-94‘
‘5-787
15.629
15.465
15.278
‘5-07°
14.854
14.629
14.401
‘4.185
‘3-994
‘3-798
‘3-596
‘3-383
‘3-‘5‘
12.894
12.620
‘2-333
12.Q49
11.769
11.492
I 1.22.C
10.937
IO.642
‘°-334
10.012
9.692
9-3 5 8
9-0:9
8-739
14.271
‘5-°34
‘5-57‘
‘5-951
16 088
16.203
16.291
‘6-335
'6-343
16 325
16.286
16.229
‘6-153
16.059
i 5.960
J5.856
‘5.761
I5.662
‘5-563
I5.462
‘5-356
5.245
*5.129
I5.OO9
I4.886
‘4-757
14.636
14.515
14.396
‘ 4-2?2
14.156
14-035
‘3 923
13.806
13.684
‘3-542
‘3-382
‘3-2‘3
‘3-036
12.856
12.687
12.538
12.387
12 229
12.06
11.876
11.668
“•443
11.205
10.970
‘0-737
10.507
10.280
10.042
9.792
9.529
9-253
8.976
8.687
8.-06
8.144
Lives in general
4 per Ct. j per C t.
16.661
‘7-537
18.139
l8-554
18.715
18.833
18-912
‘8-9*3
‘8-933
18.891
18.820
18.721
18.609
18.476
‘8 336
18.191
18.046
17 897
17.752
17.603
‘ 7-4-5 8
r7'3°7
17.150
l6997
16 839
16.675
16.5.2
•6 346
16.178
16.006
‘5 839
15.668
‘5-497
‘5-32i
15.138
‘4:939
14.726
.4504
14.272
14.034
13 805
‘3-595
‘3 39‘
‘3- ‘79
-2 959
12.724
12.472
12217
11.930
11 658
“399
‘1.138
10-875
10.603
to.320
io.O!5
9 7‘8
9 4‘6
9.101
8.789
8 490
14.161
14.906
15.425
‘5 787
‘5-937
16.052
I. 6.134
16.178
16.186
16.169
16.128
16.062
15.986
15,891
‘5-792
15.686
15.582
‘5 473
‘S-369
15.260
‘5 ‘55
‘5 045
14 930
142:18
14.701
‘4-579
‘4-459
‘4-335
14210
14.080
‘3956
13.827
13.70°
13.566
I3-427
'3-274
13.107
12.932
12 749
12.558
12 376
2 209
12.048
I r-88o
II. 704
“ 5‘4
11.309
11.090
10.860
10.634
10418
10.201
9.98,
9 75‘
9 5°
9.258
8.995
8.732
8.458
8 184
7.922
S U R
[ 198 ]
Survi \ror-
ftup.
Males.
Aye*. 4 per Ct 3 per Ct.
62
63
64
65
66
67
63
69
7°
71
72
73
74
7>
76
77
78
79
80
8 t
82
83
84
8>
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
05
96
7.970
7.669
7-.3 8 2
7.090
6.792
6.489
6.201
5-933
5.670
5.418
5.180
4.940
4.724
4.487
4-253
4.024
3.768
3-5T 2
3.260
3,OI7
2.792
2.600
2-473
2.371
2.281
2.154
i-955
1.698
1.417
i-i54
0.835
0.477
0.240
0.000
0.000
7.442
7-r93
6.938
6.676
6.408
6 134
5 872
5.628
5-389
5-158
4.940
4.719
4.521
4.302
4.084
3sll
3-63i
3-39°
3-I52
2.921
2.706
2-523
2.403
2.306
2.222
2.103
1-912
1-664
1.392
1.136
0.824
0.471
0.238
0.000
0.000
Females.
4 per Ct. 5 per Cc.
8-453
8.166
7.870
7.566
7-252
6.930
6 596
6-253
5.897
5.564
5.261
4.998
4 792
4-582
4-367
4.145
3-9I3
3668
3-402
3-145
2.905
2 699
2 559
2.552
2. ci8
2 431
2.294
2.108
i-873
1.628
I-349
1.071
0.799
0.544
0.320
7-s95
7-643
7.382
7.111
6.831
6.541
6.239
5.926
5-599
5-293
5-o13
4.770
4.581
4.388
4.189
3-983
3-767
3-536
3-285
3.041
2.812
2.615
2.480
2.476
2.446
2-365
2-236
2.059
1.853
I-596
i-325
I*°54
0,788
o-537
0.317
Lives in
per Cr.l
8.201
7-917
7.626
7.328
7.022
6.709
6.598
6.093
5-783
5-491
5.220
4.969
4.758
4-534
4.310
4.084
3.840
3-59°
3-33i
3.081
2.848
2.649
2.516
2.461
2-399
2.292
2.124
1.903
1.645
i-391
1.092
0.774
0.519
general.
S- U R
Intereft 4 per cent.
5 p^r Ct. i
 |
7 668
7.418
7.160
6.893
6.619
6-337
6.055
5-777
5-494
5-225
4.976
4-744
4-551
4-345
4 136
3-927
3-699
3-463
3.218
2.981
2.759
2.569
2.441
2-391
2-334
2-338
2.074
1.861
1.612
1.366
1-074
0.762
0.513
Table IV. Showing the Value of Annuities on Two Joint
Lives, according to the Probabilities of the Duration of
Human Life among Maks and Females colletHvely, reckon¬
ing interat 4 per cent.
Intereft 4 per cent.
Difference of o, 6, 12, and 18 years.
Ages. ( Value-.
12.252
13-583
3' 314-55*8
15.267
15-577
15.82°
16.003
16.109
10-10
11- II
12- 12
Jo-'S
14- 14
15- 15
16- 16
,7‘I7
18-18
8- 8
9. 9 16.152
16.141
16.087
15.982
I5-855
15.701
15-535
15.361
15.196
15.023
19-19 14.854
Values.
19-25 14.320
Ages.
1- 13
2- 14
3- 15
4- 16
5- 17
6- 18
7- 19
8- 20
9-21
XC-2 2
11- 23
12- 24
'3'25
14- 26
15- 27
16- 28
[17-29
18- 30
19- 31
Values.
13.894
14- 55
14.988
15.259
15- 326
15-354
I5-351
I5-3l°
15.244
15.149
15-033
14.889
I4-736
14.566
r4-392
14.216
14.042
13.860
13-687
Ages.
1- 19
2- 20
3- 21
4- 22
5- 23
6- 24
7- 25
8- 26
9- 27
1 0-2^
I 1-20
I2-3C
f3-31
f4-32
‘5-33
16-34
Valucfj
1 3-389
14.00»
14.417
14.671
14.725
I4.74O
14.727
I4-673
I4.590
14.484
14-35
14.202
14-045
13.874
I3.7OO
13-520
17-35 13-340
18- 36
19- 37
I3.I4I
! 2.934
A -es. Valee . [| A;es. Values
14.682! 20*26
14.525 21
14 I44
13.976!
14.36c|22-28 13 807
I4.I94J23-29
14.020| 24-3
20- 32
21- 33
6-3611.904j36.42
37-37
SS-S8
39- 39
40- 40
41.41
42- 42
43- 43
44*44
45- 45
46- 46
47- 47
48- 48
49- 40
S°-5C
51- 51
52- 52
53- 53
54- 54
55- 55
56- 56
57- 57
58- 58
5959
60- 60
61- 6*
62- 62
63- 63
64- 64
65.65
66-66
67- 67
68- 68
69- 69
70- 70
71.71
72-72
73*73
74- 74
75- 75
76- 76
77- 77
78- 78
79- 79
80- 80
81- 81
82- 82
83 83
84-84
11.08 3
ix.452
11.209
10.964
10.732
io-53i
10 346
10 154
9 954
9-736
9-497
9.236
8.966
8*707
8.469
8.23
7.994
7.748
7-495
7.229
6.924
6.678
6.388
6.104
5-844
5.60c
5-367
5.128
4.881
13-635
13-455
13.284
13.108
12-935
12.763
12.586
12.390
12.192
ti.988
11.779
11.568
11.361
xi.156
37*43 io.953
38 4-4 10.741
39- 45 10.5191
40- 46 ic.286
41- 47,10.049
4,362
4.103
3-85i
3-593
3-345
3.128
2-935
2.797
2.648
2.490
2.340
2.17c
1.967
I-758
1.600
1.472
1.364
4.626 66-72
42- 48
43- 49
44- 5c
+5-51
46- 52
47- 53
48- 54
49- 55
50- 56
51- 57
52- rS
53- 59
54 6c
55-6i
56 62
57- 63
58- 63
59- 65
60- 66
61- 6
62 68
63- 69
64- 70
^i
Ages.
Value-
13-5I2
3-345
22-34|i3 173
2 3-35
H-36
25-37
6-38
27- 39
28- 40
29- 41
30- 42
31- 43
32'44
A^es
Vau
.7-73
08-74
69- 75
70- 76
71- 77
72- 78
73- 79
74- 80
75- 81
76- 82
77- 83
78- 84
79- 85
80- 86
81- 87
82- 88
83- 89
276 84.9c
9.8! 3
9.581
9-351
9.129
8.897
8 658
8.402
8.139
7.874
7-6i3;
7-351
7.083
6-8i4
6-555
33- 45
34- 46
35- 47
36.48
37*49.
38*50
39*51
40- 5
41- 53
42- 54
43- 55
44- 56
45- 57
46- 58
47- 59
48- 60
49 61
50- 62
51- 6*
52- 64
53- 65
54- 66
55- 6i
12.997
12.801
‘2-599
12.387
12.170
n-953,
11742
u-543
1135-9
11.170
10-978 33-5i
,20-38
2!-39
22- 40
23- 41
24.42
25-43
26 44
12 7-45
28-46
9-47
30-48
6-299 56-68
6-045
5.788
5 5i9
5.249
4.984
4.729
4.482
4.231
3.982
3-75°
3-527
3-340
3-I47
2.946
2.752
2.558
2-355
2.172
2..017
1.877
1.756
1.639
1 524
1.416
1.320
1.225
1.094
0.902
57- 69
58- 70
59- 71
60- 72
61- 73
62- 74
63- 75
4-76
65- 77
66- 78
67.79
68- 80
69- 81
70- 82
71- 83
72- 84
73- 5
74.86
75-8/
76 88
77- 89
78- 90
79- 9i
80- 92
81- 93
82- 94
83- 95
10.775
IO,55
10.314
10.059
9.805
9*558
9.308
9-066 41-59
8-830
8*597
8'354
S-ioi
7 841
7*563
7-281
7-008
47-63
4§-6f
49-67
6-749 !50'68
6-505151-69
6-256 52-7c
6-004
5-743
5*474
5-204
4 936
4-664
4*395
4-149
3-927
3*747
3*563
3*370.
3-18c
2-974
2*743
2-514
2-324
2*155
2-004
i*875
1-768
1-692
i-6o i;
i*497
x'SSP
1-097
o 863
0-638
o- CI 1
0-427
0*379
720
12.505
12.286
12.07 a
H'873
11.683
11.485
11.284
11.072
10 84/
x 0.606
31-4910365
42-50 10.128
9.905
9.679
9-452
9.207
8.951
8.685
8.404
8.124
7.839
7.569
7.318
7.075
6.836
34- 52
35- 53
36- 54
37- 55
38- 51
39- 5;
40- 58
42- 60
43- 6i
44- 62
45- 65
46- 64 6.586
53- 7i
54- 72
55- 75
56- 74
57- 75
58- 76
59- 77
60- 78
61- 79
62- 80
63- 81
64- 82
65- 83
66- 84
67- 85
68- 86
69- 87
70- 88
'71-89
72-90
73*9i
74- 92
75- 93
76- 94
77- 95
Sarrivor,
fhin.
6.323
6.048
5-764
5.487
5.221
4-953
4.694
4 453
4-231
4.045
3844
3-637
3-43t
3.210
2.974
2.744
2-557
2.396
2.252
2.123
2.010
I.piC
I.798
1.66l
I.464
I.189
0 937
O.708
o-575
0.481
0.421
Tnfereft
Sirv’ivor-
fhip.
S U R
Intereft 4 per cent.
[ 199 ]
\ire-
85.85
86-86
87- 87
88- 88
89- 89
90- 90
91- 91
92- 9?
93- 93
94- 94
9 c-9^
ValtTf. |
1.212
II72
1.127
x.071
0.949
0.718
0.516
0.326
0.236
0.190
0.024
Ape?
Vriliie*.
Sj.pi
86- 92
87- 93
88- 94
89- 95
0.725
0.556
°-459
0.396
0.364
A;’e'. Value
Values.
1- 25I12.832
2- 2653409
3’27jI3-778
4- 28114 003
5- 29^4.037
6- 30.14-033‘
7- 319 4.006,
8- 3 2; 13-9441
9- 33jI3-855
1 o-34j13-741
I2-36iI3-428
[4:38|i 3.023
I5'39il2-798|
16- 4o|i 2.5701
17- 41|i2-351
18- 42 12.146
i-3i!i2.i96j
25-491061
2*3212 730
3- 3 3! 13.066!'
4- 3413.264!
5- 3^3-277
6- 3fii3 242|
7- 374 3I7°ji
8- 38 13.0 (JQ‘
9- 39ji2.9i3|
10- 40:12 743
11- 41:12 563111.47
„ . 12-42 1 2.379 ;i 2-48
13-234;I3-43!'2-i96jiI3-49
I3-°28i 14-4411.997 14-5°
15- 4Si1i-787!SI5-5i
16- 4611 562j|i6-^2
t 7-4711-s28!17-53
18-48J11 o76j!i8-54
11.951) 19-49:10.819^19.55
9 761
9.500
11.751! 20-50^x0.567,20-56 9.228 I20-6
I t r rrl - v \ ~ -*1' ...
9 4x3 3°-6o
9-167 31-61
8.912 32-62
io'332!2i-57
10 C92I22-58
9 852l23-59
9.602 24-60
9-347j 25-63
9.080 26-62
8.807)27-63
8.534:28-64
8.250! 29-65
7 967)30 66
7'702) 31 67
7.446)32-68
7 1
6 942)!34-7o
6.679 35.7 x
6.402 !-j6
6.115
5.828
4i'®5 6.492 41-^
42- 66| 6.225 42-72. -t
43- 671 5-9 s7 43-73 4-307
il^8Ll^§9-44-74! 4-^22
4 840
4-603 37-79
5-°93j 33-77
A Q -6.78
1.43:10.546
2- 4410.946
3- 45'
4- 46
5 47II-l83
11 064
10.915
10.743
xo.jGo
!o 357
10.140
9.898
9.644
9 371
9.087
8 799
8.503
8 208
7.928
7.658
7.396!
7.127
6 851
6.566
6.275
5.986
5-702
5 415
5
4.881
4 646
4 453'
4.251
4.040
3 S33
3 605
3-352
^.098
2 889
2.710
2-553
2.418
2 305
2.. 203
S U R
Intereft 4 per cento
T-ABLE V. Showing the Values of two foint lJvesy ac¬
cording to the Probabilities of the Duration of Human
Life among Males and Females colictiive'y.
Intereft 4 per cent.
Difference of age 24, 30, 36, and 42 years.
Age-, j V ::nes j Agct. Vatec'. Ages. : \ a.u
Value?.
45- 69
46- 70
47- 71
48- 72
49- 73
5-0.74
52- 76
53- 77
54- 78
55- 79
56- 80
57- 81
58- 82
59 83
60- 84'
61- 85
62- 86
63- 87!
64.88
65.89
66-90
67.91
"8-92
59- 93
70 94
71 9s
5-253
4.884
4 633
4-398
4.205
4 008
3 803
3 605
3-389
2.909
2.710
2 539
2 385
2 248
2-235
2.037
1.916
1 79c
1 585
1.290
1.017
o 764
0.6x7
0.514
0.411
lAges.
5.426 45-75
46-76
'47-77
48 78
49-79
jo-8o
51-81
5282
53- 83
54- 84
5-85
56-86
57.87
5888
59- 89
60- 90
61 -91
62-92
13-93
64- 94
65- 95
Value?
4.128
3-92I
3-7I5
3-489
3-238
2.990
2 792
2 623
2.475
2.232
2.13
2-0X0
I.864
I 644
i-333
1.05c
0.789
0.63^
0533
0.45
Ages.
45- 81
46- 82
47- 83
48- 84
4 9-85
50-86
52- 88
53- 89
2 344 54'9r
55- 91
56- 92
57- 93
58- 94
59- 95
Values.
2.854
2 684
2-533
2 396
2.277
2.171
2.050
1.901
1.681
x.36C
1 078
o 810
0.655
°-54
0.464
Ages.
45- 87
46- 88
47- 89
48- 90
49- 9I
50- 92
51- 93
52- 94
53- 95
Values.
2.083
1*933
j.708
1.090
0.8x8
0.662
0.551
0.468
The values of joint lives in thefe table1* have been com¬
puted for only one rate of intereft ; and of fingle lives in,
Table III. for only two rates of intereft. The following
rules will fhow, tnat it would be a needlefs labour to com¬
pute theie values (in ftridt conformity to the obfeivations)
for any other rates of intereft.
Account of a method of deducing, from the correft va¬
lues (accoioing to any obfervations) of any fingle or joint
lives at one rate cf intereft, the fame values at other rates of
intereft.
Preliminary Problem-s.
^Prob. I. The expeGiation given of a fingle life by any
tcuue of obfervations, to fnd its value, fuppofing the decre-
ments of life equal, at any given rate of intereft.
Solution. Find the value of an annuity certain for a num¬
ber of years equal to twice the expefiation. Multiply this
value by the perpetuity increafed by unity, and divide the
prod lift by twice the expectation: The quotient fubtra&ed
from the perpetuity will be the value required.
Example. 1 he. expectation of a male life aged 10, by the
Sweden obfervations, is 43.94. Twice this expectation is
87.88. The value of an annuity certain for 87.88 years
is (reckoning intereft at 4 per cent.) 24.200. The produCb.
of 24.200 into 26 (the perpetuity increafed #>y unity) is
629.2, which, divided by 87.88, gives 7.159. And this
quotient fubtraCted from 25 (the'perpetuity) gives 17 84.
years purehafe, the value of a life aged ten, deduced from
the expectation of life at that age, according to the Sweden
obfervations. (See the Tables in Dr Price on Reverfions,
vox 11.). ?
Prob. II. Having the expeditions given of any two
lives by any table of obfervations, to deduce from thence the
value of the joint lives at any rate of intereft, fuppofinr an
equal decrement of life. 0
SoIutUm. Find the difference between twice the expec¬
tation
$urvivor-
fhip.
S U R [
Survivor- tation of the youngeft life and twice the expeftation of the
^‘P- oldeft life increafed by unity and twice the perpetuity.
' Multiply this difference by the value of an annuity certain
for a time equal to twice the expedtation of the oldeft life ;
and by twice the fame expectation divide the produdt, re-
ferving the quotient.
From twice the perpetuity fubtradt the referred quotient,
and multiply the remainder by the perpetuity increafed by
unity. This laft produdt divided by twice the expectation
of the youngeft life, and then fubtra&ed from the perpetuity,
will be the required value.
When twice the expectation of the youngeft life is great¬
er than twice the expectation of the oldeft life increafed by
'unity and twice the perpetuity, the referred quotient, inftead
of being fubtradted from twice the perpetuity, muft be add¬
ed to it, and the fum, not the difference, multiplied by the
perpetuity increafed by unity.
Example. Let the joint lives propofed be a female life
aged 10, and a male life aged 15 ; and let the table of ob-
fervations be the Sweden table for lives in general, and the
rate of intereft 4 per cent. Twice the expectations of the
two lives are 90.14 and 83.28.
Twice the expectation of the oldeft life, increafed by uni¬
ty, and twice the perpetuity, is 134.28, which leflens by
90.14 (twice the expectation of the youngeft life), leaves
44.14 for the referred remainder. This remainder multi¬
plied by 24.045 (the value of an annuity certain for 83.28
years), and the produCt divided by 83.28 (twice the expec¬
tation of the oldeft life), gives T2.744> the quotient to be
referved ; which fubtraCted from double the perpetuity, and
the remainder (or 37.255) multiplied by the perpetuity in¬
creafed by unity (or by 26) gives 968.630, which divided
try 90.14 (twice the expectation of the youngtft life) and
the quotient fubtrafted from the perpetuity, we have 14-254
for the required value.
The value of an annuity certain, when' the number of
years is a wdrole number with a fraCtion added (as will be
commonly the cafe) may be beft computed in the following
manner. In this example the number of years is 83.28.
The value of an annuity certain for 83 years is 24.035.
The fame value for 84 years is 24.072. The difference be¬
tween thefe two values is 0.37 ; which difference multiplied
by .28 (the fractional part of the number of years), and the
produCt (.0103) added to the leaft of the two values, will
give 24.045 the value for 83.28 years.
General Rule. Call the correCt value (fuppofed to be
computed for any rate of intereft) the firft value. Call the
value deduced (by the preceding problems) from the expec¬
tations at the fame rate of intereft, the fecond value. Call
the value deduced from the expectations for any other rate of
intereft the third value.
Then the difference between the firft and fecond values
added to or fubtraCted from the third value, juft as the firft
is greater or lefs than the fecond, will be the value at the
rate of intereft for which the third value has been deduced
from the expectations.
The following examples will make this perfectly plain.
Example I. In the two laft tables the correCt values are
given of two joint lives among mankind at large, without
diftinguifhing between males and females, according to the
Sweden obfervations, reckoning intereft at 4 per cent. Let
it be required to find from thefe values the values at 3 per
rent, and let the ages of the joint lives be fuppofed 10 and
JO.
The correCt value by Table IV. (reckoning intereft at 4
per cent.) is 16.141. The expectation of a life aged io is
45.07. The value deduced from this expectation at 4 per
esnt. by Prob. II. is 14.539. The value deduced by the
4
200 J S U R
fame problem from the fame expectation at 3 per cent, is
16.808. The difference between the firft and fecond values,
is 1.602, which, added to the third value fthe firft being
greater than the fecond), makes 18.410, the value required.
Examlle II. Let the value'be required of a Angle male
life aged 10, at 3 per cent, intereft, from the correCt value at
4 per cent, according to the Sweden obfervations.
Firft, or correCt value at 4 per cent, (by Table III.) is
18.674. The expectation of a male life aged 10 is 43.94.
The fecond value (or the value deduced from this expec¬
tation by Prob. I.) is 17.838.
The third value (or the value deduced from the fame ex¬
pectation at 3 per cent ) is 21.277.
The difference between the firft and fecond is .836;
which (fince the firft is greater than the fecond) muft be
added to the third; and the fum (that is, 22.113) will be
the value required.
The third value at $ per cent, is 15.286 ; and the diffe-
rence added to 15.286 makes 16.122 the value of a male
life aged 1 o at 5 per cent, according to the Sweden obferva¬
tions. The exaCt value at 5 per cent, is (by Table III.)
16.014.
Again : The difference between 16.014 (the correCf va¬
lue at 5 per cent.), and 15.286 (the value at the fame in¬
tereft deduced from the expectation ), is .728; which, added
(becaufe the firft value is greater than the fecond) to 13.335
(the value deduced at 6 per cent, from the expectation)gives
14.063, the value of the fame life, reckoning intereit at 6
per cent.
Thefe deductions, in the cafe of fingle lives particularly,
are fo eafy, and give the true values fo nearly, that it will
be fcarcely ever neceffary to calculate the exaCt values (ac¬
cording to any given obfervations) for more than one rate
of intereft.
H, for inftance, the correCt values are computed at 4 per
cent, according to any obfervations, the values at 3, /i)\, 4I,
5, 6, 7, or iper cent, may be deduced from them by the
preceding rules as occafion may require, without much la¬
bour or any danger of confiderable errors. 1 he values thus
deduced will feldom differ from the true values fo much as a
tenth of a year’s purchafe. They will not generally differ
more than a 20th or 30th of a year’s purchafe. In joint
lives they will differ lefs than in fingle lives, and they will
come equally near to one another whatever the rates of in¬
tereft are.
The preceding tables furnifh the means of determining the
exaCt differences between the values ot annuities, as they are
made to depend on the furvivorfhip of any male or female
lives ; which hitherto has been a defuleratum of coniiderable
confequence in the doCtrine of life-annuities. What has
made this of confequence is chiefly the multitude of focieties
lately eftablbbed in this and foreign countries for providing
annuities for widows. The general rule for calculating from
thefe tables the value of fuch annuities is the following.
Rule. “ Find in Table III. the value of a female life at
the age of the wife. From this value fubtraCl the value in
Table IV. of the joint continuance of two lives at the ages
of the hufband and wife. The remainder will be the value
in a fingle prefent payment of an annuity for the life of the
wife, fiiould fhe be left a widow. And this laft value divi¬
ded by the value of the joint lives inereafed by unity, will
be the value of the fame annuity in annual payments during
the joint lives, and to commence immediately.”
Example. Let the age of the wife be 24, and of the
hufband 30. The value in Table III. (reckoning intereft
at 4/^ cent.) of a female life aged 24, is 17.252. The va¬
lue in Table IV. of two joint lives aged 24 and 30, is
13. 455, which fubtra&ed from 17.252 leaves 3-797> t^e
value
Surya,
Sus.
sus [
♦alue in a /ingle prefent payment of an annuity of L. i for
the life of the wife after the hnfband ; that is, for the life of
the widow. The annuity, therefore, being fuppofed L.20,
its value in a fingle payment is 20 multiplied by 3-797, that
is, L. 7T94- And this laft value divided by 14.455 (tliat
is, by the value of the joint lives increaled by unity ), gives
5.2^ the value in annual payments beginning immediately,
and to be continued during the joint lives of an annuity of
L. 20 to a wife aged 24 for her life, after her hufband
aged 30.
SUR.YA, the orb of the fun perfonified and adored by a
feft of Hindoos as a god. He feems to be the fame divinity
with the Phoebus o1 Greece and Rome ; and the fe£f who
him particular adoration are called Sauras. Them
Sus.
'fiatic Re
‘inbes f
0!. i. p,
5a and
h-
■melin's
\nimal
'ing'hm,
'err.
PaY . _     
poets and painters defcribe his car as drawn by feven green
horfes, preceded by Arun, or tlie Dawn, who affs as his
charioteer, and followed by thoufands of genii worfliipping
.'him and modulating his praifes. He has a multitude of
names, and among them twelve epithets or titles, which de¬
note his diftinft powers in each of the twelve months ; and
he is believed to have defeended frequently from his car
in a human fhape, and to have left a race on earth, who are
eqhaliy renowned in the Indian ftories with the Heliadai of
Greece : it is very lingular, that his two fons called Afwinau
or Apwinxumarau, in the dual, fhould beconfidered as twin-
brothers, and painted like Caftor and Pollux; but they have
each the charafter of iEfculapius among the gods, and are
believed to have been born of a nymph, who, in the form
of a. mare, was impregnated with fun-beams.
SUS, the Hog, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the clafs of mammalia and order of belliuz. There
arc four cutting teeth in the upper jaw, whofepoints converge;
and, for the mofl part, fix in the lower jaw, which Hand for-
wards : There are two tufks in each jaw, thofe in the up¬
per jaw being fliort, while thofe of the under jaw are long,
and extend out of the mouth. The fnout is prominent,
moveable, and has the appearance of having been cut off,
or truncated. The feet are armed with divided or cloven
hoofs, there are fix fpecies; the ferofa, isthiopicus, tajaffu,
babyriufa, porcus, and atricanus. The moft remarkable are,
1. 1 hzferofa, or common hog, having the body covered
with briflles; two large teeth above and below. In a wild
ftate, of a dark brinded colour, and beneath the briflles is a
fort fhort hair ; the ears fhort, and a little rounded. Tame :
the ears long, fharp-pointed, and douching ; the colour ge¬
nerally white, fometimes mixed with other colours. In a
tame date it is amverfal; except in the frigid zones, and in
Kamtfchatka, where the cold is very fevere. Since its in-
troduftion into America by the Europeans, it abounds to
excels in the hot and temperate parts. It is found wild in
rnoft parts of Europe. In the forefts of South America
there are vaft droves, which derive their origin from the
u rT/\kind rdapfed into a llate of nature; and are
what Mr Bancroft in his Hiftory of Guiana, deferibes as a
particular fpecies by the. name of JVarree. They cannot
bear exce/five cold ; inhabit wooded countries ; and are very
fvmt In America they are ufeful by clearing the country
or rattle-fnakes, which they devour without danger
Of all quadrupeds the hog is the mofl rude and brutal.
The imper.eAions of his form feeni to have an influence on
his nature and difpofitions. All his habits are grofs ; all
his appetites are impure ; all his fenfations are confined to
a furious luft, and a brutal gluttony. He devours indiferi-
mmatdy every thing that comes in his way, even his own
^ "Tr"* the’r blrth‘ This voracioufnefs
whirfi pr(-°cet . rorn t^ie perpetua/ cravings of his ftomach,
vo,?xvrirP:«drefizei and the grofM °f ^
201 ] sus
appetities, it is probable, arifes from the Wuntrtefs of his
fenfes of tafte and of feeling. The rudenefs of the hair, ,
the hardnefs of the /kin, and the thicknefs of the fat, render sjftural
thefe animals lefs fenfible to blows. Mice have been known Hijlory,
to lodge upon a hog’s back, and to eat his /kin and fat,voJ, lii.
without his (bowing any marks of fenfibility. The other
fenfes of the hog are very good. It is well known to the
hunters that the wild boar hears and fmells at a great di¬
fiance ; for, in order to furprife him, they are obliged to
watch him in lilemce during the night, and to place them-
felves oppofite to the wind, that lie may not perceive the
fmell, which never fails to make him tarn back.
But the hog, though the moft impure and filthy of all
quadrupeds, is yet ufeful by the very fordidnefs of its man¬
ners ; this alone devouring what is the refufe of all others,
and contributing not only to remove what would be a nui-
fance to the human race, but alfo converting the mofl naufe-
ous offals into the richeft nutriment : for this reafon its
ftomach is capacious, and its gluttony exceflive : not that
its palate is infenfible to the difference of eatables ; for where
it finds variety, it will rejeA the word with as diflinguifh-
ing a talle as other quadrupeds.
The parts of this animal are finely adapted to its way of
life. As its method of feeding is by turning up the earth
with its nofe for roots of different kinds, fo nature has given
it a more prone form than other animals ; a ftrong brawny
neck; eyes fmall, and placed high in the head ; a long
' j * r r>   —— j cy
fnout, nofe callous and tough, and a quick fenfe of fmelling
to trace out its food. Its inteftines have a ftrong refem-
blance to thofe of the human fpecies. The external form
of its body is very unwieldly ; yet, by the flrength of its
tendons, the wild boar (which is only a variety of the com¬
mon kind ) is enabled to fly from the hunters with amazing
agility : the back-toe on the feet of this animal prevents its
flipping while it defeends declivities, and mufl be of lingular
life when purfued. Yet, notwithftanding its powers of mo¬
tion, it is by nature ftupid, inaAive, and drowfy; much in¬
clined to increafe in fat, which ig difpofed in a different
manner from that of other animals, and forms a regular coat
over the whole body. It is reftlefs at a change of weather,
and in certain high winds is fo agitated as to run violently,
/creaming horribly at the fame time : it is fond of wallow¬
ing in the dirt, either to cool its furfeited body, or to de-
ftroy the lice, ticks, and other infeAs with which it is in-
felled. Its difeafes generally arife from foul feeding and
intemperance ; mealies, impofthumes, and fcrophulous com¬
plaints, are reckoned among them. Thefe are bell prevent¬
ed by keeping the animals, as the ancients ftrongly recom¬
mended, very clean in their Hies ; allowing them° air, exer-
ciie, and a fufficiency of water. Linnaeus obferves, that
its flelh is wholefome food for athletic conllitutions, or thofe
that ufe .much exercife ; but bad for fuch as lead a fedentary
life : it is, however, of moft univerfal ufe ; and furnilhes
numberlefs materials for epicurifm.
The boar, or male of thefe creatures, is chofen with great
care, when intended for the propagation of his fpecies ; and
is thus employed from the age of two to five years, and
then either fold or fatted. The males not allotted to this
ufe are caftrated, fometimes at the age of fix weeks, and
fometimes when they are fix months old ; and then fed to a
great fize either for fale or for the ufe of the family. Sows
are kept for breed generally from one year old to feven, and
are then fpayed and fatted. They have commonly more
greafe on their xnteftines than hogs, thefe being fatteft on
their backs.
As to the age of thefe animals, it is faid that the life of
the wild boar may be extended to twentv-five or thii ty years.
Cc J Ari-
s U S [ 202 ] s u s
Su«. Ariftotle fays, that hogs in general live twenty years ; and
 adds, that both males and females are fertile till they arrive
at the age of fifteen. They can engender at the age of
nine or twelve months t hut it is better to re*'.rain them till
they be eighteen months or two years. The firft litter of
the fow is not numerous; and, when only one year old, her
pigs are weak, and even imperfeft. She may be faid to be
in feafon at all times. Though full, fhe folicits the ap¬
proach of the male. This may be regarded as an excefs
among animals; for aimed every other fpecies refufe the
male after conception. The ardour of the fow, though
almoft perpetual, is however marked by paroxyfms and im¬
moderate movements, which always terminate by her wal¬
lowing in the mire. She, at the fame time, emits a thick
whitilh fluid. She goes four months with young ; brings
forth in the beginning of the fifth ; and loon afterwards fo¬
licits the male, is impregnated a fecond time, and of courfe
brings forth twice a-year. The wild fow, which every way
refembles the dorr.eftic kind, produces only once a-year.
This difference in fertility is probably owing to want of
nourilhment, and the necefiity of fuckling her pigs much
longer than the domeftic fow, which is never allowed to
mine her young above fifteen days or three weeks. Only
’eight or nine of the litter are kept longer; the reft are fold.
In fifteen days, pigs are excellent food.
As thefe creatures, though exceedingly voracious, will
feed almoft on any thing, they are bred and kept everywhere,
and are quickly and cheaply fatted. In miry and in marfliy
grounds (from which they are not averfe) they devour
wrorms, frogs, fern, rufh, and fedge roots. In drier and in
woody countries, they feed on hips, haws, floes, crabs, maft,
cheimits, acorns, &c. and on this food they will grow flefhy
and fat. They are a kind of natural fcavengers, will thrive
on the tralh of an orchard, the outcafts of the kitchen, the
fweepings of barns and granaries, the offals of a market, and
molt richly on the refufe of a dairy. If near the fea, they
will fearch the (bores for fliell fifli ; in the field5, they eat
grafs ; and in cities and large towns they are kept in great
numbers, and fupported chiefly by grains. It is evident
that the facility of feeding them everywhere at a fmall ex¬
pence, is a national benefit, more efpecially in a country
where the people are aceuftomed to eat flefh daily, and
.could not perhaps perform their daily labour if they did not.
It is no lefs obfervable, that notwithftanding this facility of
feeding, and the multitudes of twine maintained, they ft Ido in
. fail of coming to a good market. In no part of Europe is
the management of thefe creatures better underftcod than
in Britain. The time of farrowing is adjulled to the nature
of the farm, the food it can fupply ; and the number of
pigs fold and kept are in like manner adjufted. New kinds
of food, more wholefome and nutritive than what were ufed
formerly, have been introduced, fuch as turnips, carrots,
clover, &c. They are in moft places regularly managed
and clofdy attended. Tuffer, many years fince, affirmed
from his own experience, that a fow might bring as much
profit as a cow. In fome counties, it is faid, a fovv de¬
pendent on a daily hath produced, all expences deducted,
about icl. in the fpace of a year. It may be fome fatis-
fadlion to the reader to know', that, on a nice calculation,
the annual profits of a fow' in France are found to be be¬
tween 50 and 60 livres.—In Britain, thefe animals in differ¬
ent counties are of very different lizes. In Leiceflerfhire,
Northamptonfhire, and Pembrokefhire, they are very large.
In Hampfhire, Wiltfhire, and wherever they can run in the
woods, and feed on maft and acorns, their flefh is firmer and
better. The Chinefe fwine are common with us : they are
fmaller, blacker, and their legs fhorter than ours : fo that,
w'hen fat, their bellies literally touch the ground. They Sus.
thrive exceedingly well with us, are very prolific, and their ’■“■v—
flefh very fine and well-tafted.
In confidering the advantages derived from thefe crea¬
tures, it is to be obferved, that the flefh of all their different
kinds, and at all ages, is looked upon as a very fubflantial
and agreeable aliment; and of courfe, in their proper feafons,
the different forts of provjfions thus fupplied are all of them
very faleable. The wild boar was effeemed a prime delicacy
amongft the Romans, and the flefh of the tame was much
more in favour with our anceftors than with us ; though
brawn has ftill many admirers, is made in the greatefl per-
fe-dtion, and confidered as a rarity peculiar to this country.
Pork, though it might be wifely prohibited in foine warm
countries, is found by experience equally nutritive and fa-
lutary here. As fuch it furniihes a very large proportion
of that food which is vended in our markets. It takes fait
better, and keeps longer, than the flefh of any other animal;
and the confumption of it is. prodigious when pickled or
failed, more efpecially in our foreign garrifons and in the
fea fervice. Our bacon is differently cured, fo as to render
it acceptable to all palates;' and our hams are not at all in¬
ferior to thofe of other countries. Frefh pork fells nearly
as dear as beef; the lard brings double or triple the price ;
the blood, the inteltines, the feet, and the tongue, are all
prepared as food. The fat of the inteftines and web, which
differs from common lard, is employed for greafing axles
of wheels, and for many other purpofes. Sieves are made
of the fkin ; -and brufhes, pencils, &c. of the briflles. The
dung is reputed next in value to that of fheep. Mr Wor-
lidge * propofes that fwine fhould be turned into a clofe w'ell- * ?«rwy'/
paled, ?.nd planted with greens, pulfe, and roots, on which
they may feed, and by their trampling and their dung raifel’I/['
a great quantity of excellent foil. Mr Mortimer f affures us f ^rt °f
that fome, on poor light (hallow' land in Staffordfhire, fow^^l""^
a fmall wftiite pea, which they never reap, but turn in lo^, uj,
many hogs to eat them as they think they will fat ; and
there they lie day and night* and their dung will fo enrich
the land, that it wall bring a good fw'ard upon it, and will
graze many years afterwards. Our old hufbandmen had an
ill opinion of this dung, as fuppofing it bred weeds, but it
will probably not obtain much credit at prefent. In fome
places they wafli with hogs dung for want of loap ; which
anfwers tolerably well, it the linen hangs long enough in the
air to become thoroughly fweet.
The wild hoar was formerly a native of our country, as
appears from ihe laws of Hoel dda, who permitted his grand
huntfman to chace that animal from the middle of Novem- .
ber to the beginning of December. William the Conque¬
ror puniflied wdth the lots of their eyes any that were con-
vidted of killing the wild boar, the (tag, or the roebuck ;
and Fitz-Stephen tells us, that the vail foreft that in his
time grew on the north fide of London, was the retreat of
flags, fallow-deer, wild boars, and bulls. Charles I. turned
out wild boars in the New Foreft, Hampfhire ; but they
were deftroyed in the civil wars.
On the continent the wild boar is hunted with dogs, or
killed by furprife during the night, when the moon (bines.
As he runs (lowly, leaves a ftrong odour behind him, and
defends himfelf againft the dogs, and often wounds them
dangeroutly, fine hunting dogs are unneceflary, and woukt
have their nofe fpoiled, and acquire a habit of moving (low¬
ly by hunting him. Maftiffs, with very little training, are
fnfficient. 'The oldeft, which are known by the tradl of their
feet, (hould only be attacked : A young boar of three years
old is difficult to hunt down ; becaufe he runs very far with¬
out flopping. But the older boars do not run far, allow
S U S [ 203 1 s u s
the dogs to run near, and often flop to repel them. Du-
* rin { the day, he commonly remains in his foil, which is in
the moil fequeftrated part of the woods. He comes out
in the night in oueft ot food. In fummer, when the grain
is ripe, it is eafy to furprife him among the cultivated fields,
which he frequents every night. As foon as he is fiain,
the hunters cut off his tefficles, the odour of which is fo
flrong, that in a tew hours it would infeft the whole flefh.
The fnout of an old boar is the only part that is efteemed ;
but every part of the caftrated and young boar, not exceed¬
ing one year fed, makes delicate eating. The pork of the
domeftic boar is ftill worfe than that of the wild boar ; and
it can only be rendered fit for eating by caftration and fat¬
tening. The ancients caftrated the young boars which
they could carry off from their mothers, and returned them
to the woods, where they grew fat, and their pork was
much better than that of dome flic hogs'.' There are feveral
varieties of the common hog.
2. The a’thiopicus, or Ethiopian hog, with fmall tufks in
the lower jaw, very large ones in the upper, in old boars
bending towards the forehead in form of a femicircle : no
fore teeth : nofe broad, depreffed, and almofl of a horny
hardnefs : head very large and broad : beneath each eye a
hollow, formed of loofe fkin, very loft and wrinkled ; under
theie a great lobe or wattle, lying almofl horizontal, broad,
flat, and rounded at the end, placed fo as to intercept the
view of any thing below from the animal. Between thefe
and the mouth on each fide, there is a hard callous protu¬
berance. The mouth is fmall: fkin dufky : briflles difpo-
fed in fafciculi, of about five each ; longeft between the ears
and on the beginning of the back, thinly dilperfed on the
rtft of the back. Ears large and {harp-pointed, infide lined
with long whitifh hairs : tail {lender and fiat, net reaching
lower than the thighs, and is covered with hairs difpofed in
fafciculi. Body longer, and legs fhorter, than in the com¬
mon fwine: its whole length 4 feet 9 inches ; height be¬
fore, 2 feet 2 inches : but in a wild flate, it grows to an
enormous fize.— Fhefe animals inhabit the hotteft parts of
A'rica, from Senegal to Congo, ako the ifland of Madagaf-
car. We know little of their nature ; but they are re-
prefented as very fierce and fwift, and that they will not
breed with the domeftic fow.
3. T he tijriffu, pecary, or Mexican hog, with four cut¬
ting teeth above, and fix below : two tufks in each jaw ;
tliofe in the upper jaw pointing down, and little apparent
when the mouth is fhut ; the others hid : length from nofe
to the end of the rump about three feet : head not fo taper
as in common iwine : ears fhort and eredl: body covered
with brillles, tlronger than thofe of the European kind, and
more like thofe of a hedge-hog ; they are dufky, furrounded
with rings of white ; thofe on the top of the neck and back
are near five inches long, grow fhorter on the fides ; the
bthy almoil naked ; from the fhoulders to the breaft is a
band of white : no tail: on the lower part of the back is a
gland, open at the top, difeharging a fetid ichorous liquor;
this has been by miftake called a ware/.—Inhabits the hotteft
parts of South America, and fome of the Antilles: lives in
ihe forefls on the mountains: not fond of mire or marfhy
places. lefs tat than the common hog. Thefe animals go in
great droves. They are very fierce, and will fight ftoutly
with the beafts of prey : the jaguar, or American leopard, is
their mortal enemy ; often the body of that animal is found
vit r feveral of thefe hogs flam in combat. Hogs will fcarce
attack this animal: if wounded, it will turn on the hunters,
i hey feed on fruits and roots ; alfo on toads and all man-
°* ,erPen*s> which they hold with their fore-feet, and
’dexterity, 1 he flefh is reckoned verv good
food ; but all writers agree that the dorfal gland muft be Sus
cut out as foon as the animal is killed, or the fiefh will be- g ^
come fo infefted as not to be eatable. The Indian name of " L
this fpecies is paquiras, from whence feems to be derived that
of pecary. There are more varieties of this fpecies, the
tajajfu minor and the patera.
4. The babyrujfa, or Indian hog, with four cutting teeth
in the upper, fix in the lower jaw ; ten grinders to each
jaw ; in the lower jaw two tufks pointing towards the
eyes, and {landing near eight inches out of their fockets;
from two fockets on the outfide of the upper jaw two other
teeth, twelve inches long, bending like horns, their ends
almoft touching the forehead : ears fmall, ere6t, fharp-point-
ed: along the back are fome weak bridles ; on the reft of
the body only a fort of wool, fuch as is on the lambs : the
tail long, ends in a tuft, and is often twilled : the body
plump and fquare. Inhabits Euero, a fmall ifle near Am-
boina : it is alfo found in Celebes, but neither on the con¬
tinent of Afia or Africa; what M. de Buffon takes for it
is the Ethiopian boar. They are fometimes kept tame in
the Indian ifles : live in herds : have a very quick feent:
feed on herbs and leaves of trees ; never ravage gardens like
other fwine: their flefh well tailed. When purfued and
driven to extremities, they ruftr into the fea, fwim very well,
and even dive, and pafs thus from ifle to ifle. In the forefts
they often reft their heads, by hooking their upper tufks
on fome bough. The tufks, from their form, are ufelefs in
fight.
SUSA, the ancient royal refidence of the kings of Per-
fia, built by Darius Hyftafpis, according to Pliny ; though
he probably only reftored it, being a very ancient city,
founded by Tithonus father of Memnon. It was in com-
pafs 1 20 fladia, of an oblong quadrangular form, with a ci¬
tadel called Memnoneum. In feripture it is called Sujany
the royal citadel, from the great number of lilies growing
in that diftrift (Athenaeus) ; fituate on the river Uklai, or
Eukeus (Daniel j : and the Spaniards call at this day a lily
afufena (Pinedo). Suia was the winter, as Ecbatana was
the fummer, refidence of the kings of Perfia, (Xenophon,
Strabo, Plutarch). Here the kings kept their treafure,
(Herodotus.) Now called Tujier.
SUSPENSION, in Scots law. See Law, n° clxxxv. f,
6, and 7.
SUSSEX, a county of England, deriving its name from
:ts fituation in refpeft of the other Saxons, and called .SA/ex,
i. e. the country of the South Saxons, has Hampfhire on
the weft, the Britifh channel on the fouth, Surry on the
north, and Kent on the eaft. Its length is 65 miles, its
breadth 30, and its circumference 170. It is divided into
6 rapes, and thefe into 63 hundreds, in which are 342
parifhes, of which 123 are vicarages, one city, 16 market-
towns, 1,140,000 acres, and about 120,000 fouls. It Gough's
has few good ports, though it lies along the channel for"*'0" °/
65 miles, which is its greatefl length, the coafl being en-
cumbered in many places with rocks ; and where it is more v<4 L
open, fuch quantities of fand are thrown upon it by thep. 19*.
fouth-wefl winds, and the harbours fo choaked up, that
they will not admit veffels of any great draught or burden.
The county is well watered by the rivers Arun, Adar,
Oufe, Rother, Lavant, Cuckmeer, Afhbum, and Aften,
by which it is well fupplied with fxfti, as well as from the
fea. Hence different places of the county are famed for
different forts of fifh, as the Arun for mullets, wduch enter
it from the fea in fummer in fhoals, and by feeding upon a
particular kind of herb become extremely delicious: Chi-
chefter for lobfters, Helfey for cockles, Amberley for trout,
Pulborough for eels, Rye for herrings, and the county in
S U T [
SufTeit, general for carp( It Is remarkable, tbat all the rivers
Bathcrla 1 above-mentioned rife and fall into the fea within the county.
Ybe air, as well as the foil, is various in different parts of
the county. Upon the coaff the air is agtnflr, ujion the
hills and downs pleafant and wholefome; but fomewhat
moift and foggy in the valleys, the foil being deep and rich,
and the vegetation in fummer very vigorous. The downs
in fome places are very feitile in corn and grafs ; in others
they feed great flocks of fheep, whofe fleih and wool are
very fine ; but of the latter no inconfiderable quantity is
clandeflinely exported to France. In the Weald and the
valleys the roads are very deep, efpecially in winter. In
the north quarter are many woods, and fome forefts in other
places ; whence the king’s yards are fupplied with the large!!
and heft timber in England, befide what is made into char¬
coal and confumed in the iron-works ; for on the eaft fide is
plenty of iron ore, with furnaces, forges, and mills for ma-
nufafturing it. The gunpowder of this county is faid to
, excel that of any other. Thole delicious birds called wheat-
cars are bred in this (hire ; they are no bigger than a lark,
but almoft an entire lump of fat. That part now called the
Wild or Weald of Suffex,, was anciently a mere dei'ert for
hogs and deer, of great extent, taking in a part of Kent
and Surry ; and was called Anderida Silva, Co:d Andred,
and Andrad/ivald, from Anderida an adjoining city. This
county is in the home-circuit and diocefe of Chichefter,
giving title of earl to the family of Yelverton, and fends 28
members to parliament, viz, two for the county, two for
the city of Chichefter, and two for each of the following
towns, Horfham, Lewes, Bramber, Eafl-Grinftead, Mid-
hurft, Shoreham, Staining, Arundel, Haftings, Rye, Win-
chelfea, and Seaford ; of which the four laft are cinque-
ports.
SUTHERLAND, one of the moft northerly counties of
Scotland. Including Strathnavern, it borders on CaU.lmefs
to the north and noith-eaft, is bounded by the ocean on the
north, the country of Affynt on the weft, Rofs on the
fouth, and by the German fea on the eaft and fouth-eaft. It
ftretches about 70 miles in length, and 40 in breadth ; is
generally hilly, tbo’ in many parts arable ; well watered with
fmall rivers and flreams replete with fifh, and exhibiting about
60 lakes, the habitation of various fifh, fwans, ducks, geefe,
&c. One of the largeft of thefe is Lochfhin, extending 18 miles
in length. Some of them are interfperfed with fmall verdant
iflands, which in fummer yield a very agreeable profpedl.
On the coaft are many commodious harbours, and all the
bays fwarm with fifh; nay, the fea in this place produces
fome valuable pearls. Sutherland affords iron-ftone, free-
ftone, lime-ftone, and flate, in abundance. Here are alfo
quarries of marble, and mines of coal, though the people
ufe turf and peat for fuel. Lead ore, impregnated with fil-
ver, and even fome gold, hath been found in this province,
together with cryftals and pebbles.
The air is fo temperate, and the foil fo good, that faffron
has here been brought to perfedlion. Many parts of the
country are remarkably fruitful in corn, and the pafturage
is excellent everywhere. Befides three great forefts, there
are many fmaller woods in Sutherland, abounding with deer
and other game. On the hills are fed numerous flocks of
fheep and black cattle ; fmall, yet fweet and juicy. There
is one bird peculiar to this fhire, called knag, which refem-
bles a parrot, and digs its neft with its beak in the trunks
of oaks. The northern part, called Strathnavern, and fepa-
rated from the ref! by a ridge of mountains, is bounded on
the north by the Deucaledonian fea, on the weft by the channel
called the Minch, on the eaft: by Caithneis, and on the fouth by
Affynt. The length of it, from eaft to weft, amounts to 34
204 ] SWA
miles; but the breadth from north to fouth does not exceed
12 in fome places. It is very hilly ; and the mountains are
fo high, that the fnow remains on the tops of them till mid-
fummer. It is watered by Navern, from whence it derives
its name : as this diftrift gives a tide to the eldeft ion of
the earl of Sutherland. Here are feveral woods, frequented
by deer and other game, which the people take great de¬
light in hunting. Iron-mines have been worked in fome
places, but to no great advantage. Strathnavern has many
frelh water lakes or lochs ; the chief of which arc Loch Na-
vern and Loch Lyel; there are feveral iflands on the north¬
ern coaft ; and in various parts of the country we ice monu¬
ments of vidlories obtained over the Danes or other foreign
xnvaderd. Sutherland boaftsof fome towns, and a great ma¬
ny villages. The people are numerous, hardy, bold, and
enterprifing ; courteous to ftrangers ; cheerful, open, frugal,
and induftrious. They, as well as their neighbours of
Caithnefs, fpeak the language, and wear the garb, ufed in
the Lowlands of Scotland. They carry on a confiderable
falmon-fifhery. They drive a traffic with their black cattle,
fheep, and horfes, at the neighbouring fairs ; but export
their corn, barley, fait, coal, falmon, faked beef, butter,
cheefe, wool-fkins, hides, and tallow. Here are provifions
of all forts in plenty ; and fo cheap through all this country,
that a gentleman may keep houfe and live much more fump-
tuoufly for 200 1. a year than he can live for three times the
money in the fouth of England.
SUTLER, in war, one who follows the army, and fur-
nifhes the troops with provifion. Sutlers pitch their tents,
or build their huts, in the rear of each regiment, and about
head-quarters.
SUTRIUM (anc. geog.), a famous city, and an ancient
colony of the Romans, the key of Etruria ; founded about
leven years after the taking of Rome by the Gauls (Vel¬
leius). Now Sutri in St Peter’s patrimony, on the river Poz-
zolo ; furrounded on every fide with rocks, 24 miles to the
north weft of Rome.
SUTTON (Samuel), was born at Alfretton in Derby-
fhire, and going into the army ferved under the duke of
Marlborough in Queen Anne’s wars with great credit. He
afterwards came to London, commenced brewer, and kept
a coffee-houfe in Alderfgate-ftreet, which was well frequent¬
ed by the learned men of that time, by whom Mr Sutton
was much refpefted, as a man of ftrong natural parts and
uncultivated genius. About the year 1740 he fchemed a
very fimple and natural method for extracting the foul air
from the wells of fhips, by pipes communicating with the
fire-places of the coppers ; which operated as long as any fire
was kept burning for the fhip’s ufe. He took out a patent
in 1744, to fecure the profits of his invention; and died
about the year 1752.
Sutton’s Air-pipes. See Am-Pipes.
SUTURE, in anatomy, a kind of articulation peculiar
to the- cranium or fkull. See Anatomy, Part I. Se£l. ii.
pajjim.
Suture, in furgery, a method of uniting the lips of
wounds together. See Surgery.
SWABBER, an inferior officer on board fhips of war,
whofe employment it is to fee that the decks are kept clean
and neat.
SWABIA. See Suabia.
SWALLOW, in natural hiftory, is clafted under the
genus oIHirundo, under which article the different fpecies 1
have been already deferibed. Concerning this bird, one cu-QiieftioO»
rious queftion, however, ftill remains to be difeuffed, Whatw,atbe'
becomes of it in the winter ? Upon this fubjeC! there arenffw:.!-
three opinions. Some fay that it migrates to a warmer cli ]oW, in
mate; winter ?
Swallow, mate
SWA [ 205 ] S W
feme, that it retires to hollow trees and caverns, about 50 leagues from the coall
that
migrate to
warm cli¬
mates.
. - y '   ' -----
where it lies in a torpid ftate ; and others have affirmed, that
it lies in the fame ftate in the bottom of lakes and under the
ice. The firft opinion is fupported by Marfigli, Ray, Wil¬
loughby, Cateiby, Reaumur, Adanfon, Buffon, &c. The
firii and fecond opinion are both adopted by Pennant and
White, 'i he third is fan&ioned by Schaeffer, Hevelius,
Deiham, Klein, Kilis, Linnaeus, Kalin : and the fecond and
third have been ftrongly defended by the honourable Daines
Barrington.
'j. hough we cannot help giving a preference to that opi¬
nion which appears the moil probable, yet we do not think
that any one of them is eftablifhed upon inch evidence as fo
curious a fubjedt requires, and as the advanced ftate of na¬
tural hiflory would lead us to expect. We fhall therefore
Rate the arguments upon which each opinion is founded as
fairly and diilincfly as we can, and as often as poffible in the
very words of their refpedtiye advocates. By doing fo, we
fhall place the whole fubjedt before the eyes of our readers,
who will thus have an opportunity of examining it atten¬
tively, and of making fuch obfervations and experiments as
2 may lead to the truth.
Firfl opi- ^ j hofe who affert that the fwallow migrates to a warm^
15"at they1 ’co.untry \n winter, argue in this manner : That many birds
migrate, is a radt fully proved by the obfervations of natu¬
ral hiftorians (lee Migration). Is it not more probable,
therefore, that iwallows, which difappear regularly every
leafon, retire to fome other country, chan that they lie in a
Rate of torpor in caverns or lakes ? But this opinion does
not reft on probability, it is founded on fadts.
Wc often fee them colledted in great flocks on churches,
rocks, and trees, about the time when they annually dilap-
ptai. 1 he divedtion of their flight lias been obferved to be
Natural Hi- fouthward. Mr White, the ingenious hiftorian of Sel-
bZefU~ borne’ travdHnff near the coaft of the Britilh Channel one
y. 64. morning early, faw a flock of fwallows take their departure.
At the be'inning pi his journey he was environed with a
thick fog; but on a large wild heath the mift began to
break, and difeovered to him numberlefs fwallows, cluitered
on the Handing bufhes, as if they had rootled there : as foon
as the fun bmil out, they were inflantly on wing, and with
an ealy and placid flight proceeded towards the fea. Af¬
ter tnis he law no more flocks, only now and then a ftra^-
gler.
Mr Lafkey of Exeter obferved attentively the dire&ion
which a flock of fwallov/s took in the autumn of 1793. On
the 2 2d of Sept.about feven o’clock in the morning, the wu’nd
being eafterly, accompanied with a cold drizzling rain, Mr
I^afkey’s houfe was entirely covered with houfe-fwallows.
At intervals large flocks arrived and joined the main body,
and at their arrival an unufual chirping commenced. The
t. aPPearance of the whole company was fo lethargic, that he
rnd lt, Caly matter to catch a confiderable" number of
7 /9 1 lem’ whlch ^ kept in a room all that dav. By heating
the room they all revived : he opened four of them, and
found their ftomachs quite full. The main body occupied
the houfe top all day, except for two hours. About half
an hour after nine on the morning of the 23d, there was a
great commotion, with very loud chirping, and within a few
minutes after, the whole multitude took iheir flight, in a di¬
rect fouth-eafl direction, having afeended to a ureat height
m the atmofphere. He let go the birds which he had
caught, at certain intervals till four o’clock, and they all
new toward the fame quarter.
°n\baS ^‘re<ftion of their flight been obferved,
preat rTft a^0 been ^ounc* on ^eir paflage at a
0 Pittance from land. Mr Adanfon informs us, that
A
of Senegal four fvvaf- Swallow,
lows fettled upon the firio on the 6th of Oiftobeb ; that
thefe birds were taken ; and that he knew them to be
.Luiopean fwallows, which, he conjedlures, were return¬
ing to the coaft of Africa. Sir Charles Wager’s autho¬
rity may alfo be appealed to: “ Returning home (faysPhilofcfluat
he) in the fpring of the year, as I came into foundings in T>'anfac-
our channel, a great flock of fwallows came and fettled on^■f,'^, vd’
all my rigging; every rope was covered, they hung on
one another like a fwarm of bees; the decks and carving
were filled with them. Tfley feemed almoft famifhed and
fpent, and wrere only feathers and bones ; but, being recruit¬
ed wiib a night’s reil, took their flight in the morning.
This vail fatigue proves that their journey mufl have been
very great, confidering the amazing fwiftnefs of thefe birds:
in all probability they had crofled the Atlantic ocean, and
were returning from the fhores of Senegal, or other parts
of Africa ; fo that this account from that moil able and
honeft teaman, confirms the later information of Mr Adan¬
fon.
Mr Kalm, who is an advocate for the opinion that fwal¬
lows lie immerfed in lakes during the winter, acknowledges,
that in crofting the Atlantic from Europe a fwallow light¬
ed on the flrio on the 2d September, when it hadpafled on¬
ly two thirds of the ocean. Since, therefore, fwallows haveKalms
been feen afiembled in great flocks in autumn flying off \\\ Voyagfy
company towards fouthern dimes, fince they have been v°h i. p. 34*
found both in their paflage from Europe and returning
again, can there be any doubt of their annual migration ?
cor Mr Barrington’s objections to this opinion, fee Mi¬
gration, p. !-. 4 ^
I iie fecond notion (fays Mr Pennant) has great antiqui-Second o-
ty on its fide. Ariflotle and Pliny give it as their belief, Pin,on?tbae
tnat fwallows do not remove very far from their fummer ha-||( e
bitation, but winter in the hollows of rocks, and during that in a torpid
time lofe their feathers. Phe former part of their opinion date,
has been adopted by feveral ingenious men ; and of late fe-
veral proofs have been brought of fome fpecies, at leait, ha¬
ving been difeovered in a torpid ftate. Mr CoUinfon fa- Pennant's
voured us with the evidence of three gentlemen, eye-witnefles
to numbers of land martins being drawn out of a cliff on the
in tVio r* •» ,T.. L - — _ A 1,1 1 it VOl. li*
Rhine, in the month of March 1762. And the honourable
Lames Barrington communicated to us the iollowing fadf,
on the authority of the late Lord Belhaven, That numbers
of fwallows. have been found in old dry walls and in fand-
hills near his Lordfhip’s feat in Eaft Lothian ; not once on¬
ly, but from year to year ; and that when they were expo-
led to the warmth of a fire, they revived. We have alfo heard
of the fame annual difeoveries near Morpeth in Northumber¬
land, but cannot fpeak of them with the fame affurance as
the two former : neither in the two laft inftances are we cer¬
tain of the particular fpecics.
^ “ Other witneffes crowd on us to prove the refidence of
thofe birds in a torpid ftate during the fevere feafon. Firft,
in the chalky cliffs of Suffex ; as was feen on the fall of a
great fragment fome years ago. Secondly, In a decayed
hoi ow tree that was cut down, near Lolgelli, in Merio-
nethfhire. Thirdly, In a cliff near Whitby, Yorkfhire ■
where, on d.gging out a fox, whole bufhels of fwallows were
mund in a torpid condition. And, laftly, The reverend
Mr Conway of Sychton, Flintfhire, was fo obliging as to
communicate the iollowing faCt: A few years ago, on look¬
ing down an old lead-mine in that county, he obferved num¬
bers of fwallows clinging to the timbers of the ffiaft, feem-
ingly afleep ; and on flinging fome gravel on them, they juft
moved, but never attempted to fly or change their place ;
this was between All Saints and Chriftmas.
p. 2^0.
“ Thefe
SWA [ 2o5 ] S W ^
Swallow. « Thefe are doubtlefs the lurking places of the later paper, importing, that by fifhing on tne lake belonging to Swa,ioWi
11 -- vr—^ hatches, or of thofe young birds which are incapable of di- his eftate ot Gerdauen in winter, he faw feveral fwrallow’s
ftant migrations. 'I'here they continue infenfible and rigid; caught in the net, one or which he too* up^ in his hand,
but like flies may fometimes be reanimated by an unfeafon- brought it into a warm room, where it lay about cm hour,
able hot day in the midft of winter : for very near Chrift- when it began to ftir, and half an hour after, it new aoout in
mas a few appeared on the moulding of a window of Mer- the room. I hirdly, 1*aimer-general (Amtman) Witkou-
ton college, Oxford, in a remarkably warm nook, which fki made affidavit, that, in the year 1740, thiee fwallows
prematurely fet their blood in motion, having the fame ef- were brought up with the net in the greac pond ,at Didlac-
feft as laying them before a fire at the fame time of year, ken ; in the year 1741 *:wo ^v/a^-ovvs ^!om another
Others have been known to make this premature appear- part of the pond, and tooK them home (they being, all
ance ; but as foon as the cold natural to the feafon returns, caught in his prefence) ; after an hour’s fpace they revived
they withdraw again to their former retreats. all in a warm room, fluttered about, ana died in thiee hours
“ The above are circumftances we cannot but aflent to, after. Fourthly, Amtman Bonke fays, that having had the
though feemingly contradiftory to the common courfe of eftate of Klefkow in farm, he had feen nine ivvaliows brought
nature in regard to other birds. We mult, therefore, di- up in the net from under the ice, ah which ne took into a
vide our belief relating to thefe two fo different opinions ; warm room, where lie diftinctly obferved how they gradual-
and conclude, that one part of the fwallow tribe migrate, ly revived ; but a few hours after they all died. Another
and that others have their winter-quarters near home. If time his people got likewife fome {wallows in a net, but
it fliould be demanded, why fwallows alone are found in a he ordered them to be again thrown into the water. Fifth-
torpid ftate, and not the other many fpecies of foft billed ly, Andrew Rutta, a mailer fifherman at Oletflco, made af-
birds, which likewife difappear about the lame time? rea- fidavit, in 1747* ^iat 22 years ago, two fw.allows were
4 fons might be affighed taken up by him in a net, under the ice, and, being brought
Third opi- The third opinion we fhall ftate and fupport in the words into a warm room, they flew about. Sixthly, Jacob Ko-
rion, char 0p }£alm. “ Natural hiftory (fays be), as all other hi- liulo, a mafter fiftierman at Stradauen, made affidavit, that,
ftories, depends not always upon the intrinfic degree of pro- in he brought up in winter, in a net, from under the
fed in wa- bability, but upon fails founded on the teftimony of people ice of the lake at Rafki, a feemingly dead fwallow, which re-
jter. of noted veracity.— Swallows are feldom feen finking down vived in half an hour’s time in a warm room; and he faw, in
into the water ; fwallows have not fuch organs as hogs or a quarter of an hour after, the bird grow weaker, and foon
-lizards, which are torpid during winter; ergo, fwallows live after dying. Seventhly, I can reckon mylelf (fays our au-
not, and cannot live, under water.—This way of arguing, thor) among the eye-vvitnefles of this paradox or natural hi>
I believe, would carry us, in a great many cafes, too far : ftory. In the year 1735> being a little boy, I faw feveral
for though it is not clear to every one, it may however be {wallows brought in winter by the fifhermen from the river
true ; and lizards and frogs are animals of a clafs widely dif- Viftula to my father’s houfe ; where two of them were
ferent from that of birds, and mult therefore of courfe have brought into a warm room, revived, and flew about. I faw
a different ftrufture ; hence it is they are claffed feparately. them feveral times lettling on the warm ftove (which the
The bear and the marmot are in winter in a torpid ftate, northern nations have in their rooms) ; and I recoiled! well,
and have, however, not fuch organs as lizards and frogs ; that the fame forenoon they died, and I had them, when
and nobody doubts of their being, during fome time, in the dead, in my hand. In the year 1754’ after the death of
moft rigid climates, in a torpid ftate: for the Alpine na- my uncle Godefroy Woli, captain in the Polilh regiment of
tions hunt the marmots frequently by digging their holes foot-guards, being myfelf one of his heirs, I adminiftered
up ; and And them fo torpid, that they cut their throats, for my co heirs feveral eftates called the Starojly of Difcbau,
without their reviving or giving the leaft fign of life during in Polifh Pruffia, which my late uncle farmed under the
the operation ; but when the torpid marmot is brought into king. In January, the lake of LybAraw, belonging to
a warm room, and placed before the fire, it revives from its theie eftates, being covered with ice, I ordered the fifti-
lethargy. The queition muft therefore be decided by facts ; ermen to fifti therein, and in my prelence feveral fwallows
nor are thefe wanting here. Dr Wallerius, the celebrated were taken, which the fiftiermen threw in again ; but one I
Swedifh chemift, informs us, That he has feen, more than took up to myfelf, brought it home, which was five miles
once, fwallows affembling oil a reed, till they were all im- from thence, and it revived, but died about an hour after its
merfed and went to the bottom ; this being preceded by a reviving.
dirge of a quarter of an hour’s length. He attells likewife, “ Thefe are fatfts attefted by people of the higheft qua-
that he had feen a fwallow caught during winter out of a lity, by fome in public offices, and by others who, though
lake with a net, drawn, as is common in northern countries, of a low rank, however, made thefe affidavits upon oath. It
tinder the ice ; this bird was brought into a warm room, re- is impoffible to fuppofe indiferiminately that they were
vived, fluttered about, and foon after died. prompted, by views of intereft, to affert as a fa<ft a thing
“ Mr Klein applied to many farmers-general of the which had no truth in it. It is therefore highly probable,
king of Pruffia’s domains, who had great lakes in their di- or rather inconteflably true, that fwallows retire in the
itrifts, the fifhery in them being a"part of the revenue. In northern countries, during winter, into the water, and ftay
winter the fifhery thereon is the moil conftderable under the there in a torpid ftate till the return of warmth revives
ice, with nets fpreading more than 200 or 300 fathoms, and them again in fpring. The queftion therefore, I believe,
they are often wound by ferews and engines on account of ought tor the future to be thus ftated: The fwallows in
I heir weight. All the people that were queftioned made af- Spain, Italy, France, and perhaps fome from England, re-
fidavits upon oath before the m-agiftrates. Firft, The mo- move to warmer climates ; fome Englifh ones, and fome in
ther of the countefs Lehndorf laid, that fhe had feen a bun- Germany and other mild countries, retire into clefts and
die of fiwaliows brought from the Frifhe-Haff (a lake com- holes in rocks, and remain there in a torpid ftate. In the
municating with the Baltic at Pillaw), which, when brought colder northern countries the fwallows immerfe in the fea,
into a moderately warm room, revived and fluttered about, in lakes, and rivers ; and remain in a torpid ftate, under ice,
Secondly, Count Schileben gave an inflrumcnt on ftamped during winter. There are ilill fome objections to this latter
after-
a in
SWA
[ 207 1
SWA
Swallow, aflertion, which we mud remove. It 13 laid. Why do not
 v rapacious fifli, and aquatic quadrupeds and birds, devour
thefe fwallows ? The anfwer is obvious, fwallows choofe on¬
ly fuch places in the water for their winter-retreat as are
near reeds and rufhes; fo that finking down there.between
them and their roots, they are by them fecured againfl the
rapacioufnefs of their enemies. But others object, Why
are not thele birds caught in (uch irefh waters as are conti¬
nually haraffed by nets ? I believe the fame anlvver which
has been made to the firit objection will ferve for this like-
wife. Filhermen take care to keep oft with their nets from
places filled with reeds and nifties, for fear of entangling and
tearing their net ; and thus the fttuation of 1 wallows under
water, is the reafon that they are feldom difturbed m their
iilent winter-retreats. What confirms this opinion ftill
more is, that fwallows were never caught in Pruftra according
to the above-mentioned affidavits, but with thoie parts of
the net which paffed near to the reeds and nifties ; and fome-
times the fwallows were yet faftened with their ieet to a
reed, when they were drawn up by the net. As to the ar¬
gument taken from their being fo long under water with¬
out corruption, I believe there is a real difference between
animals fuffocated in water and animals being torpid there¬
in. We have examples of things being a long time un¬
der water ; to which we may add the intenfe cold of theie
northern regions, which preferves them. Who would have
thought that fnails and polypes might be diueffed, and
could reproduce the parts fevered from their bodies, if it
was not a faff ? Natural hiftory ought to be itudied as a
coile&ion of fa£ts, not as the hiftory of our guefles or opi¬
nions. Nature varies in an infinite manner ; and Providence
has diverfified the inftinft of animals and their economy, and
adapted it to the various feafons and climates.”
With Mr Kalm’s concluding obfervations we heartily
concur. Natural hiffory ought to be ftudied as a colledlion
of fabls ; and it was from this very notion that we have
—, ftated the above mentioned opinions fo fully, and brought
|oni"K, but together the facts which the befl advocates for each opinion
liiern^”' have judged moft proper for fuppoiting them. We are
fenfible of the great improbability of the third opinion, and
know that many arguments have been ufed to prove its ab-
furdity : fuch as thefe, The fwallow is lighter than water,
and therefore cannot fink ; if it moults at all, it muft moult
under water during its torpid ftate, which is very improba¬
ble ; there is no inftance of land animals living fo long under
water without refpiration. Many other arguments of the
fame fort have been advanced, and certainly afford a ftiort
way of deciding the queftion ; but unlefs they were frit-
ficient to prove the immerfion of fwallows a phyfical im-
pofEbility, they are of no force when oppofed to the evi¬
dence ot teftimony, it there be no caufe to fufpeft the w-it-
nefies of inaccuracy or defrgn. The true way to refute fuch
an opinion is by accurate oblervation and experiment. We
have not heard of any accurate inquiries being made by
philofophers in thofe northern countries where fwallows are
laid to pals the winter under water. The count de Buffon,
indeed, (hut up feme fwallows in an ice-houfe by way of ex¬
periment, which died in a few days ; but as he does not tell
us what precautions he took to make the experiment fuc-
ceed, it is not intitled to any attention.
Mr John Hunter made a very judicious experiment on
the banks of the Thames, which is deferibed by a corre-
jenilcrrmn j fp0ndent jn t}ie Gentleman’s Magazine, who afler ts that he
£azi'“:' had it from Mr Hunter himfelf.
One year in the month of September, he prepared a room,
wuth every accommodation and convenience which he could
contrive, to lerve as a dormitory for fwallows, if they were
difpofed to fteep in wintg*. lie placed in the centre a large
I. 5
■Phis cjue-
■iion ought
jlo be de-
permined,
ot by rea
igazine,
\Tay l1] 96.
tub of water with twigs and reeds, &c. which reached to Swallow,
the bottom. In the corners of the room he contrived ar-
tificial caverns and holes, into which they might retire ; and jgun_
he laid on the floor, or fufpendedin the air, different lengths ter’s expe-
of old wooden pipes, which had formerly been employed inriment in-
conveying water through the ftreets, &c. gtmous.
When the receptacle was rendered as complete as poflibie,
he then engaged fome -watermen to take by night a large
quantity of the fwallows that hang upon the reeds in the
Thames about the time of their departure. They brought
him, in a hamper, a confiderable number; and had fo nice¬
ly hit the time of their capture, that on the veiy day fol¬
lowing there were none to be ieen.
He put the fwallows into the room fo prepared, where
they continued to fly about, and occafionally perch on the
twigs, &c. But not one ever retired into the water, the
caverns, holes, or wooden pipes, or fhewed the lead difpo-
fttion to grow torpid, &c. In this fttuation he let them re¬
main till they all died but one. ’This, appearing to retain
fome vigour, was fet at liberty ; when it mounted out of
fight, and flew away.- All the birds lay dead fcattered
about the room ; but not one was found afteep or torpid,
or had, if the correfpondent remembers, fo much as crept
into any-of the receptacles he had fo provided. y
This experiment was ingenious, and certainly does render But not
the doftrine of immerfion much more improbable ; but it^e.cl^ve
is not decilive ; for it may {till be urged by the advocates^”!)
for that dorit' ine, as Mr Kalm has done, that it may only northern
be in the colder countries where fwallows retire into thedmmes.
water. We formerly faid that none of the three opinions
are fupported by fuch evidence as to fatisfy the mind com¬
pletely, Opinions which refpect events which happen every
year ought to be confirmed by a great number of obferva¬
tions, and not by a few initances divefted of almoft all their l
concomitant circumftances. Can no better proofs be brought
to prove the migration of fwallows than thofe of Adanfon
and Sir Charles Wager, or the circumftances mentioned by
Mr White and Mr Lafkey refpedling their difappearing ?
We ought not merely to know that fome fwallows have
taken a foutherly flight in autumn, that fome have been
found at a great diflance from land in the fpring, or in har-
veft ; but we ought to know to what countries they a (dual¬
ly retire. Before we can reft fatisfied, too, that it is a ge¬
neral fadl that fwallows remain in a torpid ftate during,
winter, either in caverns or in the bottom of lakes, &c. we
muff have more proofs ; we mult know what fpecies of fwal-
lows they are faid to be, in what countries this event takes
place, and feveral other circumftances of the fame kind. g
We cannot help being of opinion that much remains to Many
be done in order properly to afeertain what becomes of thethinns
fwallows in Europe during winter. It would be neceffary,t‘>
in the firft place, to know accurately what are the countries order 10*
in which fwallows are forsnd. 2, Do they remain vifible^e-ermine
the whole year?, or, if they difappear, at what feafon doesthis point*
this happen, and when do they appear again ? 3. Do they
ever appear while a ftrong north wind blows, or do they only,
come in great numbers with a fouth wind ? We will endea¬
vour to anfwer fome of thefe queftions in part; but muff; re¬
gret, that all the information on this fubjedl which we have
been able to cull from the bell writers in natural hiftory is
very feanty ; and we merely give it by way of fpecimen,
hoping that future obfervations will foon render it more
complete. ^
There are five fpecies which vifit Britain during the A few im-
fummer months ; the common or chimney fwallow, the mar-P0,tant
tin, fand martin, fwift, and goat-fucker. The chimneyfadlsilatsdl
fwallow frequents almoil every part of the old continent;
being known (fays Dr Latham) from Norway to the Cape
8 of
i5*-r.l!ow.
SWA [ ioS ] SWA
of Good Hone on the one fide, and from Karntfehatka to ledge it to be rather a curious than an important inquiry; §.va!W
India and Japan on the other. It is alfo found in all parts yet it is one which mu!t be highly gratifying to everySwarr!'W,
mind that can admire the wifdoffi of the Great Architeft ^
of nature. The inttimft of the fwallow is indeed wonder- ~*''r
ful : it appears among us jult at the time when infefts be¬
come numerous ; and it continues with us during the hot
weather, in order to prevent them from multiplying too
much. It difappears when thefe infedts are no loncmr ’
commonly mild, ami Apnl and May remarkably cold, it troublefome. It is never found in folitude ; it is the friend
of North America, and in feveralof the Weft Indian Ifiands.
In Europe it difappears during the winter months. It ap¬
pears generally a little after the vernal equinox ; but rather
earlier in the fouthern, and later in the northern latitudes.
It adheres to the ufual fealons with much regularity ; for
though the months of February and March ihoukl be un-
f Buffin's
Natural
JlijUry of
Birds,
vol. vi.
V-5*7-
f MV. 517
|1 Hid. 4S4
Tranfuc-
tions of the
Z-innaan
Society,
■wol. i.
never deviates from its ordinary time. In the cold fpring
of >740 iome appeared in France before the infe&s on
which they feed had become numerous enough to iupport
them, and great numbers died f. In the mild and even
warm fpring of 1774 they appeared no earlier than ufual.
They remain in feme warm countries the whole year. Xol-
ben a flares us that this is the cafe at the Cape of Good
Hope; but (he fays) they are more numerous in winter,
ilome birds of this ipecies live, during winter, even in Eu¬
rope ; for example, on the coaft of Genoa, where they fpend
the ni iht in the open country on the orange fhrubs.
2. The martins are alfo widely diffufed through the old con¬
tinent ; but the countries where they refide or vifit have
not been marked by naturalifts with much attention. 3.
The /and martins are found in every part of Europe, and
■ frequently fpend the winter in Malta J. Two birds of this
fpecies were feen in Perigord in France, on the 27th Decem¬
ber 1775, when there was a foutherly wind, attended with
,a little rain ||. 4. The /tuft vifits the whole continent of
Europe ; has alfo been obferved at the Caoe of Good Hope,
and in Carolina in North America. 7. The goat-fuckers are
mot very common birds, yet are widely feattered They
are found in every country between Sweden and Africa :
they are found alfo in India. In April the foilth-weft wind
brings them to Malta, and in autumn they repafs in great
numbers.
Mr Markwick of Catsfield, near Battle in SufTex, has
drawn up an accurate table, exprefiing the day of the month
on which the birds, commonly called migratory, appeared in
fpring, and difappeared in autumn, for 16 years, from 1768
to 1783 inclufive. The obfervations were made at Catsfield.
From this table we fhall extradl the dates for five years, and
add the very few obfervations which we have been able to
colleft refpefting the time when the fwallow appears and
difappears in other countries.
1779-
Hrf feen.
Chi nr. Swal. Ap. 14.
Martins
Sand Mart.
Swift
Chim. Swal,
Martins
■Sand Mart.
Swift
Chim. Swal.
Mai tins
14-
May 7.
9-
17 So.
Lufl feen.
Od. 29.
U-
Nov.
Ap. 29.
8.
May 6.
1781.
Ap. 8.
May 12.
Sep.
Sand Mart.
Swift
Chim. Swal.
Martins
Sand Mart.
Swift
Od. 1
Sep.
Chun. Swab
Chim. Swal.
Martins
Sand Mart.
Swift
1781.
Bnf feen.
Ap. 26.
May 12.
17S2.
Ap. 22.
26.
May ij.
18.
1785.
Ap. 13.
May 1.
July 25.
May 13.
fen.
Sep. 1.
Sep.
Nov.
AUg.
Nov.
Sep.
Nov.
1.
2.
28.
28.
6.
6.
1.
6.
t Baffin,
Ibid,
f White's
Natural
Uif try of
Selborne.
% Buff on,
ibid.
Swifts. Martins.
Appear about
Ap. 9.
In Burgundy f
In Seiborne, Hampfhire Ap. 4. Ap. 24. Ap. 3c.
In South Zele, Devonihire f 23, May i. May ij.
In Blackburn, oancafhire f 29. Ap. a8.
In Upfal in Sw eden § May 9.
3. Mart.
Ap, 12.
Were tables of the fame kind made in every different
country, particularly within the torrid zone, ft would be
eafy to determine the queftion which we have been confx-
dering. 1 o many, perhaps, it may not appear a matter of
fuch importance as to be worth the labour. We acknow-
of man, and always takes up its reiidence with us, that
it may proteft our houies and our ftreets from being annoy¬
ed with fwarms of flies.
Str4lloir-Wort, in botany. Bee Asclepias.
SWAMMERDAM (John), a celebrated. and learned
natural philofopher, was the fan of John James Swammer¬
dam, an apothecary and famous naturalift of Amfterdam,
and was born in 1637. His father intended him for the
church, and with this view had him inftru&ed in Latin and
Greek ; but he, thinking himfelf unequal to fo important a
tafic, prevailed with his father to confent to his applying
himfelf to phyfic. As he was kept at home till he" fhould
be properly qualified to engage in that Audy, he was fre¬
quently employed in cleaning his father’s curiofities, and
putting every thing in its proper place. This infpired our
author with an early tafte for natural hiftory ; fo that, not
content with the furvey of the curiofities his father had pur-
chafed, he foon began to make a colleffion of his own,
which he compared with the accounts given of them by the
belt writers. When grown up, he ferioufly attended to his
anatomical and medical {Indies; yet fpent part of the day
and the night in difeovering, catching, and examining the
flying ihfehts proper to thole times, not only in the province
or Holland, but in thofe of Guelderland and Utrecht.—■
Thus initiated in natural hiftory, he went to the univerfity
of Leyden in 163't ; and in 1663 was admitted a candidate
of phyfic in that univerfity. His attention being now en¬
gaged by anatomy, he began to confider how the parts of
the body, prepared by difle&iou, could be preferved, and
kept in conftant order for anatomical demonttration ; and
herein he lucceeded, as he had done before in his nice con¬
trivances for differing and managing the minuteft infefts.
Our author afterwards made a journey into France, where he
fpent fome time at oaumur, and where he became acquaint¬
ed with feveral learned men. In 1667 he returned to Ley¬
den, and took his degree of Doftor of Phyfic. The next
year the grand duke of Tufcany being in Holland in order
to fee the curiofities of the country, came to view thofe of
our author and his father ; and on this occahon Swammer¬
dam made fome anatomical diffe&ions of infefts in the pre¬
fence of that prince, who was ftruck with admiration at our
author’s great {kill in managing them, efpecially at his pro¬
ving that the future butterfly lay with all its parts neatly
folded up in a caterpillar, by aflually removing the integu¬
ments that covered the former, and extricating and exhibit-
ing all its parts, however minute, with incredible ingenuitv,
by means of inftruments of inconceivable finenefs. On this
occafion the duke offered our author 12,000 florins for his
fliare of the colledfion, on condition of his removing
them himfelf into Tufcany, and coming to live at the
court of florence ; but Swammerdam, who hated a court
life, declined his highnefs’s propofal. In 1663, he publift-
ed a General Hiftory of Infeffs. About this time, his fa¬
ther began to take offence at his inconfiderately neglefling
the praftice of phyfic, which might have fupported him in
affluence; and would neither fupply him •with'money nor
clothes. This reduced him to fome difficulties. In 1675 he
publifhed his Hiltory of the Ephemeras; and his father dy¬
ing the fame year, left him a fortune fufficient for his fup-
port:
*
S W E [ noo ] S W E
"Swan po?t: t>ut he did not long furvive him, for he died m l6$ii
' w-'l n ^au^,us ffave 3 t.ran{lation of all his works from the origi-
nal Dutch into Latin, from which they were translated into
JEnglifh, iri folio, in 1758. The celebrated Boferhaave v/rote
his life,.
SWAN, in ornithology. See Anas.
SWAN PAN, or Chinefe Abacus ; art inftrument for
performing arithmetical operations, deferibed by Du Halde
in his Hillory of China.
It is compofed of a fmall board, Crofted with 10 or 12
parallel rods or wires, each ftrung with ivory balls, which
arc fo divided by a partition in the middle, that two are on
one fide of it, and five on the other. The two in the up-
• per part ftand each for five units, and each of the five in the
lower part lor one. “ In joining and feparating thefe balls,
they reckon much as we do with counters ; but, according-
Crnt. Mag.to our author, more expeditioully than Europeans do even
:or 1748. with figures.” This is hardly credible ; but if all the Chi¬
nefe w-eights and meafures be decimally divided, as by his
very lame defeription of the fivanpan they would appear
to be, it is eafy to conceive how computation may be
made by this inftrument very expeditioufty. The inftru¬
ment, too, may be fo contrived as to fuit any divifion of
weights and meafures, and in that form be ufetul to the
blind ; but as we have elfewhere given deferiptions of fupe-
rior inftiuments, for their accommodation (fee Blind) it is
needlefs to offer in this place any improvement of the_/man-
pcm.
SWANEMOTE, Swai nmote, or Sweinmote. See
Fo REST-Courts. ,
SWEARING. See Oath.
SWEAT, a fenfible moifture iffuing from the pdres of
the ftcins of living animals.
The excefs of it dries and weakens the body, deprives
the humours of their watery parts, and induces the blood to
an inflammatory and atrabiliary difpofition. A hidden fup-
preflion of it will equally hurt as well as a fuppreffion of per-
i pi ration.
SWTEATING sickness, a diforder which appeared in
England about the year 1481, and was by foreigners called
the Engli/h pweat. It returned again in 1485 ; then in 1506 ;
afterwards in 1517. It appeared again in 1528, or 1529,
at which time alone it fpread itfelf to the Netherlands and
Valangin'i Germany: a circumftance which fhews the impropriety of
<iaI'in£ ^ /meat, in Latin fudor Anglicanus; be-
’ fides, Sennertus takes notice, that it fpread as far as Den¬
mark, Norway, and Trance. It raged again in 1548.
And the laft return of it in London was in 15^1, when it
was fo violent as in one day to take off 120 of the inhabi¬
tants of W eftminfter. Some were feized abroad, and cut
oft in the road, others at home. Some when awake, others
when faft afteep. Some died in a moment, and others
in one, two, three, four, or more hours after they began to
fweat. 1 ^
SWEDEN, one of the moft northerly kingdoms of Eu¬
rope, lying between Lat. 55. 20. and 69. 30. north, and
between 12° and 320 eaft from London. On the fouth it
is bounded by the Baltic, on the north by Danifh Lapland,
on the eaft by Mufcovy, and on the weft by the mountains of
, of Norway, being 800 miles in length and 3 50 in breadth.
Early hi- The early hiftory of Sweden is no lefs involved in fables
•cemin"1 ! • mo^ ot^er nations. Some hiftorians have pre¬
tended to give regular catalogues of the princes who reigned
in Sweden m very early times; but they differ fo much
among themfelves, that no credit can be given to them.
However, all agree that ancient Scandinavia was firft go¬
verned by judges eledted for a certain time by the voice of
VolPXVIIimp1^ *ttnTorary princes the country
was divided, until, in the year of the world 2034, accord- Sw-drrr.
ing to fome, or 1951, according to others, Eric, or, if we ""v-* •-*
believe Puffendorf, Suenon was raffed to the fupreme power*
with the prerogatives of all the temporary magiftrates uni¬
ted in his perfon for life, or until his conduct fhould merit
deposition.
From this very early period till the year 1366 of the
Chriftian era, the hiftories of Sweden prefent us with no-
thing but what is common to all nations in their early pe¬
riods, viz. the endlefs combats and maffacres of barbarians;
tending to no other purpofe than the effufion of blood. Ac %
the time juft mentioned, however, Albert of Mecklenburg, Albert of
having concluded a peace between Sweden and Denmark, Mecklen-
which two kingdoms had been at violent war for fomel>“rg fJe!*
time before, was proclaimed king of Sweden. The peacey^t^*1®
was of ftiort duration, being broken in 1368; on which
Albert entered into an often five and defenfive league with
the earl of Holftein, the Jutland nobility, the dukes of Self¬
wick, Mecklenburg, and the Hanfe-towns, againft the kings ^
of Denmark and Norway. Albert proved very fuccefsfuf War with
againft Waldemar king of Denmark at that time, driving Deiimai'k.
him entirely out of his dominions ; but he himfelf was
feated by the king- of Norway, who laid fiege to his capi-Way‘
tal. Soon after this, a new treaty of peace was concluded,
by which Albert was allowed to enjoy the crown of Swe¬
den in peace. However, having formed a defign of render¬
ing himfelf abfolute, he Til under the difpleafure of his fub-
jefts, and Margaret of Norway was proclaimed queen of
Sweden by the rnalecontents. A war immediately enfued, .
in which Albert was defeated and taken prifoner ; but as rs defeated
the princes of Mecklenburg, the earls of Holftein, and the ami taken
Hanfe towns, entered into a league in his favour, the warPrifoner
was fo far from being extinguifhed by this event, that it ra- I^raHErec
ged with more fury than ever. ‘ 1 on>‘lD
At length, in 1394, the contending parties came to an
accommodation. Albert was fet at liberty, on condition Sef afiihenr
that he fhould in three years furrender to Margaret all pre-ty,
tenfions to the city of Stockholm ; and the Hanfe-towns
engaged to pay the fum of 60,000 marks of filver in cafe
of Albert’s breach of faith. Not long after this, Erie
the fon of Albert died ; and he, having no other child, did
not think it worth his while to contend for the kingdom
of Sweden : he therefore acquiefced in the pretenfions of
Margaret, and pafled the remainder of his days at Meck¬
lenburg.
Margaret died in iqxy, and was fucceeded by Eric of Margaret
Pomerania. ihis prince’s reign was cruel and opprefixve>s T'cceeded
to the laft degree. I he people were ruined by taxes ; and*1^ ^r*c a
the Danes being every where preferred to the offices ofj,™)*ly*
power, commifted the greateft cruelties. The confequence 7
of this was a revolt; and Charles Canutfon, grand mare-general
fchal of Sweden and governor of Finland, having joined therevoIt takcs
malecontents, was declared commander in chief of their ar-
my. Eric was now formally depoied, and commenced pi-pofed.
rate: Canutfon was chofen-regent: but beginning to op-
prels the people, and afpiring ooenly at the crown, the
Swedes and Danes revolted ; in confequence of which a re¬
volution took place, and Chriftopher duke of Bavaria, ne-
phew to Eric, was choien king ol Denmark, Sweden, and
Norway, in 1442.
On the acctftion of the new prince, complaints againfi:
Canutfon were brought from all quarters; but, through the
intereft of his friends, he efcaped the punifhment due to
him ; and in I44^> Chriftopher having died after a tyrannical
reign or fornewhat more than five years, he was railed to
the throne at which he had fo long afpired. However, the
kingdoms of Denmark and Norway refufed to own allegi¬
ance to him ; upon which a war immediately commenced.
Jd d Jn
E
[ 21
Sweden.
The three
kingdoms
united un¬
der Cbri-
ib ui king
cf D. n-
mat k, and
■proves a
tyrant, and
js driven
cut*
9
John king
o£ Den¬
mark ob¬
tains the
Swedifti
crown, but
is. dr iven
out.
TO
Chriftian
king of
Denmark
invades
Sweden,
hut is de¬
feated and
driven out.
s \v
In 14 C4 peace was concluded, and Denmark for the pre-
ient freed from the Swedifh yoke. Neither did Canutfon
long enjoy even the crown of Sweden itfelf. Having quar-
relied with the archbifhop of Upfal, the latter formed
a ftrong party that the king could not refill ^him. Chriflian
kino- of Denmark was called to the throne of Sweden ; and m
i4C°o once more united the three kingdoms. He enjoyed
his dignity but a fhort time; for having begun to opprefs
his fubjedis in an arbitrary manner, he was obliged to retire
to Denmark in 1463. Katii bifhop of Lincopmg, who
had driven out the king, took upon himfelf the office of re¬
gent. Next year Chi iilian returned with a powerful army ;
but was defeated. The people then thought proper to re-
cal Canutfon : but he, on his firft acceffion, having offend-
«d the warlike Bifhop Katii, was by him defeated, and obli¬
ged to renounce his right to the crown. After this the
kingdom was rent into faflions; between whom tae moft
cruel civil wars took place, until-the year 1467, when Canut¬
fon was again recalled, and enjoyed the kingdom, though
not without difficulty and oppofition, till his death, which
happened in i470-
The confufion in which the Swediffi affairs had been fo
long involved did not ceafe on the death of Canutlon. Chri-
ilian again invaded Sweden; but was deleated by Steen
Store, neohew to the late king. After this the kingdom
feemsto have remained, in peace till the year 14875 when the
Ruffians invaded Carelia, committing everywhere the great-
eft. ravages. Thele were foon driven out : but in 1497’ ^
rupture happening betwixt Sture and.the fenate, an offer
was made of the Swedifh crown to John king of Denmark.
This prince readily accepted the ofter, and was crowned ac¬
cordingly ; but no fooner was he feated on the throne than
he became odious to the Swedes, from his partiality to the
Danes. In a fhort time he fet out for Denmark, leaving
his queen, with a ftrong garrifon, in the citadel of Stock¬
holm. He was no fooner gone than the capital was inveft-
ed : and though the queen made a noble defence, ihe was at
la ft obliged to capitulate, on condition of being allowed to
pafs into Denmark. All the garrifon were made prifoners
of war, and the queen herfelf was confined in a monafteiy
till the following year.
The Swedifh affairs continued to be involved in the fame
dreadful confution as we have already related, until the year
3520, when a great revolution was effedled by Guftavus
Ericfon, a nobleman of the firft rank, who reftored the
kingdom to its liberty, and laid the foundation of its future
grandeur. The occafion of this great revolution was as fol¬
lows : In 1518, Chritlian king of Denmark invaded Swe¬
den, with a deiign to fubdue the whole country ; but being
defeated with great lofs by young Steen Sture, the regent
at that time, he fet fail for Denmark. But meeting with
contrary winds, he made feveral defeents on the Swedifh
coaft, which he ravaged with all the fury of an incenfed
barbarian. The inhabitants, however, bravely defended
themfelves, and Chriflian was reduced to the utrnoft diflrefs ;
one half of his forces having perifhed with hunger, and the
other being in the molt imminent danger by the approach,
of a rigorous winter. He then thought of a ftratagem,
which had almofl proved fatal to the regent; for having
invited him to a conference, at which he defigned either to
affaffinate or take him prifoner, Sture was about to comply,
had not the fenate* who fufpedled the plot, interpofed and
prevented him. Chriflian then offered to go in perfon to
Stockholm in order to confer with Stare, upon condition that
fix hoftages fhould be fent in his room. This was accord¬
ingly done ; but the wind happening then to prove favour¬
able, he fet fail for< Denmark with the hollages, of whom
Guftavus Ericfon was one. Next year he returned; and
o ] S \v E
having drawn Sture into an ambufh, the regent received a Sweden,
wound of which he died fome time after. The kingdom '
being thus left without a head, matters foon came to^Het'mhe.
moll defperate crifis- The army difbanded itfelf; and theroufly car-'
fenate, inllead of taking proper meafures to oppofe the ene-w.. ffCu
my, fpent their time in idle debates. Chriflian in the mean^0%e^of
time advanced into the heart of the kingdom, deftroying
every thing with fire and fword; but on his arrival atfbnisone.
Strav.nez, he granted a fufpenfion of arms, to give the peo¬
ple time to deliberate on their fituation, and to refledl that u
they might eafrly get rid of their troubles by eledling himbehofen
kmor. This they accordingly did; and Chriftian provedk>:'g>and
one of the moft bloody tyrants that ever fat on the throne
of any kingdom. Immediately after his coronation, he gave
grand entertainments For three days; during which _time he tyrant,
projected the diabolical defign of extirpating at once all the
Swedifh nobility, and thus for ever preventing the people
from revolting, by depriving them of their proper leaders. As
the tyrant had figned articles, by which he promifed indem¬
nity to all who had borne arms againft him, it became ne-
cefl'ary to invent fome caufe of offence againft thofe whom
he intended to deftroy. To accomplifh his purpofe, Gu¬
ftavus Trolle, formerly aichbifhop of Upfal, but who had
been degraded from that dignity, in an oration before his
majefly lamented the demolition of Stecka, his place of reii-
dence, and the Ioffes fuflained by the fee of Upfal, amount¬
ing to near a million of money. He then proceeded in a
bitter accufation againft the widow and the fon-in-law of
Stare the late regent, comprehending in the fame accufa¬
tion about 15 of the principal nobility, the whole fenate, and ^
the burghers of Stockholm The confequence of this was, Maflkcres
that above 60 of the principal nobility and people of firft the n^bui*
rank in Sweden were hanged up as traitors. Innumerable^^
other cruelties were committed; part of which are owned ^ loiie
by the Danifh hiflorians, and minutely related by thofe oferefledw
Sweden. At laft he departed for Denmark, ordering gib-he paffes
bets to be eredled, and caufing the peafants to be hanged onalonS-
them for the flightefl offences, all the way as he paffed along;
and it is related of him, that at Jencpping he caufed two
boys, one of ffiven and the other of nine years of age, to be
whipped to death.
This monftrous cruelty, inftead of fecuring him on the
throne, exafperated the whole nation againft him. It has
already been mentioned, that Guflavus Ericfon, or, as he isAdventurfl
commonly called, Guftavus Fafa, was among the number
of the hollages whom Chriflian had perfidioufly carried to
Denmark in 1519. Large promifes had been made in or¬
der to reconcile him to Chriftian, and threats had been ufed
for the fame purpofe, but all in vain. Secret orders were
given to flrangle him in prifon; but the officer to whom the
affaffination was committed remonflrated to the king about
the confequences of it, and prevailed on him to change the
fentence of death into clofe^ confinement in the caitle of Co¬
penhagen. Some of the hoilages perifhed in confequence
of the rigorous treatment they met with ; but Guftavus-
withftood all hardfhips. At laft one Banner, a Danifh no¬
bleman, prevailed on the king to put him into his hands, in
order to try whether or not he could prevail upon him to
change his fentiments. The king, however, told Banner,
that he mull pay 6000 crowns in cafe the prifoner fhould
make his efcape. Banner generoufly affented ; and having
brought the noble prifoner to his fortrefs of Calb in Jut¬
land, loon allowed him all the liberty he could defire, and1
otherwife heaped favours upon hftn. All this, however,
could not extinguifh his remembrance of the cruelties @r
Chriftian, and the defire he had of being ferviceable to his 15
country. He therefore determined to make his efcape;He efcap-*
and the liberty he enjoyed foon put him in a capacity
effeding
Arrives at
•Juubet:.
17
Attempts
in vain to
tiraw the
regrcicy
S W E [at
Sweden, effb&ing it. Having one day mounted his horfe, under
a~V~‘r~l pretence of hunting as ufual In the foreft, when he got at a
proper diftance, he changed his drefs to the habit of a pea-
fant; and quitting his horfe, he travelled for two days ort
loot through by-paths, and over mountains almoft impaf-
fable, arriving on the third at Flenfburgh. Here no one
was admitted without a paffport; and Guflavus dreaded
prefenting himfclf to the governor or the officer upon guard,
for fear of being difeovered. Happily for him, it chan¬
ced to be on that feafon of the year when the merchants
of Lower Saxony drove a coniidetable trade in cattle,
which they purchafe in Jutland. Guilavus hired himfelf
to one of thefe merchants; and under favour of his dif-
guife efcaped out of the Daniffi territories, and arrived at
Lubec.
Banner was no fooner acquainted with his efcape, than
he fet out after him with the utmoft diligence, found him
at Lubec, and reproached him with great warmth as un¬
grateful and treacherous; but he was foon appeafed by the
arguments ur ged by Guftavus, and efpecially by the promife
he made of indemnifying him in the lofs of his ranfotn.
Upon this Banner returned, giving out that he could not
find his prifoner. Chriitian was enraged at his efcape, ap¬
prehending that he might reverfe all his defigns in Swe¬
den ; and gave orders to Otho his general to make the
itriefeft iearch, and leave no means untried to arreft him,
Guftavus applied to the regency for a fhip to convey him
to Sweden, where he hoped he fhould be able to form a par¬
ty againit the Danes. He likewife endeavoured to draw
the regency of Lubec into his meafures ; and reafoned with
c t fo much zeal and ability, that Nicholas Gemins, firft con-
Lubecover ^ras entirely gained ; but the regency could never be
■tohisfuie. prevailed on to declare for a party without friends, arms,
money, or credit. However, before his departure, the con-
ful gave him afiurances, that if he could raife a force fuf-
ficicnt to make head againft: the enemy in the field, he
might depend on the fervices of the republic, and that the
regency would immediately declare for him. Guftavus de-
fxred to be landed at Stockholm ; but the captain of the
fhip, either having fecret orders to the contrary, or bufinefs
ellewhere, fteered a different courfe, and put him on ffiore
near Calmar ; a city hitherto garrifoned by the troops of
Chriftina widow of the regent. In truth, the governor
18 held this place for his own purpofes, and only waited to
He arrives inake the belt terms he could with the Danes. When Gu¬
st Calmar, ftavus arrived, he made himfelf known to him and the prin^
C‘pal ?fficers of th.e garrif°n, who were moftly Germans,
favourable~anc^ rehow-ffildiers in the late adminiftrator's army. He
reception. fLttered himfelf that his birth, his merit, and connections,
would immediately procure him the command. But the
mercenary band, leeing him without troops and without at¬
tendants, regarded him as a defperate perfon devoted to de-
ftruCtion, retufed to embrace his propofals, and even threat¬
ened to kill or betray him, if he did not inftantly quit the
Dffappointed in his expectations, Guftavus departed
with gieat expedition ; and his arrival being now oublicly
known, he was again forced to have recourfe to his peafant’s
dffguife to conceal him from the Daniffi emiffanes difperfed
over the country to fearch for him. In a waggon loaded
with hay he paffed through every quarter of the Daniffi
t9. army> aiic^ repaired to an old family caftle in Su-
r(f\<£co • rmania‘ Fl'°m hence he wrote to h*s friends, notify¬
ing his return to Sweden, and befeechmg them to affemble
a frefr torces in order to break through the enemy’s army
into Stockholm, at. that time befieged ; but they, too,
.cue to embarK, in io hazardous and deiperate an at¬
tempt, r
■aifiit him.
i 3 8 W E
Guftavus next applied himfelf to the peafants : but they S .velen,
anfwered, that they enjoyed fait and herrings under the ^
government of the king of Denmark ; and that any attempts ^pDpes jn
to bring about a revolution would be attended with certain vain to the
ruin, without the profpeCI of bettering their condition ;peafants»
for peafants they were, and peafants they ffiould remain,
whoever was king. At length, • after feveral vain attempts
to throw himfelf into Stockholm, after that city was fur-
rendered to the king, after the horrid maffacre of the fenate, s
and after running a thoufand dangers, and undergoing hard-
ffiips and fatigues hardly to be fupported by human nature,
he formed the refolution of trying the courage and affeCtiort
of the Dalecarlians. While he was in the deepefl obfeurity,
and plunged in almoft; unfurmountable adverlity, he never
relinqmffied his defigns nor his hopes. The news of the
maffacre had, however, very near funk him into defpon-
dency, as thereby he loft all his friends, relations, and con-
nedions, and indeed almoft every profpeft of fafety to him¬
felf or deliverance to his country. It was this that infpi-
red the thought of going to Dalecarlia, where he might live
with more fecurity in the high mountains and thick woods
of that country, if he ffiould fail in the attempt of exciting
the inhabitants to revolt. 4r
Attended by a peafant, to whom he was known, he Arrive* in
travelled in difguife through Sudermania, Nericia, and *)a!eca lia,
Weftermania, and, after a laborious and painful journey,]'
arrived in the mountains of Dalecarlia. Scarce had he' I'Vl .g
finiffied his journey, when he found himfelf deferted by :0 >/o k ;n
his companion and guide, who carried off with him all the the mines
money he provided for his fubfiftence. Thus forlorn,
deftitute, half ftarved, he entered among the miners, and
wrought like a Have under ground, without relinquifhing
his hopes of one day afeending the throne of Sweden. His
whole profpeft for the prefent was to live concealed, and
gain a maintenance, until fortune ffiould effeCl fomething
in his favour: nor was it long before this happened. A[s 3if*
woman in the mines perceived, under the habit of a pea-ed a id re-
fant, that the collar of his ffiirt was embroidered. This cir-lkved.
cumftance excited cunofity ; and the graces his perfon
and converfation, which had fomething in them to attiaft
the notice of the meaneft of the vulgar, afforded room for
fufpicion that he was feme perfon of quality in difguife,
forced by the tyranny of the government to feek ffielter in
thefe remote parts. The ftory came to the ears of a neigh¬
bouring gentleman, who immediately went to the mines to'
offer his protection to the unfortunate itranger; and was
aftoniffied on recognizing the features of Guftavus, whofe
acquamtar.ee he had been at the univerlity of Upfal.
Touched with compaffion at the deplorable fituation of fo
diftinguiftied a nobleman, he could fcarce refrain from tears;
but however had prefence of mind enough not to make the
difeovery. At right he fent for Guftavus, nmde him an offer
of his houfe, and gave him the thong-eft affurances of his
friendffiip and protection. He told him, he would meet with
better accommodations, and as much fecurity as in the
mines; and that, ffiould he chance to be difeovered, he would,
with all his friends and vaffais, take arms in his defence.
I his offer was embraced by Guftavus with joy, and he
remained foi fome time at his friend’s houfe ; but finding
it impoffible to induce him to take part in his defigns, he
quitted him, and fled to one Peterfon, a gentleman whom
he had foimetly known in the fervice. By him he was re¬
ceived with all the appearance of kindnefs; and, on the
very firft propofal made by Guftavus, offered to raife his
vaffais. He even named the lords and peafants whom he
pretended to have engaged in his fervice ; but in a very few
days after, he went fecietly to a Daniffi officer, and gave
him information of what had paffed. The officer immedi-
I) d 3 atciy
f> \V E
Sweden, ately caufed the houfe to be furrotimled with foldiers, in
i" ‘ v fuch a manner that it feemed impoflible for Guftavus to
Has a*verv rna^e e^ape. In the interval, however, he efcaped,
narcw ef-' being warned by Peterfon’s wife of the treachery of her
rape fiom hufband, and by her dircftion fled to the houfe of a clergy-
4hs Danes. man} her friend. By him Guftavus was received with all
the refpeft due to his owli birth and merit; and left the
domeftic who conducted him fhould follow the treacherous
example of his mafter, he removed him to the church, and
conducted him to a fmall clofet, of which he kept the key.
Having lived for fome time in this manner, Guftavus began
to confult with his friend concerning the moft proper me¬
thod of putting their fchemes in execution. The prieft
advifed him to apply diredtly to the peafants themfelves ;
told him that it would be proper to fpread a report, that
the Danes were to enter Dalecarlia in order to eftablifh new
taxes by force of arms ; and as the annual feaft of all the
neighbouring villages was in a few days to be held, he could
not have a more favourable opportunity: at the fame time
he promifed to engage the principal perfons of the diocefe
in his intereft.
'Hiscaufe Agreeable to this advice Guftavus fet out for Mora,
cfpoufed by where the feaft was to be held. He found the peafants
already informed of his defigns, and impatient to fee him.
j;^ * Being already prepofleffed in his favour, they were foon
excited to an enthuftafm in his caufe, and inftantly relolved
to threw off the Danifh yoke. In this defign they were
more confirmed by their fuperftition ; fome of their old men
having obferved that the wind had blown from the north
while Guftavus was fpeaking, which among them was rec¬
koned an infallible omen of fuccefs. Guftavus did not
give their ardour time to cool, but inftantly led them againft
the governor’s caftle ; which he took by affault, and put
the garrifon to the fword. This inconfiderable enterprife
was attended with the moft happy confequences. Great
numbers of the peafants flocked to his ftandard ; fome of
the gentry openly efpoufed his caufe, and others fupplied
him with money. Chriftian was foon acquainted with
what had paffed ^ but defpifing fuch an inconfiderable ene¬
my, he fent only a flender detachment under the command
^ of one Soren Norby, to affift his adherents in Dalecarlia.
The Danes Guftavus advanced with 5000 men, and defeated a body of
defeated. Danes commanded by one Meleen ; but he was ftrenuoufly
oppefed by the archbifhop of Upfal, who raifed numerous
forces for king Chriftian. The fortune of Guftavus, how¬
ever, ft ill prevailed, and the archbifhop was defeated with
great lofs. Guftavus then laid liege to Stockholm ; but
his force being too inconfiderable for fuch an undertaking,
he was forced to abandon it with lofs.
This check did not prove in any confiderable degree de¬
trimental to the affairs of Guftavus ; the peafants from all
,6 parts of the kingdom flocked to his camp, and he was joined
Horrid by a reinforcement from Lubec. Chriftian, unable to fup-
cruelty of prefs the revolt, wreaked his vengeance on the mother and
itian ri* ^^crs Guilavus, whom he put to death with the molt
excruciating torments. Several other Swt'difti ladies he
caufed to be thrown into the fea, after having impofed on
them the inhuman talk of making the facks into which they
were to be inclofed. His barbarities ftrved only to make
his enemies more relolute. Guftavus having affembled the
ftates at Wadftena, he was unanimoufly chofen regent, the
diet taking an oathcf fidelity to him, and promifing to affift
him to the utmoft. Having thus obtained the fandtion of
legal authority, he purfued his advantages againft the Danes.
A body of troops appointed to throw fuccours into Stock-
holm were totally cut in pieces ; and the regent fending
Sun efs of ^ome tro°ps into Finland, itruck the Danes there with fueh
Gvftavus. terror, that the archbiffiop of Upfal, together with Slahog
S W E
and Baldenacker the Danifh governors, fled to Denmark. Sweden
Chriftian received them but very coldly, apprehending that '—■—v—
their flight might be prejudicial to his affairs ; and in a
fliort time the two governors were put to death, that the
king might have an opportunity of charging them with be¬
ing guilty of the cruelties which they had committed by
his order. He then fent exprefs orders to all his governors
and officers in Finland and Sweden to maffacre the Swedifh
gentry without diftinftion- The Swedes made reprifals by
maffacring all the Danes they could find ; fo that the whole
country was filled with bloodfhed and {laughter.
In the mean time Guffavus had laid fiege to the towns
of Calmar, Abo, and Stockholm; but Notby found means
to oblige him to raife all of them with great lofs. Gufta¬
vus, in revenge, laid fiege to the capital a third time, and
petitioned the regency of Lubec for afquadron of fhips and
other fuccours for carrying on the fiege. This was com¬
plied with, but on very hard conditions, viz, that Guftavus
fhould oblige himfelf, in the name of the ftates, to pay
60,000 merks of filver as the expence of the armament ;
that, until tire kingdom fhould be in a condition to pay that
lum, the Lubec merchants trading to Sweden fhould be
exempted from all duties on imports or exports ; that all
other nations fhould be prohibited from trading with Swe¬
den, and that fuch traffic fhould be deemed illicit; that
Guilavus fhould neither conclude a peace, nor even agree to
a truce, with Denmark, without the concurrence of the
regency of Lubee ; and that in cafe the republic fhould be
attacked by Chriftian, he fliould enter Denmark at the
head of 20,000 men. Upon thefe hard terms did Gufta¬
vus obtain affiftance from the regency of Lubec ; nor did
his dear-bought allies prove very faithful. They did not
indeed go over to the enemy ; but in a fea-fight, where the
Danes were entirely in the power of their enemies, they
fuffered them to efcape, wften their whole force might
have been entirely deftroyed. This treachery had well nigh
ruined the affairs of Guftavus; for Norby was now making
preparations effe&ually to relieve Stockholm ; in which he
would probably have iucceeded : but at this ciitical period
news arrived that the Danes had unanimoufly revolted, and
driven Chriftian from the throne ; and that the king had
retired into Germany, in hopes of being reifored by the arms
of his brother-in law the emperor. On hearing this news,
Norby retired with his whole fleet to the ifland or Goth¬
land, leaving "but a flender garrifon in Calmar. Guftavus
did not fail to improve this opportunity to his own advan¬
tage, and quickly made himfelf mafter of Calniar. Mean
time/Stockholm continued clofely invefted ; but Guftavus
thought proper to protiaft the fiege until he fhould get
himfelf elected king. Having for this purpofe called a ge¬
neral diet, the hrft ftep was to fill up the vacany in the ie-
nate occafioned by the maffacres of Chriftian. Guftavus
had the addrefs to get fuch nominated as were in hrs in¬
tereft ; and of confequence the affembly was no foor.er met,
than a fpeech was made, containing the higheft encomiums
on Guftavus, fetting forth in the ftrongeft light the many He i- cho-
eminent fervices he had done for his country, and conclu-feu kingd
ding that the ftates would fhow themfelves equally ungrate-
ful and blind to their own intereft if they did not immedi¬
ately eledt him king. This propofal was acceded to by
f uch tumultuous acclamations that it was impoffible to col¬
lect the votes ; fo that Guftavus himfelf acknowledged,
that their affedtion exceeded his merit, and was more agree¬
able to him than the effects of their gratitude. He was
urged to have the ceremony of his coronation immediately
performed : but the king having fome defigns on the clergy,
did not think proper to comply with their requeft, as he
would have been obliged to take an oath to preferve them
[ 212 1
ed doc
trines-
S \V E . [2
Sweden, in their rights atnl privileges. Indeed he had not been
 'loner feated on the throne before he incurred the difpleafure
t9r of That body; for having large arrears due to the army,
the dergy, with feveral other incumbrances, Guftavus found it neceflary
and favours to raife large contributions on the clergy. On this he was
the reform-accafecj 0f avarice and herefy before the pope’s nuncio.
Guftavus took the proper methods for defending himfelf
againft thefe accufations ; and in a Ihort time after ft low¬
ed a great partiality for the do&rines of Luther, which
by this time had been preached and received by many
people in Sweden, ’ihis embroiled him more than ever
with the eccleftaftics ; and it foon appeared, that either
Guftavus muft refign his throne, or the clergy fome part of
the power they had afiumed. Matters were driven to ex¬
tremities by the kinpf’s allowing the feriptures to be tranf-
lated into the Swedifh language. In 1526, the king, find-
,0 in5; them entering into a combination againlt the reformifts,
Renounces went to Upfal, and publicly declared his refolution of re-
the Popifh ducing the number of oppreflive and idle monks and prielts,
re'i?i®"and who, under pretence of religion, fattened on the fpoils of
I'roteftant- the hiduftrious people. At laft, taking advantage of the
ifm. war between the pope and Charles V. of Spain, he declared
himfelf to be of the reformed religion, and eflabliftied it
throughout his dominions; and at the lame time, to humble
the arrogance of the eccleliaftics, he gave the ienators the
precedency of them, and in many other refpe&s degraded
them from the dignities they formerly enjoyed. For fome
time the Hates hefitated at fupporting the king in his work
of reformation ; infomuch, that at laft he threatened to re¬
fign the kingdom, which, he faid, was doomed to perpetual
flavery either to its temporal or fpiritual tyrants. On this
the ftates came into his meafures, and retrenched the privi-
Hires of the eccleflaftics in the manner he propofed. Seve-
D'durban- ral difturbances, however, enfued. An impoftor, who pre-
ces :n cor- tended to be of the family of Sture the former regent, ha-
thi‘ CriCe v^nt> c^a'me^ the throne, the Dalecarlians revolted in his
favour; but on the approach of a powerful army fent by
Guftavus, they fubmitted to his terms. Soon after, Luthe¬
ran profcirors were eftablifhed in every diocefe ; upon which
a new rebellion enfued. At the head of this was Thure
Johanfon, who had married the king’s filler. Several of
the nobility joined him ; and the king of Denmark alfo ac¬
ceded to their caufe, thinking, by means of thefe diftur¬
bances, to reunite the three kingdoms of Sweden, Den¬
mark, and Norway, as they had formerly been. But Gu-
ft a vu s prevailed, and the rebels were obliged to take refuge
in Denmark. A frefti accident, however, had like to have
embroiled matters worfe than before. The fubfidy granted
to the regency of Lubec was ftill due ; and for the payment
of it the ftates granted.to the king all the uielefs bells of
the churches and monafteries. The people were fnocked
at the facrilege ; and the Dalecarlians again betook them-
felves to arms. Intimidated, however, by the courage and
vigorous conduct of the king, they again iubmitted, and
32 were taken into favour. But tranquillity was not yet reftored.
Unfuccefs- Chriftian having eftablifhed a powerful intereft in Norway,
^-"Ttonce more made an attempt to recover his kingdoms, and
‘an> n wr? joined by the Dalecarlians ; but being defeated by the
Swedifh forces, he was forced to return to Norway, where,
33 being obliged to capitulate with the Danifti ueuerals, he
The crown was pr;foner alJ his life.
hereditary. '542> Guftavus having happily extricated himfelf out
34 all his troubles, prevailed on the ftates to make the crown
Unfuccefs- hereditary in his family ; after which he applied himfelf to
ful nego- the encouragement of learning and commerce. A treaty
s l ci L10 G i O IT ^ v r f - f * /*• • ^ ^
a marriage 'as !e'' .on to<jt i°r a marriage between his elddl fon Eric
withQueen311^ Elizabeth queen of England. The prince’s brother,
Elizabeth, duke John, went over to England, and idided for fome
13 ] S w E
time at the court of London with great fplendour. lie 3iveaer.^
returned, full of expetlations of fuccefs; but bringing with ^
him no fort of proofs in writing, hss" father foon perceived
that he had been the dupe of Elizabeth’s fuperior policy.
Flowever, at lad he allowed Prince Enc to go in perlon to
England; but before he could embark, the death of Gu¬
ftavus made him lay atide all thoughts of the voyage and
marriage. * .35
Guftavus Vafa died in 1560, and was fucceeded by his Guftavus
fon Eric XIV. The new king was a man poffeffed of all^^ndua
the exterior ornaments which give an air of dignity to the ^ £r;c a
perfon; but he had neither the prudence nor the penetration of weak and
his father. He created the ftrft nobility that were ever known imprudent
in Sweden ; which he hadnofooner done than he quarrelledP13ncc’
with them, by paffing fome adds which they thought deroga¬
tory to their honour and dignity. The whole courfe of his reign
was difturbed by wars with Denmark, and difputes with his
own fubje&s. In the former he was unfortunate, and to¬
wards the latter he behavd with the greateft cruelty. At
laft, by the torments of his own confcience, it is faid, he
run mad. He afterwards recovered his fenfes, but was^. 3
thereupon dethroned by his brothers ; of whom Duke Johnjfe^
who had been hitherto kept prifoner by Eric, iucceeded him (bcceeded
in the kingdom. by his bro^
This revolution tqiyk place in the year 1568, but with t‘ier
no great advantage to Sweden. Difputes about religion
between the king and his brothers, and wars with Muicovy,
threw matters into the utmoft confufion. At laft: prince Prince Si-
Sigifmund, the king’s fon, was chofen king of Poland,fftfrnubd
\\ hich proved the fource of much trouble to the kingdom.
He was elected on the following conditions, viz. That there
fhould be a perpetual peace between the flates of Poland
and Sweden ; that, on the death of his father, prince Sigif-
mund fhould fucceed to the throne of Sweden ; that, oa
urgent occaiions, he might, with the confent of the ftates,
return to Sweden; that he fhould maintain, at his own ex¬
pence, a fleet for the fervice of Poland ; that he fhould can¬
cel a debt which had been long due from the crown of Po¬
land to Sweden ; that, with the confent of the ftates, he
fhould build live fortreffes on the frontiers- of Poland ; that
he Ihould have liberty to introduce foreign foidiers into the
kingdom, provided he maintained them at his own expence;
that he fhould not make ufe of Swedifh counfellors In Poland.;
that he fhould have his body guard entirely of Poles and
Lithuanians ; and that he fhould annex to Poland that pate '
of Livonia now fubjedi to Sweden. In 15^ .king jpohjj Succeeds to
died ; and as Sigifmund was at a diflance, every thing fellr^e cr«wn
into the utmoft confufion : the treafury was plundered, and ^ Swe'lei1*
the wardrobe quite fpoiled, before even duke Charles could
come to Stockholm to take the adminiftration into his hands
until king Sifgifmund fhould return. This, however, was
far from being the greateft difafter which befel the nation
at this time. It was known that the king had embraced
the Popifh religion, and it was with good reafon fufpefled
that he would attempt to reftore it noon his arrival in Swe¬
den. Sigifmund alfo was obliged, on leaving Poland, to
promrfe that he would flay no longer in Sweden than was
neceftkry to regulate his affairs. . Thefe circumftances ferved
to alienate the minds of the Swedes from their fovereign even
before they faw him ; and the univerial diffatisfa&ion was
increafed, by feeing him attended, on his arrival in Sweden
iu 1593, by Malafpma the pope’s nuncio, to whom he made
a preient of 30,000 ducats to defray the expences of his
journey to Sweden.
What the people had forefeen was too well verified : the
king refufed to confirm the Proteftants in their religious ,Tf)
privileges, and fhowed inch partiality on all oceafions to the^ f,arr?
Papifte, tluit a party was formed againft him} at the head a’’r-
Of him.
"Gwc-’en.
40
'Forms a de
iBtfn of mur
den’pg his
■uncle.
41
Sieifmund
dtpofed,
and ie foe-
cceded by
Charles IX
4*
State of
Sweden on
the accef-
iion of
Guftavus
Adolphuf.
4.1
He is al¬
lowed to af¬
lame the
adminiftra-
tion while
yet a mi-
Bor.
44 ,
He invades
lien mailt,
and obliges
the king to
conclude a
jsice.
S W E t 2
of v.-Kcli was duke Charles his uncle. Remonftrances, ac-
companied with threats, took place on both tides ; and at
an interview between the king and Charles, the diipute
would have ended in blows, had they not been parted by
fome of the nobility. This, however, made fuch an impref-
fion upon Sigifmund, that he was apparently reconciled to
his brother, and promifed to comply with the inclinations of
the people in every refpedl, though without any inclination
to petform what he had protmied. I he agreement, indeed,
was fcarce made, before Sigifmund conceived the horrid
defign of murdering his uncle at the Italian comedy afted
"the night after his coronation. The duke, however, ha¬
ving notice of the plot, found means to avoid it. I his en¬
raged the king fo much, that he refolved to accomplik his
defigns by force ; and therefore commanded a Polifli army
to march towards the frontiers of Sweden, where they com¬
mitted all the ravages that could be expe&ed from an en¬
raged and cruel enemy. Complaints were made by the Pro-
leftant clergy to the fenate : but no other reply_ was made
them, than that they fhould abftarn from thefe bitter invec¬
tives and reproaches, -which had provoked the Catholics, un¬
til the king’s departure; at which time they would be at
more liberty. .
In 1595 Sigifmund fet fail for Dantzrc, leaving the ad-
tniniftration In the hands of duke Charles. The confe-
quence of this was, that the diflenfions which had already
taken place being continually increafed by the obftmacy of
the king, duke Charles affumed the fovereign power ; and
in 1604 Sigifmund was foimally depofed, and his uncle
Charles IX." railed to the throne. He proved a wife and
brave prince, reftoring the tranquillity of the kingdom, and
carrying on a war with vigour againft Poland and Den¬
mark. " He died in 1611, leaving the kingdom to his fon,
the celebrated Guftavhs Adolphus.
Though Charles IX. by his wife and vigorous conduft
had in a great meafure retrieved the affairs of Sweden,
they were ft ill in a very difagreeable fituation. The fi¬
nances of the kingdom were entirely drained by a feries
of wars and revolutions ; powerful armies were preparing
in Denmark, Poland, and Ruflia, while the Swedifh
troops were -not only inferior in number to their enemies,
but the government was deflitute of refources for their pay¬
ment.
Though the Swedifh law required that the prince fhould
have attained his 18th year before he was of age, yet fuch
Itrrking marks of the great qualities of Guflavus appeared,
that he was allowed by the ftates to take upon him the
administration even before this early period. His firft aft
was to Yefume all the crown-grants, that he might be the
better able to carry on the wars in which he was unavoid¬
ably engaged ; and to fill all places, both civil and military,
with perfons of merit. At the head of domeftic and foreign
affairs was placed chancellor Oxenftiern, a perfon every way
equal to the important truft, and the choofing of whom im-
preffed mankind with the higheft opinion of the young
monarch’s penetration and capacity.
Soon after his acceffion, Guitavus received an embaffy
from James I. of Britain, exhorting him to make peace
with his neighbours. 1 his was feconded by another from
Holland. But as the king perceived that the Danifh mo¬
narch intended to take every opportunity of crufhing him,
he refolved to a£I with fuch vigour, as might convince him
that he was not eafily to be overcome. Accordingly he
broke into Denmark with three different armies at once ;
and though the enemy’s fupenority at fea gave them great
advantages, andthe jmmber ot the king’s enemies diftrafted
his attention, he carried on the war with fuch fpirit, that in
36132 peace was concluded upon good terms. I his war
Hi . s ,w E ,
being finifhed, the king applied himfelf to civil polity, and Swaden,
made fome reformations in the laws ot Sweden. In 1615, v—h
hoftilities were commenced agaitiil Ruffia, on account of
the refufal of that court to reftore fome money which had
been formerly lent them. The king entered Ingria, took Ruflia in.
Kexholm by ftorm, and was laying fiege to Plefcow, when, vadedw^
by the mediation of James l- peace was concluded, on con-fucCek
dition of the Ruffians repaying the money, and yielding to
Sweden fome part of their territory. In this and the former
war, notwithftanding the fhortnefs of their duration, Gu¬
flavus learned the rudiments of the military art for which ^
he foon became fo famous. He is faid, indeed, to haveExtraordi.
catched every opportunity of improvement with a quicknefstiary>oli.
of underftanding feemingly more than human. In one^/gj
campaign, he not only learned, but improved, all the mi-
litary maxims of La Gardie, a celebrated general, brought
the Swedilh army in general to a more fleady and regular
difeipline than had formerly been exercifed, and formed and
feafoned an invincible body of Finlanders, who had after-
watds a very confiderabie fhare in the victories of the
Swedes.
Peace was no fooner concluded with Ruffia, than Gufla-
vus was crowned with great folemnity at Upfah Soon
after this, Guffavus ordered his general La Gardie to ac¬
quaint the Poliffi commander Codekowitz, that as the truce
between the two kingdoms, which had been concluded for
two years, was now expired, he defired to be certainly in¬
formed whether he was to expeft peace or war from his ^47
matter. In the mean time, having borrowed money of the^^
Dutch for the redemption of a town from Denmark, hettrvieiv
had an interview on the frontiers with Chriftian the king with the
of that country. At this interview, the two monarchs con-^ng^
ceived the utmoft efteem and friendfhip for each other ; and
w.v. — r , , ' ^...ai.dpre
Guflavus obtained a promife, that Chnftian would not almt (0,
Sigifmund in any defigns he might have againft Sweden, warwitl
In the mean time, receiving no fatisfadlory anlwer fr®m
Poland, Guflavus began to prepare for war. Sigiimund
entered into a negotiation, and made fome pretended con-
ceffions, with a view to feize Guftavus by treachery ; but
the latter having intimation of his defign, the whole nego¬
tiation was changed into reproaches and threats on the part
of Guftavus. p _ 48
Immediately after this, Guftavus made a tour in difguifeMarrifl
through Germany, and married Eleonora the daughter of£ieon«
the eledtor of Brandenburg. He then refolved to enter
heartily into a war with Poland ; and with this view fet L'l0f Brands
for Riga with a great fleet, which carried 20,000 men.burg.
The place was well fortified, and defended by a body of
veterans enthufiaftically attached to Sigilmnnd. A dread¬
ful bombardment enlued; the ftreets were raked by the $
cannon, and the houfes laid in afkes by the bombs; the Riga ^
moat was filled up, one of the half-moons taken by ftorm,
and the ftrong fortrefs of Dunamund was reduced. The
cannon having now effected a breach in another part of the
walls, Guftavus refolved to make a general affault. For this
purpofe a flying bridge over the moat was contrived by his
majefty ; for though the ditch was filled with fafeines and
rubbifh, it Hill contained too much water to admit the paf-
fage of a large body of men. T he foldiers, however,
crowded on to the attack with fo much impetuofity, that
the bridge gave way, and the attempt proved unfuccefsful.
Next day the Swedes were repulfed in attempting to llorm
another half-moon ; and the king was obliged to proceed
more flowly. By the middle of September, at which time
the town had been invefted for fix weeks, two bridges were
thrown over the river together with a ftrong boom, while
the Swedes had formed their mines under the diteffi '1 he
sarrifon being now reduced to extremity, were obliged to
c • 9 capitulatej
30
The Holes
defeated
8 W E r 415 1
Sweden, capitulate ; and Guftavus treated the inhabitants with great
dcmencv.
After the reduftion of Riga, the Swediih monarch en¬
tered Courland, where he reduced Mittau ; but ceded it
a;rain on the conclufion of a truce for one year. Sigifmimd,
however, no fooner had time to recover himfelf, than he
bejan to form new enterprifes againft the Swedes in Pruf-
fia ; but Gultavus fetting fail with his whole fleet for Dant-
/.ic, where the king of Poland then refided, fo broke hts
meafures, that he was obliged to prolong the truce for ano¬
ther year. Sigifmund, however, was not yet appnfed o.
the danger he was in, and refufed to IHten to any terms of
accommodation : upon which Guftavus entering Livonia,
aeie<*!cu defeated the Pohfti general, and took Lerpt, HocKenhaufen,
and federal ^ feverai other places of lefs importance; after which,
places ta- enter-ing Lithuania, he took the city of Birfen.
Notwithftanding this fuccefs, Guftavus propofed peace
on the fame equitable terms as before ; but Sigifmund was
ftiil infatuated with the hopes that, by means of the em¬
peror of Germany, he fhould be able to conquer Sweden.
Guftavus finding him inflexible, refolved to pufh his good
fortune. His generals Horn and Thurn defeated the Poles
  in Semigallia. Guftavus himfelf with 150 fhips fet fail for
feuted, and pru{fiaj where he landed at Pillavv. This place was im-
rumber of mediately delivered up to him ; as were alio Braunfberck,
towns ie- Frawenberg, Elbing, Marienberg-, Mew, Hirfchau, Stum,
Chriftburg, &c. Sigifmund, alarmed at the great fuccefles
of Guftavus, fent a body of. forces to oppofe him, and to
prevent Dantzic from falling into his hands. In this he
was attended with as bad fuccefs as before. His troops
were defeated before Marienberg, Mew, and Dirfchau ; and
The Poles in May 1627, Guftavus arrived with frefh forces before
defeated a y)ant5.iC) which he would probably have carried, had he not
third time. ^eerj WOunded in the belly by a cannon-ftiot. The Poles
in the mean time recovered Mew ; and the States ot Hol¬
land fent ambaffadors to mediate a peace between the two
crowns. Sigifmund, however, depending upon the afliftance
of the emperor of Germany and king of Spain, determined
to hearken to no terms, and refolved to make a winter-
campaign ; but Guftavus was fo well intrenched, and all his
forts were fo ftrongly garriloned, that the utmoft efforts of
the Poles were to no purpofe ( a). The city of Dantzic
c in the mean time made fuch a defperate refiftance as greatly
The Poles irritated Guftavus. In a fea-engagement the Swedifh fleet
defeated by defeated that of the enemy ; after which Guftavus, having
S W E
5r
The Poles
av»>n de¬
duced by
Guftavus.
blocked up the harbour with his fleet, puftred his advances
Dantzic in- - • - ~ ■ • « • •••'• • -r-r , ,r
stefted.
incredible vigour. He made a fur-
morafs 15 miles broad, afiifted by
on the land-fide with
prifing march over a   .j   ,  
bridges of a oeculiar conftruction, over which he carried a
fpecies of light cannon invented by himfelf. By this unex¬
pected manoeuvre he got the command of the city in fuch
a manner, that the garrifon were on the point of furrender¬
ing, when, by a ludden fwell of the Viitula, the Swedifit
works were ruined, and the king was obliged to raife the
 , fiege. In other refpeCts, however, the affairs of Guftavus
an inunda- went on with their ulual good fortune. His general Wran-
gel defeated the Poles before Brodnitz-, of whom 3000 were
ralfe the killed, and 1000 taken prifoners, with five pieces of cannon
Sege.
- 54
The king
ebliged by
and 2000 waggons leaden with provifions.. At Stum the , ^
ting gained another and more contiderable viClory in petfon. jef""
The emperor had fent f0°t ^nd 2000 horfe under Arn- p0]C3-
heim, who joined the main army commanded by the Poltfhand Ger-
gencral Coniccfpolfki, in order to attack the Swedifh army mans de
encamped at Quidzin. The enemy were fo much fupenor ^eat
in number, that the friends of Guftavus reprefented to hmi1jaug]lter
the imminent danger of attacking them. But the king in two en-
being determined, the engagement began. The Swedifh gagemonts*
cavalry charged with fuch impetuofity, contraiy to their
fovereign’s exprefs order, that they were almoft iurround-
ed by the enemy ; but Guftavus, coming up to their af-
fiftance, pufhed the enemy’s infantry with lo.much vigour,
that they gave way, and retreated to a bridge they had
thrown over the Werder. But here they were difap-
pomted; for the Swedes had already taken poffeflion of the
bridge. On this a new a&ion enfued moretbloody than the
fotmer, in which the king was expofed to great danger, and
thrice narrowly efcaped being taken pnfoner ; but at laft
the Poles were totally defeated, with the lofs of a great many
men, 22 pair of colours, five Hands, and feveral other mili¬
tary trophies. The daughter of the German auxiliaries
was fo great, that Arnheim fcarce carried off one half of
the troops he brought into the field. I his defeat did not
hinder the Polifh general from attempting the fiege of Stum;
but here again he was attended by his ufual bad fortune.
The garrifon falhed out, and he was defeated with the lofs ^
of 4000 men. The blame of this misfortune was laid uponpjj-y ats-
Arnheim; who was recalled, and fucceeded by Henry of again de-
Saxe Lawenburg and Philip count Mansfeldt. The change
of general officers, however, produced no good confequencescon^j)t t!>
to the Poles ; a famine and plague raged in their camp, foa truce of
that they were at laft obliged to confent to a truce for fix fix years,
years, to expire in the month of June 163 5• 1 he condi¬
tions were, "that Guftavus fliould reftore to Sigifmund the
towns of Brodnitz, Stum, and Dirfchau ; that Manenberg
fhould remain fequeftrated in the hands of the elector of
Brandenburg, to be reftored again to Sweden in cafe a
peace was not concluded at the end of the fix years. Gu-'
iiavus, on his fide, kept the port and citadel of Memel, the
harbour of Pillau, the town of Elbing, Brunfberg, and alL
that he had conquered in Livonia. . jy
Guftavus having thus brought the war with Poland toGuftavuaH
an honourable concluiion, began to think of refenting ther^ow^w»
condud of the emperor in affilting his enemies and opp.ref-^^^
fing the Proteftant ftates. Before embarking in fuch anror.
important undertaking, it was n^ceffary that he fhould eon-
fult the diet. In this the propriety of engaging in a war
with Germany was warmly debated ; but, after much al¬
tercation, Guftavus in a very noble fpeech determined the
matter, and fet forth in fuch ftrong terms the virtuous mo¬
tives by which he was aduated,. that the whole affembly
wept, and every thing was granted which he could require.
It was not difficult for Guftavus to begin his expedition.
His troops amounted to 60,000 men, hardened by a fuccef-
fion of fevere .campaigns in Ruffia, Finland, Livonia, and
Pruffia. His fleet exceeded 70 fail, carrying from 20 to
40 guns, and manned with 6000 manners. Embarking
hia-
(a) In this campaign the pradtee of duelling became fo prevalent in the Swedifh army, as to engage the king’s at¬
tention, and to oblige him to fupprefs it by very rigorous edids. Soon after thefe were paffed, a quarrel arofe between
two general officers, who afked his majeftyVpeimifficn to decide their difference by the laws of honour. The king con-
fented, but wifhed to be a fpedator of their courage. He went to the place appointed, attended by a body of guards :
and having ordered'the executioner to be called, “ Now gentlemen, faid he to the officers, fight until one dies;” adding
to the excutioner, “ Do you immediately cut off the head of the other.” On this the quarrel was dropped, and no more
challenges were heard of in the camp,.
S W E
C 2!
SweJen.
jperor.
60
Outs off
aooo
bwetie?.
61
i. Jus troops, ht landed at UTedom on tlie 2^t\i of June
the Imperialifts having evacuated all the fortreffes they pof-
Redeccs fed there 5 and the °f ^USen llad been befor.e reduced
Woljjaft, by general Lefly, in order to fecure a retreat if fortune
Qtecin, &c. fhould prove unfavourable. Faffing the frith, Guftavus
flormed Wolgaft and another flrong fortrefs in the neigh¬
bourhood, leaving general Bannier with a garrifon for the
defence of thefe conquefts. He then proceeded to Stetin ;
which was no fooner invefted than it confented to receive a
Swedifh garrifon, and the king perfuaded the duke of Po¬
merania to enter into an alliance with him. In confequence
of this the Swedish troops were received into ieveral towns
of Pomerania; and the moft bitter enmity took place
between the Imperiaiiils and Pomeranians, each refufnig
the other quarter.
Thefe fucceffes of Guftavus ftnick the empire with con-
fternation ; for being already overwhelmed with civil dif-
59 fenfions, they were in no condition to refill fo impetuous an
Count/Til- enemy. At this time alfo the Imperialifts were without a
5y chofen general, the command of the army being difputed by a
the an- ^ number of candidates of very unequal merit; but at laft
•count Tilly was fixed upon as the moft proper perfon, and
invefted with the dignity of Veldt Marifchal. In the mean
time the king being reinforced by a confiderable body of
troops in Finland and Livonia under the conduft of Gu¬
ftavus Horn, defeated the Imperialifts berore Griffenhagen;
taking the place ioon after by affault. By this and fome
other conquefts he opened a paftage into Lufatia and Sile-
fia ; but in the mean time count Tilly cut off 2000 Swedes
at New Brandenburg, owing to the obftinacy of their com¬
mander Kniphaufen, who had orders to evacuate the place
and join the main army. This advantage, however, was
Franckfort ^oon overbalanced by the conqueft of Franckfort on the
and Landf- Oder, which Guilavus took by affault, making die whole
berp taken garrifon prilonei s. Thus he commanded the rivers Elbe
by Gufta an(j Oder on both fides, and had a fair paffage not only to
the countries already mentioned, but alfo to Saxony and
the hereditary dominions -of the houfe of Auftria. Soon
after this, Guftavus laid liege to Landfberg, which he took
by a {fault; though the number of foldiers he had with him
was fo inconfiderable, that he had thoughts of fending to
the main army for a reinforcement before the prifoners
Ihould march out, being apprehenfive that they might give
him battle in the open field, though they could not detend
themfelves behind walls.
About this time the Proteftant princes held a diet at
Leipfic ; to which Guftavus fent deputies, and conducted
his negotiations with fuch addrefs, as tended greatly to
He reduces Promote his interefts. Immediately after this he reduced
Pomerania, Gripfwald, and with it all Pomerania. Then marching to
and reftores Gultrow, he reftored the dukes of Mecklenburg to their do-
MeTlm* °f mbl^ons‘ ddere the Imperialifts had tyrannized in inch a
jauj.g*"' manner that Guftavus v/as received as the deliverer of the
people ; and the ceremony of the duke’s inauguration was in
t a fhort time performed with great folerrmity.
All this time count Tilly was employed in the fieee of
Magdeburg ; but now, being alarmed at the repeated fuc-
.ceffes of the Swedes, he left Papperheim with part of the
army before that city, while he marched with the reft into
63 Thuringia, to attack the landgrave of Heffe-Caffel and the
Magdeburge!e£por of Saxony. After a moft obftinate defence, Mag-
tfe Impe deburg feh into the hands of Pappenheim, where he com-
rialiftsj and mitted all imaginable cruelties. Guftavus formed a plan of
the inhabi- recovering the city ; but was obliged to abandon ft, by
j_antr c,rueb Pappenheim’s throwing himfclf into the place with his
-ec, whole army, and by the progrefs which Tilly w'as* making
in Thuringia. Relinquifhing this enterprife, therefore, he
ordered Baunier to attack .Havelfburg; which was done
6 ] S W E
with fuch refohition, that the place was forced in a few Sws<Jef.
hours, and all the garrifon made prifoners. Werben wasv
next obliged to fubmit after an obftinate conflift, in which r
many fell on both fides.—Thefe fucceffes obliged count
Tilly to attempt in perfon to check the progrefs of thei1en re.r'
Swedes. He detached the vanguard of his army, compofed'lucfid,
of the flower of the Imperial cavalry, within a few miles
the Swedifh camp. An adlion enfued, in wliich Bernftein
the Imperial general was defeated and killed, with 1500 ofdefeated!ir
his men. Guftavus, after this advantage, placed him felf in the Swcdei,
afituation fo much fuperiorto his enemies, that count Tilly
was fired with indignation, and marched up to the Swedilh
lines to give him battle. Guftavus kept within his works,
and Tilly attacked his camp, though almoft impregnably
fortified, keeping up a moft terrible fire from a battery of 32
pieces of cannon ; which, however, produced no other
effect, than obliging the Swedifh monarch to draw up his ^
army behind the walls of Werben. Tilly had placed his CountTJ.
chief hopes in being able to nail up the enemy’s cannon, orb defeatti
fet fire to their camp in divers quarters ; after which he^11^
propofed making his grand attack. With this view he
bribed fome prifoners; but they betrayed him, and told his
defign to Guftavus. The king ordered fires to be lighted
in different parts of his camp, and his foldiers to imitate
the noife of a tumultuous diforderly rabble. This had the
defired effeCt. The count led his army to the breach made
by the cannon ; where he was received with fuch a volley
of grape fhot as cut off the firft line, and put the whole body
in diforder, fo that they could never be brought back to the
charge. In this confufion the Imperial army was attacked
by Bauditzen, and, after an obftinate confiiCI, obliged to
quit the field.
Soon after this aftion the queen arrived at the camp with
a reinforcement of 8000 men ; at the fame time a treaty was ^
concluded with Charles I. of England, by which that monarch ^
allowed the marquis of Hamilton to raife 6000 men for the BritiM-
fervice of Guftavus. Thefe auxiliaries were to be conduced
to the main army by a body of 40O0 Swedes; and were in
every thing to obey the king while he was perfonally prefent,t]jCsw!i!
but in his abfence were to be fubjeft to the orders of the
marquis. With thefe troops the king had fofolved to make
a divei (ion in Bremen : but the marquis finding it impoffible
for him to effeft a junction with the Swedifh army, refolved,
without debarking his troops, to fteer his courfe for the Oder,
and land at Ufedom. Guftavus was very much difpleafed
at finding his projedl thus difeoncerted; however, making
the beft of the prefent circumftances, be commanded the
Britifh troops to aft on the Oder inftead of the Wefer.
The number of this little army was magnified exceedingly
by report, infomuch that count S illy had fome thoughts
of marching againft them with his whole force ; but on
the departure of the marquis for Silefia, he reinforced the
army in that country with a large detachment, which w’as
thought to contribute not a little to the defeat he foon after
received.
Ever fince the late aftion Guftavus had kept within his
intrenchments, where his army was well provided with every
thing. Tilly made feveral attempts to lurprife or draw him
to an engagement ; but finding all his endeavours fruitlefs,
he marched into Saxony, and laid liege to Leipfic. 1 Ins
precipitate meafure proved highly advantageous to the
Swedifti monarch ; as thus the eleftor, who had been wa¬
vering in his refolutiors, was now obliged to have recourfe
to the Swedes, in order to preferve himfelf from utter de-
ftruftion, A treaty offenfive and defenfive was immediately
concluded with Guftavus : and the eleftor willingly pre-
mifed every thing that was required of him ; and among
the reft, that not only the prince his ion, but he himfelf,
fhould
S W E [ 2
fliould rcfidc !n the Swedifh camp, and cti^age his life and
fortune in the common caufe. Tilly, in the mean time,
carried fire and fvvord into the unhappy eleftorate. At
   the head of an army of 44,000 veterans, he fummoned the
eount Tilly,city of Leipfic to furrender ; denouncing the fame ven-
LehfickeS £eance as had been executed on Magdeburg, in
«- ten-
Saxony ra¬
vaged hv
68
Battle of
X-eh lie.
69
cafe of a refufal. J3y this the governor was fo much inti¬
midated, that he inftantly fubmitted; and alfo furrendered
the caftle of PafTenberg, which was in a condition to have
flood out till the arrival of the Swedifli army. The eleftor,
enraged at the lofs of thefe valuable places, ordered his army
to join the Swedes with all expedition, and preffed the king
fo warmly to engage, that at laft he yielded to his defire.
On the 7th of September 1631, Gufiavus led out his army
in the moll beautiful order, the Swedes forming one column
on the right, and the Saxons another on the left ; each
amounting to 15,000 men. Tilly drew up his men in one
vail column, pofiibly with a view of furrounding the Hanks
of the king’s army ; but every officer of experience in his
army, from the excellency of the Swedifh difpofition, prog-
nofticated the event of the engagement. Guilavus led on
the troops againfl that wing of the Imperialifls commanded
by Pappenheim, whom he drove back to fuch a diftance,
that he gained a point of the wind ; by which the fmoke
fell upon their enemies and confiderably embarrafied them,
at the lame time that the Swedes were got without the
reach of a battery, which played furioufly on their flank.
General Bannier in the mean time cut in pieces the troops
of Holilein, and mortally wounded the duke udio command¬
ed them.. Pappenheim led on his troops feven times to the
charge, in hopes of regaining his former fxtuation ; but was
as often repulfed by the Swedes. Tilly all this while en-
gaged with the Saxons ; but having at lull driven them off
tnc field, the whole flrength of the Imperial army was turn,
ed upon^the Swedifh left wing commanded by General
Horn. The Swedes fuflained the attack with the greatefl
nrmnefs, until the king detached general TeufFel with the
centre to affill them. The Imperialills then were no longer
able to Hand their ground ; but gave way everywhere ex¬
cept in the centre, which was compofed of 18 regiments of
veterans accullomed to viftory, and deemed Invincible.
SmX PAT1' i,!crcJdibIe *0 maintain the reputation
fe.ted with 'hey Iiad acjred ’„a"d> tho“Sh fm-pt °IT in great numbers
great by the Swedim artillery, never flirunk or fell into confufion.
daughter. Four regiments, after their officers had been killed, formed
themfelves, and retired to the fkirt of a wood ; where they
were all to a man cut in pieces, without demanding quarter.
Pilly retired at the head of 6co men, and efcaped by the
coming 011 of the night. Seven thoufand Imperialifls lav
dead on the field of battle ; 4000 were taken prifoners : a
fine train.of artillery was loft, with upwards of too ftan-
dards, eniigns, and other military trophies.—On this oc-
cafion >t was that the Scots regiment in the Swedifh fervice
firft pradlifed the method of firing in platoons ; to which
fame afenbe the aflomfhment and confufion that appeared
_ . q t ^Impena .aJrt^y; 11 is thouSht> however, that the
Cond^of owedifh monarch difplayed greater abilities in gaining this
Ouftavus yitlory than improving it afterwards ; for had he mafehed
immediately to Vienna, before his enemies had time to re¬
cover their conflernation, it is fuppofed that the emperor
vmuld have been obliged to abandon his capital, and leave
his hereditary dominions to the mercy of ghe conqueror.
Xut G-uftavus apprehended that Tilly might fall upon the
Saxons while he was ravaging the Auflrian hereditary do-
nllvTut Th'chfWOuld have deprived him not only of an
to °f thC fEe qUarterS Which f he el^or had promifed
ttafoLr?,"1 “T a retrrat- For th:3 a"d other
Vol XVIlTpart I Prat'rate int0 where he
cenfured.
17 3 S 4V E
reduced feveral places, particularly the fortrefs of Work- Sweden,
burg. rl iljy having collefited Kis fcattered troops, which 1 ,”n~.^ ^
formed an army ftill fuperior in number to that of Guftavus,’p]1 swedes
marched to the relief of this place ; but came too late. Henke a num-
theu diredled his march towards Rottenberg, where four her of towns
regiments were cut in pieces by a Swedifli detachment,
After this the king reduced Hanau, Franckfort on tliemein,0f
Maine, and Mentz ; deftroying a body of Spaniards, who-the enemy,
had thrown themfelves in his way to obftrudl his paflage.
1 he court of Vienna was now thrown into the utmofl
confufion ; and fent everywhere begging affiftance, and foli-
citing the Catholic princes to arm in defence of their reli¬
gion. T he emperor was moll embarrafled in finding out a
general capable of oppofing Guftavus in the field ; for the
late misfortunes of count Tilly bad entirely funk his repu.- ^
tation. Walleftein, an old experienced officer, was madeWpJIeflein
choice of; but as he had formerly been difgraced, it was dmfen gs-
apprehended that he would not accept of the command ofnera* ^ die
which he had once been deprived. This obje&ion, how-em^er°1’
ever, was got over ; and Walleflein not only accepted of the
command, but, at his own expence, augmented the army to
40,000 men. ' ,,
During the whole winter the Swedifh army kept the A great
field; and before the approach of fummer had reduced num*jer ^
Grantznach, Bobenhaufen, Kirchberg, Magdeburg, Gozlar,
Northeirn, Gottingen, and Dunderfladt; while the land-Swedes,
grave William made great progrefs in Weftphalia. Gufta¬
vus Horn wras repulfed before Bamberg ; but foon bad his
revenge, by entirely deftroying two regiments of Imperial-
ills. I o prevent the troops from being affeffed by the lofs
before Bamberg, the king refolved to give battle to Tilly,
who was marching into Bavaria to prevent the Swedes from
gaining a footing in that deflorate. He purfued the Im¬
perial general through a vaft trad of country, defeated his
rear-guard, and, having reduced a variety of towns and for- .
trefits on the Danube, penetrated as far as Ulm. Advan-ConnfT?!-
cing to the river Leek, count Tilly polled himfelf in a woodsy drfeated
on the oppofite fide, to difpute his paflage. Guftavus en-aii<^ klLd-
deavoured to diflodge him by a regular fire from 70 pieces
of cannon. The flaughter was dreadful ; and Tilly himfelf,
being wounded by a cannon-ball in the knee, died a few
days before, he was to have been fuperfeded by Walleftein. #
The following night the Imperial army evacuated the port;
part retiring to Ingoldftadt, and others to Newburg. Gu¬
ftavus immediately crofted the river, and fazed the towns of
Ram and Newburg, which the enemy had abandoned. AuH-
biirg next fubmitted ; and from the inhabitants of this place
Guftavus exadled an oath of fidelity, not only to himfelf but
to the crown of Sweden. This meafure gave the greatefl
offence to many.ofthe Germanic body, and made them ima¬
gine that the king of Sweden had other views than the de¬
fence of the Proteftant eaufe.
From Augfburg the Swedes advanced towards Ratiftion ;
but were difappointed in their defign of getting pofTeffion
o taat CitH hY rcafori of the Bavarians having thrown a
very numerous garrifon into the place.—In the mean lime,
ambaffadors arrived from Denmark, offering the mediation
of that crown for obtaining a lading peace between the con.
tending parties. Guflavus, however, replied, that no fuch
peace could take place till the Catholic princes thought pro¬
per to grant the Proteftants full and ample fecurity for their
enjoyment of future tranquillity. But the ambaffadors had
no mfir udions to propofe any thing farther, and thus the ne-
gotiation vamfhed. .Guftavus now, refolving to retort upon Three
themfelves the cruelties which the Bavarians had injSi£tedt0Wns ,aItI
on the Proteftants, laid the towns of Morzbourg, Friefen-1? alhesi’7
gtn^anu Lar.dfhut, in a.Lcs. The inhabitants of Munich^ ^
xaMC themfelves by fubmilfion ; but as the peafants in that
F e neigh-
Sweden,
The Saxon
troops de¬
feated by
Wallefteifl.
77
Guuavus
attacks h'.s
camp, and
is repulfed
with lofs.
73
Battle of
juUtcen.
79
Guftavus
killed.
8o
The Impe-
rialids to¬
tally de¬
feated.
8i
Chriftina,
an infant,
proclaimed
queen of
kwedeu.
S w E [2
neighbourhood had collected themfelves into bodies in order
to murder the ftragglers from the Swediih arJ/? G; ^VUS
burnt their houfes, and defeated the forces of the elector,
who had been joined by a confiderable body of
While Guftavus was thus employed, Walleftem had af-
fembled a vaft army. He was ftrongly fohcited by tne elec¬
tor of Bavaria to come to his affiftance ; but, in revenge of
the elector’s having formerly obtained the command for count
Tilly in preference to himfeif, he drew off towards Bohemia
to encounter the'Saxons. Arnheim, who comman .e . ^ie
Saxon forces in that place, was the enemy of Guftavus, wno
had formerly rallied him for his cowardice. tie there¬
fore permitted Walleftein to gain an ea.y vie ory, in tpes
that his mafter, the ekaor of Saxony, a prince entirely de¬
voted to his pleafures, might be induced to relmquifh the
friendftiip of fuch a reftlefs and warlike ally as Guftavus ,
and indeed he ufed all the eloquence of which he was
mafter to detach him from the Swedifti caufe. Several
advantages, in the meantime, were gamed by t e mpena
ills. Fappenheim defeated the archbifhop of Bremen s ca¬
valry at Werden ; and three Swediih regiments were cut off
near Kadingen. Fappenheim, however, was forced to re¬
tire, and withdraw his forces irom Stat e , o w m. e
Swedes took poffeffion. Walleftein and the eledor of Ba¬
varia, who had now joined their forces threatened Guftavus
with greatly fuperior numbers. At laft, however, the king,
beinw reinforced with 15,000-men, no longer e(f 1T'-e xe
engagement ; but Walleftein was too wife to trail the .ate
of the empire to a fingle engagement agamft inch an enemy
as the king of Sweden. Guftavus attacked his camp, but
was repulfed with the lofs of 2000 men ; which cauled a ge¬
neral murmuiing and difeontent again 11 his ralhneis. Seve¬
ral other misfortunes happened to the Swedes ; and at la ,
after various manoeuvres, Walleftein bent his courle towau s
Mifnia, in order to oblige the ele&or of Saxony to declare
againft the Swedes, and to draw them out of Bavaria, Gu-
flavus, notwithftanding the inconftancy of Augultus, im¬
mediately fet out to affift him. With incredible diligence
he marched to Mifnia, where the Impenalilts were allem-
bling their whole ftrength. Blearing that the enemy were
encamped at Wefenfells, and that Fappenheim had been de¬
tached with a ftrong corps, Guftavus refolved to engage
them before they could efteft a junftion. \\ith this vievv
he marched to Lutzen, where he attacked Walleftein with
incredible fury. The Swediih infantry broke the Imperial-
ills in fpite ol their utmoft efforts, and took all theii artil¬
lery. The cavalry not being able to pafs the rivei fo expe-
ditieufly as the king thought neceffary, he led the way, at¬
tended only by the regiment ©f omaaland and the duke of
Saxe-Lauwenburg. Here, after charging impetuoufly, he
was killed, as Puffendorff alleges, by the treachery ol the
duke; who, being corrupted by the emperor, (hot him
in the back during the heat of the ablion. The news 01
his death was in an inflant fpread ovei both armies. I he
courage of the Imperialifts revived, and they now made
themfelves fure of viftory. But the Swedes, eager to re¬
venge the death of their beloved monarch, charged with
fuch fury that nothing could refill them. The Imperialills
were defeated a fecond time, juft as Pappenheim, with his
frefh corps, came up to their affiftance. On this the battle
was renewed, but the Swedes were Hill irrefiftible. i ap-
penheim was mortally wounded, and his army finally tout¬
ed, with the lefts of 9000 killed in the field and in the pur¬
suit. „
The v!£lory of Lutzen proved more unfortunate to bwe-
den than the greateft defeat. The crown devolved upon
Chriftina, an infant of fix years old ; the nation was invol¬
ved ia aa expenffve ioreign war? without any perlon equal
Swedes,
fo
iS ] S W E
to the arduous talk of commanding the armies, or regula-
ting domeftic affairs, as Guftavus had done. However,
Chriftina the daughter of Guftavus was immediately pro¬
claimed queen. The regency devolved on the giand bailiff,
the marifchal, the high-admiral, the chancellor, and the
treafurer of the crown. Oxenlliern was invefted with the
chief management of affairs, and condufted himfell wth the
greateft prudence. He was greatly embarraffed indeed by
the divifions among the Proteftant princes, which became
more violent after the death of Guftavus; but, m fpite or
all difficulties, he went on purfumg the mtereft of his coun¬
try, and planning the means of retaining the Swediih con- ^
quells. Matters went on pretty fuccefsfully till the yeai rheSwefa
when, through the raihnefs of the Swedifh foldiers, receive a
tl^’wlre defeatedSat Nordlingen with the lofs of 6000^-
men killed on the fpot, a number of pnfoners, and 1 3° itan"Nordlinges
dards, with other military trophies, taken by the enemy.
Oxenftiern’s conftancy was fhaken by this dreadful blow ;
but he applied himfeif diligently to repair the lofs, by re¬
cruiting the army, and rendering the allies faithful. The
latter proved the moft difficult talk. I he death of Gufta¬
vus, and the defeat at Nordlingen, had thrown them into
defpair ; and every one was defirous of making the be t gj
terms he could with the emperor. The Saxons not only rhe sax®
renounced their alliance with Sweden, but openly commen- ^
ced war againft it; and though the regency would gladly^
have confented to an honourable peace, the enemy were now
too much flulhed with fuccefs to grant it. Oxenftiern had
no other refource than an alliance with France, and the bra¬
very of his generals. In 1635, be went m perfon to the
court of Louis, and concluded a treaty ; which, however, g
anfwered no purpofe, as it was never obferved. 1 he ene-sUcceffes
my, in the mean time, puffied their good fortune. They t^n
furprifed Philiplburg, where the French had laid up vaft^-
magazines; and reduced Spires, Augiburg, 1 reves, Wurtf-
burg, Cobourg, and feme other places To complete the
misfortunes of Sweden, it was expe&ed that the Poles would
immediately invade Pruffia. To prevent this, La Gardie
was difpatched thither with a powerful army ; but as it was
impoffible to refill fo many enemies at once, the chancellor
purchafed the friendfhip of Poland for 26 years by ceding
that duchy to the republic. Thus he got rid of a power- S5
ful enemy ; and the Swedifh affairs began to revive by aThe S««
victory which general Bannier gained over the Saxons, mdefeatjU
confequence of which they were driven beyond the Loe. |amiieri
Early in the fpring of 1636, the Saxons made fome mo-
tions as if they intended to cut off Bannier’s communication
with Pomerania. This he prevented by a ftratagem ; oe-
feated a body of the enemy ; and obliged the Saxons to re¬
tire- .Soon after this he drove them out of their winter-
quarters with confiderable lofs; at which time alio a confi¬
derable body of Imperialifts who came to their affiftance g6
were difperfed. In Weftphalia general Kniphaufen beat rhe l"^
the Imperialifts with the lofs of 1500 men, but he hnnfelfrianfcj'
was killed in the purfuit, and his army obliged to repals uie^.^^j
Wefer. Some advantages were alfo gained in the neig -
bourhood of Minden by General Lefty, who had affembled S;
a confiderable army. In Allace, Bernard duke of Saxe-And l>y(
Weymar defeated count Gallas the Imperial general, andduke^
difperfed his army. But when every thing feemed thus fuc-^
cefsful for the Swedes, the city of Magdeburg, contrary to
the expectation of every body, furrendered for want of pow¬
der, which the garrifon had wantonly confumed. _ The Sax¬
ons alfo made fome conquefts on the Elbe, which oblige
Bannier to recal general Lefty from Weftphalia to maic
againft them. The Saxons fixed on a moft convenient fix¬
ation, vvhen.-e they hoped to deftroy the Swediih army wit •
out coming to a battle. But Bannier, refolving to hazard
SauBjer.
89
Eight regi-
ments of
Saxons ta-
S W E [ 21
SwetJen. fvery father than fuffer his army to be wafted by fa-
mine, advanced towards Berleberg, a place clofely blocked
up by the enemy. Here he drove from an advantageous
poft four regiments of Saxon cuiraffiers, having killed or ta»
8g ken prifoners 400 men ; after which he foon forced them to
The Saxons a general engagement. The numbers were very unequal,
entirely de- Bannier’s army amounting to 9000 horfe and 7000 foot,
feated by a[1(j ^ Saxons {0 x 5,000 horfe and 13 battalions of foot.
The battle began with great fury ; the right wing of the
Swedes was almoft opprefled by numbers before the left
could come to their affiftance. They were ten times dri¬
ven back, and as often returned to the charge. At laft:
they made fuch a defperate effort, that the enemy were
entirely broken and defeated. Five thoufand were killed
on the fpot, 3000 wounded, and as many taken prifoners,
together with 150 colours and flandards, and feveral pieces
of cannon.
Thus ended the campaign of 1636, in a manner highly
honourable to the Swedes. Some fruitlefs negotiations
were fet on foot during the winter; but thefe coming to
nothing, Banmer quitted his winter-quarters very early in
the feafon ; and falling upon eight regiments of Saxons can¬
toned at Eulenburg, purfued them to Torgau, where he
ken nrifon- obl^ed them to ^'render at diferetion. Another party of
ers. Saxons was defeated in the neighbourhood of Leipfic ; af¬
ter which he propofed invefling that city. But in this pro-
be was difappointed by the Imperiahfts penetrating into
Bannier de- Ihuringia. He then called in all his detachments, with a
fra's the view to prevent them from crofting a river named Sala ; but
Impenalifts in this alfo he was difappointed. However, he had the
ged ‘tore- g°od fortune to defeat 2000 Imperialifts near Pegau, and
tire. deftr°y feveral detachments that attempted to obflnnff his
maich. Yet, notwithftanding all thefe iucceftes, Bannier
found his fituation every day more ftraitened, from the con¬
tinual increafe of the enemy’s forces; which obliged him at
laft to retreat into Pomerania, out of which he foon drove
count Gallas.
I he affairs of the Swedes were now once more reduced
to the brink of ruin, through the unguarded conduft of ge¬
neral Wrangel, who had alfo an army in Pomerania. Af¬
ter Bannier had driven count Gallas out of the province as
above mentioned, Wrangel, imagining himfelf perfedfly fe-
^ cure, cantoned his troops, and extended his quarters, the bet-
Pomerania ter ^ accommodate his army. But Gallas, being informed
ravaged by of this proceeding, fuddenly returned, ravaged all Upper
25i!bpe" Pomerania’ and educed the towns of Ufedom, Demmin,
and Wollin ; after which, leaving garrifons in the fortreffes,
he returned to his winter-quarters in Saxony.
This unfortunate campaign counterbalanced all the ad¬
vantages of the former. Wrangel was fo ftruck with the
fuddennels of the blow, that he could take no meafures for
oppofition. Some of the Swedifh allies again fell off, and
rialiftsT' t0°k Up armS aKabft tW In i638’ the Swedifh affairs
fiateii by abrain began to revive in this quarter, through the excellent
conduct of Bannier, who defeated count Gallas with the
lofs of 3000 men killed and taken prifoners. Purfuing his
good fortune, he fo haraffed the count, that he obliged him
in great hafte to repafs the Elbe, and take fhelter in the he¬
reditary dominions of Auftna. Great as Bannier’s exploits
Exploits of bad bet-n’ however, they were eclipfed by thofe of duke
the duke of “ernard* that general had fo increafed his army in the
Saxe Wey- Proteftant cantons of Switzerland, and in Tranche Comte,
mar. that he found himfelf in a condition to a& without the af-
1 ance of the French, who indeed were but treacherous
H n- dvanc‘n£ to tbe Rhine, he feized on Seckingen
and Laffuburg, and laid fiege to Rheinfield. The Imperial-
1 s, m conjunction with the troops of Bavaria, advanced to
- e relief of the place. An engagement enfued, in which
Cannier.
93
9 ] S W E
the victory was difputed : the enemy threw fuccours into Sweden,
the city, and the duke withdrew his army. Within a v ™<
month he gave them battle a fecond time; and fo complete¬
ly defeated them, that only one Imperial officer above the
rank of a captain efcaped being killed or taken prifoner.
He then renewed the fiege of Rheinfield ; which he redu¬
ced, as well as feveral other important places. Advancing
to Brifac, he blocked it up with a defign of forcing the gar-
rifon to furrender by famine. General Gotz, with 12,000
men, attempted to throw in jooo waggons of provifions;
but he was defeated, with the lofs of all his men except
2500. Duke Charles of Lorrain, with 4000 men, joined
the remains of Gotz’s army, in order to relieve the town ;
but being furprifed by Bernard, his whole army was cut in
pieces. A third attempt was made by Gotz, but it proved
as unfuccefsful as the former ; and the place being reduced
to great llraits, was obliged to capitulate.
In January 1639, tbe two victorious generals Bernard
and Bannier prepared to attack the enemy on their own
ground. Bannier made an irruption into the territories of
Anhalt and Halberffadt. Leaving his infantry behind, he
pufhed on with his cavalry, and furprifed Salis, grand-mafter 94
of the Imperial artillery. After a bloody conflict, the Banmer de-
Swedes gained a complete victory, feven regiments of thet^.e
enemy being cut in pieces. Next entering Saxony, he de-^y^
feated four regiments of the enemy, obliging a much larger gagements.
body to take fhelter under the cannon of Drefden. Hear¬
ing that the Saxons were encamped near Chemnitz, where
they waited to be joined by the Imperialifts, he refolved to
attack them before tins junction could be effected. The
fame good fortune ftill attended his arms, and the Saxons
were almoft all killed or taken. Bannier next entering into
Bohemia, laid the country under contribution ; after which,
returning crofs the Elbe, he fell on general Hofskirk, who
was encamped near Brandeiz with 10 regiments of horfe
and feveral battalions of foot. Him he defeated with the
lofs of 2000 men. The remains of the Imperial forces were
purfued to the walls of Prague, and the generals Hofskirk
and Montecuculi were taken prifoners. Yet, notwithftand¬
ing thefe conftant fueceffes, the enemies of Bannier multi¬
plied daily. He had expeCted an infurreClion in his favour
in Silefia or Bohemia ; but no fuch event took place. The
Proteftant princes, overawed by the enemy, did not fend
him the neceffary affiftance. Undifmayed, however, by dif¬
ficulties or danger, Bannier performed wonders. He de¬
feated a body of Imperialifts at Glatz ; three times he drove
the Saxons from their camp at Firn ; and yet was forced to
evacuate the place, becauie he could not fpare a garrifon.
His army^ being deftitute of the means of recruiting, was
confiderably diminiftied in number ; yet with it he reduced
a number of towns, and obtained a variety of other impor¬
tant advantages, when on a fudden all his hopes were blaft- 95
ed by the death of the duke of Saxe-Weymar ; poifoned, B>eath of
as was fuppofed, by the French, who were defirous of sret-the duke
tmg the town of Brifac into their hands, from which'the Wevmar
duke prevented them. weymar.
i he difficulties to which Bannier was now reduced pro-
ved extreme. The French monarch took upon him to dif-TVa^Lv
pole of the army and conquefts of Bernard as he thought of the "
proper. Bniac, and other places of importance, he kept to French,
himielf; after getting pofftffion of which, the French en¬
deavoured, as much as poffible, to ruin the army. In the
mean time, the Imperial army under Piccolomini, in the Ne¬
therlands, was prodigioufty augmented ; and the archduke
Leopold-William, m quality of generaliffimo, wasaffembling
his whole {Length to cruffi the Swedes at once. Bannier,
however, did not deipair. George duke of Lunenburg ha¬
ving conceived fome difguft at the emperor, Baunier hoped
Lea to
S W E
t 2
Sweder. to him over: he therefore approached nearer to h„
  'country; by which alio he drew towards the^ armies o: v\ey-
1 , \r T,*- r i ■  Iwa .',1 nifert'R a hodv OI
LUuUtl V 5 ) vvl*lv , • U 1 iT
'7 , mar and Heffe. Iu his way he cut m pieces a body ut
n“i- „ a-a   < thp imneriau
iih defeated tooo Croats. ' General Kouigfmark routed the Innp<^
by Koniof. ifes at Gera ; a fecond time at Scholen ; and a thud time
mark. entirely defeated them near Leiplic. Bannier was very prei-
fino- on the allies to join him ; and at laft, in 1640, ne was
1 joined by the Weymar army under the dukes ot Longue-
ville and Gubrien, a body of Ruffians led by general Me-
lander, and the troops of Lunenburgh commanded by ge¬
neral Klitzing. The army now amounted to 22 battalions
of infantry and 22,000 horfe ; fothat they were much more
than a match for their enemies, had they been under the
foie direction of Bannier. But unanimity was wanting ,
every one would be fupreme in the command ; and Bannier,
the bed general of them all, had the lealt influence. In-
ftead of thofe mafterly and decifive ftrokes by which the
Swedes had hitherto diftinguiffied themfelves, the armies
continued looking at one another, each fuffering the rigours
of famine. At laft Bannier, refolving to expofe his troops
no longer, fet out for Thuringia, through Franconia, to
feize an advantageous poft on the Maine ; but as he advan¬
ced to the Sala, he found the Imperialifts entrenched on the
other fide. Finding it impoffible to force a paffage, he took
the road through ITeffe, where his troops fuffered greatly
by famine. Here he propofed to fight the enemy ; but the
Landgrave and duke of Lunenburg refufed their confent.
Upon this he threatened to leave them to the mercy of the
confederates, and thus obliged them to be fomewhat more
pliant. None of thofe brilliant fucceffes, however, now at¬
tended the operations of the Proteftant allies : the cam¬
paigns of 1640 and 1644 were fpent in ufelels marches and
countermarches; ferving only to bring the army into the
98 greateft dangers, from which they were as conftantly relie-
2>eath of ved by the a&ive and intrepid Bannier. At laft this brave
jj-nnicr. general, worn out wuth perpetual fatigues, died of a fever in
the year 1641, leaving the Swedifh army in a worfe iitua-
tion than ever.
The Imperialifts were too well acquainted with the abili-
<59. ties of Bannier, not to take advantage of the opportunity
A Sweuifli offered by his death. A Swedifh detachment was cut in
20 ] s W E
fuffered as much by their fatiguing march as if they had Wkn,
fouAit a bloody battle. Then joining general Stalhanch, '
who had been driven by the Impenahfts out of Sileiia, heRedllcesfs
reduced the town of Great Glagau, with a number ot other veraltowu*
important places ; after which he laid liege to Schweidniu.
The duke of Saxe-Lawenburgh, at the head of all his ca¬
valry, endeavoured to throw in fuccouis ; but was defeated
with the lots of 3000 men. ITe himfelf was taken prifoner,
and died of chagrin a few days after. In confequence of
this defeat Schweidnitz funendeved at dilcretion ; and 1 or-
ftenfon having fent a detachment to inveft the city of Neiife,^
proceeded with the reft to drive the enemy entirely out of I03
Silefra. This he effedually performed; obliging them to Drives the
retire over barren mountains, almoft famiihed for want ©f
iccum uvv-a u#*.***-*»   . \ r t 1 • u^tofSiie»
proviiions, and haraffed by his light troops; fo that ^hlsfia,and
detachment pjeces at Quidlenberg. The Swedifh army, accuftomed
lit ill pie- ^ i _ .1! 4. a. ^ rwnf inmiC- arifl
only to be obedient to Bannier, became mutinous, and Pic
eolomim refolved to fall upon them with his whole force.
But the four generals, Wrangel, Konigfmark, Wittemberg,
and Pful, having convinced the foldiers of the neceffity of
defending themfelves, made fuch excellent difpofttions, that
the Imperialifts durlt not attack them. Piccolomini then de-
ICO tached part of his army to attack the Heffians in their quar-
The impe- ters ; but Wrangel and Konigfmark threw themfelves in
itaiiftsde- their way, and defeated them with the lofs ot 2COO men.
reared. rj/}t;s victory, however, did not retrieve the Swedifh affairs.
Uiffeniioiis and mutiny began again to take place in the ar-
General Tny *-0 fuN* a degree as threatened its diffolution. In 164 2
Torftaifon general Torenfton was fent from S-weden, with a large fum
takes tire of money and a ftrong 1'einforcement, to take upon him the
t^lmand fupieme command. This general was inferior in abilities
1 ifb army2 to none his predeceffors, and deftgned without lofs of
time to come to an engagement; but the Weymar army fe-
parating from him, put an end to that defign, and obliged
him to remain for a confiderable time inactive. Fie was al-
fo confined to his chamber for fome time by a dangerous
gout; and thus a report of his death being fpread, the
imperialifts were encouraged to begin a long march thtough
roads fcaree paffable, in hopes of furprifing the ftwedifh ar¬
my without a general. 1 orftenfon having intelligence of
this, feized an" advantageous poft, which could not be for¬
ced,; and thus obliged the enemy to retreat, alter having
pi VIVIIlWilvJy —y - O • * 1 1 ^ alJU
lately formidable army was almoft entirely mined. WithtakesOl-
his vi&orious troops the Swedifh general then poured intomutz.&c
Moravia ; where, in five days, he reduced the ftrong town of
Olmutz (which not long ago fuftamed a liege ot as many
weeks by the late king of Pruffia). Litta and Newftadt
fliared the fame fate ; after which, the Swedes, returning
fuddenly to Silefia, made themfelves matters of Oppelein and
Brieg, and laid fiege to Breftau. Here the garrifon made
fuch an obftinate defence, that the Imperialifts had time to
afferuble under the condudt of the archduke Leopold, and
come to their relief. As Torftenfon was greatly inferior
in number, he raffed the liege ; but appealed fo foiiuidab.c
in his retreat, that the enemy durft neither attack him, nor
attempt to prevent his encamping in a very advantageous fi-
tuation. The Imperialifts took this opportunity oi laying^
fiege to Glogau ; but after having loft a great number of
men, they were forced to abandon the enterprile on ths_
j undiion of Wrangel with Torilenfon ; by which means the
Swedes were, once more in a condition to face their enemies
in the field. # ...
Torftenfon now projedled an irruption into Bohemia, and
putting his army into winter quarters in that country ; but
in this he was prevented by the vigilance of the enemy :
however, he reduced the city of Ziittau, where, for the lirft
time, a cartel for pnfoners was eftabhfhed.; by which means
the Swedifh army was confiderably augmented. Thus dis¬
appointed in his defigns on Bohemia, i orftenfon directed
his courfe to Leipfic, which he intended to inveft. The
Imperial generals affembled their whole force, and fet out I0^
to ielieve that important place. The two armies loon came Emireij^
in fight of each other ; and a furious cannonading was thef^g
prelude to a general engagement. A ftngle bullet had ah"
moft proved fatal to the Swediffi caufe. It carried away
the furniture of Torftenfon’s horfe, killed the count Pala¬
tine’s horfe, pierced general Rabenau through the body,
took off the head of a celebrated counfcllor named Lrabbe,
and carried away the leg of a private foldier. I he Swedes,
as foon as the armies came up, behaved with their wonted
refolution, and after an obftinate conflift obtained a com¬
plete viftory ; 5000 of the enemy being killed on the f pot,
qooo wounded, and as many taken priloners. I his victory
was followed by the immediate iurrender of Leipfic ; and
in all probability the Swedes would have finally triumphed
over all their enemies, had not a rupture with Denmark en- 105
fued. Torftenfon and Horn behaved with their ufual valour U ai ^
in Holftein and Schonen, while general Konigfmaik diftin- enl
guifhed himfelf in Germany ; but the ruin of the Weymar
armv, which was totally defeated with the lofs of one half j06
its numbei at Dettingen by the Bavarians, proved a dread-The
ful blow, from which the Swedes could fcarce recover thetivdefcat^^
felves. Indeed, notwithftanding the valour and fuccefs of
the Swedes, their affairs in Germany muft have gone to
wreck, in the campaigns of 1643 and 1644, had not the
French
Sweden.
107
An advan¬
tageous
peace with
JHeiuiiWk.
108
The Impe-
rialifti en¬
tirely de¬
feated at
j'ai.amitz.
109
Toitlerfon
religns fhe
command
to Wrati-
Ktl.
no
Treaty of
Wei’tplialia
'JIT
Charles
Guftavus
appoit ted
heir to the
crown of
Sweden.
112
State of
Sweden on
the accef-
fion of
Charles.
T13 .
War with
Poland re-
folved on.
S W E [ 2
French un;!er Cond6 and Turenne made a mofl; powerful
'diverfion, and performed fuch exploits as iimnortalized the
names of thefe two generals.
In i645> war agair'ft Denmark was pufhed with fuch
vigour, that a peace, very honourable and advantageous for
Sweden, was concluded j and thus Torftenfpn was again at
liberty to aft again id the Imperialifts. He now took mea-
fures lor carrying the war into the heart of the Auftrian
dominions. Hatheld affembled a confiderable army to op-
pofe the Swedes ; and the emperor came in perfon to Prague
to animate his troops. The two armies came in fight at
Jancowitz, and both prepared for an engagement. The va¬
lour of the Swedes once more prevailed ; and they totally
defeated their enemies. Four tnoufand oi the Imperialifts
were killed on the ipot, among whom were general Hatfield
and a great number of officers ; and near 5c 00 were taken
prifoners. No great advantages, however, were derived
from this victory. Some towns indeed were reduced ; but
at laid Torftenfon was obliged to retire intp Moravia,
where he put his army into winter-quarters ; and in the
beginning of the year 1646 refigned the command to
Wrangel.
The new general condufted the Swedifh affairs with
great ability and fuccefs; till at laid the Imperialifts, find¬
ing themfelves finally unable to drive the Swedes out of
Germany, concluded a peace with them in 1648. This
was the memorable treaty of Weidphalia, by which the Ger¬
manic conftitution \vas fettled upon its ancient principles,
and thofe implacable difputes which had fo long torn the
empire were ended ; the duchies of Bremen and Yeiden, all
the Upper and part of Lower Pomerania, the city of Wif-
mar and the ifle of Rugen, were afligned to Sweden, and
a gratification of five millions of crowns was given to the
army.
Sweden now enjoyed fome years of repofe. Charles Gu-
ftavus, count Palatine, having gained the favour of Chrifti-
na, was appointed generaliffimo of the forces, and heir appa¬
rent to the crown. A marriage was oropofed between
them j but the queen would never liften to this or any other
propefal of the kind. In 1650, the ceremony of the queen’s
coronation was performed ; but in four years thereafter, fhe
refigned the crown in favour of Guftavus. (See the article
Christina).
The new king found himfelf involved in confiderable
difficulties on his accdfion to the throne. The treafury
was quite exhauited; great part of the revenue was ap¬
pointed for the fupport of Chriflina’s houfehold ; the people
were oppreffed with taxes; and the nation having been dif-
armed for feveral years, began to lofe its reputation among
foreigners. To remedy thefe evils, Charles propofed to re¬
lume all the crown-lands which had been alienated by grants
to favourites during the late reign ; to repeal a duty which
had been laid upon fait; to put the kingdom in a pofture of
defence ; and to enter upon a war with fome neighbouring
ftate. Under a pretence, therefore, that Cafimir king of
Poland had queftioned his title to the throne, he began to
make preparations for invading that kingdom. Several em-
baffies were i'ent from Poland to Stockholm ; but fome point
of ceremony always difappointed them of an audience of the
king ; fo that they were obligecb-to return without their er¬
rand. As foon as matters were in readinefs, General Wit-
temberg made an irruption into Poland from the fide of Po¬
merania. The Poles oppofed him with an army of 15,000
rnen ; but inftead of fighting, they began to negotiate, and
in a ihort time entirely difperfed themfelves. Charles him-
ielf foon followed wath a powerful army, and purfued his
march without obilruftion, all the cities throwing open their
gates to him as he approached, and offering to fapply him
21 ] S W E
with neceffaries. As he advanced to Cracow, Caffimir re- Sweden. ^
folved to make one effort to fave his capital. His army ^ 1 '
amounted only to 10,000 men ; and thefe were unfortunate-
ly fuch as had never flood fire. After a feeble reliftance,defeated,
they fled with precipitation, having loft 1000 men killed and the
and taken prifoners. A few days after this Charles defeated
the Poles a fecond time, about eight leagues from Cracow;
upon which Cafimir fled with his family to Oppelen in Si-
lefia. The capital was then inverted ; and though defended
with the utmoft valour by Stephen Czarnefki, was in a fhort
time obliged to capitulate. Thus in lefs than three months
Charles apparently became mafter of Poland ; but it foon be¬
came evident that the Poles had no intention of abandoning
their former fovereign. j 15
In 1656 a war took place with the eleftor of Brandea-'War with
burg. While Charles was employed in the conqueft ofrl’e c,e^of
Poland, that prince had invaded the Royal and Ducal Pruf-j^Jj*11 ea,’
fia, and reduced the moft confiderable towns with little
oppofition. The king of Sweden took umbrage at his pro-
grefs ; and having marched againft him, defeated his forces
in feveral flight encounters, and obliged him to own that he
was a vaffal of Sweden. Thefe rapid conquefts alarmed all
Europe ; and the different powers fought for means of
driving the Swedes out of Poland, which they had fo un- ri^
expeftedly and unjuftly feized. The Poles were no foonerThe Poles
allured that they Ihould be afiifted, than tliey everywhere revolt,
revolted and maffacred the Swedes. Cafimir returned from
SUefia ; and thofe very troops and generals who had before
fubmitted to Charles without oppofition, now ranged them- Ir_
felves under the banners of his antagonift. Charlea imme-Charles
diately marched from Pruffia to chaltife the infolence of the gains a vic-
Poles, and totally defeated a body of 12,000 men under thet')>I7, ^ut 13
command of Czarnelki. This did not hinder all the Poles^
incorporated with his troops to defert; which conliderably1
reduced his army ; and the campaign being performed in
the depth of winter, he was at laft obliged to retreat to
Pruffia. In his march he was haraffed by the Poles ; and
a body of 4000 Swedes was furprifed and defeated by them
at Warka. This lofs, however, was foon after recompenfed
by a complete viftory gained by Adolphus the king’s bro¬
ther and General Wrangel over Czarnefki, In the mean
time the king was taking meafures for laying liege to
Dantzic; but was prevented by the Dutch, who threat¬
ened to oppofe him, unlefs a proper regard was paid to their Ir^
inter eft, Charles accordingly granted them advantageous Concludes
terms ; and afterwards gained over the eleftor of Branden-a treaty
burg, by ceding to him the fovereignty of Pruffia, thatwith the
he might be at liberty to turn his whole ftreagth againft^'1^
Poifd- . n , ' ofBrandet
By the treaty juft concluded with the eleftor, the latterburg.
was to affift Charles in his war with Poland; but the elec¬
tor had fo procraftinated matters, that the Pole?, having ob¬
tained affiftance from the Tartars, had reduced the city of
Warlaw. The two princes, however, now marched in con¬
cert againft their enemies, wffio were encamped in a ftrong
fituation in the neighbourhood of the city above-mentioned,
their camp being fronted by the Viftula. The Poles were
driven from their entrenchments with prodigious (laughter* 7
and a vail number taken prifoners. The Poles and Tartars The Xles
then laboured to break the alliance ; with which view they ai:d Tartars
entered Ducal Pruffia, and defeated the eleftoral army, ta-d<ifeated
king prince Radzivil and other perfons of diftinftion pri^^’1^8,^5
Toners. The Swedes foon had their revenge. General * b
Steinboek attacked the fame Polifh army at Philippowa,
and overthrew it with fuch (laughter as obliged the Poles
for that ieafon to quit the field. A more formidable enemy
than the Poles now began to make their appearance. The
Ruffians invaded the provinces of Careiia, Ingermania, and
Z- Livonia 1
$ W E l 22
Sweden. Uvonfa : while the eledor of Brandenburg began to waver
—   in his fidelity. To preferve this only ally at fuch a critic?.!
-v f junaure, Charles was obliged to give him more advantage-
fia.r* invade ous terms than thofe already mentioned ; while the Ruffians
the Swedifh were repulfed in the provinces of Carelia and Ingermania.
dominions, Ravonia they had better fuccefs, two important for-
trefies falling into their hands ; after which they laid liege
to Rina, For feven months they battered the walls of this
city, without once venturing to pafs the ditch or ftorm the
m pratticable breaches. Thebefieged, under the command of
Are defea- Magnus de la Gardie and Simon Helmfield, defended them-
ted before fe|ves wjth the greateft intrepidity ; cutting off many thou-
fands of the enemy in the lallies they made. At lafl: they
attacked the Ruffian camp, drove them out of it with
great (laughter, and obliged them to laife the liege with
precipitation.
Charles, notwithftar.ding the number of his enemies, was
now become fo formidable by the valour and dilciphne of
his troops, that whole armies often fled on the very news
of his approach. At iaft, in 1657, the Poles, finding they
could not refill him in the field, contented themfelves with
haraffing the Swedes on their march, and cutting off the
Charles en- foragers and convoys. This proved much more deftru&ive
tersimo an to the Swedes than their former method ; fo that Charles
^llh'-Ra- was obliged to enter into an alliance with Ragotlki prince
godhi a" of Tranfylvania, by affigning him certain provinces in his
j rince of neighbourhood, in order to furnilh himfelf with irregular
Tranfylva- tr00pg) who might fight the Poles in their own way. This,
41ia* however, proved of no real advantage ; for the confederates,
after (pending a whole campaign in Lithuania, were obli¬
ged to return without accomplifhing more than the reduc¬
tion of a fingle fortrefs ; upon which Charles returned with
the Svvedifh army to Pruffia.
Leopold, the young king of Hungary, having beheld for
a long time the Swedes with a jealous eye, now refolved to
declare for Poland. The more effectually to curb the am¬
bition of the Swedifli monarch, he folicited the king of
Denmark to come to a rupture with him. This was in-
* ,., flantly complied with, and the Danes invaded Bremen,
army de- Charles haftened to oppofe this new enemy ; which gave
itroyed by fuch offence to Ragotlki, that he neglefted to take the pro¬
per meafures for his own defence in the abfence of the
Swedes, and fuffered his army to be deftroyed by the Poles
and Tartars. At the fame time the Turks invaded Tran¬
fylvania, under pretence that Ragotlki, being a vaffal of the
Grand Signior, had no right to invade Poland without his
leave. Ragotlki oppofed them in the field ; where he was
defeated and killed, leaving Charles deilitute of the only ally
*«e Turks. on whom he could have depended.
The king, however, not difmayed by this misfortune,
traverfed Pomerania and the duchy of Mecklenburg ; after
which he fell upon Holftein, while general Wrangel with
another corps entered the duchy of Bremen. The latter
executed his meafures with the utmoll vigour and intrepidi¬
ty. In 15 days he retook all the towns which the enemy
and fuccefs had reduced ; defeated and drove the Danilh army out of
WrarTel country, killing 30000! their belt foldiers. In Holffein
the king reduced feveral fortreffes, laid Itzehoe in alhes, de¬
feated a body of Danes, and laid liege to Frederic-Udda,
into which the Danes had thrown a ftrong garrifon. The
conduft of this fiege he left to Wrangel, he himfelf retiring
to Wiftnar in order to obferve the fituation of affairs in Po¬
land ; but no fpouer was he gone than Wrangel attacked
the place with fuch fury, that he became mailer of it in two
hours. In the province of Halland the Swedes were de¬
feated ; but the enemy derived no advantage bom their vic¬
tory : at fea the fleets met, and maintained a hot engage-
*nent for two days, without any conhderable advantage on
123
Leopold
king of
Hungary
declares
againft
Sweden.
124
the Poles
and Tar*
fars.
I2S
He is de¬
feated and
killed by
126
Bravery
2 ] S W E
either fide- In Poland matters went on much worfe. The Sweden,
houfe of Aullria had now declared for Cafimir ; a German
army entered Poland, and reduced Cracow, _ though not
without great lofs to themfelves. Czarnelki entered Po-of Auitn,
merania, where he butchered the unhappy peafants without declare*
mercy ; but on the approach ot Charles he fled as ufual,^ai^
having gained nothing by his expedition but the chara£ter we ^
of a cruel barbarian.
The king of Sweden was now furrounded by enemies.
The elector of Brandenburg had declared againft him; and
he had befides to engage the armies of Auitria, Poland, ^
Ruffia, and Denmark, in the field. In this dangerous fitua-Charles in-
tion he refolved to attack Denmark, in fuch a manner asvadesDer.
ffiould oblige that power to come to a fpeedy accommoda-^'J^
tion. His deligns were forwarded by a very early froft,^1 lu‘
which enabled him to tranfport his troops without the ex¬
pence and trouble of (hipping. Having paffed over on the ice
to the ifland of Funen, he cut in pieces a body of 4000
Danilh foldiers and 500 peafants. The whole ifland was
reduced in a few days; after which he paffed to Langland,
then to Laaland, after that to Falftre, and laftly to Zealand.
The Danes were terrified at this unexpe&ed invafion, and
were giving themfelves up to detpair, when Charles offered
to conclude a peace upon equitable terms. The king of
Denmark very gladly confented ; but with a defign to re¬
new the war as foon as he thought it could be done with
fafety. By this treaty, called the treaty of Rofcbild, con-Peace cot.
eluded on the 12th of March 1658, the provinces of Scho-0^-
nen, Halland, and Bleking, Lyfter, and Huwen, the ille
of Borkholm, the bailliages ot Bahus and Drontheim in
Norway, were yielded to Sweden, and a free paffage thro’
the Sound was granted to the Swedilh Ihips.
No fooner was Charles retired, than the king of Den¬
mark began to a£t again!! him in an underhand manner ; on
which, refolving to anticipate him in his defigns, he appear- 13s
ed unexpectedly with a fleet before Copenhagen. Had he The w?
given the affault immediately, before the inhabitants had
time to recover from their furprife, it would probably have^T
furrendered at once; but, by landing at the diftance of I7iieg«i
miles, he gave them time to prepare for their defence : the
fiege proved extremely tedious, and at laft the place was re¬
lieved by a Dutch fleet. On this Charles converted the
fiege into a blockade, which continued till the end of the war.
Wrangel reduced the ftrong fortrefs-of Cronenburg ; and
the Swedilh forces were fo judicioufly polled, that all Den- iji
mark was in a manner blocked up; when, in 1660, kingDj-1^
Charles died of an epidemical fever: and thus an end
put, for that time, to all the ambitious defigns of Sweden. ,ji
The new king Charles XI. was a minor at the time ofchaikA'
his father’s death ; and as the kingdom was involved in a
dangerous war with fo many enemies, the regency determin¬
ed to conclude a peace, it it could be obtained on reafonable 133 ^
terms. A treaty was accordingly concluded at Oliva; by
which Cafimir renounced his pretenfions to the crown
Poland, and that republic gave up all pretenfions to Livonia.
Bornholm and Drontheim were ceded to Denmark ; and an
equivalent in Schonen remained with Sweden. During the
minority of the king, nothing remarkable occurs in the hif*
tory of Sweden. In 1672 he entered into alliance with
Louis XIV. which two years alter involved him in a war^^th
-with the eleftor of Brandenburg. At firft the Swedes car- franco-
tied all before them ; and general Wrangel having fallen burg-
fick, they continued their conquefts under another named
Mirdenjeldt. Almoft all the towns in Brandenburg were
reduced, when the elector arrived with an army to the re- rjj
lief of his diftreffed fubjedts. He retook feveral towns, de-ThA^
fieated Mardenfeldt in a general engagement, and foon
forced them to abandon all their conaueits. In conjunction fei,
t * with
s W E r S2.1 1 S W E
iwti«n. with the Danes, he then Invaded the SwedHh dominions: the crown, and his papers burnt by the hands of the com-
'—"■v 'many places of importance were reduced; and, in 1676, mon executioner. The accufation was declared unjuft by
Sweden received a molt deftru&ive blow by the defeat of the univerfity at Leipfig : but notwithftandinf this, Patkul
her fleet in an engagement with the combined fleets of Den- was obliged to fly his country, to avoid the execution of his
Sweden,
136
Their af-
• fairs every-
| where go
t to wreck.
3 *37
Peace con-
- eluded.
*38
Charles be¬
comes ab-
iblute.
*39
Difgufts
many of
his fub-
jedts.
140
Boldnefs
and misfor
tunes of
Captain
I Patkul.
mark and Holland. Soon after this the king took the go¬
vernment into his own hands, and in fome degree reftored
the fortune of Sweden ; but though matters went on in a
more profperous way where the king commanded in perlon,
the fame Ioffes and difgrace attended the Swedifh arms in
every other quarter. In Pomerania, count Konigfmark loft
every place of importance excepting Stralfund, Stetin, and
Gripfwald. In 1678, the Swedifh fleet was defeated in
two engagements. At Landlcroon a moft obftinate battle
was fought from ten in the morning till fix at night; when
both parties were obliged, by their fatigue, to retire to their
reipefftive camps. At Oldeval in Norway, the Swedes were
defeated ; and the Danes laid defolate the iflands of Oeland,
Smaalandj Unno, and Kuno ; while the ele&oral troops
and Imperialifts reduced count Ivonigfmark to the utmoft
diftrefs in the neighbourhood of Stralfund.
In this deplorable fituation of affairs count Konigfmark
found an opportunity of attacking his enemies to fuch ad¬
vantage, that he obtained a complete vidlory ; after which
he ravaged the duchy of Mecklenburg. Yet notwithftand-
ing this fuccefs, he could not prevent the eleftor from re¬
ducing Stralfund ; after which he was obliged to evacuate
Pomerania ; and, to complete his diftrefs, the fleet which
tranfported the Swedifh army from Pomerania was wrecked
on the coaft of Bornholm ; by which accident 2000 perfons
were drowned, and the remainder plundered and taken pri-
foners by the Danes, though they had been furnifhed with
paffports from king Frederic.
In this unprofperous fituation of affairs a peace was con¬
cluded at St Germain’s between France and her enemies,
by which the Swedes and Danes were left to decide their
quarrel by themfelves. Denmark was by no means a match
for Sweden, even in the diftreffed fituation to which fhe was
reduced : for which reafon a treaty was inftantly concluded,
on terms much more favourable to Sweden than could have
been expefted ; and the peace was confirmed by a marriage
between Charles and Ulrica Eleonora, daughter to the king
of Denmark. From this time the Swedifh monarch applied
himfelf to the reformation of the ftate ; and by artfully ma¬
naging the difputes between the nobility and peafants, he
obtained a decree of the ftates empowering him to alter the
conftitution as he pleafed. Being thus invefted with abfo-
iute power, he proceeded to take fome very extraordinary
meafures. In 1685 it was projefled to liquidate the public
debts by raifing the nominal value of money, without adding
any thing to its intrinfic value. This was put in execution
the following year, by which the creditors of the govern¬
ment loft upwards of nine millions of crowns. This, with
fome other arbitrary fteps taken about the fame time, difi
gulfed all the nobility, merchants, and crown-creditors. In
Livonia they were highly refented ; and remonftrances were
repeatedly fent by the hands of deputies, who had orders to
infift upon their privileges confirmed by many ads of the
king’s predeceffors. The deputies could obtain nothing,
fo that the diet was affembled. On their report the body
of nobility refolved to draw up a flronger remonftrance than
any of the former, to be prefented to the king by captain
Patkul one of the deputies, who had already diftinguifhed
himfelf by his boldnefs and attachment to liberty. His
public fpirit, however, produced no other effed than to pro¬
cure his own deftrudion. An accufation was drawn up
againft all the remonflrants, but efpecially Paikul. He was
Sentenced to lofe his right hand, then to be deprived of his
life, honours, and tftates; to have the latter conhfcated to
rigorous fentence ; which, however, fell upon him with re¬
doubled fury in the fublequent reign, of which an account
is given under the article Patxuo. »4T
On the 15th of April 1697, died Charles XI. leaving Charles Xb
his crown to his fon, the celebrated Charles XII. at that
time a minor. On his acceflion he found himfelf under the{,y ^js fou
tuition of his grandmother Eleonora, who had governed the Charles
kingdom during the minority of the late king. Though^ll.
Charles was at that time only 15 years of age, he inftantly
fhowed a defire of taking the government into his ownthe g0Vem*
hands. His counfellors, count Piper and Axel Sparre, fig-ment into
nified his defire to the queen-regent. They were by her bis own
referred to the ftates ; and there all were unanimous: fo-j1^^8 »
that the queen, finding that oppofition would be vain, re-q^ 0
figned her power with a good grace ; and Charles was in¬
vefted with abfolute authority in three days after he had 143
expreffed his defire of reigning alone. He was fcarce feat- A powerful
ed on the throne v/hen a powerful combination was form- T™^1^^
ed againft him. King Auguftus of Poland formed defign&.^jjjj^jjim,
on Livonia ; the king of Denmark revived the difputes he
had with the duke of Holftein, as a prelude to a war with
Sweden ; and Peter the Great of Mufcovy began to form
defigns upon Ingria, formerly a province of Ruffia. In
1699 the king of Denmark marched an army into Holftein.
Charles fent a confiderable body of troops to the duke’s
affiftance; but before their arrival the Danes had ravaged Holflein ra»
the country, taken the caftleof Gottorp, and laid clofe fiegevaKeclby
to Tonningen. Here the king of Denmark commanded in^ *-)ans8*
perfon ; and was affifted by the troops of Saxony, Bran¬
denburg, Wolfenbuttle, and Heffe-Caffel. England and
Holland, as guarantees of the laft treaty with Denmark, in
concert with Sweden, joined Charles againft this confedera¬
cy, and fent fleets to the Baltic. They propofed a termi¬
nation of the war upon equitable terms ; but thefe were
haughtily refufed by the Danifh monarch, who defpifed the
youth and inexperience of Charles, and relied too much up¬
on the alliance he had formed with Saxony, Brandenburg, l4y
Poland, and Ruffia. The town of Tonningen, howeverKThey are
refilled all his efforts ; and when he ordered the place to ber^Pulfed at
ftormed, he had the mortification to fee his troops driven * onn‘nEeD»
headlong from the walls by a handful of Swedes under ge¬
neral Bannier. 14(5
In the year 1700, Charles, having entrufted the affairs-Charies fet»-
of the nation with a council chofen out of the fenate, fet outout from
on the 8th May from his capital, to which he never after- ^°c^h°lrT,»
wards returned. He embarked at Carlfcroon, and defeat- the fket?o£
ed the fleet of the allies. Having made a defeent on the the allies,
illand of Zealand, he defeated a body of cavalry that oppofed
his march, and then proceeded to inveft Copenhagen bv fea
and land. The king of Denmark then faw the rieceffity
there was either of having his capital deftroyed, or of doing 147
juftice to the duke of Holftein. He chofe the latter; and Obliges tils
a treaty was concluded in eleven days, upon much the fame13ai esto
terms as formerly. Charles, being thus* at liberty to turn
his arms againft the other princes- who had confpired his de- C *
ftrudlion, refolved to lead his army againft Auguftus king
of Poland ; but on his way he received intelligence that
the czar of Mufcovy had laid liege to Narva with 100,coo r.g
men. On this he immediately embarked at Carlfcroon,,Marcheg a-
though it was then the depth of winter, and the Baltic fearce£air>ft the-
navigable ; and foon landed at Pernaw in Livonia with part
of his forces, the reft being ordered to Reval. His army
did not exceed 20,000 men ; but they were the bell foldiers
in Europe, wink the Ivullians were only an undifeiplined
multitude.
Czar’s
camp.
8 W E r 224 1
fiwMw. The czar, however, had thrown every poffibie Swedes in nnmher
obdraftion in the way of his antagonift. 1'hirty thoufand
men were polled in a defile on the i-oad, to oppofc his paf-
fatre ; and this corps was fuftained by a body of 20,000
others, polled fome leagues nearer Narva. The czar him-
felt had let out to haften the march of a reinforcement of
40,000 men, with whom he intended to attack the Swedes
in flank and rear. But the celerity and valour of the
Defeats two Swedes baffled every endeavour. With 4000 foot and an
Radian ar- equal number of horfe the king fet out, leaving the reft of
ndes. and tyie army to follow him at their leifure. With thefe he at-
the tacked and defeated the Ruffian armies one after another,
pufiling his way to the czar’s camp, which he gave imme¬
diate orders for attacking. This camp was fortified by
lines of circumvallation and contravallation, by redoubts, by
j to pieces of brafs cannon placed in"front; and was defend¬
ed by an army of 80,000 men : yet fo violent was tne at¬
tack of the Swedes, that in three hours the entrenchments
were carried ; the king with 4000 men that compofed the
wing he commanded in perfon, purfued a flying army of
of 90,000 to the river Narva. The bridge broke down by
the weight of the fugitives, and the river was intlantly co¬
vered with their bodies. Great numbers returned in defpair
to their camp, where they defended themfelves for a while ;
ICO but at laft the generals Gallowin and Frederowitz, who
The camp commanded them, furrendered. Thirty thoufand were kd-
forced, and lec! ;n the intrenchments and in the purfuit, or drowned in
the Ruffianr;ver . 2o,coo furrendered at diferetion, and were dif-
with great miffed unarmed ; while the reft were totally difperfed. An
iiaughter. hundred and fifty pieces of fine cannon, 28 mortars, 151
pair of colours, 20 ftandards, and all the baggage of the
enemy, were taken. Among the prifoners were the duke
de Croy, the prince of Georgia, and feven other generals.
Charles behaved with the greateft generofity to the conquer¬
ed. Being informed that the tradefmen of Narva had re-
fufed credit to the officers whom he detained prifoners, he
fent 1000 ducats to the duke of Croy, and to every other
officer a proportionable fum.
Peter was advancing with 40,000 men to furround the
Swedes, when he received intelligence of the dreadful defeat
at Narva. He was greatly chagrined ; but, comforting him-
felf with the hopes that the Swedes would in time teach the
Ruffians to beat them, he returned to bis own dominions,
where he applied himfelf with the utmoft diligence to the
raifing of another army. He evacuated all the provinces
which he had invaded, and for a time abandoned all his great
projects, thus leaving Charles at liberty to profecute the war
againft Poland.
As Auguftus had expeoled an attack, he endeavoured to
draw the czar into a clofer alliance with him. The two mo-
narchs had an interview at Birfen, where it was agreed that
Auguftus fhould lend the czar 50,000 German foldiers, to
be paid by Mufcovy ; that the czar fhould fend an equal
number of his troops to be trained up to the art of war in
Poland ; and that he fhould pay the king three millions o#
rix-dollars in the fpace of two years. Of this treaty Charles
had notice, and by means of his minifter count Piper entire¬
ly fruftrated the fcheme.
In 1701, as early as the feafon permitted, Charles, ha¬
ving received a reinforcement from Sweden, took the field,
and appeared fuddenly on the banks of the Duna, along
which the Saxon army was polled to receive him. The king
of Poland at that time being fick, the army was commanded
by Ferdinand duke of Courland, marifchal Stenau, and ge¬
neral Paykel, all officers of valour and experience. They
had fortified certain iflands in the mouth of the river, and
taken eveiy other precaution againft an attack; the fol¬
diers were hardy, well difciplined, and nearly equal to the
• 51
CJeneroftty
of Charles.
15*
Treaty fie
tween the
(Jzar and
king of Ro-
* land.
153
'Charles
marches a-
gainft the
vS W E
yet Charles having puffed the river in Swt^n,-
boats with high fides, to fereen the men from the fire of the ''■"“v-w
enemy, attacked them with fuch fury, that they were cn-^-54
tirely defeated, with the lofs of 2500 killed on the fpot, t;rncive^
and 1500 taken priloners. All the Saxon baggage, 56featsthai,
pieces of cannon, five pair of colours, and fix ftandards, fell
into the hands of the Swedes.
This vi£t«ry was followed by the furrender of all the
towns and fortreffes in the duchy of Courland. The king
then paffed into Lithuania, where every town opened its
gates to him. At Birfen, an army of 20,000 Ruffians re¬
tired with the utmoft precipitation on the news of his ap¬
proach. Here Charles, perceiving that the kingdom of Po-y r^,3
land was greatly difaffedled to Auguftus, began to projedlfcW for
the fcheme of dethroning him by means of his own fubje&s.^boKitii
This fcheme he executed with more policy than he ever
fhovved on any other occafion. The manner of putting it in
execution was concerted between Radziewifchi, cardinal pri¬
mate of Poland, and count Piper. Intrigues and cabals
were held at the houfe of the treacherous ecclefiaftic, while
he was publifhing circular letters to keep the people in their
duty to the king. The diet being filled with Swedilh par- ,
tifans, became tumultuous, and broke up in confufion. TheConfuki
affairs of the kingdom then fell into the hands of the fenate;in Poland,
but here the Svvedifh party was as ftrong as in the diet. It
was agreed that they foould fend an embaffy to Charles ;
that the pofpolite fhould mount, and be ready againft all
events; but the chief regulations refpe£led the king’s au¬
thority, which it was determined at any rate to retrench. ^
Auguftus, refolving rather to receive laws from the viclo-^nguftii!
rious Charles than irom his own fubjefts, fent an embaffy
him, committing the management of the whole to the coun-”^’ 111
tefs of Konigfrnark, a native of Sweden, and a lady famous
for her wit and beauty. But the king refufed to fee her;
on which fhe returned, chagrined and difappointed, to War-
faw. The ambafladors of the fenate inftantly obtained an
audience ; and were affured by Charles, that he took arms
againft the Saxons in defence of the liberties of the Poles,
whom he {hould always regard as his beft friends. Confe¬
rences were appointed to be held at Kinfchin ; but Charles
foon after altered his mind, and told the ambaffadors he
would hold them at Warfaw. id
Auguftus, in the mean time, finding his fcheme of peace MakesC
fruftrated, had recourfe to the fenate; bat met with fuch ar,in'i aT
rough anfvyer from them, that he determined once more to.)ur^jc
apply to Charles. To him therefore he fent his chamber-
lain ; but a paffport being forgot, the ambaffador was ar- ^
refted. Charles continued his march to Warfaw, which fur-\V::rfawfr
rendered on the firft fummons; but the citadel held out forke
fome days. Auguftus, finding at laft that no dependence
was to be had on the Poles, determined to truft his fortune
wholly to the Saxon army and the nobility of the palatinate
of Cracow, who offered to fupport him to the utmofl of
their power. The Saxon army was now advanced to the
frontiers, and Auguftus immediately put himfelf at the head
of it. Being joined by the nobility of Cracow, he found
his forces to amount to 30,000 men, all brave and well¬
difciplined. With thefe he marched in quell of his enemy;
who did not decline the combat, though he had with him 160
only 12,000 men. Though the Saxons were ftrongly poft-TheSai*1
ed, having their front covered by a moiafs, befides being
fortified with pallifadoes and chevaux de frife, they were at¬
tacked with irrefiftible impetuolity, and entirely defeated,
with the lofs of 4000 killed, 2000 made prifoners, and all 161
their baggage and cannon. This victory was followed by Cracow t3'
the lofs of Cracow : after which Charles let out in purfuit of!ien‘
the flying army, with a delign of preventing them from re-
affembling ; but his horfe falling under him, he had the mif-
fortune
S W E [a
Sweden, fortune to break his thigh, by which he was confined fix
^T——^ weeks; and thus Auguftus obtained fome refpite. The
interval he made the belt ufe of. Having convoked a diet
firft at Marienburg, and then at Lublin, from them he ob¬
tained the following refolutions ; that an army of 50,000
men fhould be raifed by the republic for the fervice of the
prince ; that fix weeks (hould be allowed the Swedes to de¬
termine whether they were for war or peace; and that the
fame time fhould be granted to the turbulent and difeon-
tented nobles of Poland to make their concdfions. To
countera£l the effe&s of thefe refolutions, Charles affembled
another diet at Warfaw ; and while the two affemblies dif-
puted concerning their rights and privileges, he recovered of
his wound, received a ftrong reinforcement from Pomerania,
and utterly defeated and difperfed the remains of the Saxon
army.
The ill fortune of Auguftus continued ftill to perfecute
him. In 1704 he was formally depofed by the diet, and
the crown conferred by Charles on Staniflaus Lecfinfky pa¬
latine of Poinania. Auguftus, however, did not yet tamely
give up his kingdom. His adherents daily fkirmifhed with
the Swedes; and Auguftushimfelf, being reinforced by 9000
JRuffians, retook Warfaw, and was very near furprifing the
new king, who lived in perfed fecurity in the city while
Charles fought in his caufe. Count Horn, with 1 coo
Swedes, vigoroufly defended the citadel; but at laft, find-
.ing it no longer tenable, he was obliged to furrender at dif-
cretion. I he redudion of Warfavv was among the lait ad¬
vantages gained by Auguftus in the courfe of this war. His
troops were now compofed of Saxon recruits and undifei-
plined Poles, who had no attachment to his perfon, and were
ready on all occafions to forfake him. Charles and Stam'f-
laus advanced with the vidorious army; the Saxons fled be¬
fore them, and the towns for feveral miles round fent their
fubmiffions. The Poles and Saxons wwre under the com¬
mand of SchuIJemberg, a moft fagacious and experienced
general, who ufed every expedient to check the progrefs of
the Swedes, by feizing on the advantageous pofts, facrificing
fmall parties to the fafety of the whole, and to millead the
enemy, &c. However, with all his condud and caution,
lie found himfelf outwfitted, and Charles in the neighbour¬
hood of his camp ready to fall upon him, while he thought
him at 50 leagues diftance. The Swedifh monarch attack¬
ed him with a fuperior army, but entirely compofed of
horfe. Schullemberg had polled his men in fuch a manner
as rendered it impoffible to furround them. His firfl rank
being armed with pikes and fufees, prefented a kind of ram¬
part of bayonets ; the iecond line {looping over the firft
who kneeled, fired over their heads, while the third rank,
who ftood upon their feet, kept up an inceffant fire, by
which the Swed’fli horfe were exceedingly galled and put
in diforder. Charles loft the opportunity of cutting off "the
whole Saxon, army, by omitting to order his men to dif-
mount. This was almoft the firft time that infantry had
been regtlarly oppofed to cavalry, and the fuperiority of
the former was evident. After the engagement had conti¬
nued about three hours, the Saxons retreated in good or¬
der ; which no enemy had ever done before in any engage¬
ment with Charles. The Swedes purfued their enemies to¬
wards the Oder, and forced them to retreat through thick
woods, almoft impervious even to infantry. The Swedifh
horfe, however, pufhed their way, and at laft inclofed Schul-
kmberg between a wood and the river, where Charles had
no doubt of obliging him to furrender at diferetion, or die
iwora in-hand, as having neither boats nor bridges; but the
genius of Schullemberg fupplied every defebl. In the night
. e 01 deitd planks and floats of trees to be faftened together-
i5Vor. XVIII.Cpart‘l.OV£r h‘S U00PS’ thC
1(52
Remains of
the Saxon
army en¬
tirely de-
feared.
163
Auguftus
formally
depnfed,
and Stanif¬
laus railed
to the
throue.
164
Wariaw re¬
taken by
Auguftus.
167
Excellent
■condudt of
his general
Schullem¬
berg.
166
His en¬
gagement
with the
Swedes.
167
His fine re.
treat.
a5 ] 8 W E
were employed in d!fledging 300 men, which he had placed Sweden-
in a wind mill, for the purpofe of defending his flank and "v
keeping the enemy in play. Charles fpoke of this retreat
with admiration, and faid he had been conquered by Schul-
lemherg. . ^ _ ,68
No material advantage, however, refill ted from this toAugu us
Auguftus; who was again obliged to leave Poland, and for-buees Po-
tify the capital of his hereditary dominions, which he ex-*'l!:t*’
peefted every moment to fee invefted. In the mean time,
however, the Ruffians having recovered their fpirits, fell ^
upon the Swedes in Livonia with the utmoft fury. Narva,The Ruf-
Dorpt, and feveral other towns, were taken, and the inha-flans takc
bitants and garrifons treated with great barbarity. Soon^,rer?i.
after, an army of 100,000 Ruffians entered Poland. Sixty
thoufand Coffacks under Mazeppa entered the country at and invade
the fame time, and ravaged every thing with the fury of Poland,
barbarians. Schullemberg, too, perhaps more formidable
than either, advanced with 14,000 Saxons and 7000 Ruf¬
fians, difeipliued in Germany, and reputed excellent foldiers.
Could numbers have determined the event of war, the Swedes
mult certainly have been at this time overpowered. Inftead
of this, however, Charles feemed to triumph over his ene¬
mies with more eafe the more numerous they were. The
Ruffians were defeated fo faft, that they were all difperfed
before one party had notice of the misfortunes of another. 170
The defeating an army of 40,000 men fcarcely ob{lru£tedArtonin1-
the march of the Swedes, while their aftonifhed enemies
looked upon thefe allions as the effects of witchcraft, and agaiuft^*
imagined that the king of Sweden had dealings with infer-them,
nal fpirits. With thele apprehenfions they fled beyond the
Borifthenes, leaving the unhappy Auguftus to his ill fate.
Schullemberg, with all his fkilland experience, fucceeded no
better. .The Swedifh general Renfchild engaged and de-SchuHem.
feated him in half an hour, though the Swedes were vaftlyberg en-
inferior in number, and their enemies polled in a moft ad-fiiely dc:-
vantageous fituation. Nothing could be more complete
than this viftory. Whole regiments of Saxons threw down tn C *
their arms, and begged their lives in the moft fuppliant pof-
ture. Six thoufand were flam in the field, and 7000 taken
prifoners. Thirty-fix pieces of cannon, 1 ] ,000 mufkets, 40
pair.of colours and ftandards, with all the Saxon baggage,
fell into the hands ot the Swedes: and the confequences
were .ftill more important; for now a paffage was ppened
into Saxony, and Auguftus feemed to be in as great danger
of lofing his hereditary dominions as he had been of lo-
fing Poland. This extraordinary viftory, indeed, is faid to
have been owing to a panic which feized the trooos of
Schullemberg: however, it was looked upon with admira¬
tion, and thought to make the renown of Renfchild equal to
that of his fovereign. Charles himfelf was jealous, and could
not help exclaiming, “ Surely Renfchild will not compare 17*
htmfelf with me !” But the cruelty of this general fuliied C^-Y
his reputation ; for fix hours after the engagement, he cau-the‘Sw’etiifll
fed 1000 Ruffians to be maffacred in cold blood, to revenge,Sei;ersl*
as he faid, the cruelties they had committed in Poland.
Soon alter this victory, which wa’s gained on the 12th of 1*7;
February j 706,^ Charles entered Saxony at the head ofC*iarics ,n-
24,000 men. . The diet at Ratifbon declared him an enemy vades 6ux<1"
enemy
But to this declara-1^’
to the empire if he crofted the Oder
tion no regard was paid. Charles purfued his march; while
Auguftus was reduced to the condition of a vagrant in Po¬
land, where he pbffeffed not a Angle town befides Cracow.
Into this city he threw himfelf with a few Saxon, Polifh,
and Ruffian regiments, and began to ere& fome fortifica-
tmns for its defence ; but the approach of the Swedifh Ge¬
neral Meyerfeldt, and the news of the invafion of Saxony
difconcerted all his meafures, and threw him into defpair
J-he Ruffians indeed were his faithful allies; but he dread-
Ff ed
Sweden,
174
Auguftus
bea's for
peare on
anj terms
175
Cb&rles's
anfwer.
V}6
Auguftus,
in conjunc¬
tion with
the Ruf¬
fians, de-
feats and
takes pri-
fbner a
whole Swe
dilh army;
177
But is obli¬
ged to re-
fign the
crown of
Poland.
* See the
article Pa/'
iul.
178
Gzar Peter
complains
to ail the
hates in
Europe.
179
Invades Po¬
land, and
formally
depofes Sta-
niilau;.
SWE [ 22
cd them almofl as much as the Swedes: To that he was re¬
duced to the necemty of writing a letter to Charles with his
own hand, begging for peace on whatever terms he thought
proper to grant. However, as lie was then at the. meicy
of the Ruffians, this tranfa&ion was concealed with the
greateff care. His emiffaries were introduced to the Swe-
difh court in the night-time ; and being prefented to Charles,
received the following anfwer : That king Auguftus fhould
for ever renounce the crown of Poland, acknowledge Si-unif-
laus, andpiomife never to reafeend the throne, ihould an op¬
portunity offer ; that he fhould releafe the princes Sobiefki,
and all the Swedifh prifoners made in the courfe of the war;
fwrrender Patkul, at that time refident at his court as am-
baffador for the Czar of Mufcovy, and ftop proceedings
againft all who had paffed from his into the Swedifh feryice.
Thefe articles Charles wrote with his own hand, and deliver¬
ed to count Piper, ordering him to finifh them with li.c
Saxon ambaffadors.
Auguflus ail this time was obliged to continue a fhow of
war, though he had neither ability nor inclination to carry
it on. He was joined by prince Menzikoff with 30,000
Ruffians; which obliged him, contrary to his inclination, to
come to an engagement with bdeyerfeldt, who commanded
I3,CC0 men, one half of whom were Swedes. As at this
time no dil'parity of numbers whatever was reckoned an equi-
’ valent to the valour of the Swedes, Meyerfeldt did not de¬
cline the combat, though the army of the enemy was four
times as numerous as his own. With his countrymen he
defeated the enemy’s firft line, and was on the point of de-
feating the fecond, when Staniflaus, with the Poles and Li¬
thuanians, gave way. Meyerfeldt then perceived that the
battle was loft ; but be fought defperately, on purpoft to
avoid the difgrace of a defeat. At laft, however, he was
oppreffed by numbers, and forced to furrender ; fuffering
the Swedes, for the firft time, to be conquered by their ene¬
mies. The whole army were taken prifoners excepting
major-general Kraflau; who having repeatedly rallied a body
of horfe formed into a brigade, at laft broke through the
enemy, and efcaped to Polnania.—Auguftus had fcarce fung
Te Deum for this viftory, when his plenipotentiary returned
from Saxony with the articles of the treaty above-mentioned.
The king hefitated and fcrupled, but at laft figned them;
after which he fet out for Saxony, glad at any rate to be
freed from fuch an enemy as the king of Sweden, and from
fuch allies as the Ruffians.
TheCzar Peter was no fooner informed of this extraordinary
treaty, and the cruel execution of his plenipotentiary Pat¬
kul*, than he fent letters to every court in Chriftendom,
'complaining of this grols violation of the law of nations.
He intreated the emperor, the queen of Britain,, and the
States-General, to revenge this infult on humanity. Pie
ftigmatized the compliance of Auguftus with the oppro¬
brious name of pujillanimity; exhorted them not to guaran¬
tee a treaty fo unjuft, but to defpife the menaces of the Swe-
difti bully. So well, however, was the prowefs of the king
of Sweden known, that none of the allies thought proper to
irritate him, by refufing to guarantee any treaty he thought
proper. At ftrft, Peter thought of revenging Patkul’s death
by maffacring the Swedifh prifoners at Moicow ; but from
this he was foon detetred, by remembering that Charles had
many more Ruffian prifoners than he had of Swedes. Gi¬
ving over thoughts of revenging himfelf in this way, there¬
fore, in the year 1707 he entered Poland, at the head of
60,000 men. Advancing to Leopold, he made himfelf
mafter of that city, where he affembled a diet and folemnly
depofed Staniflaus with the fame ceremonies which had been
ufed with regard to Auguftus. The country was now re¬
duced to the molt rniferable fxtuation; one party, through
5 ] SWE
fear, adhered to the Swedes ; another was gained over, or Sweden,
forced by Peter to take part vrith him : a violent civil war —v—^
took place between the two, and great numbers of people
were butchered, while cities, towns, and villages, were laid
in allies by the frantic multitude. The appearance of a
Swedifh army under king Stanillairs and general Lewen-
haupt put a ftop to thefe diforders, Peter himfelf not caring ^
to ftar.d before fuch enemies. He retired, therefore, into
Lithuania, giving as the caufe of his retreat, that the conn- Lithuania,
try could not fupoly him with proviftons and forage nedef-
fary for fo great an army. . . _ ig,
In the mean time Charles had taken up his refidence in Imperious
Saxony, where he gave law to the court of Vienna, and in a^havW
manner intimidated all Europe. He declared himfelf the 11 L ‘aries*
proteftor of the Proteftant intereft in Germany, particular¬
ly of the emperor’s Proteftant fubjefts in Sileiia. He de- Igj
fired, or rather commanded, the emperor to renew and con-S ibmiffive
firm to them all the liberties granted by the treaties of behaviour
Weftphalia, but fince that time reclaimed or eluded at the0*
treaty of Ryfvvick. The emperor durft not refufe; andjip-*^ 0
wards of too churches were given to the Proteftants. On
tills occafion the emperor is reported to have faid, that “ had
Charles dtfired him to become a Lutheran, he did not
know whether he could have refilled.” One would indeed
have imagined that Charles had feme thoughts of convert¬
ing, or at leaft dethroning, the Pope himfelf; for being in- - ;
cenfed at the conftant oppofition of the court of Rome,
whole weaknefs and intrigues he defpiied, he one day told
the emperor’s minifter, that “ tke Swedes had conquered
Rome before now, and he might one day demand an inven¬
tory of the eftefis left there by queen Chriftma.” At laft,
fatiated with the glory of having dethroned one king, let
up another, and ftruck all Europe with terror and admira¬
tion, Charles began to evacuate Saxony, in purfuit of his
great plan, the dethroning Czar Peter, and conquering the
vaft empire of Ruftia. While the army was on full march
in the neighbourhood of Drefden, betook the extraordinary
refolution of vifiting king Auguftus with no more than five fits kig
attendants. Though he had no reafon to imagine that An- Augufc
guftus either did or could entertain any friendfhip for him,
he was not uneafy at the coniequences of thus putting him¬
felf entirely in his power. Pie got to the palace door of
Auguftus before it was known that he had entered the city.
General Fleming having feen him at a diftance, had only
time to run and inform his mafter. What might be done
in the prefent cafe immediately occurred to the minifter;
but Charles entered the ele&or’s chamber in his boots before
the latter had time to recover from his fuiprife. He break-
fafted with him in a friendly manner, and then expreffed a.
defire of viewing the fortifications. While he was walking
round them, a Livonian, who had formerly been condemn¬
ed in Sweden, and ferved in the troops of Saxony, thought
he could never have a more favourable opportunity of ob¬
taining pardon. He therefore begged of king Auguftus to
intercede for him, being fully affured that his fnajefty could
not refufe fo flight a requeft to a prince in whofe power he
then was. Auguftus accordingly made the requeft ; but
Charles refilled it in fuch a manner, that he did not think
proper to alk it a fecond time. Having paffed fome hours
in this extraordinary vifit, he returned to his army, alter
having embraced and taken leave of the king he had de¬
throned.. 184
The armies of Sweden, in Saxony, Poland, and Finland, Marches
now exceeded 70,0^0 men ; a force more than fufficient toagaH^
have conquered all the power ol Mufcovy, had they met^uliaU!
them cn equal terms. Peter, who had his army difperfed in
fmall parties, inftantly affembled it on receiving notice of the
king of Sweden’s march, was making all polfxble prepara¬
tions
1*5
^Defeats
out o* Li
thuama.
T8^
Gain
s w e r 2;
Swelled, tionfi for 3 vigorous refiftance, and was on the point of at-
-^•'v tacking Staniflaus, when the approach of Charles ftruck his
whole army with terror. In the month of January 1708
lie palled the Niemen, and entered the fouth gate ot Grod¬
no jult as Peter was quitting the place by the north gate.
Charles at this time had advanced to fome diftance before
the army at the head of 6zo 1 • rfe. The Czar having in-
a, d telligence of his fituation, fent b?.ck a detachment of 2000
ivf> ihem men to attack him : but they were utterly defeated ; and
tin’s difappointment was followed by the total evacuation of
Lithuania. The king purfued his Hying enemies in the
midll of fnow and ice, over mountains, rivers, moraffes, and
through almoft every obftacle that could be furmounted by
human power. He had forefeen all difficulties, and deter¬
mined to furmount them all. As he knew that the coun¬
try could not furnifh provifions fufficient for the fubfiflence
of his army, he had provided a great quantity of bifeuit, on
which his men chiefly fubfifted till they came to the banks
of the Berezine, in view of Boriflow. Here the Czar was
polled, and Charles deligned to bring him to a battle ; af¬
ter which he could penetrate with the greater eafe into Ruf-
fia. Peter, however, did not think proper to come to an
aftion ; but retreated towards the Borifthenes, whither he
was purfued by Charles as foon as he had refrefhed his ar¬
my. The Ruffians had deflroyed the roads and defolated
r<-markable country ; neverthelefs the Swedifh army advanced with
great celerity, and in their way defeated 20,000 of the ene¬
my, though entrenched to the teeth. This vidlory, confi-
dering the circumftances in which it was gained, was one of
the mofl glorious the Swedes ever obtained. The me-
mory of it is preierved by a medal ftruck in Sweden, with
this infeription, Sylva, Pabides^ /tggeres, Ho/ies, vid;.
When the Ruffians had repafftd the Borifthenes, which
feparates Poland from Muicovy, the Czar, finding himfelf
clofely purfued by an enemy with whom he was not able to
cope, determined at laid to propofe peace. Propofals were
accordingly made ; but Charles returned no other anfwer
than that he would treat at Mofcow; which being reported
to Peter, he coolly replied, “ My brother Charles affedls to
play Alexander, but he will not find in me a Darius.” How¬
ever, he did not think proper to venture an engagement,
but continued his retreat; and Charles purfued fo clofe,
that he was daily fkirmifhing with the rear of the enemy.
In thefe a&ions the Swedes had generally the advantage,
though in the main thefe viftories proved detrimental, by
weakening the army in a country where it was impoffibleto
recruit. Near Smolenfko, the king, with only fix regiments,
defeated a body of 10,000 horfe and 6000 Calmucks. In
this engagement he was expofed to the utmoft danger, the
enemy having feparated him from his troops. With one re¬
giment only, he fought with fuch fury as difperfed the ene¬
my, and drove them before him, at the time they thought
themielves fure of taking him prifoner. Two aids-de-camp
that fought near him weie killed ; his horfe was killed, as
was alio an equerry while he prefented another. The ene¬
my had broke through the regiment, and got quite up to
the king; who is faid to have on this occafion killed 12
men with his own hand without receiving a wound.
By the 3d of October 1708 Charles was within 100
rivCt within leagues of Mofcow ; but the Czar had made the roads im-
100 lea eespaffable, either by laying them under water, digging deep
but^finds" ’^ltches- or covering them with the wood of whole forefts.
the roads aRo destroyed the villages on every fide, and taken
impaffable. away every poffibility of fubfifting an army. The feafon
was alfo far advanced; the intenfe fevere weather wras ap-
proaching ; fo that the Swedes were threatened with all the
miieries of cold and famine, at the fame time that they were
expofed to the attacks of aa enemy greatly fuperior ia num-
187
T!>e -’r.ar
flies for
peace, but
receives ar
haughty
aulwer.
188
Another
defnerate
engage-
incut.
1S9
Chavles
7 ] S V/ E
her, who, from their knowledge of the country, had almoft Sweden,
conftant opportunities of harafling and attacking them by v——7
furpriie. For thefe reafons the king refolved to pafs thro’ 190
the Ukrain, where Mazeppa, a Polifh gentleman, was gene-
ral and chief of the nation, Mazeppa having been affront- [^ukum.
ed by the Czar, readily entered into a treaty with Charles,
whom he promifed to affifWith 30,000 men, great quan i-
ties of provilions and ammunition, and with alibis treaiures,
which were immenfe. The Swedifh army advanced towards
the river Difna, where they had to encounter the greatefl *9r
difficulties; a foreft above 40 leagues in extent, filled wide
rocks, mountains, and marfhes. To complete their misfor- ucuUie8.
tunes, they were led 30 leagues out of the right way ; all
the artillery was funk in bogs and marfhes ; the provifion
of the foldiers, which confiiltd of biicuit, was exhaufted ;
and the whole army fpent and emaciated when they arrived
at the Difna. Here they expe&ed to have met Mazeppa
with his reinforcement ; but inftcad of that, they perceived
the oppofite banks of the river covered with a hoftile army,
and the paffage itfelf almofl impracticable. Charles, how¬
ever, was flill undaunted ; he let his ioldiers by ropes down
the fleep banks ; they crofted the river either by fwimming
or on rafters hailily put together; drove the Ruffians from 1r)Z
their poft, and continued their march. Mazeppa foon after Defeats the
appeared, having with him about 6coo broken remains of R-ulii.a,ls»
the army he had promifed. The Ruffians had got intelli-.MjJ* ^
gence of his defigns, defeated and diiperfed his adherents,-viazeppaia
laid his towns in afhes, and taken all the provifions collected ^reat di-
for the Swedifh army However, he full hoped to be ufe-ftrefs*
ful by his intelligence in an unknown country ; and the
Coftacks, out of revenge, crowded daily to the camp with
provifions.
Greater
misfortunes flill awaited the Swedes. When
Charles entered the Ukrain, he had fent orders to ge- Defperata
neral Lewenhaunt to meet him with 15,000 men, 6000 j'n^ounter8
of whom were Swedes, and a large convoy of provifions. (^enerai
Againfl this detachment Peter now bent his whole force, gewen-
and marched againft him with an army of 65,000 men. haupt and
Lewenhaupt had received intelligence that the Ruffian army^e
confiited only of 24,000; a force to which he thought 6000 dI*s‘
Swedes fuperior, and therefore difdained to entrench him¬
felf. A furious conteft enfued; in which the Ruffians were
defeated with the lofs of 15,000 men. The Swedes conti¬
nued their march ; but, by the treachery of their guide,
were led into a marfhy country, where the roads were made
impaflable by deep ditches and trees laid acrols. Here he
was again attacked by the Czar with his whole army.
Lewenhaupt had lent a detachment of two battalions to dif-
pute the paffage of the enemy over a moral's ; but finding
they were likely to be overpowered, he marched at the head
of the whole infantry to their relief. Another defperate
battle enfued ; when at laft the Ruffians were put in difor-
der, and on the point of being totally defeated, when the
Czar gave orders to the Coflacks and Calmucks to fire up¬
on all the Ruffians who fled. ‘‘ Even kill me (laid he) if
I fhoul 1 be lo cowardly as to turn my back.” On this the
battle was renewed with great vigour ; but notwithftanding
thefe pofitive orders, and the example of the Czar himfelf,
the Ruffians were a third time put in diforder, after lofing
6000 men, when general Baver arrived with a ftrong rein¬
forcement of freftr Ruffian troops. The engagement was
again renewed, and continued w'ithout intermiffion till night,
ft he Swedes took pofleffion of an advantageous poll; but were
next morning attacked by the Ruffians. Lewenhaupt hadAliths
formed a kind of rampart of his waggons, but was obliged Swediflr
to let fire to them, in order to prevent their falling into theProvifl°!1*
hands of the enemy, and at the fame time to cover his re-^™1 ,or
1  .r,„ r i._ rrn 1 > ft 1 ■' r rake-i by
treat by the fmokc.
The Ruffians, however, came foon,RUf;
F t 2 enough fiat*.
195
Lewen-
fcaupt joins vihons.
the main rafs ]nm
army in
fpite of ail
oppofition.
S \V E [ 2i
Sweden, enougli to fave ^ooo waggons of thofe provHions del:gned
— i-or tjie dlflreffcd Swedes. A ftrong detachment was fait
to purfue Lewenhaupt; but fo terrible did he appear, that
> tlie Ruffian general offered him an honourable capitulation.
This was redded with difdain; and the battle renewed with
the fame vigour as before. The Swedes, though reduced to
4000, again defeated their enemies, and killed 5000 on the
foot. After this, Levvenhaupf was fuffered to purfue his
inarch without moleftation, but alfo without cannon or pro-
Prince MenzikofF, indeed, was detached to ha-
, but Inch was the formidable appearance ot the
Swedes even in their di if refs, that he was afraid to attack
them : fo that at laft the 40CO arrived fafe in the camp of-
Charles, after having killed upwards of 30,000 of the ene¬
my on their march.
This, we may fay, was the ball effort of Swedifh valour.
The difficulties they had now to undergo exceeded what
human nature could bear ; yet ffill they hoped, by con-
flancy and couragd, to overcome every obffacle. In the le-
vereft winter known for a long time even in Raffia, they
made long marches, clothed like favages in the fkins of wild
the Swedes, beads ; all the draught-horfes periffied ; thoufands of lol-
diers dropped dead with cold and hunger : fo that by the
month o'- February 1709, the whole army was reduced to
l8,oco Swedes. Amidft numberlefs difficulties thefe pe¬
netrated at laft to Pultowa, a town on the eaftern frontier
!97 of the Ukrain, where the Czar had laid up magazines; and
^:l«be-of thefe Charles refolved to get poffeffion. Mazeppa ad-
tovva! U * the king to invefl the place, in confdquence of his ha¬
ving correfpondence with feme ©f the inhabitants, by whofe
means he hoped it would be furrendered. Plowever, he was
io3 deceived ; the befieged made an obifinate defence, the
Swedes were repulfed in every affault, and 8000 of them
were defeated, and almofl entirely cut off, in an engagement
with a party of Ruffians. To complete his misfortunes,
Charles received a {hot from a carabine in his heel, which
fhattered the bone. For fix hours after he continued calm¬
ly on horfeback, giving orders, till he fainted with the lofs
of blood ; after which he was carried into his tent. It was
imagined that amputation would be neceffary, as the wound
had already begun to mortify; but one Newman un¬
dertook to fave the limb. It was told the king that deep
incifions would beneceffary. “ Fall to work then (laid he),
cut boldly, and fear nothing.” Fie held out his leg while
the operation was performing ; never changed countenance;
and while the dreffing was laid on, ordered an affault for
the next morning.
For fome days the Czar, with an army of 70,000 men,
Urafled byhad ]ain at a fmall diifance, haraffing the Stoedifh camp,
and cutting off the convoys of proyifion ; but now intelli¬
gence was received, that he was advancing as if with a de-
fign of attacking the lines. In this fituation, Charles,
wounded, diftreffed, and almofl; furrounded by enemies, is
faid to have, for the fir ft time, affembled a grand council of
war ; the refult of which was, that it was expedient to
march out and attack the Ruffians. Voltaire, however, to¬
tally denies that the king relaxed one jot of his wonted ob-
ftinacy and arbitrary temper : but that, on the 7th of July,
he fent for general Renfchild, and told him, without any
emotion, to prepare for attacking the enemy next morn-
aoo ingg.
Battle of 1 8th of July 1709 is remarkable for the battle which
Pultowa. decided the fate of Sweden. Charles having left 8000 men
in the camp to defend the w'orks and repel the failles of the
befieged, began to march again!! his enemies by break of
day with the reft of the army, confifting ©f 26,000 men, of
whom 18,000 were Coffacks.- The Ruffians w’ere drawn
up in two lines behind their intrenchments, t'he horfe in
196
Extreme
diltrtfs of
A detarfe-
rneru of
&coo
Swedes en.
tirely de¬
feated and
tut off.
, J99
The Swedes
an army
of 70,000
Ruffians-.
s ] S W E
front, and the foot in the rear, with chafms to fuffer the ' ^’eden.J
horfe to fall back in cafe of neceffity. General Slippen- ' v—
bach was difpatched to attack the cavalry ; v/hich he did
with fuch impetuofity, that they were broken in an in-
ftant. However, they rallied behind the infantry, and re¬
turned to the charge with fuch vigour, that they dilordered
the Swedes in their turn, and took Slippenbach prifoner.
Charles was now carried in his litter to this feene of confu-
ficn. The troops were animated by his prefence, and re¬
turned to the charge ; the battle became doubtful, when ge¬
neral Creuk was difpatched by Charles to attack the enemy
in flank. Creuk miftook his way, or, according to others,
wffio had the btft opportunities of information, was bribed
by R uffian gold, which occafioned the lofs of the battle.
Peter now difpatched prince MenzikofF with a ftrong de¬
tachment, to poll himfelf between the Swedes and Pultowa,
to cut oft’ their communication with their camp, and to fall
upon their rear. He executed bis orders with great luc-
cefs ; cut off a corps de referve of 3000 men; and thus de¬
cided the fortune of the day. The king, however, had ran¬
ged his remaining troops in two lines; the foot in the
centre, and the horfe in the two wings. They had already
been twice rallied, and were now attacked with fury on all
fides. Charles, in his litter, with his fword drawn in one
hand, and a piftol in the other, feemed to be everywhere
prefent. New misfortunes, however, awaited him. ■ A can¬
non ball killed both borfes in the litter ; and fcarce were
others put in their place, when a lecond broke the litter it-
felf in pieces, and overturned the king. The foldiers now
believing him.killed, fell back in confternation. The iirft ^
line was broke, and the fecond fled. Charles did every The SweAi
thing in his power to reftore order; but the Ruffians preffedertireiytie*
fo hard, that rallying was impoffible, efpecially as powder
was alfo wanting. Renfchild and feveral other general of¬
ficers were taken prifoners ; and the king himlelf mutt have
fallen into the hands of the enemy, had not count Ponia-
towlky drawn up 500 horfe, furrounded the royal perfon,
and with defoerate fury broke through ten regiments of the
enemy. With thefe the king arrived on the banks of the
Borifthenes. The Ruffians forced the Swedilh camp, wherec,ffl.
they found fix millions in fpecie ; but could not hinder taken, and
Lewenhaupt, with 400c foot and all the remaining cavalrythe Swedl
from retreating to the banks of the Borilthenes. This, arnT^'
however, avaiied them but little; for being purfued by].;ijejj)r
prince Menzikoff, they were obliged, for want of boats ortakeiu
bridges, to furrender at diferetion. Charles fled in a mean
calaih, attended by a little troop inviolably attached to his
perfon, fome on foot, and fome on horfeback. They were
obliged to crofs a fandy defert, where neither herb nor tree
was to be feen, and where the burning heat and want of wa¬
ter were more intolerable than the extremities of cold they
had formerly fuffered. The whole had almoft perifhed for
want of water, when a fpring was fortunately difeovered igharksar*
after which they reached Oczakow, a town in the Turkifh rive* fafe
dominions, the bafhawof which fupplied the king with eve- Turkey,
ry necefiary. It was fome time, however, before boats
could be got ready for tranfporting the whole of the king’s
attendants ; by which accident 500 Swedes and Coffacks
fell into the hands of the enemy. This lofs affedled him
more than all his other misfortunes. He fhed tears at fee¬
ing acrofs the river Bog the greater part of his few re¬
maining friends carried into captivity, without having it in
his power to affift them. 'The baffiaw waited upon him to
apologize for the delay, and was feverely reprimanded by
Charles, as if he had been his own fubjedl.
The king remained but a few days at Oczakow, when the
ferafquier of Bender fent an aga to compliment him on his ar¬
rival in the Turkifh dominions, and to invite him to that
4 city.
Sweden.
504
Is kindly
received,
and kis
hope- of
gin to re*
vive.
205
Auguftus
s w e r 2
city. Here lie was treated with the utmofl hofpitality :
the Turks praftii'ed to its utmoit extent their generous
maxim of regarding as facred the perfons oi" unforiunate
princes who had taken ihelter in their dominions: and per¬
haps regarded him, notwithstanding his misfoi tunes, as an
ally that might be ufeful to themfelves a rainll the Ruffians,
ctmquering Every one, indeed, regarded him in his diftrefs. The French
Ruffia be- king offered him a fate paffage from the Levant to Mar-
feilles, from whence he might ealily return to his own domi¬
nions. But Charles was too obftinate to receive advice.
Puffed up with the notion or imitating Alexander the Great,
he difdained to return except at the head of a numerous ar¬
my ; and he yet expedted, by means of the Turks, to de¬
throne his a'dverfary the Czar. Negotiations for this pur-
pofe, indeed, were carried on in the Turkifh divan ; and it
was propofed to efcort Charles with a numerous army to.
the frontiers of Poland : but the revolution which took place
recovers the t^ere clu‘c'cty Put an end to luch projects. Auguitus
kirgdom of tho»8ht himfelf no longer bound to obferve the treaty which
i'ukad. he had made, than Charles was at hand to force him to it.
After the battle of Pultowa, therefore, he entered Poland,
and took every meafure, in concert with the Czar, for the
recovery of his kingdom. Staniflaus was not able to Hand
before inch enemies, but was obliged to leave his dominions
and fly to Bender, in the difguife of a Swedifh officer, in
order to (hare the fortune of Charles.—It was not in Po-
206 laricf alone that the Swedifh affaiis began to luffer in eonfe-
The Dines quence of the defeat at Pultowa. The Danes quickly in-
invadeSwe vadtd the province of Schonen with an army of 13,000
foot and 2500 horle. Only 13,000 Swedifh forces remain¬
ed to defend all the territories pofTeffed by Charles in Ger¬
many ; and ot thefe only a irnall part were allotted for the
defence of Schonen. The regency of Sweden, however,
exerted themfelves to the utmoft to repel this ungenerous
invafion ; and having collected an army of 12,000 militia
and §000 regulars, dilpatched them under general Steen-
boek into Schonen. Some baxon troops were incorporated
in this army ; and among thete a prodigious defertion took
place, which the general found it impoffible to prevent ;
and thus the Danes gained ieveral advantages, and at lalt
took Chriilianfladt. Their infolence on this luccefs was
io great, that the Swedes demanded to be inilantly led
iQ7 agaiufl them. Here the good fortune of Sweden ftemed
But are ut- once more to revive. 1 he Danes were driven from a very
terly de- Prong fituation, with the lofs of Sooo killed and taken pri-
foners, behdes a vaft number wounded. ' The king received
the intelligence of this victory with the greateff exultation ;
and could not help exclaiming, “ My brave Swedes, fhould
it pleafe God that I once more join you, we fhau conquer
them all!”
In the mean time, Charles, by means of his apents the
count Poniatowfki and the Sieur Neugebar, ufed his utmop
efforts to procure a rupture between the Porte and Ruffia.
For a long time the money bettowed by Peter on the vizirs
decia.e wara”d ja.nifaries Prevalled i but at lalt, in 17 11, the grand lig-
againft the n*or» influenced by his mother, who was Prongly in the in-
Rulfians. tereff of Charles, and had been wont to call him /tar
determined to avenge his quairel with Peter. He therefore
gave orders to the vizir to fall upon the Ruffians with an
army of 200,000 men. 1 he vizir promifed obedience ; but
at the fame time profeffed his ignorance in the art of war,
and diflike to the prefent expedition. The khan of Crim
i artary, who bad been gained over by the reputation and
prefents of the king of Sweden, had orders to take the field
ieated.
T)
20 8
e Turk*
29 ] S W E
with 40,000. or his men, and had the liberty of affembling i 5wf<Ln. ^
his army at Bender, that Charles might fee that the war
was undertaken upon his account. The Czar, on thefe news,
left the flege of Riga, where he had continued for iome
months; and with 24,000 men entered Moldavia, where life
was joined by Cantemir a vaffal of the Porte. The vizir
marched a,/ainP him with a prodigious army, and, through
the negligence of the Czar, cooped him up in fuch a man- ao,p
ner that he could neither advance nor retreat. In this def- Czar
perate^itnation, he perceived that he was now in as bad
lituation as Charles at Pultowa ; and gave orders for break-rate fltua^
ing through the enemy with fixed bayonets. The defpond-tion, but is
ing fpiritlefs foldiers, however, were little difpofed to cxe-rcl:eved by
cute thefe orders ; when Catharine, wie to the czar, with-3,
out his knowledge, fet on foot a treaty with the vizir; and
having foon obtained his confent, had the peace figned in
fix hours ; by ivhich means, in all probability, the whole Ruf¬
fian army was faved.
The newr treaty was moft violently oppofed by count Po-
niatowfki and the khan of Tartary. The former had made:
the king acquainted with the fituation of both armies ; e»
which he inftantly fet out from Bender, filled with the
hopes of fighting the Ruffians, and taking ample vengeance.
Having ridden 50 leagues port, he arrived at tfie camp juft as
the czar was drawing off his half-'amifhed troops. He a-
lighted at Poniatowfki’s tent; and being informed of parti- art?
culars, inftantly flew in a rage to the vizir, whom he load-^aKc
ed with reproaches, and accufed of treachery. Rtcolledft-^^'f6 oni
ing himfelf, however, he propofed a method by which thefjJ.^ '”‘v
fault might be remedied ; but finding his propolal rejected,
he polled back to Bender, after having hy the grofleft ia-
fults ffiowed his contempt of the vizir.
The violent behaviour of Charles did not promote his
interelf. The vizir perceived that his flay in Turkey might
prove fatal to himielf ; and therefore determined to get him
out of the country as foqn as poffible, either by fair means
or foul. Succeeding vixirs adopted the fame plan ; and at
lafl the grand fignior himfelt wiote a letter to the king-, in
which he defired him to depart by next winter, promifingThe Grand:
to fupply him with a fufficient guard, with money, and eve-^8nior be-
ry thing tile neceffary for his journey. Charles gave an^ea^imto
evafive anfwer, and determined to procraftinate his journey,' e^ar >
as well to gratify his own flubborn temper, as becaufe he
difeovered a correfpondence between Auguflus and the
khan of '1 artary, the object of which, he had reafon to be¬
lieve, w-as to betray him to the Saxons. When he was
thereioie again preffed to fix the day of his departure, he
replied, that he could not think of going be'ore his debts
weie paid. Being afked how much was neceffary for this
puipoie, he replied, icoo purfes(A;. Twelve hundred
puries were inftantly lent to the ferafquier at Bender, with Mean and
orders to deliver them to the king of Sweden, but not be-u juitheha-
fore he fhould have begun his journey. By fair promiles, vinur of
however, Charles perfuaded him to part with the money jCharles.
after which, inflead of fetting out, he fquandered awray his
treafure in prefents and gratifications, and then demanded
1000 puries more before he would fet out. The ferafquier
was aftonifhed at this behaviour. He fhed tears ; and, turn¬
ing to the king,-told him, that his head would be the for¬
feit of having obliged him with the money. The grand fig.
mor, on being acquainted with this fhameful behaviour of
Charles, flew into a rage, and called an extraordinary divan,
where he himfelf (poke, a thing very unufual for the Tur¬
kifh monarchs. It was unanimouily agreed that fuch a trouble,
fom«
(a) Each purfe contained 30 fequins.
\V E
F 233 1
S W E
ref< Ive- ?o
force him
to dt'j arr.
a r4
Jli- Ac Ihe-
t’r’.te refjlu
tiosi to re-
iih
115
'Is abamli'-
■xied by a’l
his follow¬
er- except
40.
sw-men. f;-mC 01-rbt to b? removed by force (Wd other means
t—v—_ £aiy' Orders were therefore pofitively fent to Charles to de-
2f3 pa,.*{ . ant?, in cafe of refufal, to attack him in his quar-
•The Turks ^erg/ Nothing could equal his obflinacy on this occafion :
ifi fpite of the menaces of his enemies, in fpite of the intrea-
ties" of his friends, he perilled in his refolution ; and at la ft
determined to rtf it, with 300 Swedes, being all the attend¬
ants he had, an army of 20,000 janifaries well armed and
furnifhed with cannon. At length he was attacked in good
earn eft ; though it muft be owned, that even in this ex¬
tremity, the Turks fhowed their regard to him, and were
tender of his life, which the king did not return at all in a
hmilar manner. Moft of the Swedes furrendered at
once, perhaps as thinking it the only method of laving the
king’s life. This mifeonduft, however, had a quite con¬
trary effedl. Charles became the more obftinatc, the more
defperate his affairs feemed to be. With 40 menial fervants
only, and the eenerals Hord and Dardorff, he determined
to defend himfeb to the iaft extremity. Seeing his foldiers
lay down their aims, he told the generals, “We muff now
defend the hotjle. Come, (adds he with a fmile), let us
iTht pro (iris et foc'u.” The houie had been already for¬
ced by the Tartars, all but a hall which was near the door,
and where his dome flics had affembled themfelves. Charles
forced his way through the janifaries, attended by the ge¬
nerals Hord and Dardoff, joined his people, and then bairi-
. cadedthe door. The moment he entered, the enemy, who
were in the houfe, threw down their booty, and endeavoured
to efcape at the window's. Charles purfued them from room
F) room with much bloodfhed, and cleared the houfe in a
HFights like g.w m-nuLes> He then fired furioufly frem the windows,
biTLTake killed 20 of the Turks in a quarter of an hour, fo that the
prifoner bafhaw who commanded them was at length forced to fet
the houfe on fire. This was done by arrows with lighted
matches (hot into the roof; but Charles, inftcad of quitting
it. p-ave orders for extinguifhing the fire, in which he him-
felt'afiifted with great diligence. All efforts, however, were
vain : the roof fell in ; and Charles, u ith bis few faithful
companions, was ready to be ouried in the ruins. In this ex¬
tremity one called out, that there was a necefiity for iurren-
dering. “ What a ftrange fellow ! (cries the king), who
would rather be a priioner with the Turks than mix hisafhes
with thole of his fovereign.” Another had the prefence of
wind to ciy out, that the chancery was but 50 paces off,
had a ftone roof, and was proof againft fire. Pleafed with
the thoughts of again coming to blows, the king exclaimed,
A true Swede ! Let us take all the powder and ball we
tcan carry.” He then put himfelf at the head of his troops,
and fallied out with fuch fury that the Turks retreated 50
paces ; but falling down in the hurry, they rufhed in upon
him, and carried him by the legs and arms to the bafhaw’s
tent.
This extraordinary adventure, which favours not a little of
infanityj happened on the 12th of February 1713. Fie
was now kept prifoner, with all his retinue ; and in this fi-
tuation he was viffted by the unfortunate Staniflaus. The
arr. fieri in Htter, as we have already obferved, came in the difgnife of a
luiktj. Swedifh officer, and had indeed ferved in the Swediih army
in Pomerania, for which reafon he was arreffed in theTurk-
ifh dominions ; but being known at Bender, notice was fent
to the bafhaw who was condudting the king of Sweden to
Adrianople. The bafnaw communicated the news to Baron
Fabricius, a favourite of Charles, who immediately imparted
it to the king. “ Dear Fabricius, (fays this inflexible mo¬
narch), run and tell him never to make peace with Augu-
iniei.nbtiit) (tus j we fhail foon have a change in our affairs.”
ef v-barics. ^uch Were the confiderations that ffxll occurred to the
mind of Charles; however, at la it he feemed inclined to
h all 1 i
follower!!.
fubmit to his fate, and began ferioufly to think of returning Sweden.
to his kin rdom, now reduced to the moft deplorable fitua- ' v—
tion. .His habitation was now fixed at Demotica, a final! , ,]9
town about fix leagues from Adrianople. Here he was ah
lowed i^rovilions for Iris own table and thofe of his retinue preniinh,
but only 2 5 crowns a-day in money, infiead of 500 which to his, do.
he had received at Bender. During his refidence here iUimun>-
he received a, deputation from Heffe-Caflel, foheiting his
confent to the marriage of the landgrave with Eleonora
pi incefs royal of Sweden; to wTnich he readily agreed: a de¬
putation was alfo fent him by the regency of Sweden, re¬
queuing that he would prepare for returning to his own
dominions, which were ready to fink finder a ruinous war
in his abfence. What determined him, however, more than
any thing to haften his return, was the following accident.
The new grand vizir Ibrahim Molla, having for private rea-
fiurs determined to come to a rupture with the czar, invited
Charles to a conference, in the ftyle and with the familiarity
of an equal. Charles was fo much chagrined at this indig-obli^diy
nity, that he fent his chancellor Mullein to meet the vizir,hisunfo/
with a pretence that he was fick. To avoid giving offencef’njblc
to this minifter, Charles was obliged to keep his bed during^111 e,t0
2T7
Stan'flaus
al8
Extreme
his refidence at Demotica, which was for 10 months atter. ^for 10
At laft, this vizir being ftrangled, and the Swediih inter eft nurnhs.
at the Porte thereby entirely ruined, he determined to quit
Turkey at all events. His departure was to be negotiated
by his favourite Grothufen, whom he vefted with the cha¬
racter of ambaffador extraordinary ; fending him to Adri- jjr
anople with a train of 14 perfons richly dreffed. To equip Send? an
this retinue the king was reduced to the moft mortifying*'^**
fhifts, and to the neceffity of borrowing money from uiurers vvhij C,
at per cent. The irreat objeft was, to obtain from the very fa.
vizir money and a paffport. Grothufen was received with vouiably
all the refpedt due to his rank ; but the vizir ftarted dif-ieceiv^
Acuities. With regard to the paffport, he laid, it could be
of no ufe until the confent of the court of Vienna was mil
obtained ; and as to money, he faid, “ his mailer knew
how’ to give when he thought p-oper, but it was beneath his
dignity to lend, that the king fhpuld have every neceffary
provided for his journey, and poffibly the Porte might make
lome pecuniary prefent, but he would not have it expefted.”
The imperial minifter, however, removed every difficulty
with regard to the paffport, by granting it in the moft full and
ample manner, in the name of the emperor, the princes and
dates of Germany. He lent alfo a prefent to the king,
confifting of a tent of fcarlet richly embroidered with gold ;
a fabre, the handle of which was ftudded with jewels ; and
eight fine horfes richly capariioned. Money, the article
moft wanted, was entirely forgotten ; however, the day was
fixed for Charles’s departure, and the vizir appointed 60
carriages loaded with all kinds of provifions, and ieveral com¬
panies of janifaries and other troops to attend him to the
frontiers of Tranfylvania. jji
On the 14th of Oftober 1714 ,Charles quitted his bedse-smitfo!
at Demotica, and fet out for Sweden. All the princes Sweden,
through whofe territories he was to pafs, had given orders
for his entertainment in the moft magnificent manner; but
the king, perceiving that thefe compliments only rendered
his imprifonment and other misfortunes more confpicuous, ,13
fuddenly difiniffed his Tui kifh attendants, and affembling Dfe
his own people, bid them take no care about him, but make1,15'j'’”1,1
the bell of their way to Stralfund After this he fet out^edswith
poll, in the habit of a German officer, attended only by Co-01Ji} ore
lonel During. Keeping the by-n ads through Hungary,attend^1’
Moravia, Auftrra, Bavaria, Wirtemberg, the Palatinate,Weit-
phalia, and Mecklenburg, he arrived on the 21 ft of November
at midnight before the gates of Straliund. Being unknown,
he was admitted with difficultybut being loon recognized
fir
Rwe^er’.
'224 •
Arrives at
Srra !und,
S W E [ 231
by the governor, the greateft tokens of joy were fhown all eel
'over the town. In the mid^ of the tumult Charles went
to bed. He had been booted for 16 days, andnowhis legs
were Iwelled to fuch a degree that it was necelTary to cut his
,ve.i with
the utmofl;
joy.
22?
DMrdTed
fituatiou c
Sweden.
iify
Steenhoek
and is recei- boots off. Having flept for fome hours, he ar^ fe, reviewed h;s
troops, and gave orders lor renewing the war with redoubled
vigour.
Sweden was now in the greateft diftrefe. We have al¬
ready mentioned, that on the news of the defeat at Pultowa,
the Danes had invaded Schonen, but were defeated by Ge¬
neral Steeftboek. This vidtory, however, did not put an
end to the war. On the contrary, the kin >s 01 Denmark
and Poland, with the czar of Mufcovy, entered into itricter
bonds of amity than ever. They dreaded the return of
Charles to his own dominions, and apprehended that num-
berleis victories would foon efface the remembrance of Pul-
towa. They determined, therefore, to make the beft ufe
of their time ; and perhaps Charles never took a more im¬
prudent refolution than obftinately to remain fo long in the
Turkiflr dominions, t he kings of Denmark and Poland in¬
vaded Pomerania ; but after laying fiege in vain to Stral-
fund, Wifmar, and other places, they were obliged to retire
with difrrace into winter-quarters. In 1712, the king of
Denmark invaded and reduced Bremen and Verden ; but
defeats the the fame year met with a terrible defeat from Steenboek,
Patter' a va^ nL™-er killed and wounded, and almofl
wardstakent^e!r artillery taken. The following year, however, this
pritoner general being purfued, and furrounded by the united forces
with his of the Ruffians, Danes, and Saxons? was obliged to throw
whole army himfelf into the neutral town of Tommmgen ; where he was
befieged, and obliged to furrender at diferetion, with his
whole army. The confequeace of this difafter was an invafion
of Finland by the czar ; which province he totally reduced,
after defeating the Swedes in feveral engagements. Indeed,
the Swedifh forces were now fo much reduced, that they
were unable t© cope with almoft any enemy. The return
of Charles, however, feemed to give new life to the whole
nation. 1 hough the number of inhabitants wras vifibly di-
minifhed, the levies he had ordered were completed in a few
weeks : but the hands left to cultivate the earth confrfted of
the infirm, aged, and decrepid ; fo that a famine was threa¬
tened in confequence of the military rage which had feized
‘»27 all the youth of the kingdom.
w^Vleto'5 ^ie Prc^ence °- Charles did not now produce thofe con-
rttiievethe^eclucnces which the allies had feared. The kingdom was
Pwediih ai-too much reduced to be able to furnifh the neceffary fupplies
of men and money ; and though the king’s courage and
military fkill were not m the leatl diminished, the efforts he
made, in Head of reftoring Sweden to its fplendour, ierved
entirely to ruin it. In 1715, Pruffia declared againil him,
on account of his demanding back the town of Stetin,
whrch that monarch had ietzed. To complete his ernbar.
raiiment, the elector of Hanover, George I. of Britain, al¬
io became his enemy. The forces of Denmark, Pruffia,
Saxony, and Hanover, joined to inveft Wifmar, while a bo-
dy of 36,020 men formed the fiege of Stralfund; at the
enemici. W time that the Czar’ wJth a fleet of 20 large ffiips of
war, and 150 tranfports, carrying 30,000 men, threw every
part of the Swedifh coaft into the greateft confternation.
I he heroifm of Cnarles could not prevail ag’amft lo many
enemies ; yet he was ftill fo dreadful, that the prince of
Hisdefpe- Anhalt, with 12,000 brave troops, did not think himfelf
rate vaTur. a match for this furious enemy when at the head of only
2000, ull he had entrenched his army behind a ditch, de¬
fended by chevaux de frize. It appeared, indeed, that his
precaution was not unneceflary ; for in the ni ftit Charles
with his men clambered up the ditch, and attacked the ene-
in his mual manner. Numbers, however, at kft prevaii-
faila
Is ericom
pafled on
229
] S W t
ana ctranes was oottgea to rextre, after having feen his Sweden,
favourite Grothufen, General Dardorff and During, the ' 1
companions of his exile, killed by his fide, he himfelf being
wounded in the breaft. 9^0
This rafh attempt was made in order to fave Rugen, Stralfund
from whence the town of Stralfund was fupplied with pro- befrcgD,
vifions. The place was well fortified, and garrifoned with
9000 men, with Charles himfelf at their head ; but no¬
thing could rertift the efforts of the enemy. The houfes were
laid in allies by the bonfbs ; the walls miferably fhattered,
and large breaches made in them by the cannon ; fo that by
the 17th of December it was propofed to give the affault.
The attack on the horn-work was defpevate : the enemy
was twice repulfed ; but at laft, by dint of numbers, effec¬
ted a lodgment. The next day Charles headed a fally, in
which he dealt terrible deftruSiion among the befiegers, but
was at length overpowered and obliged to retreat into the
town. At laft his officers, apprehending that he muft ei¬
ther fall into the hands of the enemy, or be buried in the
ruins of the place, intreated him to retire. A retreat, how- And ~takena
ever, was now almoft as dangerous as to remain in the town, in f'pite of
on account of the fleets of the enemy with which the fea Ae
was covered ; and it is thought that this very circumflance
induced the king to confent to it. Setting out, therefore,
in a fmall boat with fails and oars, he paffed all the enemy’s
fhips and batteries, and arrived fafe at Yftedt in Schonen.
To revenge himfelf lor thefe Ioffes, Charles invaded Nor-Charles in»
way with an army of 25,000 men. t he Danes were every vad£S Nor-
where defeated and purfued with that vigour for which the™ay
king of Sweden was fo remarkable; but ftrong reinforce- ^
ments arriving from Denmark, and provifions failing, he was
at laft obliged to retire, and evacuate the country. Soon
after this the Swedes loft Wifmar; but when every thing
feemed to go to wreck, Baron Goertz the chief minifter and
favourite of Charles found means to fet on foot a treaty
with the czar of Mofcovy-, by which the moft formidable 233
of all Charles’ s enemies was taken off. The miniftcr, found ■A.treat7'
means to work upon the inflexible and ftubborn temper of'|lc
Charles, by reprefenting to him that the ceffion of certain Mufcovy
provinces to Peter would induce him to affift him in his proje&edi
projects- of again dethroning Auguffus, and of replacin'^
James on the throne of Britain ; which laft fcheme he had
projected out of revenge for the eleftor of Hanover having
feized on the duchies of Bremen and Verden. In confe-
quence of the conferences between the czar and Goertz, the
former engaged to lend into Poland an army of 80,000 men,
in order to dethrone that prince whom he had fo long de¬
fended. He engaged alio to furnifh ffiips for tranfporting
30,000 Swedes to Germany and 10,000 into Denmark!
This treaty, however, was not fully ratified ; and the king’s
death, which happened in 1718, put a final flop to all the
great profpeffs of Sweden.
I he king had refolved on the conqueft of Norway be- Charfet i#i.\
f®re he oethroned Auguftus ; and as no difficulties ever de-vahes Nor- -
terred him, he marched his army into that cold and barren way a§ain»
country in the month of OcTober, when the ground wascover- ^Iays
ed with froft and inow. With 18,000 men he formed the fiege Frederkkf*
oi r redtrickffiaU, though the feverity of the froft rendered hall,
it ahnoft impoffibie to break ground. Charles, however,,
refolved to form trenches; and his foldiers cheerfully obey¬
ed, digging into the ground with the fame labour as if they •
had been piercing a rock. On the nth of December the
lung vihted the trenches - in the midft of a terrible fire from 235
the enemy, imagining that his men might be animated by His e*-
his prefence. He took his poft in- the moft dangerous fta-tre,me raft"
t.on ue could choofe, ftanding upon a gabion and leaning
WHU his arm over the parapet, while the enemy were firing which he i3 i
chain mot at the very fpot witere. he ftood. He was in.hdied.
2 treated
S WE* [ 2",2 1 S W E
Sweden, treated to rWg* LI. L^t .1,, .uft^^-^tcaVTOwnmT^artbey ftoodTt the beglifflin^ of the war. SW(]en
y—- Eg •£ ^ been proof againft cannon-bullets. At l?it he Adolphus died tlifpirited m 1771-, after a turbulent rei^n of
was feen to fall on the parapet with a deep groan. A fmall twenty years; and was iucceeded by his ion Guftavus. a.37'
cannon-ball had ftruck him on the temple, beat in the left The molt remarkable tranfaAion or this reign ja the revo-^flavu,
eye, and forced the right eye quite out ol its locket; his right lution which took place in the government in the Year tilrones ttt
hand in the mean time grafted the hilt of his fword, as if he j 772, by which the king, from being the moft limited be-
av$ had meant to revenge the blow (c). came one of the moft defpotic monarchs in Europe. Ever
Account of Charles XII. was fucceeded by his filler the princefs fince the death of Charles XII. the whole power of the
the swedifli LTlrjca Eleonora, wife to the hereditary prince of Helfe. kingdom had been lodged in the ftates ; and this power^3?
tlv^death'dOn this occalion the Hates took care to make a previous they had on all occalions moft grievoufly abufed. Gufta.;he
Cha. XU. /lipulation for the recovery of their liberties, and obliged vus therefore determined either to feize on that powei oftion |n
to.the year jJjc princefs to lign a paper to this purpofe before entering which they made fuch a bad ule, or penfh in the attempt. 1772, bf
l77government. Their firft care was to make a peace T- he revolution was effefled in the following manner. ^ni)ecI,CrJjcjC
with Great Britain, which the late king intended to have the morning of the 19th of Auguft a conhderable^^
invaded. The Swedes then, to prevent their farther Ioffes number of officers, as well as other perfons known to be
by the progrefs of the R-uffian, the Damlh, the Saxon, and attached to the royal caufe, had been iummoned uo attend
other arms, made many great facnfices to obtain peace from his majelty.^ Before ten he was on horieback, and \ ill ted
thofe powers. The French, however, about the year »73^> regiment ol artillery. Ashe paffed through the Paeets
formed a dangerous party in the .kingdom, under the name he was more than utually courteous **to all he met, bowing
of the Bi ts ; which not only broke The internal quiet of familiarly to the lov/eft of the people. On the king’s re-
the kin -'dom, but led it into a ruinous war with Ruffia, by turn to his palace, the detachment which was to mount
which the province of Finland was loft. Their Swedifh guard that day being drawn up' together with that which
majcities having no children, it was neceffary to fettle the was to be relieved, his majefty retired with the officers into
fucceffion ; efpeeially as the duke of Holitein was defeended the guard-room. He then addreffed them with all that
from the queen’s eldeft fifter, and was, at the fame time, eloquence of which he is faid to have been a perfect matter;
the prefumptive heir to the empire of Ruffia. Four com- and after infmuating to them that his hie was in danger, he
petitors appeared; the duke of Holftein Gottorp, prince expofed to them in the ftrongeft colours the wretched ftate of
Frederic of Heffe-Caffel nephew to the king, the prince of the kingdom, the (hackles in which it was held by means of
Denmark, and the duke of Deux-Fonts. The duke of foreign gold, and the diffenfions and troubles arifing from the
Holftein would have carried the ele&ion, had he not em- fame caufe which had diftra&ed the diet during the courfe of
braced the Greek religion, that he might mount the throne fourteen months. He affured them that his only defign
of Ruffia. The czarina interpofed, and offered to reltore was to put an end to thefe diforders; to baniffi corruption,
all the conquefts (he had made from Sweden, excepting a reftore true liberty, and revive the ancient luftreof the Swet
fmall diftridt in Finland, if the Swedes would receive the di(h name, which had been long tarnifhed by a venality as
duke of Holftein’s uncle, Adolphus Frederic bifhop of Lu- notorious as it was difgraceful. Then alluring them in the
bee, as their hereditary prince and fucceffor to their crown, ftrongeft term1* that he difclaimed for ever all abfolute
This was agreed to; and a peace was concluded at Abo, power, or what the Swedes cd\ fovercignty, he concluded
under the mediation of his Britannic majefty. This peace with thefe words : “ I am obliged to defend my own
was fo firmly adhered to by the czarina, that his Danifti liberty and that ot the kingdom, againlt the ariitocracy
majefty thought proper to dtop all refentment for the in- which reigns. Will you be faithful to me, as your fore¬
dignity done his fon. The prince-fucceffor married the fathers were to Guitavus Vafa and Guftavus Adolpnus ?
princefs Ulrica, third fifter to the king of Pruffia ; and in I will then ride my hie lor your welfare and that of my
1751 entered into the pofTeffion of his new dignity, which country.” * ;
proved to him a crown of thorns. Through a ftrange med- The officers, moft of them youAg men, or whofe attach-
ley of affaiis and views of intereft, the French had acquired ment the king had been long fecure, who did not thorough-
vaft influence in all the deliberations of the Swedifh fenate, ly perhaps fee into the nature of the requeft hia majeity
who of late have been little better than penfioners to that made them, and were allowed no time to refiedt upon it,
crown. The intrigues ot the fenators forced Adolphus to immediately confented to every thing, and took an oath of
take part in the late war againll Pruffia: but as that war fidelity to him. if
was dffagreeable not only to the people, but alio to the king Three only refufed One of thefe, Frederic Cederfirom,Refill^
of Sweden, the nation never made fo mean an appearance; captain of a company of the guards, alleged he had already
and upon Ruffia’s making peace with the king of Pruffia, and veiy lately taken an oath to be faithful to the ftates,
the Swedes likewife made their peace, upon the terms and confequently could not take that w'hich his majefty then
exacted
(c) Such is the account given by Voltaire of the untimely death of this northern hero. Many perfons, however, who
had the belt opportunities of procuring authentic information at the time, have declared that they believed he was ai-
faffinated by a Frenchman who was among his attendants. The famous earl of Peterborough, who, in his rapid marches
and fearlefs intrepidity, bore no Iniall refemblance to Charles XII. afiured Bifhop Berkeley, that he had no doubt of the
Svvedilh monarch’s having been affaffinated; and Mr Wraxall, in the account of his I ravels through Sweden, gives
fuch arguments for the truth of that-opinion as leave very little doubt in our minds. It muft be confeffed, however,
that Mr Coxe reafons plaufibly in fupport of the other opinion ; and perhaps at this diftance of time nothing* can be faio
with certainty on this queftion, but what1 has been faid by Johnfon :
His fall was deftined to a barren ftrand,
A petty fortrefs, and a dubious hand.
He left the name, at which the world grew pak„
To paint a moral, or adorn a tale. Vanity cf Human Wijhtu
S W E [ 233 ] S W E
i fie kinjy, Iviolving^ at t>int flernly', an- lofs to know the meaning* of the (bouts they heanJ, were Sweden*
coming down to inquire into the caufe of them, when ^
30 grenadiers, with their bayonets fixed, informed them 3^^ thc
it was his majefly’s pleafure they fhmild continue where fenarors.
Sweden. ex?.fted of him,
'"—v fwered, “ Think of what you are dQillg.,, “ 1 do, re¬
plied C^derflrom ; and what I think today, I (hall think
to-morrow : and were 1 capable of breaking the oath by
which I am already bound to the Hates, I (hould be likewife
capable of breaking that your majeily now requefts me to
take.”
The king then ordered Cederflrom to deliver up his fword,
and put him in arreft.
His majefty, however, aoprehenfive of the impreflion
which the proper and refolute conduft of Cederltrom might
make upon the minds of the other officers, (hortly after¬
wards foftened his tone of voice ; and again addreffing him-
felf to Cederflrom, told him, that as a proof of the opinion
he entertained of him, and the confidence he placed in him,
he would return him his fword without infilling upon his
taking the oath, and would only defire his attendance that
day. Cederftrom continued firm ; he anfwered, that his
majefly could place no confidence in him that day, and that
he begged to be excufed from the fervice.
While the king was fhut up with the officers, Senator
Railing, to whom the command of the troops in the town
had been given two days before, came to the door of the
guard-room, and was told that he could not be admitted.
The fenator infilled upon being prefent at the diftribution
of the orders, and fent to the king to defire it; but was
anfwered, he mull go to the fenate, where his majefly would
fpeak to him.
The officers then received their orders from the king;
the firfl of which was, that the two regiments of guards
and of artillery fhould be immediately affembled, and that a
detachment of 36 grenadiers fhould be polled at the door of
the council-chamber to prevent any of the fenators from
coming out. /
But before the orders could be carried.into execution,
k was neceffary that the king fhould addrefs himfelf'to
the foldiers ; men wholly unacquainted with his defigns,
and accuftomed to pay obedience only to the orders of the
fenate, whom they had been taught to hold in the highefl
reverence.
As his majefly, followed by the officers, was advan¬
cing from the guard room to the parade for this pur-
poie, fome of them more cautious, or perhaps more timid
than the reft, became, on a fhort reflexion, apprehenfive
of the confequences of the meafure in whicli they were
engaged : they began to exprefs their fears to the king,
that unlefs fome perlons of greater weight and influ¬
ence than themfelves were to take a part in the fame
caufe, lie could hardly hope to fuccetd in his enterprife.
The king flopped a while, and appeared to hefitate. A
ferjeant of the guards overheard their difcourfe, and cried
aloud,—“ It {hall fucceed—Long five Guftavus!” His
majefty immediately laid, TLhen I will venture  and
ilepping forward to the foldiers, he addreffed them in terms
nearly fimilar to thofe he had made ufe of to the officers,
and with the fame fuccefs. They anfwered him with loud
acclamations : one voice only laid, No ; but it was not at¬
tended to.
In the mean time fome of the king’s emiffaries had fpread
a report about the town that the king was arrefted. This
drew the populace to the palace in great numbers, where
they arrived as his majefty had concluded his harangue to
the guards. They teftified by reiterated fhouts their joy
at Clnb him fafe ; a joy which promifed the happieft con-
cuihon to the bufinefs of the day.
I he fenators were now immediately fecured. They had
rom the window of the council-chamber beheld what was
gomg forwam on^ the parade before the palace ; and, at a
440
The king
gains over
the foldier
y s pieaiure they Ihmild continue
they were. They began to talk in a high tone, but were ai,d he-
anfwered only by having the door fhut and locked uponTnie!,,ma*
them. he-of the
The moment the feoret committee heard that the fenate j^wer in
was arrefted, they feparated of thetnlelves, each individual’he king*
providing for his own fafety. The king then mounting hisdutu*
hoi fe, followed by his officers with their {words drawn, a large
body of foldiers, and numbers of the populace, went to the
other quarters of the town where the foldiers he had order¬
ed to be ailembled were polled. He found them all equal¬
ly willing to lupport his caufe, and to take an oath of
fidelity to him. As he pafitd through the ftreets, he de¬
clared to the people, that he only meant to defend them,
and fave his country ; and that if they would not confide
in him, he would lay down his fceptre, and furrender up
his kingdom. So much was the king beloved, that the
people (fome of whom even fell down upon their knees)
with tears in their eyes implored his majefty not to abandon
tht;m- . .... Ut
The king proceeded in his courfe, and in lefs than an hour Summon»
made himfelf mailer of all the military force in Stockholm, f',1 amm*
In the mean time the heralds, by proclamation in the feve-^7
ral quarters of the city, fummoned an afiembly of the States
for the enfuing morning, and declared all members traitors
to their country who fhould not appear. Thither his ma¬
jefty repaired in all the pomp of royalty, furrounded by his
guards, and holding in his hand the filver fceptre of Gufta¬
vus Adolphus. In a very forcible fpeech, he lamented the
unhappy ftate to which the'country was reduced by the con-
dudl of a party ready to facrifice every thing to its am¬
bition, and reproached the ftates with adapting their adlions
to the views of foreign courts, from which they received the
wages of perfidy. “ If any one dare contradid this, let
him rife and fpeak.”—Convidion, or fear, kept the aflem-
bly blent, and the fecretary read the new form of govern¬
ment, which the king fubmitted to the approbation of the
ftates.. It confided of fifty-i'even articles; of which the
following five were the chief. 243
J - The king has the entire power of convoking and dif-Whicfl ac*
folvmg the afiembly of the ftates as often as he thinks.pro-fept* afneW
per. 2. His majeily aloqp has the command of the army,ment.°
fleet, and finances, and the difpofal of all offices civil and
military. 3- In cafe of an invafion, or of any prefiing ne-
ctftity, the king may* iir.pofe taxes, without waiting for the
aflembly of the ilates. 4. i he diet can deliberate upon no
other fubjeds than thofe propofed by the king. 5. The
king fhah not carry on an offenfive war without the confent
of the ftates. VVhen all the articles were gone through, the
king demanded if the ttates approved of them, and was an¬
fwered by a general acclamation. He then difmiffed all the fe¬
nators from their employments, adding, that in a few days he
would appoint others; and concluded this extraordinary
feene by drawing out of his pocket a fmall book of pfalms,
from which, after taking oft' the crown, he gave out Te
Deum. All the members very devoutly added their voices
to his, and the hall refounded with thankfgivings, which
it is to be feared never rofe to heaven, if fincerity was necef-
iary to their paflport.
I he power thus obtained the king employed for the The king
good of his fubjefts. He took care that the law fhould bemake9 a"
admimftered with impartiality to the richell noble and theh00d Ufe °f
poereft peafant, making a fevere example of fuch judges asnisb0Wcr»
were proved to have made juftice venal. He gave parti-
cular attention and encouragement to commerce, was a
^ S liberal
Sweden.
24^
Reforms
the army
and navy.
246
His con¬
duit in the
war with
Ruiiia.
S w E [
liberal and enlightened patron of learning and fcience,
laboured ftrenuoufly to introduce into his kingdom the molt
valuable improvements in agriculture that had been made in
foreign countries. ■ . , r u
But while thus active in promoting the arts of peace, he
was not inattentive to thofe of war. The fleet, which he
found decayed and feeble, he in a few years leflored to a
refpeftable footing, and, befides changing the regulations of
the navy, he railed a new corps of failovs, and formed them
to the fervice by continual exercife. I he army, which,
as well as the navy, had been negle&ed during the anfto-
cracy, was next to be reformed. The king began by giving
cloaks, tents, and new arms to all the regiments. After¬
wards, under the dire&ion of Field Marfhal Count de Hef-
fenftein, a new exercife was introduced, and feveral camps
were formed, in which the foldiery were manoeuvred by
the king himfelf. The fale of military offices, which had
been permitted for many years, was entirely fupprefied ; and
the king provided not only for the re-ei!ablifhment of dif-
cipline and good order in the army, but for the future wel¬
fare of the individuals which compofed it. Thefe warlike
preparations were neceflary to a plan which he had formed
for entirely abolifhing the power of the ariftocracy, and
freeing Sweden from the fa&ions which had long been
formed in it by the court of St Peterfburgh. The change
which he had introduced into the conflitution was very ini¬
mical to the intrigues of that court ; and the Ruffian am-
baffador exerted himfelf openly to bring about a rupture
between the king and the difeontented nobles. Gultayus
ordered him to quit the kingdom in eight days, and im¬
mediately prepared for war with Ruffia. To this appa¬
rently rafh enterprife he was incited by the Ottoman Porte,
at that time unable to oppofe the armies of the two em¬
pires ; and his own ambition, together with the internal
ftate of his kingdom, powerfully concurred to make him
lend every affiftance to his ancient ally. It is needlefs for
us to enter into a detail of the particulars of that war, which,
as well as the adonilhing activity and military fkill difplayed
by the Swedifh monarch, are frefh in the memory of all our
readers. Suffice it to fay, that neither Guitavus Adolphus
nor Charles XII. gave greater proofs of undaunted courage
and military conduct in their long ana bloody wars than
were given by Guflavus the III. from the end of the year
I 787 to 179c, when peace was reftored between the courts of
St Peterlburgh and Stockholm. Had his armyremained faith-
ful, it feems in a high degree probable that he would have
penetrated to the metropolis ot the Ruffian empire in the
firit campaign ; and ixhen lie was dclerted by that army,
and his councils diltratled by new hollilities commenced
againlt him by the Danes, the vigour and refources of his
mind never foriook him. When the court of Copenhagen
was compelled, by the means of England and Pruffia, to
withdraw its troops from the territories of Sweden, the
king attacked Ruffia with fuch vigour both by fea and land,
234 1 S W E
and confctence, when fo artfully conduaing the revolution of S«.ed„.
1772, mult be acknowleged ; nor can it be denied, that in r-
his treaties with other powers he fometimes endeavoured to
overreach them: but if the neceffities of ftate could in
any cafe be an apology for falfehood, they would fufficient-
ly apologize for the duplicity of Guftavus. _ He was en¬
gaged in the arduous enterprife of freeing his fubjetts from
an ariftocratic tyranny fupported by a foreign power the
molt formidable in the north ; he had been forced into a
war with that power, and, as there is reafon to believe, pro-
mifed affiftance which he never received ; and it cannot ex¬
cite wonder nor great indignation, that, as foon as he could
make an honourable peace, he embraced the opportunity
without paving much regard to the interefts of an alliance,
which tamely looked on while he was ftrugglmg with cit- i48
difplayed fuch addrefs in retrieving his affairs when appa¬
rently reduced to the laft extremity, and renewed his attacks
with fuch pertinacious courage, ■ that the empreis lowered
the haughtinefs of her tone, and was glad to treat with
Guftavus as an equal and independent fovereign.
The king of Sweden was now at liberty to cherilh again
the arts of peace, and to humble the haughty fpirit of the
^ ^ nobles. For his attempting to deprive thole men of that
ad ions art Power which they had for many years employed againft their
ful and in- country, he has been held up to the world as a defpot who
trampled on the liberties ot his fubjects ; as a man without
fincerity or patriotiim ; and, in one word, as a perjured ty¬
rant, who overthrew the conftitution which he had fworn
to maintain.
247
Hot an ar¬
bitrary de¬
fpot, thi/
in torn6
lidioua.
Acuities" apparently unfurmountable. That the revolution The revo-
which he effeaed in his own country was calculated to
promote the general good of the people, is unqueliionable ;
and to gain fuch an ohjea he might furely reftoie the crown
to its ancient fplendor, without bringing upon his govern¬
ment the odious epithet of defpoUfm. _ Pr V9,(l
The nobles, however, continued difeontented, and a con- c()nj. - ^
fpiracy was planned againft Guttavus under his own n^° 7 the
Fie had entered into the alliance that was formed againft
the revolutionary government of France ; and to raiie an
army which lie was to lead in perfon to co-operate with the
emperor and the king of Pruffia, he was obliged to nego¬
tiate large loans, and to impofe upon his fubjedts heav\
taxes. The nobles took advantage of that circumftance to
prejudice the minds of many of the people againft the io-
vereign who had laboured fo long for their real good. On.
the 16th of March (792 he received an anonymous letter,
warning him of his immediate danger from a plot that was
laid to take away his life, requefting him to remain at home,
and avoid balls tor a year ; and afluring him that, if he
fhould go to the mafquerade for which he was preparing,
he would be affaffinated that very night. The king read
the note with contempt, and at a late hour entered the ball
room. After fome time he fat down in a box with the
compte D’Effen, and obferved that he was not deceived in
his contempt for the letter, lince had there been any defign
againft his life, no time could be more tavouiable than that
moment. Pie then mingled, without apprehenfion, among
the crowd ; and juft as he v/as preparing to retire in. com¬
pany with the Pruffian ambaffador, he was furrounded by 2;o
feveral perfons in maiks, one of whom fired a piftol at theThelin?
back of the king, and lodged the contents in his body. A^erai
feene of dreadful confufron immediately enfived. The con- ^
foirators, amidft the general tumult and alarm, had time to
retire to other parts of the room ; hut one ot them had pre*
viouily dropped his piftols and a dagger dole by the wound¬
ed king. A general order was given to all the company
to unmalk, and the doors were immediately clofed ; but no
perfon appeared with any particular diftinguiffiing marks of
guilt. T he king was immediately conveyed to his apart¬
ment ; and the furgeon, after extrafting a ball and fome
(lugs, gave favourable hopes of his majelty’s recovery.
Sufpicions immediately fell upon fuch of the nobles as
had been notorious for their oppofition to the meafures of
the court. The anonymous letter was traced up to colonel
Liljehorn, major in the king’s guards, and he was immedi¬
ately apprehended. But the moft fuccefsful clue that feem-
ed to offer was in ccnfcquence ot the weapons which ha
fallen from the affaffin. An order was iffued, directing all
the armourers, gunfmiths, and cutlers in Stockholm, to give
every information in their power to the officers of jui ice
r . — 'A
threw the conititution which he naa iworn concerning the weapons. _ A gunfmith who had rePa‘1.^,
T hat he was not troubled with a fcrupulous the piftols readily recognized them to be the fame ^
S W E
*51 '
e king
. *5*
[is behavi
ur before
* death.
at3
anifh-
Stfeden. he tad repaired fome time fince for a nobleman of the name
“■’“V""—' of Ankarftrom, a captain in the army ; and the cutler who
had made the dagger referred at once to the fame perfon.
The kfnglangr.ifhed from the 17th to the 29th of March.
At firit the reports oi: his medical attendants wrere favour¬
able ; but on the 28th a mortification was found to have
taken place, which terminated his exiitence in a few hours.
On opening his body, a fquate piece of lead and two rully
nails were found unextradfed within the ribs.
During his illnels, and particularly after he was made ac¬
quainted writh the certainty of his approaching diffolution,
Guftavus continued to dilplay that unlhaken courage which
he had manifeiled on every occafion during his life. A
few hours before his deceale he made fome alterations in
the arrangement of public affairs. He had before, by his
wull, -appointed a council of regency ; but convinced, by
recent experience, how little he could depend on the attach¬
ment of his nobles, and being alfo aware of the neceffity of
a ilrong government in difficult times, he appointed his
brother, the duke of Sudermania, foie regent, till his fon,
who was then about fourteen, fhall have attained the a;{e of
eighteen years. His laft words were a declaration of par¬
don to the confpirators againll his life. The aftual mur¬
derer alone was excepted ; and he wras executed only at the
ftrong inftance of the regent, and thole who futrounded his
majelly in his dying moments. Immediately on the death
of the king, the young prince w'as pi'oclaimed by the title
of Gullavus IV.
Ankarllrom was no fooner apprehended, than he con-
ent of ihe feffed with an air of triumph, that he wras the perfon
i^na tt wjj0 endeavoured to liberate his country from amon-
fter and a tyrant ” Sufpicions at the fame time fell on the
counts Horn and Ribbing, baron Pechlin, baron Ehrenfvard,
baron Hartfmandorf, Von Engerltrom the royal fecretary,
and others ; and thefe lufpicions were confirmed by the con-
fetiion of Ankarllrom. After a very fair and afnple trial, this
man was condemned to be publicly and feverely whipped
on three,fucceffive days, his right hand and his head to* be
cut off, and his body impaled ; which fentence he fuffertd
not till the 1 7th of May, long after the death of the king.
rlis property was given to his children, who, however,
were compelled to change their name.
I he counts Horn and Ribbing were condemned to lofe
their right hands, and to be decapitated. Col. Liljehorrt
and lieutenant Ehrenjwerd were alfo to be beheaded.—All
thefe confpirators w^ere degraded from the rank of nobles,
and their property declared to be confifcated. Major Hart-
manfdorf was to forteit his rank in the army, and to be im-
priloned for one year. Engerllrom was to fuffer perpetual
jmpnlonment, and baron Pechhn and lecretary Lillellrahle
to be imprifoned during plealure. Four others, accufed of
being concerned in the confpiracy, were pardoned, and fome
were acquitted.
1 he kingdom of- Sweden, in its prefect ftate, is divided
into the following provinces : 1. Sweden Proper. 2. Goih-
land. 3. Finland. 4. Swedilh Lapland. And, 5. The
•Swedifh illands. Great abatements mult be made for the
lakes and unimproved parts of Sweden, which are fo ex-
tenlive that the habitable part is confined to narrow bounds.
1 he face of Sweden is pretty limilar to thofe of its
neighbouring countries ; only it has the advantage of navi¬
gable rivers.
The^ fame may be faid with regard to its climate, foil,
-See. Summer bur (Is from winter; and vegetation is more
ipeedy than in fouthern climates. Stoves and warm furs
mitigate the cold of winter, which is fo intenfe, that the
rimes and extremities of the inhabitants are fometimes mor-
tuiec.. I he Swedes, fince the days of Charles XII. have
r 235 i
S \V E
2"4
vilion of
/eden.
. *55
iimate,
il, &c.
been at incredible pains to corre£l the native barrennefs of Sweden,
their country, by creeling colleges of agriculture, and in fome “1
places with great fuccefs. The foil is much the fame with
that of Denmark and fome parts of Norway, generally very
bad, but in fome valleys furprilingly fertile. 'The Swedes,
till of late years, had not induftry fufficient to remedy the
one, nor improve the other. The peafants now follow the
agriculture of France and England ; and fome late accounts
fay, that they rear almoll as much gram as maintains the
natives. Gothland produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, peaie,
and beans ; and in cafe of deficiency, the people are fup-
plied from Livonia and the Baltic provinces. In fummer,
the fields are verdant, and covered with flowers ; and pro¬
duce ftrawberries, rafpberries, currants, and other fmall
fruits, I he common people know, as yet, little of the cul¬
tivation of apricots, peaches, neftarines, pine-apples, and
the like high-flavoured fruits ; but melons are brought to
great perfection in dry feafons.
Sweden produces cryitals, amethyfts, topazes, porphyry,
lapis lazuli, agate, cornelian, marble, and other foffils. The
chief wealth of the country, however, ariles from her
mines of filver, copper, lead, and iron. The lall-men-
tioned metal employs no fewer than 430 forges, hammering-
mills, and fmeking-houfes. A kind of a gold mine has
likewife been difeovered in Sweden ; but fo inconliderable,
that from the year 1741 to 1747, it produced only 2398
gold ducats, each valued at 9s. 4d. llerling. The firfh
gallery of one fdver mine is 100 fathoms below the furface
of the earth ; the roof is fupported by prodigious oaken
beams, and from thence the miners defeend about 40 fathoms
to the lowed vein. This mine is laid to produce 20,000
crowns a-year. ffhe product of the copper mines ia un¬
certain ; but the whole is loaded with vaft taxes and re¬
ductions to the government, which has no other refources
for the exigences of Hate. Thofe fubterraneous manfions are
aftonilhingly fpacious, and at the fame time commodious for
their inhabitants, fo that they feem to form a hidden world.
1 he water-falls in Sweden afford excellent conveniency for
turning mills for forger ; and for fome years the exports of
iron from Sweden brought in 300,000!. fferling. Dr
Bniching thinks that they conftitiited two-thirds of the na¬
tional revenue. It mult, however, be obferved, that the
extortions of the Swedilh government, and the importa¬
tion of American bar-iron into Europe, and fome other
caufes, have greatly diminilhed this manufacture in Swe¬
den ; fo that the Swedes very foon muff apply themfelves
to other branches of trade and improvements, efpecially in
agriculture.
The animals differ little from thofe of Norway and Den-Animals,
mark, only the Swedifh bode are known to be more fer-
viceable in war than the German. The filhes found in the
rivers and lakes of Sweden are the fame with thofe in other
northern countries, and taken in fuch quantities, that their
pikes (particularly) are failed and pickled for exportation.
I he train-oil of the feals, taken in the gulph of Finland, is
a confiderable article cf exportation.
1 here is a great diverfity of characters among the people Character
of Sweden j and what 13 peculiarly remarkable among them,l3f the
they have been known to have different chara&ers in dif!Swede®«
ferent ages. At prefent, their peafants feem to be a heavy
plodding race of men, ffrong and hardy ; but without any
other ambition than that of fubfifting themlelves and their
families as well as they can : they are honeft, fimple, and
holpitable; and the mercantile dalles are much of the
fame caff ; but great application and peifeverance i?. dif¬
eovered among them all. One could form no idea that the
modern Swedes are the defeendants of thole who, under
Gullavus Adolphus and Charles XII. carried terror in their
G g 2 names
S W E [S3
S*<d«r.. names thraunh the mod diftant countries, and (hook the
* ^ foundations of the greatell empires. The principal r‘ob»ity
and gentry of Sweden are naturally brave, polite, and hot-
pitable ; they have high and warm potions of honour, and are
iealous of their national interefts. The drefs of the com¬
mon people is almoil the fame with that of Denmark : the
better fort are inTatuated with French modes and fafhion.
The common diverfions of the Swedes are, fkating, run¬
ning races in fledges, and failing in yachts upon the ice.
They are not fond of marrying their daughters when young,
as they have little to (pare in their own life-time. 'I he
women go to plounh, threfh out the corn, low upon the
water, ferve the buck layers, carry burdens, and do all the
5^8 common drudgeries in hufbandry.
Jldigion. Chriflianity was introduced here in the 9th century.
Their religion is Lutheran, which was propagated among
them by Guftavus Vafa, about the year 1523, as we have
already related. The Swedes are furprifmgly uniform and
unremitting in religious matters ; and have luch an averfion
to Popery j that caftration is the fate of every Roman Ca¬
tholic prieft difeovered in their country. 1 he archbifhop
of Uplal has a revenue of about 400I. a-year; and has
under him thirteen fuffragans, beiides fuperintendants, with
moderate ftipends. Flo clergyman has the leaf! direction in
the affairs of Hate ; but their morals, and the fanftity of
their lives, endear them fo much to the people, that the
government would repent making them its enemies- Their
churches are neat, and often ornamented. A body of ec-
clefiaitical laws and canons direct their religious economy.
A converbon to Popery, or a long continuance under ex-
communication, winch cannot pafs without the king’s per-
million, is punifhed by imprilonment and exile.
Language. The Swedilh language is a dialed of the Teutonic, and
refembles that of Denmaik. 'I he Swedifh nobility and
gentry are, in general, mote conyerfant in polite literature
than thofe of many other more flourifhing hates. They
have of late exhibited fome noble fpecimens of their muni¬
ficence for the improvement of literature and fcience, par-
460 ticularly natural hilfory.
Manufac- The Swedifh commonalty fubfifts by agriculture, mining,
tures, &c. grazing, hunting, and fifhing. Their materials for traffic
are the bulky and ufehil commodities of malts, beams, and
other forts of timber for (hipping ; tar, pitch, bark of trees,
potafh, wooden utentils, hides, flax, hemp, peltry, furs,
copper, lead, iron, cordage, and fifh.
Even the manufacturing of iron was introduced into
Sweden fo late as the 16th century ; for till that time they
fold their own crude ore to the Hanfe-towns, and bought it
back again manufa&ured into utenfils. About the middle
of the 17th century, by the afliltance of the Dutch and
Flemings, they fet up fome manufa&ures of glafs, (larch,
tin, woollen, filk, foap, leatber-dreffing, and faw-mills.
Bookfelling was at that time a trade unknown in Sweden.
They have iince had fugar-baking, tobacco-plantations, and
manufactures of fail-cloth, cotton, fullian, and other fluffs ;
alfo of linen, alum, brimflone, paper-mills, and gunpowder-
mills. Vail quantities of copper, brafs, fteel, and iron, are now
wrought in Sweden, dug from mines, fome of them more
than 1100 feet deep. The iron mine of Dannemora, which
is much the moft profitable of any of thofe with which
every part of Sweden abounds, is faid to yield 60lb. of
metal in a icolb. of ore, and the others about 30^b•
iron extrafted from this is known in Europe under the name
of Oregiund; which name is derived from a fea-port on the
Baltic. A large portion of it is employed by different na¬
tions for making the bell fteel. The mine was difeovered
in 1470. The unwrought ore was firft fold to the mer¬
chants of Lubeck. It was not until the reign of Guftavus
6 ] S W E
Vafa that the Swedes worked it themfelves. It is afferted, Sweden,
that the mine of Dannemora yields about 4^>ooo (tones of v J
bar-iron per year, which is fuppofed to be one tenth part
of the quantity which all the iron-mines of Sweden produce.
Of this product, amounting to 400,000 (tones, 300,000
are annually exported ; the remainder is manufactured at
home. It is calculated that no iefs than 25,600 men are
^-j^ploy^d in mining, and the branches immediately connec¬
ted with it, viz. 4000 for breaking the rocks, either by ex-
plofion or manual labour; io,Soo to hew timber and bura
it into charcoal ; zcoo are employed in (melting ; i Bco in
traia(porting the metal from the furnaces to the forges ;
6co in transporting laud, fuel, &c. 4000 for tranfporting
the charcoal, and 2400 at the forges. 'They have alfo
founderies for cannon, forgeries for fire-arms and anchors,
armories, wire and flatting-mills, mills alfo for fulling, and
for boring and (tamping : and of late they have built many
(hips for fale.
There are likewife in Sweden fome filver mines, of which
that of Sa/ba, or Sathberg, is the richeft as well as the
moft ancient. It exilted fo early as 1x88, and, during the
whole of the 14th century, it yielded 24,000 marks of
filver per annum. In the 15th century the quantity was
diminifhed to 20,000. In the reign of Charles X. it gave
only 2000, and it furnifliesat prefent (till lefs, the ore yield¬
ing only one ounce of pure metal per quintal. I he chief
gallery where the pureft filver was obtained having fallen
in, is not yet cleared, not with (landing their inceffant labour.
They are alfo digging pits in a perpendicular direction, in
order to arrive at the principal vein, which extends itfelt
from the north to the (outh-eaft. Formerly lead employed
in feparating the metal was imported from England ; but
the mine iurnifhes at prefent a fuffieient quantity for the
purpofe.
Certain towns in Sweden, being 24 in number, are called
Staple-towns, where the merchants are allowed to import
and export commodities in their own ftups. 1 hofe towns
which have no foreign commerce, though lying near the fea,
are called land-towns. A third kind are termed mine-towns,
as belonging to mine-diftri6ts. i he Swedes, about the
year 1752, had greatly increaled their exports, and dimi-
nilhed their imports, moft part of which arrive or are fent
off in Swediih (hips; the Swedes having now a kind of na¬
vigation ad like that of the Endifh. Thofe promihng
appearances were, however, blalted by the madnefs and
jealoufies of the Swedifh government; and the people fo
oppreffed with taxes, that fome important revolution was
daily expeded in that kingdom. 161
The revenue of Sweden, iince the unfortunate wars of Revenues
Charles XII. has been greatly reduced. Her gold and filver
fpecies, in the reign of Ad. Frederic, arofe chiefly from the
king’s German dominions. Formerly, the crown-lands, poll-
money, tithes, mines, and other articles, are faid to have produ¬
ced a million fterling. The payments that are made in copper,
which is here the chief medium of commerce, is extremely
inconvenient ; fome of thofe pieces being as large as tiles;
and a cart or wheelbarrow is often required to carry home a
moderate fum. The Swedes, however, have gold ducats,
and eight-mark pieces of filver, valued each at 5 s*
and the fubfidies paid them by France help to increafe their
currency. a6*'
No country in the world has produced greater heroes or Military
braver troops than the Swedes; and yet they cannot beftrengtb.
faid to maintain a (landing army, as their forces confift of
a regulated militia. The cavalry is clothed, armed, and
maintained, by a rate raifed upon the nobility and gentry,
according to their eftates ; and the infantry by the peafants.
Each province is obliged to find its proportion o( foldiers,
according
S W E
sweeten- according to the number of farms it contains; every farm
b(>rg. of 601. or 701.annum is charged with a foot-foldier,
furnidling him with diet, lodging, and ordinary clothes,
and about 20 s. a-year in money ; or elfe a little wooden
houfe is built him by the farmer, who allows him hay
and pafturage (or a cow, and ploughs and fows land
enough to fupply him with bread. When embodied,
they are fubjedt to military law, but otherwife to the civil
law of the country. It may therefore literally be laid,
that every Swedifh foldier has a property in the coun¬
try he defends. This national army is thought to amount
to above 50,000 men. Sweden foimerly could have fit¬
ted out 40 fhiDS of the line.
SWEDENBORG (Emanuel), was botn at Stockholm
on the 29th of January 1689. His father was bifiiop of
Weft-Gothia ; member of a fociety for the propagation of
the gofpel, formed on the plan of that of England ; and
prefident of the Swedifh church in Pennfylvania and I.on-
don. To this lad office he was appointed by Charles XII.
who fee ms to have had a great re ard for the bifhop, and
to have continued that regard to his fon.
Of the courfe of young Swedenborg’s education we have
procured no account; but from the character of the father,
it may be fuppofed to have been pious ; and by his appear¬
ing with reputation as an author, when but 20 years ofage,
it is proved to have been fuccefsful. His firfl work was
publifhed in 1709 ; and the year following be lent into the
world a colleftion of pieces on different fubjects, in Latin
verfe, under the title of Ludus Hehconius, five C admin a Mif-
cellanea qua: vari'n in locis cecinit. The fame year he began
his travels, fine into England, and afterwards into Holland,
I'ranee, and Germany; and returning to Stockholm in
1714, he was two years afterwards appointed to the of¬
fice of affeflbr in the Metallic College by Charles XII. who
honoured him with frequent conveifations, andbeftowed up¬
on him a large ffiare of his favour. At this period of his
life Swedenborg devoted his attention principally to phyiic
and mathematical ftudfes ; and in 1 7 1 8 he accompanied the
king to the tiege'ofFrederickfhall, where he gave an eminent
proof that he had not ftudied in vain. Charles could not
fend bis heavy artillery to Frederickffiall from the bad-
nefs of the r oads, which were then rendered much worfe
than ufual by being deeply covered with fnow. In this
extremity Swedenborg brought the fciences to the aid of
valour. By the help of proper ir.flruments he cut through
the mountains, and raifed the valleys which feparated Swe¬
den from Norway, and then fent to his mafter two galleys,
five large boats, and a floop, loaded with battering pieces,
to be employed in the fiege. The length of this canal was
about two miles and a half. The execution of this great
work, however, did not occupy all his time. In 1716 he
had begun to publifh effays and obfervations on the mathema¬
tical and phyfical fciences, under the title of Dadalus Hyper-
 •' and he round leifure during the fiege to complete his
[ 237 1
S \V E
bar
intended collection, and alfo in the fame year to publifh
an introduction to algebra, under the whimfical title of The
Art of the Kules.
At the fiege of Frederickffiall he loft his patron Charles;
but found another in Ulrica Eleonora, the filter and fuccef-
for of that hero, by whom in 1719 he was ennobled, and
took of courfe his feat among the fenators of the equeftrian
order in the triennial aftemblies of the ftates. His promo¬
tion did not leflen his ardour for the fciences ; for he pub-
hffied in the fame year A Method to fix the Value of Money t
and to determine the Swedfih Meafures in fuch a way as to fiup-
pn efs all thC' Fradions and facilitate the Calculations. About
the fame time he gave the public a treatife on the Pofition
and Courfe of the Planets ; with another on the Height of the Sweden-
‘Tides, and Flux and Rfiux of the Sea ; which, from infor-, horg- ^
mation gathered in different parts of Sweden, appeared to *
have been greater formerly than when he wrote.
As Swedenborg continued, under the new fovereign, to
hold the office of afleffor to the Metallic College, he thought
k neceffary, for the difeharge of his duty, r», make a fecond
journey into foreign countries, that he might himfelf exa¬
mine their mines, particularly thofe of Saxony and Harts.
During tbefe travels, which were undertaken for the im¬
provement of the manufactures of his native country, he
printed at Amfterdam, j. Prodromus principiorum Naturali- Euenpenn
urn, five novorum tentaminum, Chemiam et Phyficam experimen- Magazine,
iakm geometrice explicandi. 2. Rrova obfervata & inventa cir~
ca Ferrum & Ignem, pracipue naturam Ignis Elemental um, unct
cum nova Camini inventione. 3. Methodus nova inveniendi
JsOngitudines locorum terne marique ope Luna. 4. Modus
confiruendi receptacula navalia, vu/go en Suedoit, DucFybynad-
dcr. 5. Nova confiruttio aggeris aqubtici. 6. Modus explo-
randi virtutes Navigiorum. And at Leipfic and Hamburg,
7. Mifcellanea olferveta circa res naturales, prafertim Mine*
ralia, Ignem, iff Montium frata.
This journey was made, and thefe traCts publiffied, in the
compafs of a year and a half; and perhaps there has not
been another man, Linnaeus excepted, who has done fo much
in lo ffiort a time. After his return in 1722, Swedenborg
divided his time fo equally between the duties of his office
and his private ftudies, that in 1733 he finiffied his grand
work, entitled Opera Philofophica iff Mineralia, and had it
printed under his own direction in 1734, part at Drefden
and part at Leipfic ; in which year he alio went to infpeft
the mines of Auftria and Hungary. This work is divided
into three volumes folio ; the title of the firft is Principia
rerum Naturalium five novorum tentaminum. Phenomena Mun-
di elementaris philofophice explicandi. The fecond, Regnum
Jubterraneum five Minerale de Ferro ; and the third, Regnum
Jubttrranevm five Minerale de Cuprc, iff Orichalco; all of
them written with great ftrength of judgment, and orna¬
mented with plates, to facilitate the comprehenfion of the
text.
In the year 1729 he was enrolled among the members of
the Society of Sciences at Upfal, and was, probably about the
fame time, made a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences at Stockholm ; nor were ftrangers lefs willing than his
own countrymen to acknowledge the giestnefs of his me¬
rit. Wolfius, with many other learned foreigners, were ea¬
ger to court his correfpondence. The Academy of St Pe¬
ter fburg lent him, on the 17th of December 1734, a di¬
ploma of aflociation as a correlpondent member ; and footi
afterwards the editors of the Aaa~Eruditorum at Leipfic
found in his works a valuable fupplement to their own col-
leCIion.
By many perfons the approbation of learned academies
would have been highly valued ; but by Baron Swedenborg
it was confide! ed as of very little importance. “ Whatever
of wordly honour and advantage may appear to be ir the
things before mentioned, I hold them (fays he) but as mat-Short Ac-
ters of low eftimation, when compared to the honour of\\\atcm<nt oftf-e
holy office to which the Lord himfelf hath called me, vj\oHIn0ural,!i
was gracioufly pleafed to manifeft himfelf to me, his un-^j S'wedm"
worthy lervant, in a perfonal appearance, in the year 1743, ^
to open in me a fight of the ipiritual world, and to enable
me to con verfe with fpirits and angels ; and this privilege
has continued with me to this day. From that time l be¬
gan to print and publiffi various unknown Arcana, which
have been either feen by me or revealed to me, concerning
heaven and hell, the ftate of men after death, the true wor-
7 ffilr:
"tie Jen.
lerg's Uni-
merfal Theo
logy, vol. i.
p, 87.
S W E C'
Sweden- (Viio of God, the fpintual fenfe of the Scriptures, and many
bl>r!^• other important truths tending to falvation and true wif-
'”ir v " dom."
We fhal] not affront the underilandings of our readers by
making upon this account of the Baron’s call fuch reflec¬
tions as every perfon of a found mind will make for himfelf;
but it is rath ^ remarkable, that a man who had devoted
the better part of his life to the ftudy of fuch fciences as ge¬
nerally fortify the mind againil the delufions of fanaticifm,
and who had even excelled in thefe fciences, fhould have fal¬
len into fuch a reverie as this. After this extiaordinary
call, the Baron dedicated himfelf wholly to the great work
which, he fuppofed, was affigned him, ftudying diligently
the word of God, and from time to time publifliing to his
fellow-creatures fuch important information as was made
known to him concerning another world. Among his va¬
rious difcoveries concerning the Ipiritual world, one is, that
it cxifts not in fpace. “ Of this (fays he) I was convinced,
becaufe I could there fee Africans and Indians very near
me, although they are fo many miles diftant here on earth ;
nay, that I could be made prefent with the inhabitants of
other planets in our fyftem, and alio with the inhabitants
of planets that are in other worlds, and revolve about
other funs. By virtue of fuch prefence (i. e. without real
Ipace), not of place, I have converfed with apoltles, depart¬
ed popes, emperors, and kings; with the late reformers of
the church, Luther, Calvin, and Melan£lhon, and with o-
thers from diitant countries.”
Notwithllanding the want of fpace in the fpiritual world, *
he tells us, “ that after death a man is fo little changed that
he even does not know but he is living in the prefent world;
that he eats and drinks, and even enjoys conjugal delight as
in this world ; that the refemblance between the two worlds
is fo great, that in the fpiritual world there are cities, with
palaces and houfes, and alfo writings and books, employ¬
ments and merchandizes ; that there is gold, iilver, and pre¬
cious Hones there. In a word (he fays), there is in the fpi-
litual world all find every thing that there is in the natural
world, but that in heaven fuch things are in an infinitely more
perleft Hate.”
Such was his zeal in the propagation of thefe whimftcal
and fometimes fenfual do&rines, that he frequently left his
native country to vifit diilant cities, particularly London
and Amllerdam, where all his theological works were
printed at a great expence, and with little profpedt or pro¬
bability of a reimburfement. “ Wherever he reiided when
on his travels, he was (fays one of his admirers) a mere fo-
litary, and almoft inacceflible, though in his own country of
a free and open behaviour. He affefted no honour, but de¬
clined it ; purfued no worldly interefi, but fpent his time in
travelling and printing, in order to communicate inttrudfion
and" benefit to mankind. He had nothing of the precife
in his manner, nothing of melancholy in his temper, and
nothing in the leaH boidering on enthufiafm in his converfa-
tion or writings.” This is too much. We believe he was
an inoffenfive vifionary; of his converfation we cannot
judge ; but the Ipecimens that we have given of his writings
are frantic enthuiiafm. He died at London, March 29th,
in the year 1772 ; and after lying in Hate, his remains were
depofited in a vault at the Swedifh church, near RadclifF-
Highvvay.
Though Baron Swedenborg’s followers appear not to
have been numerous during his life, they have increafed
lince his death ; and a fedt fubliHs at prefent in England
Sweden.
Wjj
Slid.
Short Ac¬
count x &C.
p. XI.
and IJur-
iey’s Pre¬
face to tie
'Treatife on
Jinjhix.
which derives its origin from him, and is called the Nerv
Jerufalem Church. The diicriminating tenets of this feci
ieeai to be the following : “ Holding the dodtrinc of one
Gudj they maintain that this one God is no other than Je-
238 ] s w 1
fus Chrift, and that he always exifted in a human form *,
that for the fake of redeeming the world, he took upon
himfelf a proper human or material body, but not a human 3wie[,enjt
foul ; that this redemption eonfiHs in bringing the hells or
evil fpirits into lubjedtion, and the heavens into order and
regulation, and thereby preparing the way for a new fpiritual
church ; that without fuch redemption no man could be fa-
ved, nor could the angels retain their Hate of integrity ;
that their redemption was effedted by means of trials, temp¬
tations, or confiidls with evil fpirits; and that the lafl of
them, by which Chriit glorified his humanity, perfedting
the union of his divine with his human nature, was the paf-
fion of the crofs. Though they maintain that there is but Pnef.ltj,
©ne God, and one divine perfon, they hold that in this per-^ttcr‘'•
fon there is a real Trinity ; confiding of the divinity, tbe^^
humanity, and the operation of them both in the Lord Je- church,
fus ; a Trinity which did not exill from all eternity, but com-p, 4. &c.
menced at the incarnation. They believe that the Scrip¬
tures are to be interpreted not only in a literal but in a fpi¬
ritual fenfe, not known to the world till it was revealed to
B. Swedenborg ; and that this fpiritual fenfe extends to
every part of Scripture, except the Adis of the Apoftles.
They believe that there are angels attending upon men, re-
frding, as B. Swedenborg fays, in their affedtions ; that
temptation confifls in a Hruggle between good and bad an¬
gels within mew ; and that by this means God afliHs men m
thefe temptations, fince of themfelves they could do nothing.
Indeed B. Swedenborg maintains, that there is an univerfal
influx from God into the fouls of men, itfpiring them efpeci-
ally with the belief of the divine unity. This efflux of di¬
vine light on the fpiritual world he compares to the efflux
or the light from the fun in the natural world.
“ There are (fays B. Swedenborg) two worlds, the na¬
tural and the fpiritual, entirely diitindl, though perledlly
correfponding to each other ; that at death a man enters in¬
to the fpiritual world, when his ioul is clothed with a body,
which he terms fubjlantial, in oppofition to the prefent ma¬
terial body, which, he lays, is never to rife out of the
grave.”
SWEEP, in the fea-language, is that part of the mould
of a flrip where fhe begins to compais in the rung-heads.
alfo when the haufer is dragged along the bottom of the fea
to recover any thing that is funk, they call this adtionyimy-
ing for it.
SWEET, in the wine trade, denotes any vegetable juice,
whether obtained by means of fugar, railms, or other fo¬
reign or domeflic fruit, which is added to wines with a de-
fign to improve them.
SWEIN-mot. See Forest Courts.
SW ERTIA, Marsh Gentian, in botany: A gesms of
plants belonging to the clals of pentandria, and to the order
of digynia i and in the natural fyflem ranging under the
20th order, rotaieec. The corolla is wheel-fhaped. 1 here
are nedlariferous pores at the bafes of the fegments of the
corolla. The caplule is unilocular and bivalve. There are
fix fpeeies ; the perennis, difformis, rotata, carinthiaca, cor-
niculata, dichotoma. The perennis is a native of England.
It is diflinguifhed by radical oval leaves. It flowers in
AuguH.
SWIETENIA, Mahogany, in botany : A genus or
plants belonging to the clafs of decandria, and to the order
of monogynia ; and in the natural fyflem arranged under the
54th order, Mijcellane/e. The calyx is quinquefid. I here
are five petals ; the nedlarium is cylindrical, lupporting the
antherse with its mouth. The caplule is five-celled, woody,
and opening at the mouth. T he feeds are imbricated and
winged. There is only one fpecies, ahe mahagoni, which
is a native of the warmefl parts of America, and grows
S W I
Swietenia, {n the ilhnd of Cuba, Jamaica, Hifpaniok.
, SwJft' , ma iflands. It abounded formerly in the low lands of Ja-
Lond^ ~ maica, but it is now found only on high hills and places
Medical difficult of accefs.
Journal. It thrives in moll foils, but varies in texture and grain ac¬
cording to the nature of the foil. On rocks it is of a fmall-
tr fixe, but very hard and weighty, of a cloie grain, and
flrown’j
Natural
Hi/iory of
fjmaica.
ttons,
11° 484.
beautifully fhaded ; while the produce of the low and richer
lands is obierved to be more light and porous, of a paler co¬
lour and open grain ; and that of mixed foils to hold a me¬
dium between both, d he tree grows very tall and ftraight,
and is ufually four feet in diameter; the flowers are of a
reddiih or faffron colour, and the fruit of an oval form, and
about the fize of a turkey’s egg.
The wood is generally hard, takes a fine polifh, and is
found to anfwer better than any other fort in all kinds of
cabinet ware. It is now univerfally efteemed, and fells at a
good pi ice ; but it is pity that it is not cultivated in the
more convenient wafte lands of Jamaica. It is a very
llrong timber, and anfwers very well in beams, joifts, plank,
boards, and ihingles; and has been frequently put to thole
. s in Jamaica in former times. It is laid to be ufed fome-
times in ffiip-bmlding ; a purpofe for which it is remarkably
adapted, if not too coftly, being very durable, capable of
milting gun-fhots, and burying the (hots without folinter-
ing. 1
The feed-veffels are of a curious form, confiding of a
large cone Splitting into five parts, and difclofmg its winged
leeds, difpofed in the regular manner of thofe of an apocy-
mim. The leeds being winged, are difperfed on the furfacc
r ot Jhe ground, where fome faffing into the chinks of the
Pbtlofopltcalrocks, ftnke root ; then creep out on the furface of it, afid
rurjac- feek another chink,, into which they creep and fwell to fuch
a fize and llrength, that at length the rock fplits, and is
forced to admit ol the root’s deeper penetration ; and with
this little nutriment the tree increafes to a ftupendous fize
in a lew years.
The fiilt ule to which mahogany was applied in Eng¬
land, was to make a box for holding candles. Dr Gibbons
an eminent phyfician in the latter end of the lafl and be¬
ginning of the prefent century, had a brother, a Weil Iii-
dia captam, who biought over fome planks of this wood
as ballad. As the Dodor was then building him a houfe
in King-.freet, Covent-Garden, his brother thought they
m.git ie ol fervice to him. But the carpenters, finding
the wood too hard for their tools, they were laid afide for
a time as ufelefs. Soon after, Mrs- Gibbons wanting a
candle-box, the Doaor called on his cabinet-maker (Wol-
a on in ong-Acre) to make him one of tome wood that
lay in h,s garden. Wollafton alio complained that it was
too hard I he Doftor laid he muft get Itronger tools.
!naJe and aPProved 5 info much, that the
dor then infilled on having a bureau made of the fame
w ood, which was accordingly done; and the fine colour, polilh,
and feed ^ ^ invIted a11 hl'3 fiends to come
Hi p Among them was the duchefs of Buckingham.
Der Grace begged fome of the fame wood of Dr Gibbons,
and employed U ollafton to make her a bureau alfo ; on
rai(At1 rhVame 0t aild Mr Wollaitou was much
la.fed, and things of this fort became general. This ac-
hY ^ ^ ^ a *an of un-
JS1; (Dr Jonat,ian)’ fo univei'fally admired as a wit
Dub “t *r,K‘- ^ Eugiin, UguaKe, was born in
on November. 30th .667. His father was an at-
r 239 ] s w 1
and the Baha- whence he was removed in his 15th year to Trinity College,
Dublin. , 6 ,,
In his academical ftudies (fays Dr Johnfon) he was ei¬
ther not diligent or not happy. The truth appears to be,
that he defpifed them as intricate and ufelefs. He told Mr
Sheridan, his laft biographer, that he had made many ef¬
forts, upon his entering the college, to read fome of the old
tiCatlfea on Imnrir* Axn-.'f   -r\
tornev anH j r T lamer was an at-
ofhi/fon’»edujr„°d.™‘iL^hdZm?:P^r’thee!,Pe"“ .   
At the ham, who offered to make him a captain of horfe. " ^hf3
a^e^f fiv’S was defraycd ^7 bis^fViends.*  
6 X y0UnS bwdt was feat to the fchool of Kilkenny,
tieatifes on logic writ by Smegkfius, Keckermannus, Bur-
gerfdicius, &c. and that he never had patience to go thro’
three pages of any of them, he was fo difgufled at the ftupi-
dity ot the work. When he was urged by his tutor to
make himfelf mailer of this branch, then in high eilimation^
and held effentially neceffary to the taking of a degree, Swift
afleed him, What it was he was to learn from thofe books ?
His tutor told him, The art of reafoning. Swift faid, That
he found no want of any fuch art; that he could reafon very
well without if; and that, as far as he could obferve, they
who had made the greateil proficiency in logic had, inftead
of the art of reafonmg, acquired the art of wrangling ; and
inftead of clearing up obicurities, had learned ho w'to per¬
plex matters that were clear enough before. For his own
part, he was contented with that portion of reafon which
God had given him; and he would leave it to time and expe-
rience to ftren^then and direfl it properly ; nor w^ould he run
the riik of having it warped or falfely biaffed by any fyftem.
or rules laid down by fuch ftupid writers, of the bad effefts
of which he had but too many examples before his eyes in
thofe reckoned the moft acute logicians- Accordingly, he
made a firm refolution, that he never w'ould read any of
thofe books ; which he fo pertinacioufly adhered to, that
though his degree was refufed him the firft time of fitting
for it, on account of his not anfwering in that branch
he went into the hall a fecond time as ill prepared as
before ; and would alio have been flopped a fecond time
on the fame account, if the intereft of his friends, who
well knew the inflexibility of his temper, had not Hep¬
ped in, and obtained it for him ; though in a manner little to
his credit, as it was inferted in the College Regiftry, that
he obtained itjpeciali gratia, “ by fpecial favour ;” where it
remains upon record.
He remained in the college near three years after-this
not through choice, but neceffity,. little known or regarded!
By fcholars he was reckoned a blockhead ; and as the low.
neis of his circumftances would not permit him to keep com*
pany with perfons of an equal rank with himfelf, upon an
equal footing, he (corned to take up with thofe of a lowe
ciais, or to be obliged to thofe of a higher. He lived there
lore much alone, and ffis time was employed in purfuinghis
cour e of reading in hiftory and poetry, then very unfaffiion.
able ftud.es for an academic; or in gloomy meditations on
m unhappy circumftances. Yet, under this heavy nreffure,
the force of h.s genius broke out, in the firft rude draught
ot the I ale of a 1 ub, written by him at the age of 10,
though communicated to nobody but his chamber fellow
Mr Waryng ; who, alter the publication of the book, made
no ferupie to declare, that he had read the firfl (ketch of it
in ownt s hand-writing when he was of that age.”
In 1681, Deing, by the death of. Godwin Swift.his uncle,
who had chiefly fupported him, left without fuhfiflence h>
went to confult his mother, who then lived at Leiceiler
fohefted th Ut7- COUrfeofh[s lde i aild> by her diredion,
fohcited the advice and patronage, of Sir William Temple,
whoie father had. lived in great friendfhip with Godwin
Swift, l emple received him with great kindnefs, and was
io much plea fed with his converfation, that ke detained him
two years in his houfe, and recommended him to king Wil-
am. wTho offered tn maL-o     • 1 - ^ 
Sw
—v
a.M. ■
g0t ultinS his diipofition, and Temple mot having it quickly
m
S W I
[ 240 1
S W I
, . r nrovide for him othefwifcj Swift itft his
patron P( 1694) i» difcontent; having previoufly taken h,9
n>aier’s degree at Oxford, by means of a teftimomal from
Dublin, in which the words of ddgrace were onv.tted He
was relolved to enter into the church, where his hrft pre¬
ferment was only L.ioo a-year, being the prebend of A//-
root in Conner; which feme time afterwards, upon Sir Wtl-
Ijam Temple’s earneftly inviting him back to his houte
at Moorpark, he refigntd in favour of a clergyman xar ad¬
vanced in years and burdened with a numerous family, for
this man he fob'eited the prebend, to which he himfeh in¬
ducted him. (r( , 1
In 1600 Swift loft his patron Sir William Temple, who
kft him a legacy in money, with the prooetty of his manu-
fetipts- and; on his death-bed, obtained for him a promife
from the king of the firft prebend that fhould become va¬
cant at Weftminfter or Canterbury, 't hat this promife might
not be forgotten, Swift dedicated to the king the bofthm
mous works with which he was er.trufted, and for a while
attended the court ; but foon found his felicitations hopdeis.
He was then invited by the earl of Berkeley to accompany
him into Ireland, where, after fuffering fome cruel difap-
pointments, he obtained the livings of Laracor and Rath-
fcegain in the diocefeof Meath ; and foon afterwards invited
over the unfortunate Stella, a young woman of the name of
Johnfon, whofc life he contrived to embitter, and vvhofe
days, though he certainly loved her, we may confidently af¬
firm that he fhortened by his caprice.
This lady is generally believed to have been the daughter
of Sir William Temple’s fteward ; but her niece, a Mis
Hearn, affured Mr Berkeley, the editor of a volume of let¬
ters intitled Literary Relics, that her father was a merchant,
and the youngeft brother of a good family in Nottingham-
fhire ; that her mother was the intimate friend of lady Gif¬
ford, Sir William’s lifter; and that fhe herfelf was educated
in the family with his niece, the late Mrs Temple of Moor¬
park by Farnham*. This ftory would be intitled to the
fulleft credit, had not Mrs Hearn affirmed, in the fame letter,
that, before the death of Sir William Temple, Mrs John-
fon’s little fortune had been greatly injured by the South-
Sea babbles, which are known to have injured no perfon
rerary ne- till the year 17 zo : ( See Com pan v, II. 4 •) W hen one part
/««, printed a narrative is fo palpably falfe, the remainder will always
be received with hefitation. But whether Mifs Johnfon was
the daughter of Temple’s fteward or of the friend of lady
Gifford, it is certain that Sir William left her L. 1000 ; and
that, accompanied by Mrs Dingley, whofe whole fortune
amounted to an annuity of L.27 for life, fhe went, in con-
fequence of Swift’s invitation, to Laracor. With thefe
two ladies he paffed his hours of relaxation, and to them he
opened his bofom; but they never refided in the fame houie,
nor did he fee either without a witnefs.
In 1701 Swift publifhed A difeourfe of the contejls and
diffenjions in Athens and Rome. It was his firft work, and
indeed the only which he ever exprefsly acknowledged.
According to his conftant practice he had concealed his
name ; but after its appearance, paying a vifit to fome Iiiih
bifhop, he was afked by him it he had read that pamphlet,
and what its reputation was in London. Upon his reply¬
ing that he believed it was very well liked in London ;
Very well liked i” faid the bifhop with fome emotion.
Yes, Sir, it is one of the fineft traefts that ever was written,
and bifhop Burnet is one of the beft writers in the world.”
Swift, who always hated Burnet with fomething more than
political rancour, immediately queftioned his right to the
work, when he was told by the biffiop that he was “a young
mat#,” and ftill perfilting to doubt ot the jufticeof Burnet's
claim, on account of the diffimilarity of the ftyle of the
namphlet from that of h?s other works, he was told that he
1  •winner man ” as no nerlon m Lngland
Swift,
* See In¬
quiry into
the Life of
lie an
Saoift, pre¬
fixed to Li¬
terary Re-
for Eiliot
and Kay.
was “ a very pofitf ve young man,” as no perlon m England
but bifiiop Burnet was capable of writing it. k pon which
Swift replied, with fome indignation, I am to affure your
lordfhip, however, that bifhop Burnet did not write the
pamphlet, for I wrote it myfelf. And thus, was be forced m
the heat of argument to avow what othervvife he would have
for ever concealed. _ ,• 1 a
Early in the enfuing fpring king William died ; and
Swift on his next vifit to London, found queen Anne upon
the throne. It was generally thought, upon this event, that
the Tory party would have had the aicendant; but, cen¬
tral y to all expectation, the Whigs had managed matters io
well as to get entirely into the queen’s confidence, and to have
the whole adminiftration of affairs in their hands. Swifts
friends were now in power; and the Whigs m general, know-
ing him to be the author of the Difeourfe on the Contefts,
&c. which was written in defence of king William and his
minifters againft the violent proceedings of.the houie of
commons, confidered themfelves as much obliged to him,
and looked upon him as fail to their party. But Sw.it
thought with the Whigs only in the Hate ; for with refpeCt
to the church his principles were always thole of a. 1 ory.
He therefore declined any intimate connection with the
leaders of the party, who at that time profeffed what was
called low church principles. But what above aU fiiocked
him, favs Mr Sheridan, was their inviting Debts, Freethink¬
ers, Atheifts, Jews, and Infidels, to be of them party, under
pretence of moderation, and allowing a general liberty of
confidence. As Swift was in his heart a man of true reh-
eion, he could not have borne, even m his private character,
to have mixed with fuch a motely crew. But when we
confider his principles in his political capacity, hylooke
upon the church of England, as by law eftabliffied, to be
the main pillar of our newly erected conffitution, he could
not, confiftently with the charader of a good citizen join
with thofe who confidered it more as an ornament than a
fnpport to the edifice ; and could therefore look on with
compofure while it was undermining, or could even open the
gate to a blind multitude, to try, like Sampfon, their Itrength
a-roinft it and confider it only as fport. V ith Inch a party,
neither his religious nor political principles would hitter
him to join; and with regard to the I ones, as is ufual m
the violence of fa&ions, they had run into oppofite extremes,
equally dangerous to the Itate. He was therefore during
the earlier part of the queen’s reign.of no party, but em¬
ployed himfelf in difeharging the duties of his funftion, and
in publifhing from time to time fuch trafts as he though
might be ufeful. In the year 1704 he pubhffied the. Tale
of a Tub, which, confidered merely as a work of genius, is
unqueftionably the greateft which he ever produced; but
the levity with which religion was thought to be there
treated, raifed up enemies to him among all parties, and
eventually precluded him from a biffiopric. From that pe¬
riod till the year 1708, he feems to have employed himiett
in folitary ftudy; but he then gave fucceffively to the pub¬
lic The Sentiments of a Church of England man, the ridicule
of aftrology under the name of Bickerjlaff, the Argument
againjl abolijhing Chnjlianity, and the defence ot the Sacra¬
mental Tejl. ^ r c :r,»a
Soon after began the bufy and important par o v. i.
life. He was employed (171 o) by the PriI^aJf Jrelan ,
to folicit the queen for a remiffion of the firft fruits and
twentieth parts to the Iriffi clergy. This introduced him
to Mr Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, who, though a
Whig himfelf, was at the head of the 1 ory mimftry, and m
great need of an auxiliary fo able as Swift, by whofe pen he
and the other minifters might be fuppoited m pamphleM,
S \V I
[ 24' 1
S W I
Swiff, poems, rnd periodical papers. In the year 1710 was eom-
-~v—rnenced the Examiner; of which Swift wrote 3 3 papers, be-
pinning his firft part of it on the 10th of November 1711.
The next year he pnblifhed the Conduct oj the Allies ten days
before the parliament affembled; and foon afterwards, Re-
Jledions on the barrier Treaty. The purpofe of thefe pamph¬
lets was to perfnade the nation to a peace, by ihowing that
“ mines had been exhauiled and millions deltroyed” to fe-
cure the Dutch and aggrandize the emperor, without any
advantage whatever to Great Britain. Though thefe two
publications, together with his Remarks on the Bifhop of Sa¬
turn’s Introduction to the third Volume of his Hjjlory of the Re¬
formation, certainly turned the tide of popular opinion, and
efFeftually promoted the defigns of the miniftry, the befl
preferment which his friends could venture to give him was
the deanery of St Patrick’s, which he accepted in 1713.
In the midft of his power and his politics he kept a journal of
his vifitSj his walks, his interviews with minifters, and quar¬
rels with his fervant, and tranfmitted it to Mrs Johnfon and
Mrs Dingley, to whom he knew that whatever befel him was
interefting; but in 1714 an end was put to his power by the
death of the queen, which broke down at once the whole
fyftem of Tory politics, and nothing remained for him but to
withdraw from perfecution to his deanery.
In the triumph of the Whigs, Swift met with every mor¬
tification that a fpirit like his could poflibly be expoied to.
The people of Ireland were irritated againft him beyond
meafure ; and every indignity was offered him as he walked
the ftreets of Dublin. Nor was he only infulted by the
rabble, but perfons of diftiguiChed rank and cliaradler for¬
got the decorum of common civility to give him a perfonal
proud of his praife,-(he grew fond of his perfon ; and de-
fpiling vulgar reftrainta, file made him fenfible that fhe was ’
ready to receive him as a .huiband. She had wit, youth,
beauty, and a competent fortune to recommend her ; and
for a while Swift feems to have been undetermined whether
or not he fhould comply with her wifh. She had tallowed
him to Ireland, where fire lived in a houfe about twelve
miles diftant from Dublin ; and he continued to vifit her oc-
eaiionally, and to diredt her iludies as he had done in Lon¬
don ; but with thefe attentions fhe was not fatisfied, and at
lafl fent to him a letter written with great ardour and tender-
nefs, infilling that he fhould immediately accept or refufe
her as a wife. His anfwer, which probably contained the
fecret of his marriage, he carried himfelf ; and having in¬
dignantly thrown it on the lady’s table, inftantiy quitted the
houfe, we believe without fpeaking to her, and returned to
Dublin to refledt on the confequences of his own condudL
Thefe were dreadful. Mrs Van Homrigh fnrvived her dif-
appointment but a few weeks ; during which time fire can¬
celled a will that fhe had made in his favour, and ordered
the poem to be publifhed in which Cadenus had proclaimed
her excellence and confeiTed his love.
His patriotifm again burit forth in 1724 to obilrud the
currency of Wood’s halfpence ; and his zeal was crown¬
ed with fuccefs. 'Wood had obtained a patent to coin
180,0001. in halfpence and farthings for the kingdom of
Ireland ; and was about to turn his brafs into gold, when
Swift, finding that the metal was debafe'd to an enormous
degree, wrote letters under the name of M. B. Drapier to
fliow the folly of giving gold and filver for coin not worth
a third pait of its nominal value. A profecution was car-
Swift.
affront. While his pride was hurt by fuch indignities, his tied on againfl the printer; and lord Caiteret, then lord-
" " -- - lieutenant, iffued a proclamation, offering L.300 for difeo-
vering the author of the fourth letter. The day after it
was publifhed there was a full levee at the caflle. The
lord-lieutenant was going round the circle, when Swift ab¬
ruptly entered the chamber, and pufhing his way through
the crowd, never flopped till he got within the circle; where,
with marks of the higheft indignation in his countenance,
he addreffed the lord-lieutenant with the voice of a Stentor,
that re-echoed through the room, “ So, my lord lieutenant,
this is a glorious exploit that you performed yeflerday, in
iffuing a proclamation againfl a poor fhop-keeper, wh@fe
only crime is an honeft endeavour to fave his country from
ruin. You have given a noble fpecimen of what this devo¬
ted nation is to hope for from your government. I fuppofe
you expeft a ftatue of copper will be eredted to you for this
fervice done to Wood.” He then went on for a long time,
inveighing in the bittereft terms againft the patent, and dif-
playing in the ftrongeft colours all the fatal confequences of
introducing that execrable coin. The whole aflembiy were
ftruck mute with wonder at this unprecedented feene. For
fome time a profound filence enfued. When lord Carteret,
who had liftened with great compofure to the whole fpeech,
made this fine reply, in a line of Virgil’s :
Res dura, & regni nouitas me talia cogunt
Molir'u
From this time Swift was known by the name of the Dean,
and was known by the populace as the champion, patron,
and inftrudlor of Ireland.
In 1727 he returned to England; where, in conjunction
with Pope, he colledted three volumes of mifcellanies ; and
the fame year he fent into the world his Gulliver’s Travelst
a production which was read by the high and the low, and
filled every reader with a mingled emotion of merriment and
amazement. Whilft he was enjoying the reputation of this
work, he was fuddenly called to a home of forrow. Poor
Stella was finking into the grave ; and after a languifhing
FI h decay
more tender feelings were alfo often wounded by bafe ingra¬
titude. In fuch a fituation he found it in vain to ftruggle
againft the tide that oppofed him. He filently yielded to it,
and retired from the world to difeharge his duties as a clergy¬
man, and attend to the care of his deanery. That no part of
his time might lie heavy on his hands, he employed his lei*
fare hours on fome hiftorical attempts relating to the change
of the minifters and the conduCt of the miniftry ; and com¬
pleted the hiftory of the four laft years of the queen, which
had been begun in her lifetime, but which he never publifh¬
ed. Of the work wdiich bears that title, and is faid to be
his, Dr Johnfon doubts the genuinenefs; and it certainly is
not fuch as we fhould have expeCled from a man of Swift’s
fagacity and opportunities of information.
In the year 1716 he was privately married to Mrs John¬
fon by Dr Afhe bifhop of Clogher ; but the marriage made
no change in their fituation, and it would be difficult to prove
(fays Lord Orrery) that they were ever afterwards toge¬
ther but in the prtfence of a third perfon. The dean of St
Patrick’s lived in a private manner, known and regarded
only by his friends, till about the year 1720 that he publifh¬
ed his firft political pamphlet relative to Ireland, intitled
A Propofolfor the Univerfal Ufe of Irifls Manufactures; which
fo roufed the indignation of the miniftry that they commenced
a profecution againft the printer, which drew the attention
of the public to the pamphlet, and at once made its author
popular.
Whilft he was enjoying the laurels which this work had
wreathed for him, his felicity, as well as that of his wife, was
interrupted by the death of Mrs Van Homrigh,■ and the
publication of his poem called Cademts and Vanejfa, which
brought upon him much merited obloquy. With Mrs Van
Homrigh he became acquainted in London during his at¬
tendance at court; and finding her pofleffed of genius and
fond of literature, he took delight in direffting her ftudies,
till he got inferrfibly poffeffion of her heart. From being
Vol. XVIII. Part I, ^
S W I [242
decay of about two months, died in her 44th year, on Ja-
' nuarv 28. 1728. How much he wifhed her life is mown
by In's papers ; nor can it be doubted that he dreaded the
d-ath of her whom he loved moft, aggravated by the con-
fcioufnefs that himfelf had haftened it. With her vamfhed
all his domeftic enjoyments, and of courfe he turned his
thoughts more to public affairs; in the contemplation of
which he could fee nothing but what ferved to increafe the
malady. The advances of old age, with all its attendant in-
lirmities ; the death of almofl all his old friends ; the fre¬
quent returns of his mod difpiriting maladies, deafnefs and
giddinefs ; and, above ail, the dreadful apprehenhons that he
ihould outlive his underdanding, made life fuch a burden to
him, that he had no hope left but a fpeedy diffolution, which
was the objeft of his daily prayer to the Almighty.
The feverity of his temper increafmg, he drove his ac¬
quaintance from his table, and wondered why he was de-
ferted. In 1732, he complains, in a letter to Mr Gay, that
“ he had a large houfe, and fhould hardly Hnd one vifitor
if he was not able to hire him with a bottle of wine and,
in another to Mr Pope, “ that he was in danger of dying
poor and friendlefs, even his female friends having forfaken
him ; which,” as he fays, “ vexed him mod.” Thefe com¬
plaints were afterwards repeated in a drain of yet greater
fenfibility : “ All my friends have forfaken me.
“ Vertiginofus, inops, furdus, male grains amicis,
“ Deaf, giddy, helplefs, left alone,
“ To all my friends a burden grown.”
The fits of giddinefs and deafnefs to which he had been
fubjefted from his boyifn years, and for which he thought
walking or riding the bed remedy, became more frequent
and violent as he grew old ; and the prefentiment which he
had long entertained of that wretchednefs which would in¬
evitably overtake him towards the clofe of life, clouded his
mind with melancholy and tinged every objedl around him.
How miferable -he was rendered by that gloomy profpeft,
we may learn from the following remarkable anecdote men¬
tioned by Mr Faulkner in his letter to lord Chefterfield.
“ One time, in a journey from Drogheda to Navan, the
dean rode before the company, made a fudden flop, dilmount-
ed his horfe, fell on his knees, lifted up his hands, and pray¬
ed in the moft devout manner. When his friends came up,
he defired and infilled on their alighting; which they did,
and aficed him the meaning. “ Gentlemen,” faid he, “ pray
join your hearts in fervent prayers with mine, that I may
never be like this oak-tree, which is decayed and withered
at top, while the other parts are found.” In 1736, while
he was writing a fatire called the Legion Club againft the Irifh
parliament, he was feized with fo dreadful a lit of his ma¬
lady, that he left the poem untiniihed ; and never after at¬
tempted a compofition that required a courfe of thinking.
From this time his memory gradually declined, his paftioifS
perverted his under Handing, and, in 1741, he became ut¬
terly incapable of converfation ; and it was found necelfary
to appoint legal guardians to his perfon and his fortune- He
now loft all lenfe of diftindtion. His meat was brought to him
cut into mouthfuls; but he would never touch it while the
fervant ftaid ; and at laft, after it Hood perhaps an hour,
would eat it walking ; for he continued his old habit, and
wras on his feet ten hours a-day. During next year a Ihort
interval of reafon enfuing, gave hopes of his recovery ; but
20 a few days he funk into lethargic llupidity, motionlefs,
heedlefs, and fpeechlels. After a year of total iilence, how>-
ever, when his houfe-keeper told him that the ulual illumi¬
nations were preparing to celebrate his birth, he anfwered,
“ It is all folly ; they had better let it alone,” He at laft
funk into a perfeift filence* which continued till the zyth
of October 1745, he expired without a ftruggle., iu
] S W I
his 78th year, The behaviour of the citizens on this occa-
fron gave the firongeft proof of the deep imprtffion he had
on their minds. Though he had been fo many years
made „
to all intents and purpofes dead to the world, and his depar¬
ture from that ftate feemed a thing rather to be wifhed than
deplored, yet no fooner was his death announced, than they
gathered from all quarters, and forced their wray in crowds
into the houfe, to pay the laft tribute of grief to their de¬
parted benefattor. Nothing but lamentations were heard
all around the quarter where he lived, as if he had been cut
off in the vigour of his years. Happy were they who firft
got into the chamber where he lay, to procure, by bribes to
the fervants, locks of his hair, to be handed down as facred
relics to their pofterity ; and fo eager were numbers to ob¬
tain at any price this precious memorial, that in lefs than an
hour, his venerable head was entirely ilripped of all its lilver
ornaments, fo that not a hair remained. By his will, which
was dated in May 1740, juft before he ceafed to be a reafon-
able being, he left about L. 1200 in ipecific legacies ; and
the reft of his fortune, which amounted to about L. 1 i,coo,
to erecl and. endow an hofpital for lunatics and idiots. He
was buried in the moft private manner, according to direc¬
tions in his will, in the great aide of St Patrick’s cathe¬
dral, and, by way of monument, a flab of bl?.ck marble was
placed againft the wall, on which was engraved the following
Latin epitaph, written by himfclf:
Hie depofitum eft corpus
Jonathan Sw'ift, S. T. P.
Hujus Ecclefiae Cathedralis
Decani:
Ubi fseva indignatio
Ulterius cor lacerare nequit.
Abi, viator,
Et imitare, fi poteris,
Strenuum pro virili libertatis vindicem.
Obiit anno (1745)
Mentis (Odlobris) die (29.)
iEtatis anno 78.
Swift undoubtedly was a man of native genius. His fan¬
cy was inexhauftible; his conceptions u'ere lively and
comprehenfive ; and he had the peculiar felicity of convey¬
ing them in language equally corred, free, and perfpicuous.
His penetration was as quick as intuition ; he was indeed
the critic of nature} and no man ever wrote fo much, and
borrowed fo little.
As his genius was of the firft clafs, fo were feme of his
virtues. The following anecdote will illuftrate his filial piety.
His mother died in 1710, as appears by a memorandum in
one of the account-books which Dr Swift always made up
yearly, and on each page entered minutely all his receipts
and expences in every month, beginning his year from No¬
vember 1. He obferved the fame method all his lifetime
till his laft illnefs. At the foot of that page which includes
his expences of the month of May 1710, at the glebe houfe
of Laracor in the county of Meath, where he was then re¬
sident, are thefe remarkable words, which fhow at the lame
time his filial piety, and the religious ufe which he thought
it his duty to make of that melancholy event. “ Mem. On
Wednefday, between feven and eight in the evening, May 10.
1710, I received a letter in my chamber at Larr.cor (Mr
Percival and Jo. Beaumont being by) from Mrs F—, dated
May 9. with one inclofed, fent by Mrs Worral at Leiceiter
to Mrs F—, giring an account that my dear mother, Mrs
Abigail Swift, died that morning, Monday April 24. 1710,
about ten o’clock, after a long ficknefs : being ill ail win¬
ter, and lame ; and extremely ill about a month or fix weeks
before her death. 1 have now loft my barrier between me
and death, God grant,! may live, to be. as well prepared
for
S W I
;ft. for it as I conMextly believt her to have'been i the way
  to heaven be through piety, truth, juftice, and charity, (he
is there. J. S.” He always treated his mother, during her
life, with the utmoll duty and affe&ion ; and (he lometimes
came to Ireland to vifit him after his fettlement at Lara-
cor.
The liberality of the dean hath been a topic of juft en¬
comium with all his admirers ; nor could his enemies deny
him this praife. In his domeftic affairs, he always afted
with drift economy. He kept the moft regular accounts ;
and he feems to have done this chiefly with a view to in-
creafe his power of being ufeful. “ His income, which
was little more than L. yco per avnum, he endeavoured to
divide into three parts, for the following purpofes. -Firft,
to live upon one-third of it. Secondly, to give another
third in peiftions and charities, according to the manner in
which perfons who received them had lived : and the other
third he laid by, to build an hofpital for the reception of
idiots and lunatics.7’ “ What is remarkable in this gene¬
rous man, is this (fays Mr F.), that when he lent money
upon bond or mortgage, he would not take the legal inte-
relt, but one per cent, below it.”
His charity appears to have been a fettled principle of
duty more than an inftimftive effort of good nature : but as
it was thus founded and fupported, it had extraordinary' me¬
rit, and feldom failed to exert itfelf in a manner that contri¬
buted moft to render it beneficial. He did not lavifh his
money on the idle and the worthlefs. He nicely diferimi-
nated charadfers, and was feldom the dupe of impofition.
Hence his generofity' always turned to an ufeful account :
while it relieved diftrefs, it encouraged induftry, and re¬
warded virtue. We dwell with great pleafure on this truly
excellent and diftinguiftiing part of the dean’s charafter :
and for the fake of his charity we can overlook his oddities,
and almoll forgive his faults. He was a very peculiar man
in every refpt'ft. Some have far’d, “ What a man he would
have been, had he been without thofe whims and infirmi¬
ties which (haded both his genius and his charafterl’7 But
perhaps the peculiarities complained of were infeparable from
his genius. The vigour and fertility of the root could not
fail now and then ox throwing out fuperfluous fuckers.
What produced thefe, produced alfo the more beautiful
branches, and gave the fruit all its richnefs.
It mult be acknowledged, that the dean’s fancy hurried
him into great abfurdities and inconfiftencies, for which no¬
thing but his extraordinary talents and noble virtues, dif-
rovered in other inftances, could have atoned. The rancour
he difeovered on all occafions towards the diffenters is to¬
tally unjuftifiable. No feft could have merited it in the de¬
gree in which he always (bowed it to them ; for, in fume
inftances it bordered on downright perfecution. He doubt-
leis had his reafons for expofing their principles to ridicule,
and might perhaps have fufficient grounds for fome of his
accusations againft their principal leaders in Ireland ; but
nothing could juftify his virulence againft the whole body.
In a ihort poem on one clafs of diffenters he bellowed a
ftrifture upon Bettefworth, a lawyer eminent for his inlo-
Tence to the clergy, which, from a very confiderable reputa¬
tion, brought him into immediate and univerfal contempt.
Bettefworth, enraged at his difgrace and lofs, went to the
dean, and demanded whether he was the author of that
poem? “ Mr Bettefworth (anfwered he), I was in my
youth acquainted with great lawyers, who, knowing my
difpofition to fatire, advifed me, ii any fcoundrd or blockhead
whom I had lampooned (liould aide, ‘ Are you the author
of this paper ?’ to tell him that I was not the author ; and
therefore, i tdly0y, Mr Bettefworth, that I am not the au¬
thor of thefe lints,”
S W l
Swift has been accufed of irrdbiem and fmfanthrcpy, on Swift,
account of his Tale of a Tub, and his Yahoos in Gulliver’s
Travels; but both charges feem to be ill-founded, or at
lead not fupported by that evidence. The Tale of a Tub
holds up to ridicule fuperflitious and fanatical abfurdities';
but it never attacks the effentials of religion : and in the
(lory of the Taboos, dhgufting we confefs, there appears to
us as little evidence that the author hated his own fpecies,
as in the poems of Strephcn and Chloe, and the Ladies Ore/'
Jwg Room, that he approved of groffnefs and filth in the fe¬
male fex. We do not indeed, with his fondeft admirers, per¬
ceive the moral tendency of the Voyage to the Houyhnhnms,
or confider it as a fatire admirably calculated to reform man¬
kind ; but neither do we think that it can poftibly corrupt
them, or lead them to think meanly of their rational nature.
According to Sheridan, <f the defign of this apologue is to
place before the eyes of man a pifture of the two different
parts of his frame, detached from each other, in erder that
he may the better eftimate the true value of each, and fee
the neceffity there is that the one fhould have an abfolute
command over the other. In your merely animal capacity,
lays he to man, without reafon to guide you, and aftuated
only by a blind inftinft, I will (how you that you would be
degraded below the beads of the field. That very form,
that very body, you are now fo proud of, as giving you
fuch a luperiority over all other animals, I will (howr you,
owe all their beauty, and all their greateft powers, to their
being aftuated by a rational foul. Let that be withdrawn,
let the body be inhabited by the mind of a brute, let it be
prone as theirs are, and fuffered like theirs to take its na¬
tural courfe, without any affiftance from art, you would in.
that cafe be the mod deformed, as to your external aopear-
ance, the moft deteftable of all creatures. And v ith re¬
gard to your internal frame, filled with all the evil d fpofi-
tions and malignant paffions of mankind, you would be the
moft milcrable of beings, living in a continued (late of in¬
ternal vexation, and oi hatred and warfare with each other.
“ On the other hand, I will (how another pifture of an
animal endowed with a rational foul, and afting uniformly
up to the diftates of right reafon. Here you may fee col-
lefted all the virtues, all the great qualities, which dignify
man’s nature, and conftitute the happinefs of his life. What
is the natural inference to be drawn from thefe tw'o different
reprefentations ? Is it not evidently a leffon to mankind,
warning them not to fuffer the animal part to be predomi¬
nant in them, left they refemble ihe vile Yahoo, and tall into
vice and mifery ; but to emulate the noble and generous
Houyhnhnm, by cultivating the rational faculty to the ut-
moft ; which wall lead them to a lire of virtue and happi¬
nefs.”
Such may have been the author’s intention; but it is not
fufficiently obvious to produce the proper effeft, and is in¬
deed hardly confident with that incapability under which
he reprefents the Yahoos of ever acquiring, by any culture,
the virtues of the noble Houyhnbnms.
With refpeft to his religion, it is a faft unqueftionable,
that while the power of Ipeech remained, he continued con-
ftant in the performance of his private devotions ; and in
proportion as his memory failed, they were gradually fhort-
ened, till at lafl he could only repeat the Lord’s prayer,
which he continued to do till the power of utterance for
ever ceafed. Such a habit as this could not have been form¬
ed but by a man deeply impreffed with a conviftion of the
truth and importance of revelation.
The moft rnexcufable part of Swift’s cor.duft is his treat¬
ment of Stella and Vaneffa, for which no proper apology
can be made, and which the vain attempts of his friends
have only tended to aggravate. One attributes his fin-
FI h 2 gular
[ 14^ 1
S W I
[ 244 ]
S W I
Swift, pulai* conduct to a peculiarity in his conftitution ; but if
Swimming', knew that he was incapable of fulfilling the duties of the
—v—" manied date, how came he to tie one of the ladies to himfclf
bv the marriage-ceremony, and in the moil explicit terms
to declare his paffion to, the other ? And what are we to
think of the fenfibility of a man who, ftrongly attached as he
feems to have been to both, could, without fpeaking, fling
a paper on the table of the, one, which “ proved (as our au-
thor exprefles it) her death-warrant,” and could throw the
other, his beloved Stella, in her lail illnefs, into unfpeakable
agonies, and “ never fee her more, for only adjuring him,
by their friendfhip, to let her have the fatisfa£lion of dying
at kail, though flie had not lived, his acknowledged wifei1”
Another apologifl infinuates, upon feme thing like evidence,
that Stella bore a fon to Swift, and yet labours to excufe
him for not declaring her his wife, becaufe flie had agreed
at the marriage that it fhould remain a fecret from all the
world unlefs the difeovery fhould be called for by urgent ne-
cejjity ; but what could be meant by the term urgent necejfity,
unlefs it alluded to the birth of children, he confcfles that
it would be hard to fay. The truth we believe to be wdrat
has been faid by Johnfon, that the man whom Stella had
the misfortune to love was fond of Angularity, and defirous
to make a mode of happinefs for himfelf, different from the
general courfe of things and the order of Providence ; he
wifhed for ail the pleafures of perfedl friendfhip, without the
uneafinefs of conjugal reflraint. But with this flate poor
Stella was not fatisfied ; fhe never was treated as a wife,
and to the world fhe had the appearance of a miflrefs. She
lived fullenly on, hoping that in time he would own and re¬
ceive her. This, we believe, he offered at lafl to do, but
not till the change of his manners and the depravation of
his mind made her tell him, that <£ it was too late.”
The natural acrimony of Swift’s temper had been increa-
fed by repeated difappointments. This gave a fplenetic
tin&uie to his writings, and amidfl the duties of private
and domeflic life it too frequently appeared to fhade the
luftre of his more eminent virtues. — The dean hath been ac*
cufed of avarice, but with the fame truth as he hath been
accufed of infidelity. In detached views, no^ man was more
liable to be miftaken. Even his genius and good fenfe
might be queftioned, if we were only to read fome paffages
of his writings. To judge fairly and pronounce juflly of
him as a man and as an author, we fhould examine the uni¬
form tenor of his difpofition and eonduft, and the general
, nature and delign of his productions. In the latter he will
appear great, and in the former good ; notwithflanding the
puns and puerilities of the one, and the abfurdities and in-
confiftencies of the other.
Swift, in ornithology. See Hirundo.
SWIMMING, the art of fufpending one’s felf on water,
! and at the fame time making a progreffive motion thro’ it.
Swimming As fwimming is not natural to man, it is evident that at
not natural fome per{0,J ^ mull have been unknown among- the human
race. JNeverthelels there are no accounts of- its origin to
be found in the hiilory of any nation ; nor are there any
nations fo barbarous but that the art of fwimming is known
among them, and that in greater pevfeftion than among ci¬
vilized people. It is probable, therefore, that the art,
though not abfolutely natural, will always be acquired by
people^in a favage ftate from imitating the brute animals,
moll of whom fwim naturally. Indeed fo much does this
appear to be the caie, that very expert fwimmers have re¬
commended it to thofe who wiflred to learn the art, to keep
fome frogs in a tub of water conlantly befide them, and to
a imitate the motions by which they move thro’ that element.
Depends on lire theory of fvvimming depends upon one very fim-
pmiciple. ple principle j namely, that if a force is applied to any
body, it will always mpve towards that fide where there Is dwimm'ry,
the leal refiftance. Thus, if a perfon landing in a boat"
pufhes with a pole againl the fide or any other part of the
veffel in which he lands, no motion will enfue; for as much
as he preffes in one diredtion with the pole, juft fo much
does the adtion of his feet, on which the preffure of the
pole mull ultimately reft, pufh the veffel the other way :
but if, inftead of the fide of the veffel, he pufhes the pole
againft the fhore, then only one force adls upon it, namely,
that of the feet; which being refilled only by the fluid
water, the boat begins to move from the Ihore. Now the
very fame thing takes place in fwimming, whether the ani¬
mal be man, quadruped, bird, or filh. If we confider the
matter Amply, we may fuppofe an animal in fuch a fituation
that it could not poffibly fwim : thus, if we cut off the fins
and tail of a filh, it will indeed float in confequence of be- ~
ing fpecifically lighter than the water, but cannot make any
progreffive motion, or at leafl but very little, in confequence
of wriggling its body; but 1 we allow it to keep any of its
fins, by ftriking them againft the water in any diredlion, the
body moves the contrary way, juft as a boat moves the com
trary wray to that in which the oars ftrike the water. It is
true, that as the boat is but partly immerged in the water,
the refiftance is comparatively lefs than when a frog or even
any other quadruped fwims ; but a boat could certainly be
rowed with oars tho’ it was totally immerged in water, only
with lefs velocity than when it is not. When a man fwims,
he in like manner ftrikes the water with his hands, arms,
and feet ; in confequence of which the body moves in a dir
redtion contrary to the llroke. Upon this principle, and
op this only, a man may either afeend, defeend, or move ob¬
liquely, in any poffible diredlion in the water. One would
think, indeed, that as the ftrength of a man’s arms and legs
is but fmall, he could make but very little way by any
flroke he could give the water, confidering the fluidity of
that element. Neverthelefs it is incredible what expert
fwimmers will perform in this way ; of which Mr Eorlter
gives a moll remarkable inftance in the inhabitants of Ota-
heite; whofe agility, he tells us, was fuch, that when a
nail was thrown overboard, they would jump after it into
the fea, and never fail to catch it before it came to the
bottom.
As to the practice of fwimming, there are but few direc¬
tions which can be given. The great obftacle is the natu¬
ral dread which people have of being drowned ; and this is
is impoffible to overcome by any thing but accuiloming
ourfelves to go into the water. With regard to the real
danger of being drowned, it is but little ; and on innumer¬
able occafions arifes entirely from the terror above mention¬
ed, as will appear from the following obfervations by Dodtor
Franklin. 3
“ ill, That though the legs, arms, and head, of a human
body, being folid parts, are fpecifically fomewhat heavier ^ pra.lk.
than frefh water, yet the trunk, particularly the upper part,^.
from its hollownefs, is fo much lighter than water, as that
the whole of the body, taken together, is too light to fink
wholly under water, but fome part wall remain above until
the lungs become filled with water ; which happens from
drawing water into them inftead of air, when a perfon in the
fright attempts breathing while the mouth and noftrils are
under water.
“ zdly, That the legs and arms are fpecifically lighter
than fait water, and will be fupported by it ; fo that a hu¬
man body would not fink in fait water though the lungs
were filled as above, but from the greater fpecific gravity
of the head.
“ 3dly, That therefore a perfon throwing himfelf on his
back in fait water, and extending his arms, may eafily Ik
r ■ ■ fo
245
; and and
if he
S v/ i [
Swimming, fb as to keep his mouth and noftrils fi cc f©r breathing
'  by a finall motion of his hands may prevent turning,
fhould perceive any tendency to it.
“ 4thly, ’1 hat in freih water, if a man throws himielf on
his back near the furface, he cannot long continue in that
fituation, but by a proper adtion of his hands on the water.
If he ufes no fuch aftion, the legs and lower part of the
body will gradually link till he comes into an upright pofi-
tion ; in which he will continue fufpended, the hollow of
the breaft keeping the head uppermoft.
“ Jthly, But if in this eredt pofition the head is kept up¬
right above the fhoulders, as when we Hand on the ground,
the immerfion will, by the weight of that part of the head
that is out of the water, reach above the mouth and noftrils,
perhaps a little above the eyes ; fo that a man cannot long
remain fufpended in water with his head in that polition.
“ 6thly, The body continued fufpended as before, and
upright, if the head be leaned quite back, fo that the face
• looks upwards, all the back part of the head being then
under water, and its weight confequently in a great meafure
fupported by it, the face will remain above water quite free
for breathing, will rife an inch higher every infpiration, and
fink as much every expiration, but never fo low as that the
wrater may come over the mouth.
“ 7thly, If therefore a p>erfon unacquainted with fwim-
ming, and falling accidentally into the water, could have
prefence of mind fufficient to avoid ftruggling and plunging,
and to let the body take this natural pofrtion, he might con¬
tinue long fafe from drowning, till perhaps help would
come ; for as to the clothes, their addrtional weight while
immerfed is very rnconfrderable, the water fupporting it;
though when he comes out of the water, he would find
4 them very heavy indeed.”
Hb method Tire method of learning to fwim is as follows : The per-
to fvvinr^ ^on mu^ wa^ waler f° deep that it will reach to the
’ breaft. He is then to lie down gently on the belly, keep¬
ing the head and neck perfe&ly upright, the breaft advan¬
cing forward, the thorax inflated, and the back bent; then
withdrawing the legs from the bottom, and ftretching them
out, ftrike the arms forwards in unrfon with the legs.
Swimming on the back is fomewhat frmilar to that on the
belly ; but with this difference, that although the legs are
employed to move the body forwards, the arms are gene¬
rally unemployed, and the progreffive motion is derived from
the movement of the legs. In diving, a perfon muft clofe
his hands together, and, preffing his chin upon his breaft,
make an exertion to bend with force forwards. While in
that pohtion, he muft continue to move with rapidity under
the furface ; and whenever he choofes to return to his for¬
mer fituation, he has nothing to do but bend back his head,
and he will immediately return to the furface.
It is very common for novices in the art of fwimming to
make uie of corks or bladders to affift in keeping the body
above water. Some have utterly condemned the ufe of
thefe ; however, Dr Franklin allows that they may be of
fervice for fupporting the body while one is learning what
is called the jtroke^ or that manner of drawing in and ftri-
king out the hands, and feet that is neceftary to produce
progreffive motion. “ But (fays he) you will be no fwim-
mer till you can place confidence in the power of the water
to fupport you : I would therefore advife the acquiring that
confidence in the firft place, efpecially as I have known fe-
veral who, by a little of the pratlice neceffiary for that pur-
poie, have infenfibly acquired the ftroke, taught as it were
^ by nature.
And of ac- ‘ The praftice T mean is this : Choofing a place where
fidu t -COn’t !e Water deepens gradually, walk coolly into it till it is
up to your breaft; then turn round your face to the fliore,
] S W !
throw an egg into the water, between you and the Swrmmingv
fhore ; it will fink to the bottom, and be eaftly feen there,■—v'—
if the water is clear. It muft lie in the water fo deep as
that you cannot reach it to take it up but by diving for it.
To encourage yourfelf in order to do this, refleft that your
progrefs will be from deeper to fhallower water ; and that
at any time you may, by bringing your legs under you, and
ftanding on the bottom, raife your head far above the wa¬
ter : then plunge under it with your eyes open, throwing
yourfelf towards the egg, and endeavouring, by the a&ion
of your hands and feet againft the water, to get forward till
within reach of it. In this attempt you will find that the
water buoys you up againft your inclination ; that it is not
fo eafy a thing to fink as you imagined ; that you cannot
but by active force get down to the egg. Thus you feel
the power of the water to fupport you, and learn to con¬
fide in that power ; while your endeavours to overcome it,
and to reach the egg, teach you the manner of adting on
the water wnth your feet and hands ; which aftion is after¬
wards ufed in fwinnming to fupport your head higher above
w'ater, or to go forward through it.” * ^
As fwimming is a healthy exercife and a pleafant amufe-Swimming'
ment, and as a dexterity in it may frequently put it in a a pleafant
man’s power to fave his owm life and the lives of his fellow-ancl
x ... exerciie
creatures, perhaps of his deareft: friends, it can neither be
ufelefs nor uninterefting to confider a few of the evolutions
which a fwimmer muft: be mafter of, that he move in any
diredlion without difficulty, without danger, and without
being unneceffarily fatigued. ^
There are feveral different wrays of turning one’s felf in How to
fwimming. You may do it in this-way: Turn the palm of turn to ths
the right hand outwards, extend the arm in the fame man- or
ner, and make a contrary movement with the left hand and'tlL*
left arm ; then, by a gradual motion, incline your head and
whole body to the leit fide, and the evolution will be finiffi-
ed. There is another way which is eafier ttill: Bend your
head and body toward that fide to which you are going to
turn. If you wfifti to turn to the left, incline the thumb
and the right hand toward the bottom, bend the fingers of
the right hand, ftretch it out, and ufe it for driving away
the water fidewife, or, which is the fame thing, for puftiing
yourfelf the contrary wray. At the fame time, with your
left hand, the fingers being clofe, pufh the water behind
you, and all at once turn your body and your face to the
left, and the manoeuvre will be accompliftied. If you wifh
to turn to the right, you muft do with your right hand
what you did with your left, and with your left what you
did with your right. You mull be careful when turning
yourfelf never to ftretch out your legs, and be fure that the
water be lo deep that you be in no danger of hurting your-
When you are fwimming on your belly, ,and. wifh to turn How o
on your back, draw your feet in quickly, and throw them turn from
before you ; ftretch out your hands behind you, and keep '■ to
your body firm and fteady. When you wifh to tumftiomthebackl
fwimming on your back, '■old your feet at once under your
body as if you were throwing them to the bottom, and at
the lame mftjmt dart your body forwards, that you may fall
upon your belly.
In Iwjmmiirg, the eyes ou«*ht to be turned tov/ards hea- 9. „
yen. This is a molt important.rule, and to the uegiefl ofoUeht niT
it many of the accidents which befal Iwimmers are owingj.be "urned
For when they bend their eyes downwards, they tnfenlibfytowards
bend their head too, and thus the mouth being too deep inheav6B*
the water, may admit a quantity of it in breaking ; befides,
the more the body is ftretched, it covers a greater part of
the lurface of the water, and confequently its Ipecific gravity
is lels. Any perfon who will make the experiment will find
S W I
C 246 ]
S W I
gw;jrWi|a|,
to
How to
Iwim oa
She backj
11
And ad¬
vance for¬
wards.
14
How to
fwim on
tone fide.
13
How to
fwim on
the bdly
without
the alii fi¬
ance of the
hands.
>4
How to
fwim vtith
the hands
joined.
15
With the
’hands ele¬
vated.
it impefiible to dive while he keeps h‘s head erc£b and his
eves fixed on the heavens (a).
The eafleft poiture in fwimming is lying on the hack.
When you wifh to fwim in this pofture, lay yonrlelf loftly
on your back, and taife your breaft to the furface of the
water, keeping your body extended in the fame line. Put
your hands eafily over the upper part of your thighs, and
throw out your legs and draw them in alternately, keeping
them within two feet of the furface. In this way you may
advance in any direction you plcafe. You may perhaps not
like having io much of your head under water; there is,
however, no way of fwimming fo eafy, fe fafe, and fo little
fatiguing. If you wifh to fwim with great rapidity, you
may ufe your arms as well as your feet; and you will find
this the eafiefl way of breaking the force of the waves.
In fwimming on the back, one may advance forward as
well as backward. For this purpofe the body rr.uft be kept
flraight and extended ; the breaft inflated, fo that the hol¬
low of vhe back may affume a femicircular form. The
hands muff recline over the upper parts of the thighs. It
is alfo neceffary to raife the legs one after another, and draw
them in ftrongly towards the hams, and then leave them
fufpended in the water. This way of fwimming is not only
pleafant, but may ferve to reft you when fatigued.
When you are tired with fwimming on your back and
belly, you may fwim on one fide. When you v/ifti to do
this, fmk a little your left fide and raife your right ; you
will immediately find yourfelf on your left fide. Move
then your left hand without either railing or finking it;
you have only to flretch it and draw it back, as in a ftraight
line, on the furface of the water. Independent of the plea-
fure which this kind of motion will give you, you will have
the fatisfa&ion of feeing both fides of the river.
It is pofilble to fwim on the belly without the afiiffance
of the hands. F©r this purpofe you muff keep your breaft
eredf, your neck flraight, and fix your hands behind-your
head, or upon your back, while you move forward by em¬
ploying your feet, This way is not without its advan¬
tages. It is an excellent refource when the arms are feized
with a cramp, or with any indifpofition which makes it
painful to e5tert them This in fome cafes may be prefer¬
able to fwimming on the back ; for while in that attitude,
one cannot fee before them without turning every inflant.
If one of your legs be feized with a cramp, take hold of it
with the hand eppofite to it, and ufe the other hand and
leg to advance or fupport yourfelf,
A very ancient and graceful mode of fwimming, is that
of Iwimming with the hands joined. When you vvifh to
put this in practice, join your hands, keeping the thumbs
and fingers towards heaven, fo that they may appear above
the water; then draw them back and pufh them forwards
alternately from your breaft. This method of fwimming
may be ufeful in feveral circumftances, but above all it you
are entangled with grafs or weeds. Your hands will then
open a paffage for you.
Asa perfon may lometimes have occafion to cany fome-
thing in his hand in fwimming, which he is anxious to pre-
ftrve from the water, lie may fwim eafily with we handSwimmln*
and hold a parcel in the other, as Cfefar fwam with his ,i!
Commentaries at Alexandria ; or one may fwim with both
hands elevated. To perform this well, the fwimmer muft
raife his breaft, and keep it as much inflated as he can, at
the fame time that he fupports the arms above the water.
It muft not be concealed, that this method of fwimming is
attended with fome danger to one who is not dexterous at
the art ; for if one (hould imprudently draw in his breaft,
when his arms are raifed, he would immediately fink to the
bottom. l6
Every one knows that when a man plunges into the How to rift
water, and when he has reached the bottom, he has nothing to (l* k-
to do but to give a fmall ftroke with his foot againft the^ ^tcr
ground, in order to rile ; but an experienced fwimmer, it
he mifles the ground, has recourfe to another expedient,
which is very pretty, and which has not been confidered
with fufficient attention. We iuppofe him at a confiderablt
depth, when he perceives that he cannot reach the bottom.
In fuch a cafe, he firfts puts his hands before his face, at
the height of- his forehead, with the palms turned outwardly;
then holding the fore part of his arm vertically, he makes
them move backwards and forwards from right to left;
that is to lay, thefe two parts of his arms, having the el¬
bow as a kind of pivot, deferibe very quickly, both the
hands being open, and the fingers joined, two fmall por-
tions of a circle before the forehead, as if he would make
the water retire, which he in faft does; and from thefe
ftrokts given to the water, there refults an oblique force,
one part of which carries the fwirr.mer upwards.
There are many artificial methods of fupporting rkieh;
felf in water, but we have not room to deferibe them.—•
Thofe who wifh to fee a full account of them may confult
the Encyclopedic Methodique.
Swimming of Fjjh. A great proportion of the inhabi¬
tants of the waters have an air-bladder, by which they poife
themfelves. Their movements chiefly depend upon their
tail See Comparative Anatomy, nv 147, 155 ; and
Ichthyology, n'-1 3.
SWINDLER, a word which has been lately adopted
into the Englifh language, derived from the German word
fchivindei, “ to cheat.” Swindling has now become fo com¬
mon in feveral of the great towns of this country, that it is
unfortunately too well known to require any defeription.
SWINE, in zoology. See Sxrs.
Swink-Stone. See Sivine-STONE.
SWINGING, a kind of excrcife ftrongly recommended
to perfons in confumption by fome phyficians, and ditap-
proved of by others. See Medicine, p. 224.
SWING-tree of a waggon, is the bar faftened acrofs
the fore-guide, to which the traces of the horfes are faft¬
ened.
SwiNG-Wheel) in a royal pendulum, that wheel which
drives the pendulum. In a watch or balance clock it is
called the crown-wheel.
SWINGLE, in the fire-works in England, the wooden
fpoke which is fixed to the barrel that draws the wire, and
which,
(a) An intereffing queftion occurs here, which deferves to be confidered. Since the body, when fpread upon the fur¬
face, can be fupported with fo little exertion, and frequently wi hout any at all, as in iwimming on the back, how comes
it to pafs that a perfon when drowned finks and frequently rifes again fome time afterwards ? 1 he reafon is this : In the
aft of drowning, the lungs are filled with water, and confequently the body, being fpecifically heavier, finks. It is well
known that the human body contains a great quantity of air ; this air is at firft compreffed by the water; and while this
is the cafe the body remains at the bottom : but as foon as the air by its elallicity endeavours to difengage itfelf from the
compteffion, the body is fwelled and expanded, becomes fpecifically lighter than the water, and confeouently rifes to
tht top.
2
s w r
Swit?,
Switzer¬
land-
which, by its beinif forced back by the cogs of the wheel, is
the occafion of the force with which the barrel is pulled.
, SWITZ, or Sen we its, the capital of one of the can¬
tons of Switzerland, to which it ^ives name, feated on the ea3:
fide of the lake Lucem, in N. Lat. 46. 55. E. Long. 8- 30.
SWITZERLAND, ©rSwissKRLAND, is bounded on the
north by Swabia; on the eafl; by Tirol; on the fouth by
Savoy and the Milanefe; and on the weft by France, being
about 260 miles long and 100 broad. It is divided into 13
cantons, viz. Berne, Zurich, Stbaffhavfen, Bnfily Lucerne, Un-
dcr<walden, Uri, S<witz, Friburg, Zug, Solcure, Claris, and
Appenzel. See thefe articles.
The Swifs were anciently called Helvetii; and being fub-
dued by the Romans, they continued in fubjedlion to that
power till the empire declined, when they became a part of
the kingdom of Burgundy. After that they fell under the
dominion of the Franks, then of the Germans ; but being
opprefled by the latter, they threw off the yoke, and eredf-
ed feveral ftates and republics, which, at the treaty of Weft-
phalia in 1648, were recognized as free and independent,
f he cantons of Switz, Uri, and Underwalden, having, as ear¬
ly as the year 1308, entered into a confederacy in the can¬
ton of Switz, and having alfo obtained their firft victory, in
1315, over Leopold archduke of Auftria in the fame can¬
ton, its name was given to the whole confederacy, which it
ftill retains. T he other cantons fucceffively acceded to this
aflbeiation, but fome of them not until upwards of 100
years after. With refpedt to the government and conftitu-
tion of thefe cantons, fome of them are ariftocracies and
fome democracies. In the former, both the legiflative and
executive power is lodged in the burghers or citizens of
the capital of each canton ; and of thefe there are feven,
viz. Zurich, Berne, Bafil, Friburg, Sokure, and Schaff-
haufen ; an account of the moft important of which may be
. feen under thejr refpe&fve names. In the others, the legif¬
lative power is lodged in the whole body of the people;
and every male above 16, whether mafter or fervant, has a
vote in making laws and in the choice of magiftrates. For
what concerns the whole Tielvetic body, there ate diets or¬
dinary and extraordinary ; the former are held annually, and
the others upon particular emergencies 5 and both are fum-
moned by the city of Zurich, which appoints the time and
place of their meetings. Befides the general diets fince the
Reformation, there have been particular diets of the two
religions, at which all public affairs of confequence that re¬
gard the two parties are treated feparately; for though a
fenfe of their common intereft obliges them to ftudy to
maintain tne league and union, yet it is certain, that the
mutual confidence between the cantons is in fome meafure
Ol through the zeal of eachf party for their particular opi¬
nions, efpecially of the Roman Catholics. The annual <re-
neral d1ets are held always at Frauenfeld or Baden, princi¬
pally to regulate the affairs of the common bailiages. Lu¬
can takes the lead of the Roman Catholic cantons, beinrr
the molt powerful of that denomination ; but Zurich, the?
kfs powerful than that of Berne, takes the precedence of all
the other cantons, both Proteftant and Popifh. Thefe can¬
tons do not make one commonwealth, but are fo many in¬
dependent ftates, united together by ftria alliances for their
mania! defence. The extraordinary diets or congreffes are
,e , at Aldorf.. Each canton ufually deputes two envoys
Dotu to the ordinary and extraordinary, to which alfo the
abbot and the town of St Gall, and the town of Biel fend
reprefentatives as allies.. To the 13 cantons belong in com-
2I.Ddlhages, two towns, and two lordftu'ps. The ai-
and\Tvvn1CofP^ap1,pIaf3 33 they are Called’ are the abbot
S foe the three GnTon Ie^ues’ the repub.
the Valais, the towns of Muhihaufen and Biel, the
E 247 ]
s w 1
principality of Neuenberg or Neufchatel, Geneva, and the
bifhop of Bafil. Of theie the abbot and town of St Gall,
and the town of Biel, are regarded as members of the Hel¬
vetic body, but the reft only as allies.
As to the air, foil, and produce of Switzerland, that part
of the canton of Berne to the eaft of the lake of Geneva, to¬
gether with the cantons of Uri, Switz, Underwalden, Claris,
Appenzel, and part of the canton of Lucern, confift of ftu-
pendous mountains, whofe tops are faid to be from 9000 to
12,000 feet above the level of the fea, confiding oferairgy
inaccefiibk rocks, of which fome are quite bare, while others
are always covered with ice and fnow. Among the moun¬
tains are many excellent medicinal and other fprings, cold
and warm baths, water-falls, craggy precipices, deep narrow
valleys, and caverns. They yield alfo a great variety of
herbs, thickets, and bufties, in the upper parts ; and in the
lower, rich paftures and woods. The higheft are thofe in
the canton of Uri. Many of the valleys are covered with
lakes, or watered by brooks and rivers. In fome of them
are towns, villages, woods, vineyards, and corn-lands. Both
on the mountains and in the valleys the air is extremely
cold in winter; but in fummer it is very pkafant, cool, and
refrefhing on the former, but excefilvely hot in the latter.
Sometimes it is winter on the north fide of a mountain when
it is fummer on the other ; nay, flower* may be gathered
fometimes with one hand, and fnow with the other. Pro¬
digious maffes of ice and fnow often fall from them in
winter, and do a great deal of damage (fee Glacier) ; and
moft of the ftreams and rivers take their rife from the thaw¬
ing of the ice and fnow on their fides and tops. From the
rifing or defeending of the clouds, with which they are com¬
monly enveloped, the inhabitants can, for the moft part,
pretty exa&ly foretel the changes of the weather ; fo that
they ferve them inftead of weather-glaffes. The other and
lower parts of Switzerland are very pleafant and fertile,
being diverfified with vineyards, corn-fields, meadows, and
pafture-grounds. The mountains in thefe are but mok-hills
in comparifon of the others : there is neither fnow noi ice on
them in fummer; and they frequently afford not only good
pa ft or age, but arable ground. Many petrifaftions are found
both among thefe and foe others, 'with a variety of fofiils.
The fands of the rivers yield gold-duft, particularly thofe of
the Rhine, the Emmet, and the Aar, the Reufs, the Arve,
and the Inn. The metals of this country being general¬
ly found to be brittle, the only mines that are worked are
a few iron ones. In the lower parts of Switzerland they
fow rye, oats, barley, fpelt, flax, and hemp. Wines of va¬
rious forts are alfo produced in fome of them, with a varie¬
ty of fruits. Of wood for fuel and other ufes there is ge¬
nerally plenty ; in iome places, however, they are obliged’
to burn flieeps dung, and in others a kind of heath and fmaU
forubs. In the valleys they cultivate faffron with fuccefs.
I he Switzers derive their principal fubfiftence from their
flocks and herds of cattle, which in fommer graze upon the
mountains. Their cheefe is much efteemed, efpecially that
of Berne and Griers in the canton of Friburg. Great
numbers of horfes are alfo bred here, and bought uP for the
French cavalry. Befides the above mentioned rivers, the
Rhone and the Tefin have their fources in this country.
J he tes are very numerous; but the chief are thofe of
Geneva, Neufchatel, Biel, Zurich, Thun, Brien, Conftance,
and Luccrn. Both rivers and lakes abound with fifh, and
afford a cheap water-carriage. Switzerland is not fo popu¬
lous as many other countries in Europe ; and the Popifh can¬
tons kis fo Than foe Proteftant. The total number of‘the
inhabitants is computed at two millions.
1 he language generally fpoken here is the German, in
wmgh alio all public affairs are tranfadled; but in thofe
parts
Swltvep*
land.
Switzpr-
land.
S W I [ 248
parts of the country that border «n Italy or France, a cor¬
rupt French or Italian prevails. The two predominant re¬
ligions are Calvinifm and Popery. Of the former are the
cantons of Zurich and Berne, the town of St Gall, Geneva,
Muhlhaufen, and Biel, the principality of Neufchatel, the
greater part of Bafil, Schaffhaufen, the country of the Gri-
4bns, the Thurgau, Toggenburg, Glaris, and the Rhine val¬
ley ; the frontiers of Appenzel, with a fmall part of Solo-
thurn, and fome places in the countries of Baden and Sar-
gans. The reft of the Swifs cantons, allies and dependents,
are Popifh. For the education of youth there is an univer-
jity at Baftl, and academies at Zurich, Berne, Laufanne, and
Geneva, beftdes gymnaftums and fcholse iiluftres, both in the
Popifh and Proteftant cantons. There are alfo focieties a-
mong them for the improvement of the German language
and the fciences.
The principal mannfaftures are fnuff and tobacco, linen
of feveral forts, lace, thread, filk, and worded dockings,
neckcloths, cotton fluffs, gloves, handkerchiefs, filks of feve-
ral forts, gold and filver brocades, a variety of woollen manu¬
factures, hats, paper, leather of all forts, earthen wares, por¬
celain, toys, watches, clocks, and other hardwares, &c.
The trade of Switzerland is greatly promoted by many na¬
vigable lakes and rivers. In fome of the.above manufactures,
and in cheefe, butter, fticep, horfes, black cattle, hides, and
Heins, the exports are confiderable ; and as the imports are
chiefly grain and fait, with fome American andAfiatic goods,
there is probably a large balance in their favour. In fome
-parts of Switzerland drefs is reftrained by fumptuary laws.
The public revenues are in general very inconftderable,
ariftng chiefly from the ufual regalia, appropriated every¬
where to the fovereign, the demefnes, and public granaries,
voluntary contributions, the fale of fait, and a land-tax ; in
the Proteftant cantons, from the church-lands alfo that were
f'eized at the Reformation. Except in Zurich, Berne, Bafil,
and Schaffhaufen, where the people are more induftrious,
have a greater trade, and are richer than in the others, they
defray the ordinary charges, and that is all.
The cantons never keep any Handing troops, except for a
few garrifons; but their militia is reckoned to be the beft
regulated of any in Europe. Every male from 16 to 60 is
enrolled, and about one-third of them regimented. They
muft all provide themfelves with arms, clothing, and accou¬
trements, and appear on the ftated days for exercife ; and the
feveral cantons and diftridts muft be furnifhed with a fuffici-
ent train of artillery, and all the other implements of war.
The Switzers of the feveral cantons are allowed to engage
in the fervice of fuch foreign princes and ftates as are in alli¬
ance with thofe cantons, or with whom they have made a pre¬
vious agreement. Such ftates, paying an annual fubfidy to the
refpe&ive cantons, are allowed to make levies. Every man
enlifts voluntarily, and for what number of years he pleafes ;
at the expiration of which he is at liberty to return
home. A great many thus always returning from foreign
iervice, Switzerland is never unprovided with able and ex¬
perienced officers and foldiers. With refpedt to their cha-
radter, they are a brave, honeft, hofpitable, hardy people ;
•very true to their engagements, friendly, and humane. In
fhort, there is not a people in Europe whole national cha-
radler is better. In their perfons they are generally tall,
robuft, and well-made ; but their complexions are none of
the beft, and thofe that live in the neighbourhood of the
mountains are fuojedl to wens. "* The women are faid to be
generally handfome and well-fhaped, fenftble and modeft, yet
frank, eafy, and agreeable in converfation. Few of the
peafants are miierably poor ; many of them are rich, efpe-
£ia% in the Proteftant cantons, and that of Berne in parti¬
cular.
] S Y D
SWIVELS, a kind of ring made to turn round in a Svyive'i
ftaple, or other ring. Thefe are ufed when a ftu'p lies at II
her moorings; alfo in tedders for cattle, that they may turn^’ en 1?
round without unwarping the tedder.
Smrel-Cannon, is a fmall piece of artillery belonging to
a fhip#of war, which carries a {hot of half a pound, and is
fixed in a fockct on the top of the {hip’s fide, ftern, or bow,
and alfo in her tops. The trunnions of this piece are con¬
tained in a fort of iron crotch, of which the lower end ter¬
minates in a cylindrical pivot refling in the focket, fo as to
fupport the weight of the cannon. The focket is bored in
a flrong piece of oak, reinforced with iron hoops, in order
to enable it to fuftain the recoil. By means of this frame,
which is called the fivivel, and an iron handle on its caf-
cable, the gun may be direfted by the hand to'any objedl.
It is therefore very neceffary in the tops, particularly when
loaded with mufket-balls, to fire down on the upper decks
of the adverfary in adlion.
SWOONING. See Medicine, n° 274.
SWORD, an offenfive weapon worn at the fide, and fer-
ving either to cut or flab. Its parts are, the handle, guard,
and blade ; to which may be added the flow, fcabbard, pum¬
mel, &c.
Sjvord of State, which is borne before the king, lords,
and governors of counties, cities, or boroughs, &c. For
or before the king,St ought to be carried upright; the hilt
as low as the bearer’s waifl, the blade up between his eyes.
For or before a duke, the blade mufl decline from the head,
and be carried between the neck and the right fhoulder.
For or before an earl, the blade is to be carried between the
point of the ftioulder and the elbow : and for or before a ba¬
ron, the blade is to be borne in the bend of the arm. This
ceremonial form no lefs denotes the dignity of a governor
than the coronet fet on his coat of arms.
SwoRD-Fifh. See Xiphias.
SWORN brothers (fratres juralt), perfons who, by
mutual oath, covenanted to fhare each others fortune. For¬
merly, in any notable expedition to invade and conquer as
enemy’s country, it was the cuftom for the more eminent fol¬
diers to engage themfelves by reciprocal oaths to fhare the
rewards of their fervice. This pratftice gave occafion to the
proverb offavorn brothers or brethren in iniquity, becaufe of
their dividing plunder and fpoil.
SYCAMORE-tree, in botany. See Acer.
SYCOPHANT, an appellation given by the ancient A-
thenians to thofe who informed of the exportation of figs
contrary to law; and hence it is flill ufed in general for all in¬
formers, parafites, flatterers, cheats, &c.
SYDENHAM (Dr Thomas), an excellent Englifh phy-
fician, was the fon of William Sydenham of W in ford Eagle
in Dorfetfhire, and was born there about the year 1624.
He fludied at Magdalen-hall, Oxford; but left that univer-
fity when Oxford was garrifoned for king Charles I. and
went to London : where, becoming acquainted with Dr
Thomas Cox, an eminent phyfician, that gentleman perfua-
ded him to apply himfelf to the fludy of phyfic ; according¬
ly, after the garrifon was delivered up to the parliament,
he retired again t® Magdalen-hall, entered on the fludy of
medicine, and in 1.648 wras created bachelor of phyfic. Soon
after, he was made a fellow oi All-Souls college, and conti¬
nued there feveral years : when, leaving the univerfity, he
fettled at Weftminfter, became doritorof his faculty at Cam¬
bridge ; grew famous for his practice ; and was the chief
phyfician in London from the year 1660 to 1670 ; at which
period he began to be difabled by the gout. He died in
1689. His works are highly efleemed both at home and
abroad. He*was famous for his cool regimen in the fmall-
pox j for giving the bark after tire paroxyfm in agues; and
'yderopce. for his ufe of laudanum.
cljU8 by his own ebfervations and inquiries, than by the method
Syila. either of his predecefTors or contemporaries.
“ SYDEROPCECILUS, in natural hiftory, the name of
a done mentioned by the ancients. It was found in Ara¬
bia, and feems to have obtained this name from its being1
fpotted with a ferruginous colour. The defcriotions of the
ancients are, however, in this, as in many other inftances,
too fliort to fuffer us to guefs what done they meant. 
This might poffibly be a granite with Ipots of this peculiar
colour.
SYENE, an ancient city of Egypt, ftuated, according to
Mr truce, in north latitude 240 o' 45". Pliny and Strabo
both fay that it lay diredfly under the tropic of Cancer.
"Wh< ther Mr truce s authority be fufficient to overturn the
evidence of Pliny and Strabo, we fhall leave to others to de¬
termine.
Syene is remarkable for being the place where the firft
attempt was made to meaiure the circumference of the
earth. This was done by Eratodhenes, whom Ptolemy
.Euergetes had invited from Athens to Alexandria. In
this attempt two podtions were affumed, viz. that Alexan¬
dria and Syene were exaftly jooo ftadia diftant from each
other, and that they were precifely under the fame meri-
cian ; but both thefe are denied by Mr Bruce, who has
made many obfervations on the fubjed, which our limits
will not allow us to take notice of at prefent. He tells us,
that there is at Afum an obelifk erefted by Ptolemy Euer-
getes, the patron of Eratodhenes, without hieroglyphics,
directly facing the fouth, with its top fird cut into a nar¬
row neck then fpread out like a fan into a femicircular
torm, with pavements curioufly levelled to receive the (hade,
and make the reparation of the true diadow from the pe-
mimbra as didinft as poffible. This is fuppofed by Mr
Truce to have been condru&ed with a defign to vary the
experiment of Eratodhenes with a larger radius ; and the
inquiry concerning the dimenfions of the earth, in our au-
hors opinion, wag the occafion of many obelifks being
ereded in this kingdom ; a demondration of which is, that
the figure of the top is varied ; being fometimes very (harp,
end iometimes a portion of a circle, in order to p-et rid of
, '•'re.at impediment arifing from the penumbra, which
makes it difficult to determine the length of the ffiadow
with precinon. It is now called /Ifouan.
SYLLA (LuciusCornelius), was defeended from the il¬
ia ft nous family of the Scipios. His behaviour in his young¬
er years by no means coirefponded with the excellent edu¬
cation which he had received. But debauchery, indead of
bunging along with it infamy and ruin, its ufual attendants,
ierved only to mcreafe the wealth of this fortunate Roman :
*or Nocopohs, a rich courtezan, whofe affedions he had
gained, left him he.r to her great eftate—He learned the
ait of war under Marius, whom he attended to Numidia in
quality o. quedor. 1 hough hitherto unaccuftomed to arms,
he became in a ffiort time the mod fkilful foldier in the ar-
my, w ile by his polite and obliging behaviour he gained
the love and efteem of every body. His courage and dex-
temy contributed a great deal towards the fuccefs of the
war ; it was his eloquence in particular that perfuaded Boc-
chus to deliver up Jugurtha. He ferved afterwards in the
toad war, where his aftions entirely eclipfed thofe of every
ercommanoer. As a reward for this eonduft he was
SCa t ? fT0fip: R is Pretend^ by fome tliat
one' dTC! 6 rlgmty 5 and that when he threatened
Str bo ,h f ruf" °F the P°wers of againft
fmile “ Y f ier.°f PorrPey> that Roman replied with a
tainlv v J°Ufre 10 the rfght t0 ^ fo 5 your office " «r-
Vof XV11L pIrU.PUrCllafed Be lhis « “ “X.
Y L r 249 ] S Y L
He regulated his praftice more after the conclufion of the focial war he was made conful,
and foon after declared general
o  o! the army which was to
be lent aaainfl Mithridates king of Pontus. Marius, at
that time the moll renowned of the Roman generals, tx-
ed tliat the management of this war would have been
committed to him, and was therefore miich-exafperated at
the difappointment. The people w^ere perfuaded by his in¬
trigues to reverfe the former decree, and fubftitute him in
place of Sylla. Upon this he fent down officers to take
the command of the army ; but Sylla by this time frad
gained over the foldiers ; who, inflead of obeying the de¬
cree of the people, flew Marius’s officers, and intreat*
ed Sylla to lead them inftantly to Rome. According¬
ly he entered the city fword in hand, flew Sulpicius the con-
ful, obliged Marins to flee, new-modelled the laws, and af¬
terwards marched into the Eaft, and immediately, laid fieo-e
to Athens ; for that city, together with the reft of Greece,
had fallen into the power of Mithridates. He wrote to
the Amphy&ions, who were affembled at Delphi, to fend
him all the gold which was depofited in the temple of A-
poilo, becaufe he flood in need of money ; promifing, at the
fame time, to reitore it again at the end of the war. When
he received this treafure, he obferved, with an air of rail¬
lery, that he now no longer defpaired of victory, fince the
gods, them (elves furniffied him with money to pay his troops’.
Famine loon obliged the Athenians to think of a furrender.
1 heir ambaffiadors waited on Sylla, and began to harangue
about Thefeus and Codrus, and Marathon and Salamis,
when he interrupted them, and exclaimed, “ Go, repeat
thefe fine orations in your fchools ; I have come hither, not
to learn your hiftory, but to chadife rebels.” Athens was
at laft taken by aftault, and Sylla was upon the point of
deftroying it, when he. recolle&ed its ancient glory, and
fpared (as he faid.) the living for the lake of the dead. Af-
ter burning the Piraeus, he gained two decifive vidories over
the generals of Mithridates. In the fecond battle, which
was fought at Orchomenus, he was almoft defeated ; his
troops began to flee, when, leaping from his horfe, he
Hatched up a ftandard, and advanced againft the enemy,
crying out, 1 will die here glorioufly; and, foldiers, when
you are afked where you abandoned your general, anfwer.
At Orchomenus.” This reproach recalled the courage of
the Romans ; they followed him to the charge, and gained
a complete vidory. Mithridates, humbled by thefe difaf-
ters, fent ambaffiadors to fue for peace.
Mean time Cinna had declared againfl Sylla in Italy; and
Manus returning from bamfhment, had taken the moft fe-
vere vengeance on all his enemies. Sylla was declared a
traitor ; his laws were reverfed, his friends murdered, and the
government r.ew modelled. The news of thefe tranfadions
induced . Sylla to conclude a treaty with Mithridates, apd
march diredly to Rome. His approach terrified the Ro¬
mans. Marius and Cinna were both dead ; but the con-
luls made vigorous .preparations to oppofe him. A c'vil
war was begun ; but Sylla in the end fubdued all his ene¬
mies, and entirely ruined the Marian fadion. He entered
Rome at the head of his vidorious army, and publicly af-
1 urn.ed the furname of Happy. Happy, indeed, had he ceafed
to live when he ceafed to conquer. The remainder of his life
contains nothing elfe but a catalogue of the moil abominable
cruelties. He declared that every one who expe&ed par¬
don for their late offences, muft gain it by deftroyin- the
enemies of the ftate. The fword of the affiaffin was°thus
un heathed .and murder encouraged as the path to power
and diftmdion. The nobleft of the Romans were every¬
where maffacred ; flaves were rewarded for cutting off their
mafters ; children were feen dragging their parents to exe¬
cution ; and brotners claiming a recompenfe for the miu>
I i der
Sylft.
S Y I*
[ 250 ]
S Y M
Sy ht c^r 0f brothers. Sylla ordered 8000 wretches, who had
It thrown themfclves upon in's clemency, to be butchered m
Sjllabuf* the Campus Martins. In the mean time he entered the ie-
v Eate-houfe, and began to talk with great coolnefs about his
exploits. The fenate, alarmed at the horrid outcries of the
fnfferers, at firft thought that the city was given up to be
plundered ; but Sylla informed them, with an unembarraffed
air, that it was only fome criminals punifhing by his orders,
and that they needed not be apprehendve about their own
fate. . A.
To carry on thefe cruelties with the appearance of juitice,
he commanded the people to eleft him didtator. He kept
this office for more than two years ^ and then, to the amaze¬
ment of all, laid it down, and offered to Hand his trial be¬
fore the people. Soon afterwards he retired into the coun¬
try, and plunged headlong into every kind of debauchery.
Nor did he relinquilh his cruelty together with his power :
His wife falling ill in the midft of a fumptuous feaft, he di¬
vorced her immediately ; and ordered her to be. carried
away, left her death ffiould interrupt the feftivity of his houfe.
He died of the morbus pedicularis, in the 60th year of
his age. His body, according to bis orders, was burnt.
A little before his death he wrote his epitaph ; the tenor
of which was, that no man had ever exceeded him in doing
good to his friends or injury to his enemies..
His perfon was elegant, his air noble, his manners eafy
and apparently fincere. He was fond of pleafnre, but
fonder of glory; indulging without fcruple- in lenfual de¬
lights, but never fuffering them to interrupt his feiious bu-
finefs : He was eloquent, liberal, crafty, infinuating ; a pro¬
found mafter of diffimulation ; he fpoke of himfelf with rr.o-
defty, while he lavilhed praifes on every other perfon : He
{looped even to an acquaintance with the meaneft ioldier,
and conftantly adapted himfelf to the humours, purfuits, and
opinions, of thole with whom he converfed. Such was his
character during the earlier part ol his life ; but when fuc-
cefs had raifed him above the neceffity of diffimulation, he
tiifplayed a hideous train of vices, which his ambition had
formerly taught hin) to conceal. — It was Sylla who reco¬
vered the works of Ariftotle at the taking of Athens.
SYLLABLE, in grammar, one or more letters pronoun¬
ced by a fmgle impulfe of the voice, forming a complete
found, and conftrtuting a word or a part ol a word. No
{ingle letter can form a fyllable except a vowel. The
longeft fyllable in the Englilh language is the vmr&Jlrengtb.
The moll natural way of dividing words into fyllables is,
to feparate all the fimpls founds of which any word confifts,
fo as*not to divide thofe letters which are joined clofe toge¬
ther according to the moft accurate pronunciation.
SYLLABUB, a kind of compound drink, moft ufual
in the fummer feafon ; ordinarily made of white wine and
fugar, into which is fquirted new milk with a fyringe or
wooden cow. Sometimes it is made of canary in lieu of
white wine ; in which cafe the fugar is fpared, and a little
lemon and nutmeg are added in lieu of it. To prepare it the
belt way, the wine and other ingredients, except the milk,
are to be mixed over night, and the milk or cream added in
the morning. The proportion is, a pint of wine to three
of milk. For
Syllabub, whipt, to half a pint of white wine or Rhe-
rifh is put a pint of cream, with the whites of three eggs.
This they feafon with fugar, and beat with birchen rods, or
work with a fyringe. The froth is taken off as It rifes, and
put into a pot ; where, after {landing to fettle two or three
hours, it is fit to eat.
SYLLABUS., in matters of literature, denotes a table
of contents, or an index of the chief heads of a book or
difeourfe.
SYLLOGISM, in logic, an argument or term of rea-
foning, confuting of three propofitions; the two ftrft of
which ?re called premifes ; the laft, the conclufton. See Lo-
Part III
Syllflgifhfc
ii
Sympathy.
G1C,
SYLVIA, in natural hiftory, a new genus of birds, be-
lono-imr to the order of pafferes, formed by Dr Latham by
limiting the motacilla to the wagtail, and arranging the
other fpecies, formerly claffed under that genus, under the
^ The motaciila he thus deferibes : The beak is tubulated,
{lender, and fomewhat indented at the point. The tongue
feems torn at the end, and the tail is long. He thus cha-
rafterizes the fylvia : The beak is fubulated, ftraight, and
fmall; the mandibles are nearly equal. The noftrfts are obo-
vate, and a little depreffed. The exterior toe is joined at
the under part to the bafe of the middle one. The tongue
is cloven, and the tail is fmall. He makes J 3 fpecies of the
motacilla, and 174 fpecies of the fylvia. See Motacilla.
SYMBOL, a fign or reprefentation of lomething moral,
by the figures or properties of natural things. Hence fym-
bols are of various kinds ; as hieroglyphics, types, enigmas,
parables, fables, &c.
SYMMACHUS, a citizen and fenator of ancient Rome,
and conful in the year 391, has left us ten books of epilties
from which, as well as from other things, we coileft, that
he was a warm oppoier of the Chriftian religion. He was
banifhed from Pvome by Valent inian on fome account or
other, but afterwards recalled and received into favour by
Theodofius. Ammianus Marcellinus tpeaks of him as a
man of great learning and modefty. Scioppius, Pareus, and
other learned men, have written notes upon the epiftks of
Symmachus : we know of no later edition of them than
that of Frankfort, 1642, 8vo. Ambrofe biffiop of Milan
wrote againft Symmachus, and fo did the Chriftian poet,
Prudentius.
SYMMETRY, the juft proportion of the feveral parts
of any thing, fo as to compofe a beautiful whole. ^
Symmetry, in painting. See Painting, Part I. Sect.
^SYMONDSBOROUGH, a remarkable large barrow
ef Flints, near Wellington in Devonfhire, in the northern
extremity of Hemyock. The common people have a no¬
tion that a king called Symon was buried here. The tradi¬
tion of the country plainly fhows that it was the burial-pxace
of fome perlon or perfons of eminence.
SYMPATHETIC, fomething that a&s or is afted up¬
on by fympathy. Thus we lay, fympathetic difeafes, inks,
&c. .
Sympathetic Inks. See Sympathetic Ink. *
SYMPATHY, an agreement of affe&ions and inchna-
tions, or a conformity ot natural qualities, humours, tempe¬
raments, which make two perfons delighted and plealed
with each other. < . ^0,1
Sympathy, alfo denotes the quality of being affected by
the affe&ion of another ; and may fubfift either between dn-
ferent perfons or bodies, or between different parts of the
fame body. It is either fimilar or diffimilar ; fimilar, when
the affeftion or aftion in the fympathifer is fimilar to the at-
fedion or adion in the fympathant; and diffimilar, when thole
are different.—Sympathy, too, is often an imitative faculty,
fometimes involuntary, frequently without conlctoulnels:
thus we yawn when we fee others yawn, and are made to
laugh by the laughing of another.
Sympathy, according to Dr Jackfon , relates to t t ope #
rations of the affedions of the mind, to the operations of^b ,
the imagination, and to the affections of the extei na e»i es.
1. The paffions and affe&ions of the mind produce m the
body different fenfations and impreffwns, and, as fympatiues
R Y M [ 251 ] S Y M
of corifcinufiicrs, dcte’rr.i'nc in general the fplrits to thofe
—jT*— parts which labour moft, or are moil apt to be afte&ed.
Thus fear and anger determine to the heart ; luft to the eyes.
See.; joy, pity, wonder, and the like, to the head.' See Pas¬
sion, page 1 4.
The afftdlions of the mind of one perfon will often work
upon the fpirits of many. Thus whole companies are feme-
times difpofed to be fad and melancholy, or merry and jo¬
vial, when any one is prefent much inclined to either of
thofe dates of mind ; and it has been oblerved, that old peo¬
ple, who ha'e loved the company of the young, and have
been converfant continually with them, have generally lived
long. But young people mull not conclude from this, that
the company and converfation of the grave and old will ope¬
rate upon their living and fenfltive principle, thro’ the affec¬
tions of their mind, and difpofe them to be fhort lived. On
the contrary, by thus improving their underflanding, they
will be more enabled to fortify their conflitution and teliil
the ravages of youthful indulgence.
It may alfo be further obferved, that thofe tender fympa-
thetic afiedfions which lay hold of the mind, at the repre-
ientation of theatrical performances, originate from the
fame principle, while they are to be confidered as the furelt
tefl ot jufl execution in the adtor, and of the expreffive lan¬
guage of the author. Indeed all ftage-effedl depends on
iympathy.
It has been faid, that the paflions of the mind are occa-
fionally infedlious, particularly feme of them. Thus /ear
andJhatne are fometimes very luddenly fo. We frequently
may have occafion to fee, that the llarting of one will make
another ready to hart. Again, when one man is out of coun¬
tenance in company, others wbll often blufn in his behalf.
However, the ferious pafiions may furely be fo under the
controul of reafon as to refill infedlion, whatever may be
the cale of temporary, mufcular, or nervous attradlion.
2. Our author is inclined to think, that a connection be¬
tween the affeClions and fenfations of the female mind and
uterus, is very materially concerned in the procefs of gene¬
ration, and probably can alone give efficacy to thofe aClions
and impuffions fubiervient to conception, through the fym-
pathizing affeftions of the mind. But this is a fubjedl of
which we know fo little, that the fpeculations of even the
mofl diflinguifhed philofophers refpeCting it have been no¬
thing but the wild ravings of imagination.
With refpedl to the depravity and force of the imagina¬
tion in the production of fympathies, they always operate
mofl upon “ weak minds and fpirits, and therefore mofl on
women, fuperflitious and fearful perfons, lick people, chil¬
dren, and young creatures.” “ Their effeds, however,
fometimes fail to appear, becaufe they are encountered and
overcome by the mind and fpirit before they work any ma-
niftfl effeds.”
Such effeds are otviated upon the fame principle which
eftablifhes the prevention ot bodily dileafe : “ for in infec¬
tion and contagion from body to body" (as, for example, du
ring the plague), the miatma may be received ; but from the
ffrength and good difpolkion of the body, it is expelled and
wrought out Before it has had fufficient time to form the
dileafe.”
It has been faid, and many are of the opinion, that the
force of imagination d< th often forward the end propo-
ied. Thus, for inftance, it has been put as a queftion,
“ Whether a man, when he coullantly and flrongly believes
that iuch a thing fhall be (as that fuch a one wnlllove him,and
the like), helps any thing to the effeding the thing defired ?”
Certainly not in the manner which has been advanced,
namely, “ by a iecret operation on the fpirit of another.”
At he iucceeds, it is either becauie he perievered, or becaufe
hie perfevmnee and earneftnefs (and not any occult opera- Syirpadry,
tion) makes him at length be attended to. symphonia.
There is not a doubt but the force of imagination often v—*'
gives energy to our adions. It may, however, uulefe we
are much on our guard, eafily delude us afide from reafon.
It has been the tree which has yielded the fruits of fuperfli-
tion in former times, and which has often fed the human
mind with the moft extravagant notions of fympathy. Sym¬
pathies of this kind, fuch as the power of charms, and the
like, are now pretty generally exploded.
3. The five fenfes, hearings toJlingt fmfiling, feelingt
and feeing, are conlcious of a fympathetic impreffion rrom
odious objeds. “ 1. A difagreeable found will let the
teeth on edge, and make all the body ffuver. 2. The fwal-
lowing of a naufeous medicine will be attended with a {ba¬
king of the head and neck. 3. Difagreeable fmells produce
nearly the fame effed, wdiich are lefs perceived, becaufe
there is a remedy at hand by flopping the nofe. 4. If you
come fuddenly out of the fun into the fkade, the fenfe of
feeling is difturbed by a chillnefs or fhiverir.g of the whole
bodyn 5. And even fudden daiknefs produces a propenfity
to fhivering.
There is a very apparent reafon why a fympathy flrould
take place between the eyes. Hence their motions are fyn-
chronous. It may be faid, that ouftom and habit difpofe
the eyes to move one and the fame way ; “ for when one
eye moveth towards the nofe, the other eye moveth from the
nofe.”
Though the ey-es are by nature prone to move in con- »
cert, cuftom will, however, deftroy this natural concert, and
produce the contrary effed. Thus feme people can fquint
when they will. Our author therefore gives this caution to
mothers and nurfes: “ Let them not fuffer infants to fit
with a candle placed behind them ; for both their eyes will
be difpoled to move outwards, as affeding to fee the light of
the candle, which may bring on the habit of fquinting.”
It appears as a quality in the fenfes of hearing and fee¬
ing, “ that the inftrument of each feparate fenfe has a fym¬
pathy and fimilitude to that which giveth the refledion.”
Thus it has been obferved, “ that the eye will fympathize
with a cryftal glafs or water, and the ear with caves and fuch
hollow places as are fuited to report echo.”
Sympathies have been compaied to unifons of found in
mufic. Unifons of found produce agreeable fympathetic
feelings ; the reverfe produce difagreeable feelings. “ All
concords and diicords of mufic are (no doubt) fympathies
and antipathies of found.” Moreover, “ they are laid to
work as well by report of found as by motion.”
The moft agreeable as well as odious objeds operate in a
fecondary way, in producing thofe fympathetic impreffions
and adions which they commonly give rife to. An in-
creafed fecretion of faliva often takes place at the fight of a
favourite difh : and the running of water from a bottle,
or otherwife, will fometimes affed individuals of a particu¬
lar temperament, with an involuntary propenfity to void urine.
Many have attempted to account for the remarkable fym¬
pathy which takes place between parts of the body feem-
ingly unconneded with each other ; but as thefe attempts
are merely conjcdures, without any lolid principles to reft
on, we pafs them over as the dreams of ingenious men. It
would be fortunate for fcience, if men would confine them-
felves to thofe lubjeds which can be known, and never draw
conclufions till they have eftabhfhed principles.
SYMPHONIA, in botany ; a genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the clafs of mcnodelphia, and order of pentandria.—
There is one piftil. The corolla is globular, and the berry
five celled, i here is only one fpecies yet diicovered, the
globulifera.
I i 2
SYM-
S Y N [ 252 1 S Y N
.Symphory SYMPHONY, in mufic, properly denotes ?. confonance
' ti or concert of feveral founds agreeable to the ear, whether
■Svna^i vocal or inftnmiehtal, called alfo harmony. See Harmony.
SYMPHYSIS, In anatomy, one of the kinds of junc¬
tures or articulation ot the bones. Sec Anatomy, n1’ 2.
Cutting the Stmphtsu of the Pubes. See Midwifery,
Part II. Chap. VII.
SYMPHYTUM, comfrf.y, in botany : A genus of
plants belonging to the clals of pentandria, and order of
tnonogynia ; and in the natural fyftem, ranging under the
41ft order after folia;. The limb of the corolla is tubular
and ventricofe, and the throat is (hut with awl lhaped rays.
There are three fpeeies ; the officinale, tuberofum, and ori-
entale.—The officinale is a Britifh plant. The Item is
about two feet high, round, branched, green, and rough.
The radical leaves are very large and rough ; thole on the
ftalk are decurrent, and alternate. The flowers grow on
loole fpikes, and are either of a yellowifh or purple co¬
lour. It grows on the banks of rivers, and flowers from May
to Oftober.
SYMPLOCE, o-v.ursrx'JKWj {n rhetoric, a figure, where
the fame word is repeated feveral times in the beginning and
end of a lenience, including the anaphora and epitro-
PHe: thus, ijUb legem tulit ? Rullus. tphiis majorem populi
partem fujfragm privavit ? Rullus. bthiis comitiis prafuit ?
Idem Ru/lus.
SYMPLOCOS, in botany : l\ genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of polyadelphhiy and to the order of polyan.-
ch da; and in the natural fyftem ranging under thofe the
order of which has not been determined. The calyx
is quinquefid and inferior : the corolla is pentapetalous :
the Itamina are attached to the tube of the corolla in a
fourfold leries. Only one fpecies, the martinicenfis, is men¬
tioned by Unnseus ; but PHeritier of the Academy of Sci¬
ences at Paris had added four more, the ciponima, arechea,
tintftoria, and alftonia.
SYMPOSLARCH, in antiquity, the dire&or or ma¬
nager of an entertainment. This office was fometimes per-
iormed by the perfon at whole charge the entertainment
was provided ; fometimes by another named by him ; and
at other times, efpecially in entertainments provided at the
common expence, he was defied by lot, or by the fuffrages
of the guefts.
SYMPTOM, in medicine, any circumftance which indi¬
cates the exiftencp, nature, or ftage of a difeafe. Pain,
waking, drowfinefs, convullions, fuppreffion of urine, diffi¬
culties of breathing and fwallowing, coughs, diftaftes, nau-
feas, thirfts, Iwoonings, faintings, loolenefs, coftivenefs, dry-
nefs and blacknefs of the tongue, are the principal fymptoms
of difeales. See Medicine, n° 41. and 58.
- SYMPTOMATICAL, in .medicine, is a term often
nfed to denote the difference between the primary and fe-
condary caufes in diieales : thus a fever from pain is laid to
be fymptomaticak becaufe it riles from pain only.
SYNiERESIS, Con traction, in grammar, a figure
whereby two fyllables are united in one } as vemens for ve¬
hement.
SYNAGOGUE, among the Jews, was a place where
people met to worlhip God. Authors are nr>t agreed about
the time when the Jews firft began to have fynagogues 1—
Some will have them as old as the Ceremonial Law, and
others fix their beginning to the times after the Babylonilh
captivity. Hmy erefted fynagogues not only in towns and
cities, but alio in the country, elpecially near rivers, that
they might have water for their purifications and ceremo¬
nious waffiings. No fynagogue was built in any town, un-
lefs there were ten perfons of lelfure in it j but there might
be many in one town, or in one quarter of a town, pro.
vided it was very populous. Jerufalem is faid to have eon- 'jna'espt,,
tained 480. The chief things belonging to a fynagogue II
were, 1. The ark or cheft, made after the model of the ark ®In.cor&'
of the covenant, containing the Pentateuch. 2. The pulpit j10"’
and ddk in the middle of the fynagogue, in which he that Wilfon's
wras to read or expound the law flood. 2. The feats
or pews ror the people. 4. The lamps to give light aU''/
evening fervice, and the feaft cf dedication. 5. Rooms 0/^'
apartments for the utenfils 2nd alms chefts. The fynagogue
was governed by a council or affembly, over whom was a
prefident, called The Ruler of the Synagogue. Thefe are
fometimes called Chiefs of the f <ws, The Rulers, The Prieflt
or Elders, The Governor, The Overfetn, The Fathers of
the Symgogue. Their bufinefs was to punifh the difobedient
by cenfures, by excommunication, or by penalties, fuch as
.fines and fcourguv ; to take care of the alms, which are
frequently called by the name of righteoufnefs. The chief
ruler, or one of the rulers, gave leave to have the law read
and expounded, and appointed who fhould do it. In every
fynagogne, there were feveral minitiers who had different
offices affigned to them. Service was performed three times
a day, viza in the morning, in the afternoon, and at night ;
at the time of morning facrifice, evening facrifice, and after
the evening facrifice on Mondays, Thurfdays and Satur¬
days, there was>a more forcible obligation upon the people
to attend than upon the other days. There are fyna.
gogues at London, Amfterdam, Rotterdam, Avignon,
Metz, &e. *
SYNALCEPHA, in grammar, a cOntra&ion of fyllables,
performed principally, by iuppreffing feme vowel or diph¬
thong at the eud of a word, on account of another vowel
or diphthong at the beginning of the next. As, ill' egcf
for ille ego, &c.
Contkuer* omnes intertiqiP ora tenelant. Vxrg.
It is called by the Latins collifw.
SYNARTHROSIS, 1 c ,
SYNCHONDROSIS, \ See Anatomy> n° 2*
SYNCELLUS, or Sincellus, an ancient officer in the
family of the patriarchs, and other prelates of the eaftera
church. The word, in the corrupt Greek, , fig.
nifies a perfon who lies in the chamber with another ; a
chamber-fellow, or chum. The fyncellus was an eccleliaftic,
who lived with the patriarch of Conftantinople, to be a
witnefs of his conduht; whence it is, that the fynctllus was
alio called the patriarch's eye, becaufe his bufinefs was to ob-
lerve and watch. The other prelates had alfo their fyncell?,
who were clerks living in the houfe with them, and even
lying in the fame chamber, to be wiineffes o! the purity of
their-manners. Afterwards the office degenerated into a
mere dignity ; and there were made fyncelli of churches —-
At laft it became a tide of honour, and was beitowed by
the emperor on the prelates themfelves ; whom they called
pontifical fyncelli, and fyncelli Augvjlales.
SYNCHRONISM denotes the happening of feveral
things at the lame time. See Chronology.
SYNCOPATION, in mufie^denotes a ttsiking orbeat¬
ing of time, whereby the diftinftion of the feveral times or
parts of the meafure is interrupted. However, it is more
properly ufed for the connedting the laft note of any
mealure, or bar, with the firft of the following mea-
lifre, fo as only to make one note of both. A iyncope
is fometimes alfo made in the middle of a meafure. Syn¬
copation is alfo ufed when a note of one part ends or ter¬
minates on the middle of a note of the other part. This is
otherwife denominated binding. It is likewife ufed for a
driving note ; that is, when fome fhorter note at the be¬
ginning of a mealure, or half meafure, is followed by two,
three, or more longer notes before another fhort note oc¬
curs,
Syi.gna-
tbuf.
S Y N [ ,
Syncope curs, equal to that which oceafumeci the driving, to make
11 the number even, e. gr. when an odd crotchet comes before
two or three minims, or an odd quaver before two, three,
— or more crotchets. In fyncopated or driving notes, the
hand or foot is taken up, or put down, while the note is
founding.
SYNCOPE, fainting ; a deep and hidden fwooning,
wherein the patient continues without any fenilble heat, mo¬
tion, fenfe, or refpiration, and is feized with a cold fweat
over the whole body; all the parts, in the mean time, turn¬
ing pale and cold, as if he was dead. See Medicine, n° 98.
and 272.
Syncope, in grammar, an eiifion or retrenchment of a
letter or fyilable out of the middle of a word, as caidus for
ca/idusi
SYNDIC, in government and commerce, an officer, in
divers countries, intruded with- the affairs of a city or other
community, who calls meetings, makes reprelentations and
felicitations to the nrniflry, magiftracy, 6cc. according to
the exicrency of the cafe. ,
SYNECDOCHE, in rhetoric, a kind of trope frequent
among orators and poets. See Oratory, n° (,6.
SYNECPHONESIS, in grammar, a coalition, whereby
two lyllables are pronounced as one ; being much the fame
as Synalof.pha and Synthesis.
SYNEUROSIS. See Anatomy, n° 2-
SYNGENESIA, (o-vv and “ congeneration),”
the name of the 19th clafs in Linnaeus’s artificial fyftem ;
comprehending thofe plants which have the anthers united
into a cylinder. The orders are fix: 1. Polygamia aequalis.
2. folygamia iuperflua. <. Polygamia fruihanea. 4. Po¬
lygam a neceffaria. 5. Polygamia fegregata. 6. Monoga-
nua. The five firil orders contain the compound flowers,
and torni a clafs truly natural
SYNGNATHUS, Pipe-fish, according to Linmeus, a
genus belonging to the clafs of amphibia, and order of
nantet, but arranged by Gmelin more properly under the
clals of p[/<es, and order of branchiojhgi. The head is
fmall ; the roilrum fomevvhat cylindrical, long, and turned
up at the point, wnere the mouth is placed, which is covered
with a lid or valve, i he gills are covered in the fame man¬
ner. The body is covered wfith a ftrong cruft, and has no
ventral fins. There are eight fpecies ; the tetragonus, ty-
phele, acus, pelagicus, aequoreus, ophidion, harbarus, and
hippocampus. three of thele are found in the Britiih
leas, viz-
_ 1. The larbarus, or longer pipe fifh. One deferibed by
Sir Robert Sibbald, wras two feet in length ; that examined
by Mr Pennant only 16 inches. The nofe was an inch
long, compreffed fdewife, and the end of the lower man¬
dible turned up ; the aperture of the mouth was very fmall.
I he xrides were red ; behind each eye was a deep brown
hne. he body, in the thickeft part, was about equal to
a twards quill, hexangnlar from the end of the dorfkl fin;
from thence to the tail, quadrangular. The belly was
ill' buy carinated, and marked along the middle w-ith a
dulky line. Under the tail, commencing at the anus, is a
lulcus or groove fix inches and a half long, covered by two
longxtud nal valves, which concealed a multitude of young
filh. On crufhing this part, hundreds may be obftrved to
crawl out.
2. The acus, or fhortet, pipe-fifli, is thicker than the for-
mex, yet it has been feen of the length of 16 inches. The
miudle of the body in fome is hexangular, in others hep-
tangular. The mouth is formed like 'that of the former :
t ie mees are yellow : clofe behind the head aie the pe&o-
ft! r,nS,i iC^ are an^ Ihort. On the lower part of
e 15 orie narr°w fin ; beyond the vent the tail com-
53 3 S Y N
mences, winch is long and quadrangular. At the extre- Sytincha
mity is a fin round and radiated. The body is covered
with a ftrong cruft, elegantly divided into fmall compart¬
ments. The belly'is white; the other parts are brown.
3. The ophidion, or little pipe-fifh, feldom exceeds five
inches in length, is very {lender, and tapers off to a point.
It wa'nts both the pechoral and tail fins ; is covered with a
fniooth llcin, not with a cruft as the two former kinds arc.
The nofe is fhort, and turns a little up ; the eyes are pro¬
minent. On the back is one narrow fin. This fpecies is
not viviparous : on the* belly of the female is a long hollow,,
to which adhere the eggs, ditpofed in two or three rows.
They are large, ani not numerous. The fynonym of fer~
pent is ufed in feveral languages to exprefs thefe fifh : the
French call one fpecies orueul, from a fort of fnake not un¬
like the blind worm : the Germans call it meherfchlange; and
the Cornifh the Jea-adder.
I he Sea-horfe, which was claffed by Artedi under the
Syngnathus, is now, by later ichthyulogifts, arrangedunder
Trichecus ; which fee.
SYNOCHA, and Synochus, in medicine, the name*
of two ipecies of continued fever. See Medicine, n9 164.
SYNOD, in aftronomy, a conjutnftion or concourfe of
two or more ftars or planets, in the fame optical place of the
heavens.
Synod iiTnifies alfo a meeting or affembly of ecclefiafti-
cal perfons to coniult on matters of religion.
Or thefe there are four kinds, viz. 1. General, ox. oecumenicalr
where bifhops, &c. meet from all nations. Thefe were flrlt
called by the emperors, afterwards by Chriftian princes j
till in later ages the pope ufurped to himfelf the greateft;
ftiare in this bulmefs, and by his legates prefided in them
when called. 2. National, where thofe of one nation only-
come together, to determine any point of dodtrine or dif-
cipline. I he firft of this fort which we read of in England,
was that of Herudford or Hertford, in 673, and the lafi
was that held by cardinal Pole, in 1555. 3. i'ro'vindal,
where thole only of one province meet, now called the con*
vocation. 4. Diocefan, where thofe of but one diocefe
meet, to enforce canons made by general councils, or na¬
tional and provincial Jynods, and to conlult and agree upon
rules of difcipline for themfelves. Thefe were not wholly
laid afide, till by the a£t of fiibrniffion, 25 Hen. VIII. cO
19 it was made unlawful for any /ynod to meet, but by
royal authority. See Council and Convocation.
Synods, Provincial, in the Government of the Church of
Scotland. See Presbyterians, n9 14.
SYNOD ALS, or Synodies, were pecuniary rents (com¬
monly of two (hillings), paid to the bifhop, or archdeacon, at
tiic time of their Eafter viiitation, by every parifh prieft.
I hey were thus called, becaufe ufualiy paid in fynods ; be-
caule anciently bifhops ufed to vific and hold their diocefar*
fynods once.—For the fame realon, they are fometimes alfo
oeaominated /yntfrL/Hz; but more ufualiy, pro bations.
S\ NODICAL, fomething belonging to a fynod. Thus,
fynodical epifties are circular letters written by the fynods
to the abient prelates*and churches; or even thofe general
outs directed to all the faithful, to inform them of what had
pafl’ed in the fynod.
SYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feaft celebrated at
Athens in memory or I hefeus’s having united all the petty
communities of Attica into, one fingle commonwealth ; th£
feat whereof was. at Athens, where all the affemblies were'
to be held, x his feaft was dedicated to Minerva ; and,
according to the fcholiaft on Thucydides, it was held in
the month Metagitnion.
i SYNONA MO US, is applied to a word or term that has
tue fame import or fignification with another.
Sever?.!
Synovia
ii
Svracufe.
SYR [2
Several works have been compofed for the cxprefs pur-
pofe of explaining fynonymous words. In 1777 a^work
was publifned on the Latin fynonyma at Paris by M. Cardin
Dnrndnil. The abbe Girard publifl.ed one on the fynomy-
jr.ous terms of the French language many years ago. Ano¬
ther was publifhed on the fame fubjeft in the year 17^5 by
the abbe Roubaud. An account of the Englifh fynonyma
■was publifned by an anonymous author in 1766 ; which is
a clofe imitation, and in fome parts a literal tranilation, o»
the abbe Girard’s Synonymes Frangois. We recolledt, too,
of feeing fome eflays of Mrs Piozzi on the fame fubjeft.
SYNOVIA, in medicine, a term ufed by Paracelfus and
his fchool for the nutritious juice proper and peculiar to each
part. Thus they talk of the fynovia of the joints, of the
brain, &c.
SYNTAX, in grammar, the proper conftruftion or due
difpofition of the words of a language into fentences and
phrafes. See Grammar and Language.
SYNTHESIS, in logic, denotes a branch of method, op-
pofite to analyfis. '
In the fynthefis or fynthetic method, we purfue the truth
by rtafons drawn from principles belore eftablilhed or aflu-
aned, and propofitions formerly proved ; thus proceeding by
a regular chain, till we come to the conclufion. Such is
the method in Euclid’s Elements, and moft demonfliations
of the ancient mathematicians, which proceed from defini¬
tions and axioms, to prove propofitions, &c. and from thofe
propofitions proved to prove others. rI his method we alfo
call compi/ition, in oppofition to analyju or refolution. bee
Analysis.
SYPHILIS. See Medicine, d° 350.
SYPHON. See Hydrostatics, n° 25, 26. Some
uncommon phenomena in nature may be accounted for upon
the principles of the fyphon ; as, for inftance, that of reci¬
procating fprings. See Pneumatics, WT
SYRACUSE, once a celebrated city of Sicily, and the
capital of the ifland. It was built, according to 1 hucydi-
des and Strabo, by Archias, one or the Heraclid*, who
came from Corinth into Sicily in the fecond year of the 11 th
Olympiad, deriving its name from a neighbouring marfli na-
med Syraco. What form of government firft prevailed in
mere origi- cjty not known. Many have fuppofed it originally
54 ] .SYR
by Athens and Lacedsemon at the time of the Perfian in Vieufc.
vafion. His aff.ftance, however, was afterwards rejec-
ted, as he infilled upon being made commander in chief
either of the fleet or the army. In the mean time the
Carthaginians had entered into a treaty with the Perfians;
by which it was agreed, that the former (hould attack thofe
of the Greek name in Sicily and Italy, in order to divert
them from afiifting one another. Sicily was accordingly g
invaded by the Carthaginians with avail army; but they Defeat? th«
were utterly overthrown by Gelon, as is related undei d
article Carthage, n° 7 ~ 9. After this victory, the people^™
out of gratitude obliged him to take upon lumfelf the title tit!eof
of king; which till that time he had refufed. A decreeking.
alfo palfed without op portion, by which the crown was
fettled on his two brothers Hiero and I hrafybulua alter
At what
itinis built.
a
Govcrn-
nally mo
narchical.
3
Soon be.
comes de-
Hiocratita
to have been governed by kings : but if this was the caie,
the monarchical government mud have continued only for
a very fhort time ; fince Arifiotle, Diodorus Siculus, axfd
Juflin, mention it as being very early fubjeft to a democra¬
cy, The hiftory, however, is obfeure and unimportant till
’ the time of Gelon, when it firll began to make a ccnfpicu-
4 ous figure.
Gelon fei- Gelon was born in the city of Gela in Sicily, of the fa¬
zes on the mjiy Telines, who had been created pried of the internal
overeigmj.gQ^ He fignalized himfelf in a war carried on by Hip¬
pocrates tyrant of Gela againft the Syracufians, whom he
defeated in a pitched battle, and had well nigh taken their
city afterwards. Having thus become very powerful among
his countrymen, he foon found means to feize on the fove-
reignty for himfelf. In a fhort time, having put hiu felf at
the head of fome Syracufian exiles, he marched towards that
place, where he was received with loud acclammations by
the tadlion to which they belonged ; and by their means ob¬
tained pofleffion of the city.
Gelon, in order to people the capital of his new domini¬
ons, firft. demolifhed the neighbouring city of Camarina, and
Takes feve-'tranfplanted the inhabitants to Syracufe. Soon after, enter-
ral cities, ing into a war with the Megareans, he defeated them, took
and re- ancj rafed their cities, and in like manner tranfplanted the
I^haHtarns PeoP^c* Syracufe thns became very powerful, and full of
to Syracufe. inhabitants; and the friendfhip of Gelon was courted both
his death. , , ,
The new king, inftead of keeping his fubjefts in greater excel,
awe, fludied the more to make them happy as he found his 1 rci^‘
power tncreafed ; and, according to Diodorus Siculus, was
the firft man who became more virtuous by being raifed to
a throne. He was particularly famous tor his honefty, truth,
and fincenty ; is faid never to have wronged the meaneit of
his lubjedls, nor ever to thave promifed a thing which he
did not perform. , „ , 8r
Gelon died in the year 471 B. C- after having reigned Gelon dm,
three or four years; and was fucceeded by his brother -^iero>ceei;ei by
whofe character is differently drawn by different hiftorians. f£jtr0.
He was twice emtaged in a war with the Agrigentines, and
drove from their habitations the people of Catanaand Naxus,
fettling in their room a colony of Syracufians and Pelopon-
nefians. He i1* highly celebrated in the odes of Pindar ;
and it is certain that his court was the refort of men of wit
and learning, to whom he behaved in the moft courteous
manner and wich the greateft liberality. 9
In 4 J9 B. C. Hiero was fuccetded by Thrafybulus ; whoThrAp¬
proving a tyrant, was in ten months driven out, and a P°'r^n’t*^
pular government reftored ; which continued for the ipace
of 55 years. Several perions continued fdr fome time
to afpire at the fovereign power; and to rid themfelves ^ 10
o! thefe afpiring geniufes, the inhabitants made a ^ law not i
unlike that of the oftrackm at Athens. By this law 'inent re.
were to write on a leaf the names of thofe whom they fup‘ih>red.
poled to be powerful enough to afpire at the crown ; and
when the leaves were counted, he who had the moft luffra-
ges againft him was, without further inquiry, banifhed for
five years. This method of weakening the interefts of the
overgrown citizens was called petalifm, from the ^ret^troiuccd,
word TtTax^v, fignifying a leaf ; but being found to be pro- but foon
dudlive of great inconveniences, by driving out of the coun-af:er abn-
tiy all thofe who were moft capable of governing the cora-nfte.
rnonwealth, the law was repealed foon alter it had been
enadled.
The Siculi
About this time the Syracufians entered into a war wlfh fu[,due(i.
the Siculi, which terminated in the total fubjeftion of the
latter; after which Syracufe became fo powerful, that it in
a manner gave law to the whole ifland. The Greek c*tie®gvra^iiani
indeed enjoyed a perfect liberty ; but they all acknowledge ^eco1,e
Syracufe as their metropolis : by degrees, however, the lat hiughty'
ter began to affume fuch an authority over them as was to¬
tally inconfiftent with liberty ; and this oceafioned many
wars, which involved them in much dillrels and danger.
They began with the Leontines, whofe territory they laid 14^
wafte, and reduced their city to great firaits. Leontim vvasj^ ^
an Athenian colony ; and this furnifired the Athenians, vt 0iljans«itbj
had already meditated the conquell of Sicily, with a pre oU[ fm.ee
tence to attack the Syracufians with their whole force. Un¬
der colour of affifling their countrymen, therefore, they lent
a fleet of 2jo fail to Sicily; but the Leontmes, ientitne
15 .
A new in-
vallou.
16
f tbeni >ns
driite of
the Athe¬
nians.
SYR [25
Syracufe. that therr pretended allies aimed at nothing lefs than the
—v 1 conqneft of the whole ifland, concluded a peace with Syra-
cufe ; and the difappointed Athenians vented their rage up¬
on thofe who had advifed and conduced the expedition.
In 416 B. C. a difpute happening between the inha¬
bitants of Egeita and Selinus concerning fome lands which
the latter had feized, the Egeftines applied for affiftance to
Agiigeutum, Syracufe, and even to Carthage. But as none
of thel'e dates chofe to intereft themfelves in their quarrel,
they applied at laft to the Athenians, who joyfully accepted
of the opportunity of again interfering in the affairs of Sicily.
Though the Egeftines were but an inconfiderable people,
they had engaged to pay all the troops that {hould be em¬
ployed in the war ; but this appearing doubtful to the Athe¬
nians, they fent ambaffadors to inquire into the ftate of the
illand in general, and particularly that of Egetta. The
Egeftines impofed on thefe ambaffadors by producing a great
imj ofed on number of gold and filver veffels which they had borrowed
Ume«e L S " *or purpofe ; fo that the populace of Athens, dreaming
of nothing hut conquefts to be made without any exper.ce,
became obtlinalely bent on the war. Nicias, a man of great
influence at Athens, attempted to ftrow, that as Athens was
then engaged in a dangerous war with Sparta, it was im-
poffible to fpare a force fufficient to reduce the ifland ; but
the contrary opinion being efpoufed by Alcibiades, at that
time the moft eloquent fpeaker in Athens, Nicias was over-
II!-ground- ruled, and obliged to engage in the expedition. The. force
e l confi- be required was only 5000 land forces and 100 galleys,
with which, however inadequate to the purpofe it may feem,
the Athenians were fo fure of fuccefs, that the officers, be¬
fore they fet fail, had a conference with the fenate concern¬
ing the diipofal of the Sicilians. In this conference it was
agreed, that the Selinuntines and Syracufians their fuppo-
fed allies flrould be carried off and fold for Haves, and the
reft obliged to pay an annual tribute and live according to
the Athenian laws.
With thefe fanguine expectations the Athenian forces
embarked to the number of yooo % for fuch was their ea.rer-
nefs for the expedition, that 2000 more enlifted themfelves
than Nicias had required. They firft failed to the ifland of
Egina, and from thence to Corcyra, where they had appoint¬
ed the place of rendezvous for their allies and the traniports.
On their arrival they fet fail again, and landed on the coaft
of Italy, with a view to engage fome of the Italian cities in
their quarrel; but finding this impoffibie, they fent iome
fhips to cruile off the coaft of Sicily, in order to find out a
proper place for landing, and at the fame time to know what
treafure the Egeftines could contribute towards carrying on
the war, which had been undertaken for their lake. Thefe,
on their return, acquainted the generals, that the Egeftines
had impofed on them, and were a poor indigent people, who
gC had 0nI^ 30 talems in the treafury. On this information
a council of war was called, in which Nicias gave it as his
opinion that they fhould fail to Selinus, which had been the
firft occafion of this expedition ; and then, if the Egeftines
performed their promife, and fupplied the army "with a
month’s pay, to oblige the Selinuntines and Egeftines to
come to an agreement, and then return to Athens without
engaging in fuch an expenfive war. Alcibiades, however,
again oppofed Nicias ; thinking it highly difhonourable to
return home without doing any thing, atter having been at
the expence of fitting out an armament. He "therefore
urged, that they fhould folicit the cities of Sicily to enter
mto a confederacy againft the Syracuiians and Selinuntines;
and, in cafe they found them dilpofed to come into their
mealures, to attack either Syracufe or Selinus. Another
ot the Athenian geneials was for laying fiege immediately to
cyracuie; but the opinion of Alcibiades prevailing, they
r8
Find out
the deceit
5 ] 'SYR
fet fail for Sicily. Having accordingly landed in that ifland, SyracuAv
they reduced feveral places; but Alcibiades in the mean ^
time being recalled, Nicias and Lamachus were left to C0P‘Reduce fe-
du£t the war as they belt could. At firft they were fuccefs-veralplaces,,
ful, poffeffing themfelves of a ftrong poft, and put the Sy- 20
raculians to flight ; foon after which they received confider-
able fupplies both of men, money, and provilions, from a'd pofft,f3; ’
Athens, as well as from their Sicilian allies. The Syracufians themfelves
alfo received affiftance from the Lacedemonians under the of a ftrong
command of an experienced officer named Gylippus. Be-Poft'
fore thefe arrived, the Athenians had poffeffed themfelves
of an important poft named Epipola, which being a very
fteep hill, Hood without the city and commanded it. Im¬
mediately after this the city was invefted inform. The ar
inhabitants made frequent and vigorous fallies ; but were Syracufe in»-
always repulfed with lofs. In one of thefe fallies Lamachusvefted‘
was flam ; and thus Nicias became iole commander. He
then caufed the canals to be cut by which water was con¬
veyed into the city ; upon which the Syracuiians began to
think of capitulating. From this, however, they were foon 2*
after prevented by the arrival of Gylippus with the Spartan^rives wit?*
auxiliaries. On this they prepared for making vigorous
fallies, in order to facilitate the entrance of Gylippus. While tans to the
they were making thefe preparations, Gylippus himfelf ap-relief of Sy-
peared at the head of 30CO foot and 200 horfe. Making racufe*
dire&ly for Epipolx, where Nicias had fortified himfelf in
a caftle named Labdaion, he drew up his fmall army under
the walls ; and fent an herald to Nicias, letting him know
that he would allow him only five days to leave Sicily. To
this meffage Nicias returned no anfwer; but Gylippus foon Takes a
after attacked the fort, carried it by ftorm, and put to thefort»and
fword all the Athenians that were in it. This opened for^ters tiier
him a way into the city, where he was received with loud
acclamations.
The fortune of the war was again changed. The Athe¬
nians gained an advantage by land, but were next day
defeated with confiderable lois. The Syracufians received
frefh lupphes from Corinth, and the Athenians fiom their
own country. Many engagements both by fea and land
took place, in which the fucceis was ultimately in. favour of 44
the Syracufians At laft the Athenian affairs were totally Athenian®*
ruined by the lofs of a fea*fight, in which 60 of their fhips tota^y de'r
were taken or deftroyed, and the reft left quite unferviceable.^lec* at
In this defperate fituation it was determined to abandon
their fhips, and retire that very night to the city of their
confederates- The Syracufian commander, fufpedling that
this would be the cafe, ordered all his forces to be in readi-
neis to prevent them from effecting their purpofe. But as
the people were then in the height of their rejoicing for the
late victory, they refuted to take up arms again until they ay
had refted for fome days. On this Hermocrates the general
fent to the Athenian camp fome horlemen, who were to pafs^^^"
for friends, and to advife Nicias not to quit his camp, which^raL & ^
was well fortified, iince the Syracufians. lay in. ambufh for
him, and had feized on all the paffes leading to the cities of
their allies. To this falie advice Nicias gave too eafy credit,
and did not march out till the third day, wheu his antago-
nift Hermocrates had prevailed upon his forces to inarch ^
out. The Athenians and their allies aifo marched out to-Harafled ir*
the number of no lels than 40,000 ; but finding themfelves re-
fliut up on all fides, and being obliged to fight their waytreat*
through every outlet, they foon funk into the deepeft de-
ipair. Nicias did his utmoft to encourage them; and at.
laft fueceeded fo far that they marched out in two bodies, ar
both drawn up in proper order. The vanguard led by Ni-Partofths
cias continued to keep together, and advanced in good or-arrny fur~
der ; but half the rear, commanded by Ltmofthenes, loftien^era'
their way in the cightj and were obliged to furrendir. Ni-
ciao
SYR r 256 1 SYR
Syricufe.
The reft
defea|,ed
with great
■.Slaughter.
39
The re*
mainder
furrender,
and are
cruelly u-
fed.
30
New inva
lion by the
Ca 1 hagi-
eians.
cias being informed of this misfortune, offered to pay the
whole expence of the war, provided he was allowed to march
off with.his men. But this being rejected, he fet oT, tho’
galled all the way by (bowers of darts from his enemies.
Arriving at a river called Afmarus, they rufhed into it 'with¬
out any order; in which, confufion the Syracufiaft caval¬
ry attacked them fo defperately, that 18,000 perifhed,
and the river for mhny miles was dyed with their blood.
On this occafion the Athenians were fo prefled with third,
that, unmindful oi their danger, they drank the waters of
the river all bloody as they were, which gave their enemies
the better opportunity of flaughtering them without rdift-
ance. The remainder furrendered, on the Angle condition
of having their lives faved ; but the terms were fhamefully
broke by the Syracufians. The generals were firft ignomi-
nioufly whipt, and then put to death : the common foldiers
were thruft down into quarries, where they v/ere allowed
only two fmall meafures of flour and one of water a-day ;
and where, being crowded upon one another, they fuffered
inexpreflible miferies for many months. Moft of them perifh¬
ed by this cruel treatment, and the few who furvived were
{old for (laves.
The war was fcarce ended, when a new and formidable
inyafion by the Carthaginians took place ; but the event of
that expedition was as unfortunate to the Carthaginians as
the former had been, of which a particular account is given
under the article Carthage, n° 12. et kq.
In the mean time, however, a coniiderable revolution bad
happened in Syracufe. The city of Agrigentum had been
taken by the Carthaginians, and of the few inhabitants who
Rife of
Dionyfius.
efcaped, fome fled to Syracufe, where they accufed the Sy-
racufian commanders of having betrayed the city into the
hands of the enemy. Dionyfius, a man of great valour and
addrefs, but who had become very obnoxious to thq poou.
lace,, took this opportunity of attempting to retrieve ^his
credit. .He therefore fupported the accufations brought
againil his countrymen by the Agrigentines, and even im¬
peached the magiftrates as having a fecret intelligence with
the enemy, and attempting to introduce an oligarchy. As
his. fpeech was entirely levelled againft the more wealthy
citizens, it was very agreeable to the lower clafs : the com¬
manders were inftantly degraded ; and others, among whom
was Dionyfius, were appointed. Having once gained this
point, he began to coniider how he might get all his col¬
leagues turned out. lor this purpofe he never joined in
any council of wai with the other commanders, nor im¬
parted to them his refolutions, giving out that he could not
truft them, and that they had more regard for their own
intereft than the welfare of their country. But while he
was proceeding in this manner, the more prudent part of
the citizens, perceiving what he aimed at, complained of him
to the fenate and magiflrates, and fined him as a difturber
of the public peace. According to the laws, the fine was
to be paid before he could fpeak in public, and the circum-
ftances of Dionyfius did not allow him to difcharge it. In
this dilemma he was affifted by Philiftus the hiftorian, a
man of great wealth, who not only paid this fine for him,
but encouraged him to (peak his mind freely, as it became
a zealous citizen to do, promifing to pay all the fines that
mould be laid upon hun.
Being extricated out of this difficulty, Dionyfius next
proceeded to inveigh, with all the eloquence he was matter
o., againlt thoie who by means of their power or intereft
were able to oppofe his defigns, and by degrees brought
them into difcredit. His next fcheme was to get thofe
exiles recalled whom the nobility had banirtied at different
times; as thinking that they would fupport him with all
their power, as well out of gratitude as out of hatred to the
o:, oolite party. Having gained this point alfo, he next Syracufe.
found means to ingratiate himfelf with the foldiery to fuch —
a degree, that, under pretence of taking proper meafures for
refitting the Cartha dnians, he was chofen commander in 3*
chief, with abfolute and unlimited power. This was no,s c^'^ea
fooner done, than, pretending that his life was-in danger, f^^*1*1*
he chofe out 1000 men for his guard, whom he attached
to his intereft by great promifes. As no perfon durft now
oppofe him, he poffeffed himfelf of the citadel, where all 3,
the arms ani provifions .were kept ; after which he pu-Bccoma
blicly took the title of king of Syracufe in the yearki"K°f
404 B. C. Nettie.
The Syracufians did not tamely fubmit to their new ma¬
iler ; but Dionyfius managed matters fo well, that their
frequent revolts anfwered no other purpofe than more cer¬
tainly to entail llavery on themfelves ; and he was allowed
to poffefs the throne without much oppofition till his death,
which happened in the year 1566 B. C.
On the death of Dionyfius, he was fuccceded by his fon, Dioujfim
called alfo Dionyfius. He was naturally of a mild and peace-
able temper, averfe from cruelty, and inclined to learning;
but his father, to whom all merit, even in his own children,
gave umbrage, flifled as ffir as poffible his good qualities by
a mean arid obteure education He no fooner afeended the
throne, than Dion, brother to Ariftomache the other wife
of Dionyfius the Elder, undertook to correeft the faulrs of
his education, and to infpire him with thoughts fuitable to 35
the high ftation in which he was placed. For this ourpoie Put under
he fent fir the philolopher Plato, under whofe care he im-tte care
mediately put the young king. This inftantly produced,
a reformation on Dionyfius; but the courtier5, dreading the Dion,
effort? of the philolopher’s inftruftions, prevailed on him towhemhe
ban ih Dion, and to keep Plato himfelf in a kind of impri-^ani^es*
(onment in the citadel. At laft, however, he fet him at li¬
berty ; upon which Plato returned to his own country.
Dion, in the mean time, vifited feveral of the Grecian ci¬
ties, and at iaft took up his refVdenee in Athens ; but the
honours which were everywhere paid him, raifed fuch jea-
loufies in the breaft of the tyrant, that he flopped his reve¬
nue, and caufed it to be paid into his own trealury. In a
fliort time Dionyfius again feat tor Pi'to ; but finding it
impoffible to diffolve the friendfhip between him and Dion,
difgraced, and placed him in a v- ■ v dangerous Situation, in .5
the midft of affaffins who bated him. Not daring, however,Ufes Plato
to offer him any violence, he allowed him foon after to de-Tani
part; revenging himielf on D*>n, whofe eftate he fold, and1’ ov kf\
gave his wife Arete in marriage to Iimocrates one of hiswpnaP
own flatterers. g
Dion now refolved to revenge himfelf on the tyrant for
the many injuries he had fuftained, and at once to deliver
his country from the oppreffion under which it groaned. 37
He began wish raffing foreign troops privately, by otoperDion rffii,
agents, for the better execution of his defign. Many Sy-tr' ^!r
racufians of diftinrtion entered into his fcheme, and gave him^^ " g
intelligence of what patted in the city ; hut of the exile*, of 6 T
whom there were upwards of 1 ocv difperfed up and down
Greece, only 25 joined him ; fo much were they awed, by ,5
the dread of the tyrant. The troops were affembled at-ftsforce
the ifland of Zacynthus, in number only about 800 ; butvry
who had all been tried on many occafions, were well difci-at
plined, and capable of animating by their example the forces
which Dion hoped to And in Sicily. When they were
about to fail, Dion acquainted them with his defign, the
boldnejs of which at firft occafioned no fmall confternation
among them ; but Dion foon removed their fears, by telling
them that he did not lead them as foldiers, but as officers*
to put them at the head of the Syracufians and all the peo¬
ple oi Sicily, who were ready to receive them with open
4 arms.
SYR [ 257 1 . S Y
Srratufe. arms. Having than embarked in two (mail trading veiTels, tranfports laden with provifions.
J the}’- arrived in 1 2 days at Cape Pachynum near Syracufe.
1 r
S^’rafufo.
 ,  
39
Is in threat
danger.
40
En‘ers Sy
Their pilot advifed them to land immediately, left they
fhould be overtaken by a violen^ftorm, which he perceived
was approaching ; but Dion, judging it improper to land
fo near the enemy, commanded him to put to lea a^ain, and
double the Cape. — t his was no fooner done than the ftorm
came on ; and the two veftels were driven on the coaft of
Africa, where they* were in great danger of being loft. At
laft they arrived at the port of Minoa, not far from Agri-
pentum. Here they received intelligence that Dionyfius
had fet fail for Italy, attended by a fleet of 80 galleys. On
this Dion refolved to take advantage of the tyrant’s ab-
fence ; and immediately let fail for Syracufe. On his march
he prevailed upon the inhabitants of Agrigen turn, Gela,
Camarina, and other cities, to join him. As foon as he
entered the territories of Syracufe, multitudes flocked to
him ; and as nobody appeared to oppofe him, he boldly en¬
tered the city, where he quickly found himfelf at the head
  , of 50,000 men. As loon as he had landed in Sicily, Ti-
nrufe wirh-mocrates, to whom his wife Arete had been given by Dio-
tionnyfius, and to whom the care of the city had been left, dif-
patched a courier to let the tyrant know the danger in
which he was. The meflenger, when almoft at his journey’s
end, found himfelf fo much opprefled by fatigue, that he
could not help lyitjg down oh the ground to take fome reft.
In the mean time, a wolf, fmelling fome meat which he had
in his wallet, came to the place, and carried off the bag in
which was the meat, together with the difpatches. By this
means Dionyffus was prevented from receiving a timely ac¬
count of Dion’s arrival; fo that when he entered the citadel
41 by fea, feven days after Dion’s arrival, he found his affairs
©lonylius in a defperate iituation. Upon this he had recourfe to ar-
arrives, but tifice ; and having amufed the Syracufians by a feigned ne-
defeated. 80t*ati0n> unt;il he obferved that they kept a negligent
guard, he attacked them all at once with Inch fury, that he
had almoft taKen the city. But Dion encouraged the fol-
diers by his example fo much, that he at laft obtained a
complete viftory; for which they prefented him with a
4* crown of gold.
Sthe SyS- Xt was not lonS’ however, before the ungrateful Syracu-
cufians to *'lans began to think of conferring quite different rewards
on their benefactor. Dionyfius had the addrefs to render
him fufpe&ed by the multitude ; at the fame time that He-
raclides, an excellent officer, but a fecret enemy to Dion,
did ail that lay in his power to fink his credit. In a Ihort
time Dionyfius was obliged to fly into Italy : after which
Heraclides, in qrder to ingratiate himfelt with the popu¬
lace, propoled a new divilion of lands ; infinuating, that
they could never enjoy perfeft liberty as long as there was
fo much inequality in wealth and power among the citizens.
1 his fcheme was oppofed by Dion, in confequence of which
a general combination was formed againft him ; and he was
deferted by all excepting the foreign troops whom he had
brought with him into the ifland. The Syracufians folicit-
ed even thefe to abandon the caufe of their general; but
Se dtlcave rh.eirf°,ffers were re-ieded with d:fdaln ; and Dion, with his
faithful adherents, getting clear ol the tumultuous and riot¬
ous populace, took the road to Leontini. The rabble pur-
fued him, but were foon driven back : and Dion redded for
fome time at Leontini, where he was received with all the
refpect due to his charafter.
In the mean time, the citadel Hill continued in the hands
ot the adherents of Dionyfius. Being blocked up on all
lides, they were reduced to great ftraits, and were a&ually
making propoiak of capitulation, when Nypfius, an experi-
e"c^d Rcnerab and greatly attached to Dionyfius, appeared
^-w,tvLTvm:& °f SiJicy8’ a“d a larscl)ttt of
Dion.
43
He is obli
44
A new ad¬
vantage
gained over
  —. r   The generallanded his
men, and got them into the citadel; but almoft all his gal¬
leys and fhips laden with corn were funk or taken. This
viftory proved the ruin of the Syracufians; for, giving
themfelves up to feafting and debauchery, the enemy iallied
out in the night-time from the citadel, and maffacred the-fhelnha-
citizens without mercy. Being thus-made fenfible of thebitant maf-
error they had committed, an embaffy was fent to Dion, (acred by
intreating him to return and fave the city a fecond time.
To this he agreed without hefitation, and inftantly fet out^el.^ ^
on his march; but in the mean time, as the foldiers of Dio¬
nyfius, fatiated with {laughter, had retired into their fortrefs,
the ungrateful Syracufians began to repent of their having
fent - an embaffy to Dion. The chief commanders, there¬
fore, fent meffengers to ftop his march ; but as fome of his
friends fent deputies to him at the fame time, defiring him
to pay no regard to the former meffage, he proceeded on his
journey. The infatuated multitude lei zed the gates in or¬
der to difpute his entrance ; but they paid dear for their 45
frenzy. The Dionyfians again fallied out upon them, andAfecoiu!
made fuch {laughter, that one would have thought they had maflacre\
left none alive in the city. As the troops of the tyrant well j*" fet^
knew that Dion was battening' to the relief of the city, they fire. °n
uled their utmoft endeavours to deftroy it entirely before
his arrival; for, after they had murdered all the inhabitants
they could find, they let fire to the houfes, by which great
numbers perifhed. During this confufion Dion unexpected¬
ly arrived ; and having brilkly attacked the enemy, at laft
defeated them with great {laughter, driving the remainder 47
into the citadel. During the reft of the night, inftead ofThe Diony-
refrefhing themfelves after their fatigues, they aflifted in ex-fians defeat‘
tinguiftiing the fire ; which was not done without great dan-ede^tlth
ger and difficulty. The citadel foon after furrendered ; and daughter
Dion allowed Apollocrates the tyrant’s fon, who command-by Dion,
ed there, to retire with five galleys to his father. As foon
as Dion entered the citadel, he was met by his fitter and
wife Arete, whom he received with affection, notwithftand-
ing her having lived fo long with Timocrates. He then
left the Syracufians in poffeffion of the citadel, rewarded his
followers, difmiffed his guards, and continued to live like a
private citizen.
As foon as' Dion had got poffefiion of the city, Hera-
elides had fubmitted to him, and been received into favour ;
but as his feditious and turbulent behaviour ftill continued,* g
Dion at laft gave orders to put him to death. This adion’DIonbe-
however neceffary, fo affeaed the mind of Dion, that he be- comes me-
came melancholy ; and ever after imagined himfelf haunted lancl?oly’
by a frightful fpe&re, refembling a woman of gigantic fta-d:daSmur*
ture, with the haggard looks and air of a fury. In a fhort ^ *
time after he loft his life, through the bafe treachery of Ca-
hppus, or Gylippus, who pretended to be his intimate friend,
and who immediately after caufed his wife and fitter to be
canied to prifon.
' Calippus having thus removed Dion, foon made himfelf
matter of Syracufe, where he committed all manner of
cruelties ; but was driven out, and forced to fly to Rhegi-
um, where he was murdered with the fame dagger which
had killed Dion. In 350 B. C. Dionyfius again made him-Dionyfius
lelr matter of Syracufe ; and being exafperated by his paftreft°red.
misfortunes, tyrannized worfe than ever. The Syracufians
firit had recourfe to Icetas tyrant of Leontini; but as the
Carthaginians took this opportunity to invade them with a
powerful fleet and army, they were obliged to apply to the
Corinthians. By them Timoleon, a celebrated commander,
was fent to the affiftance of the Syracufians, whom he found
m a very diftreffed fituation; Icetas being mailer of the ci¬
ty, the Carthaginians of the harbour, and Dionyfius of the
citadel. As all parties were equally the enemies of Dionv-
K k fius,
SYR
r 258 ]
SYR
Syracufe-
50
Surrenders
to I'inio-
Jeon, and
keeps a
fchool at
Corinth.
5* .
Cowardice
of the Car¬
thaginians.
Citadel of
Syracufe
and other
fprts demo-
lilhed by
Timoleon.
'53
He repeo¬
ples the ci¬
ty-
54
Dies, and is
honoured.
as a god.
55
Syracufe
again falls
under the
power of
tyrants.
5<S
"Pyrrhus
king of
Epirus in¬
vited into
Sicily.
57
Conquers a
great p. rt
of the
iiland.
fins, he found it impoflible to hold out, and therefore furren-
dered himfelf to Timoleon, by whom he tvas fent to Co¬
rinth ; where at lall he was reduced to the necdlity of teach-
ing a fchool for his fupport.
°After the expulfion of the tyrant, Timeleon withdrew to
Catana, leaving only 400 Corinthians, under the command
of an experienced officer named Leon, to guard the citadel.
Thefe were immediately beiieged by Icetas and the Cartha¬
ginians, but Timoleon found means to relieve them in fpite
of all oppofition ; and having difperfed ernillaries through
the army of Mago the Carthaginian general, exhorting the
mercenary Greeks to forfake him, he was fo much intimi¬
dated, that in fpite of all the remonftrances Icetas could
make, he fet fail for Africa, leaving his colleague to carry
on the war in the bell manner he could.
The day after the departure of Mago, Timoleon affault-
ed the city fo brilkly, that the troops of Icetas were driven
from the walls, and the Corinthians became mafters of the
place. Timoleon, by found of trumpet, invited the inha¬
bitants to come and affift in demoliffiing the citadel and
other cables, which he called the nejis of tyrants ; after which
he caufed edifices to be ere&ed in the place where the cita¬
del had ftood, for the adminiftration of juftice. He found
the city in a moft miferable fituation : tor many having pe¬
rilled in the wars and feditions, Snd others having fled to
avoid the oppreffion of tyrants, Syracufe, once fo wealthy
and populous, was now become almoft a defert ; infomuch
that the horfes were fed on the grafs which grew on the
market-place. Timoleon fupplied the city with inhabitants
from Corinth and other cities of Greece, at the fame time
that great multitudes from Italy and the other parts of Si¬
cily referted thither. Timoleon diftributed the lands among
them gratis ; but fold the houfes, and with the money ari-
fing from the fale dlablifhed a fund for the fupport of the
poor. Having thus reflored Syracufe, he in like manner
delivered all the Greek cities of Sicily from the tyrants who
had taken pofleffion of them, all of whom he put to death.
After this he refigned his authority, and led a retired life,
honoured in the higheft degree by the Syracufians, and by
all the cities in Sicily. After his death he was honoured
as a god ; the expence of his tunerai was defrayed by the
public; fports, with horfe-races and gymnaftic exercifes,
were held annually on the day of his death ; and it was
decreed, that whenever the Syracufians were at war with
the barbarians, they fliould fend to Corinth for a general.
For 20 years the Syracufians enjoyed the fruits of Timo-
leon’s victories ; but newdifturbanc.es arifing, in a fhort time
another tyrant ftarted up, who exceeded all that had gone
before him in cruelty and other vices. This was the cele¬
brated Agathocles, of whofe exploits agaiutl the Carthagi¬
nians a full account is given under the article Carthage,
n° 33—53. He was poifoned by one Moenon in the year
289 13. C. after having reigned 28 years, and lived 95.—
A fucceffion of tyrants followed, till at laft the city, being
held by two rivals, Tcenion and Sofiflratus, who made war
within the very walls, Pyrrhus king of Epirus was invited
into Sicily, in order to put an end to thefe diflra&ions. He
willingly complied with the invitation; and was everywhere
received with loud acclamations, as the deliverer not only of
Syracufe, but of all Sicily. As he had a fine atmy of 30,000
foot and 5000 horfe, with a fleet of 200 fail, he drove the
Carthaginians from place to place, till he left them only the
two ft rung pofl.s of Eryx and Exlybaeum. The former or
thefe he took-by affault, and was himfelf the firft man who
mounted the walls, after having killed a great number of
Africans with his own hand. The Mamertines likewife,
who had conquered a confiJerable part of the ifland, were
sverywhere defeated
behaves in
tout up in the city ofMefTana. The Carthaginians, alarmed Syracufe,
at the rapidity of his conqnefts, fent ambafladors with pro- '—“v—^
pofals of peace upon very advantageous terms ; but Pyrrhus,
puffed up with the expectation of reducing the whole ifland,
refufed to hearken to any terms unlefs they would inftantly
abandon it. So firm was he in the belief of this, that he
caufed his fon take upon him the title of king of Sicily ; buta hiueht
in the mean time, having difpleafed the Sicilians by his arbi-manner, X
trary behaviour, they deferted from him in fuch numbers *,1(1‘sobli-
that he was glad to fet out for Italy, for which retreat the re‘
embaffies he received from the Samnites, Tarentines, and ltajy(int<>
other Italians, furnilhed him with an honourable pretext.
He embarked in the ihips which he had brought with him
from Italy ; but was met at fea by the Carthaginians, who
funk 70 of his veffels, and difperfed or took the reft ; fo that
he laved himfelf .in Italy only with J2 veffcls, the poor re- ^
mains of a fleet of 200 fail. No fooner were the Mamer- Harafled hy
tines apprifed of his departure, than they difpatched a body the Mamo
of 18,000 men to harals him after his landing. Thefe, ha-1™65-
ving palled the llraits before him, polled themfelves in
the road which Pyrrhus mult take in marching by land to
Tarentum; and concealing themfelves among woods and
rocks, attacked him unexpeftedly, and with great refolution.
But Pyrrhus behaved on this occafion with his ufual brave¬
ry. The attack being made on his rear, he haftened thi¬
ther, and made a dreadful fldughter of the enemy, till a
wound on his head obliged him to retire. As he was fup-
pofed to be dilabled by this wound, a proud Marnertine, of
an extraordinary fize, and Ihining in bright armour, advan¬
ced, and with a loud voice challenged the king of Epirus, fo
if he was yet alive, to a tingle combat. Pyrrhus imme-Aftonifh-
diately turned about, and making a dreadful appearance by^y*^
realon of the blood which ran down his face, flew at this y
new champion, on whofe head he difcharged fu.ch a furious
blow, that he cleft his body afunder ; one half falling to the
right, and the other to the left. This incredible teat, which
has lince been afcribed to other warriors, perhaps with as
much truth as to Pyrrhus, fo much intimidated the Mamer¬
tines, that they allowed his troops to continue their march •
unmolefted. g,
After the departure of Pyrrhus, Pliero the fon of H iero- Hicro dio¬
des, a defeendant of Gelon the firft king of Syracufe, was ren general
chofen general of the forces, along with another named /Jr-1
ternidorus. The two generals had nothing more at heartce‘3> ■
than to put an end to the confufion and diforder.which
reigned in the city ; for which reafon they entered it at
the head of their forces. On this oecafton Hiero difeover-
ed extraordinary talents fiar government. By mere dint of
infinuatron and addrefs, without fhedding blood, or hurting
a Angle citizen, he calmed the minds of the people; recon¬
ciled the factions ; and fo gained the affections of all, that
he was invefted with the whole civil as well as military pow¬
er in the Rate. Soon after this, he married the daughter
of one of the firft citizens ; and having diftinguifhed himfelf Is eleded
by his exploits againft the Mamertines, was unanimoufly 0^f*/
elected king of Syracufe, in the year 265 B. C.
Some time after Pliero’s acceffion to the throne, he again
defeated the Mamertines, and reduced them to fuch ftraits,
that they were obliged to call in the Romans to their af-
fiftance. Tire confequences of this have been fully related 6.;
under the articles Rome and Carthage. Hiero, who had Lives
allied himfelf with the Carthaginians, being himfelf deteated^”^ ^
by the Romans, and finding his allies unable to proteft him^e Ro-
againft the power of that republic, concluded an alliance mans,
with them ; and continued faithful-to them even in the time
of the fecond Punic war, when they were in the greatest
In his reign flourifhed the celebrated mathemati-
diftrefs
nd driven out, till at laft they were*-dan Archimedes, whole genius he employed in fortifying
\ the
SYR ' . r 2*9 1
Syrarufe. the city of Syracufe, by innumerable machines, in fuch a when at a alliance.
64
Hierony¬
mus allies
with the
Carthagi¬
nians.
* See Car-
thave-
Il° 123.
Syracufe
inveiled.
manner as rendered it abfolutely impregnable to every me¬
thod of attack known at that time.
Hiero died about 211 B. C. and was fucceeded by his
grandfon Hieronymus: but he imprudently forfook the
counfels of his grandfather, and entered into an alliance with
the Carthaginians. Soon after this he was murdered, in
confequence of his tyranny and cruelty, and the greateft dif-
orders took place in the city ; which Hannibal, though then
in Italy, found means to foment, in hopes of keeping the
Syracufians in his intereft. This indeed he effe&ed ; but
as his own affairs in Italy began to decline *, he could not
prevent Marcellus from landing in Sicily with a formidable
army, which the Sicilians could by no means refift. Syra¬
cufe was foon inveded ; but the machines invented by Ar¬
chimedes baffled all attempts to take it by affault. It was
22 miles in compafs, and confided properly of five cities in
one, viz. Ortygia, Acradina, Tyche, Neapolis, and Epi-
pola*.-~ Ortygia was a fmall ifland very near the continent,
66 and might be called the citadel of Syracufe, being joined to
of The k'o-6 ',J‘cra!::-,'na ,ky a bridge. The immenfe preparations which
mans by If a ^ con/u^ made for taking the city by ftorm, could not
and land, have failed to accomplifh his purpofe, ha'd the place been
otherwile defended than by the contrivance of Archimedes.
1 he Roman fleet confifted of 60 quinqueremes, befides a far
greater number of other {hips. The decks were covered
with foldiers armed with darts, flings, and bows, to drive
the befieged frdm the ramparts, which on the fide of Acra-
- 67 dina v/ere wafhed by the fea, and to facilitate the approach
Machine in-to the walls. But a machine of Marcellus’s own invention
'ente was what he chiefly depended on. He had faftened toge¬
ther fidewife eight galleys of different lengths, which made
but one large body, and were rowed only by the oars of the
outermoft galleys, i hefe eight galleys thus joined, ferved
only as a bafis for a machine, which was raifed up higher
than the higheft towers of the walls, and had at the top a
platform guarded with parapets in front and on each fide.
I his machine was called a fambuca, from its refemblaoce to
a mull cal inftrument of that name, not unlike an harp,
i he conful s defign was to bring bis fambuca to the foot of
the walls of Acradina ; but, while it was at a confiderable
Marcellus.
68
Deftroyetl
69
Incredible
effedls of
the ma¬
chines of
Archime¬
des.
xnedeT C^ance (Rl11^ ^ advanced very flow, being moved only by
two ranks of rowers), Archimedes difeharged trom one of
his engines a vaft ftone, weighing, according to Plutarch’s
account, 1250 pounds, then a fecond, and immediately af¬
ter a third ; all which, ialling upon the fambuca with a
dreadful noife, broke its fupports, and gave the galleys upon
which it flood fuch a violent fhock that they parted, and
the machine which Marcellus had raifed upon them at a vafl
trouble and expence was battered to pieces. At the fame
time, leveral other machines, which were not vifible without
the walls, and coufequently did not leffen the confidence of
tlie Romans in the affault, played inceffantly upon their
flups. and overwhelmed them with fhowers of ffones, rafters,
and beams pointed with iron; infomuch that Marcellas,
being at a lofs what_ to do, retired with all poffible hafle,
and lent orders to ms land-forces to do the fame; for the
attack on the land-fide was attended with no better fuccefs,
the lanks being broken and thrown into the utmoft confu-
fion by the ffones and darts, which flew with fuch noife,
orce, ano rapidityr, that they ftruck the Romans with ter¬
ror, and dafhed all to pieces before them.
Marcellus, furpriied, though not difeouraged, ?.t this ar-
tiiicial ftorm, which he did not exped, held a council of
war, in which it was retained, the next day before fun-rife,
to come up clofe under the wall, and keep there. They
'Ver?, Jn ^0Pes bY this means to fecure themfelves againft the
rn e ^oim Hones and darts which fell on the fhips
SYR
But Archimedes had prepared engines SynenlV.
which were adapted to all diftances. When the Romans -f
therefore had brought their flups dole under the wall, and
thought themfelves well covered, they were unexpe&edly
overwhelmed with a new fhower of darts and flones, which
fell perpendicularly on their heads, and obliged them to re¬
tire with great precipitation. But they were no foontr got
at tame diflance, than a new fhower of darts overtook them,
which made a dreadful havock of the men, while flones of
an immenfe weight, difeharged from other machines, either
difabled or broke in pieces moft of their galleys. This lofa
they fuftained, without being able to revenge it in the leaft
on the enemy. For Archimedes had placed moft of his en¬
gines behind the walls, and not only out of the reach, but
even out of the fight, of the enemy ; fo that the Romans
were repulfed with a dreadful flaughter, without feeing the
hand that occafioired it; as if they had been fighting, to ufe
Plutarch’s expreffion, not with men, but with the gods
themfelves. What moft harafled the Romans in the attack
by fea, was a fort of crow with iron claws, fattened to a
long chain, which was let doum by a kind of lever. The
wreight of the iron made it fall with great violence, and
drove it into the planks of the galleys. Then the befieged,
by a great weight of lead at the other end of the lever,
weighed it down, and confequently' raifed up the iron of
the crow in proportion, and wuth it the prow of the galley
to w'hich it was fattened, finking the poop at the fame time
into the w^ater. After this the crow letting go its hold all
of a fudden, the prow of'the galley fell w ith fuch force into
the fea, that the whole vtflel w'as filled with water, and funk.
At other times, the machines, dragging fhips to the fhore by
hooks, dallied them to pieces againfl the points of the rocks
which projected under the w'alls. Other veffels were quite
lifted up into the air, there wrhirled about with incre¬
dible rapidity, and then let fall into the fea, and funk, with
all that w'ere in them. Plow thefe ftupendous works
were effected, few, if any, have hitherto been able to com¬
prehend.
The troops under the command of Appius fuffered no
lefs in this fecond attack than the fleet. In the whole fpace
of ground which the army, when formed, took up, the laft
files as well as the firft were overwhelmed with fhow'ers
of darts and flints, againft which they could not pofflbly
defend themfelves. When they had with infinite trouble
brought the mantelets and covered galleries, under which
they were to work the rams, near the foot of the wall, Ar¬
chimedes difeharged fuch large beams and {tones upon them
as crufhed them to pieces. If any brave Roman ventured
to draw too near the wall, iron hooks were immediately let
down from above, which, taking hold of his clothes or tame
part of his body, lifted him up in the air and dafhed out his
brains with the fall. Marcellus, though at a lofs what to
do, could not however forbear exprefiing himfelf with plea-
fantry : Shall we perfift, laid he to his workmen, in making
war upon this Briareus, upon this giant with an hundred
hands? But the foldiers weie fo terrified, that if they law
upon the walls only a fmall cord, or the leaft piece of wood,
they immediately turned their backs and fled, crying out*
that Archimedes was going to difoharge tame dreadful ma¬
chine upon them.
The centals, finding themfclves thus defeated in every The liege
attempt, turned the fiege into a blockade, reduced moft ofturned into
the other places in the iliand, and defeated the forces which3 blockade*
weie font againft them; and at laft Marcellus made himfelf
matter 01 Syracufe itfelf, of which the following account is -r
given by Mr Hooke. “ He took the opportunity of a fe- Mr Hooke’s
tival, when the foldiers and citizens had drunk plentifully, account of
to make a detachment fcale the walls of Tvche, in that carter6 tab'ng
K k 2 ‘ of of Syracufe.
^3 .
Syracufe,
1
SYR f 16
of it which was tcsrcfl to F.pipolw, ami which was ill guard-
ed. He prefently after poffcffed himfelf of Epipolse ; where¬
upon the Inhabitants of Neapohs, as well as Tyche, fent Ge-
puties to him, and fubmitted. Marcellas granted life and
liberty to all of free condition, but gave up thofe quarters
of the city to be plundered.
“ Not with {landing this, there was a great deal yet to do.
Acradina and Ortygia, which were ftrongly fortified, ftill
held out; Hippocrates and Himilco anived with their troops
to the relief of the beiieged ; and the Romans were forced
to exert all their bravery and fkdl to maintain the advantages
they had gained.
“ But now a plague made terrible havock in both ar¬
mies. At the firil breaking out of the peililence, the Sici¬
lians, who ferved under Hippocrates and Himilco, difband-
ed themfelves, and returned to their refpeilive homes ; but
all the Carthaginian foldiers perifhe'd, together with thofe
two generals. The Romans fuffered lefs by the infe&ion ;
becaufe, having been a longtime before Syracufe, they were
ieafoned to the air and water of the country.
“ About this time Bomilcar arrived on the coaft of Sici¬
ly from Carthage, with a fleet of T 30 galleys and 700 (hips
of burden ; but was long hindered by contrary winds from
doubling the cape of Paehynum. Epicydes, fearing the
Carthaginian might fail back to Afiica, left the command
of Acradina to the generals of the mercenaries, and went
to Bomilcar, in order to perfuade him to fight the Roman
fleet. The admiral would not engage, but failed away to
Tarentum with all his galleys, ordering his (hips of burden
to return to Africa. Epicydes, thus fruftrated of his hopes,
and knowing himlelf unable to defend a city already half
taken, retired to Agrigentum ; whereupon the Syracufians
maffacred the commanders appointed by him, chofe new
praetors to govern in the town, and fent deputies to Mar¬
cellos to treat of peace. In the mean time, the deferters,
fearing to be given up to the vengeance of the Romans,
perfuaded the mercenaries that they alfo would have the
fame fate. Inftantly the foldiers ran to arms, put to death
the new praetors, together with many of the Syracufians,
and plundered part of the city. After this {laughter they
chofe fix generals, three to command in Acradina, and
three in Ortygia. Upon the return of the deputies from
Marcellus, the mercenaries finding that their cafe was diffe¬
rent from that of the deferters, and that there was no de-
fign againft their lives, became perfe6Hy fatisfied, and the
negotiation went on. During the courfe of the treaty,
Marcellus found means to corrupt Mericus, a Spaniard, one
of the fix generals chofen by the foldiers, and engaged him
to admit the Romans into that part of the city where he
commanded. Mericus, the better to accomplifii this defign,
feigned an extraordinary zeal for the prefervation of that
place ; pretended not to like that deputies fhould have leave
to go out and in at pleafure ; and propofed, that for the
greater fecurity of the town, each general fhould have a di-
llin£l quarter afiigned him, and be refponfible lor any ne-
gleft of duty in it. The motion was agreed to ; and upon
the divifion, that diftriA of Ortygia which extended from
the fountain of Arethufa to the mouth of the great port
fell to his care. Marcellus, informed of what was done,
took his meafures accordingly. He fent a body of troops
to that fide where Mericus commanded, and the Spaniards
admitted them at the gate of Arethufa. At the fame time,
the proconful ordered a falfe attack to be made on Acra¬
dina ; which drawing almoft all the foldiers of the garrifon
thither, Ortygia was in a manner left defencelefs. Fore-
feeing this, he had detached another party of foldiers to
take advantage of it. Thefe entered Ortygia almoft with¬
out fighting} upon which the deferters made their efcape,
o ] SYR
the Romans giving them way ; and the Syracufians in A.- i Syractife, ^
cradina, thus delivered from the fear of the deferters, im- v ” ^
mediately opened their gates to Marcellus, who thereby be¬
came mafter of the whole city. _ *a
“ And now the conqueror, who is faid to have wept The city
during the fiege with compaffion for the inhabitants, gaveP^^-
up both Ortygia and Acradina to be plundered by his medes kiU
army, after he had fecured the late king’s treafnres for the led.
ufe of his republic, and the flatties, paintings, and princi¬
pal ornaments of Syracufe to illuftrate his triumph. The
foldiers had orders to fpare the lives of the citizens ; but
they were cruel in their avarice, flew' many of them, and
among the reft the incomparable Archimedes. He w-as
very intent en a demonftration in geometry, and calmly
drawing- his lines, w'hen a foldier entered the room, and
clapped a fword to his throat. “ Hold ! (faid Archime¬
des) one moment, and my dernonftration will be finiflred.’*
But the foldier, equally regardlefs of his prayer and his de*
ir.onftration, killed him inftantly. There are different ac¬
counts of the manner of his death ; but all agree that Mar¬
cellus regretted it extremely, and {bowed a- lingular favour
to his relations for his fake.” 7i
The city of Syracufe continued fubjeA to the weftern^yj^
empire till its declenfion, when the ifland ot Sicily, t>eingby theSa*
ravaged by different barbarians, the capital alfo underwentracens.
various revolutions ; till at laft, in the 9th century, it was
fo deftroyed by the Saracens, that very few traces of its
ancient grandeur are now to be feen. “ The ancient city ofJX T
Syracufe was ol a triangular form, and confifted of five m
parts or towns. The circuit, according to Strabo, amount-voi,
ed to 180 ftadia, or 22 Englifh miles, and four furlongs, p. 347,
An account (fays Mr Swinburne) which I once fufpedled&c-
of exaggeration ; but, after (pending two days in tracing the
ruins, and making reafonable allowances for the encroach¬
ments of the fea, I was convinced ol the exadlnefs of his
meafurement.
“ At prefent it is ftrongly fortified towards the land, and
the ditches of the baftions form the communications be¬
tween the tw'o havens. It is very weak towards the fea,
but the fhelves render it hazardous to debark on that fide.
The garriton is one of the bell appointed in the kingdom,
but the heights of Acradina command the works. ,
“ About eighteen thoufand inhabitants are now' contained
in it. The dwellings are far from being memorials of an¬
cient Syracufan architedlure or opulence. In any other
frtuation they might he thought tolerable; but to. obfervers
who refledl on the ftyle of thofe buildings that probably
once covered the fgpre ground, the prefent edifices muft
have a mean appearance. The ancient temple of Minerva
is now t&rned into a cathedral. The walls of the cella are
thrown down, and only as much left in pillars as is neceffary
to fupport the roof; the intercolumniations of the pety-
ftile are walled up. This temple is built in the old Do¬
ric proportions ufed in the reft of Sicily ; its exterior di-
menfions are 185 feet in length and 75 in breadth. There
are alfo lome remains of Diana’s temple, but now fcarcely
difcernible. Befides thefe, there are few ruins in the ifland}
and one is furprifed that any ftiould exift in a place which
has been fo often laid wafte by enemies, and fo often fhaken
by earthquakes.
“ Every obje£l here imprints a melancholy fenfation on the
mind, while it draw's a comparifon between the prefent
humble ftate of things and their once flourifhing condition.
The ancients have left pompous deferiptions of the traffic
carried on in this well fituated port, the almoft incredible
wealth poffeffed by its citizens, and the fplendid edifices
upon which they laviftred a great part of their riches. I
had already viewed (fays Mr Swinburne) the defert fites
S Y
R { 261 ] ‘ SYR
of many freat ancient cities, and had as often mourned all his provinces; but his fon Demetrius bang afterwards
over their‘ remains, but never did I feel the imprefiion of defeated by Ptolemy at Gaza, Seleucus began to think ot 5
pity and regret fo ftrong as In wandering among the ruins recovering what he had loil.^ Being fumifhed by I t^olemyAttempts
of Syracllfe.,,
Names, di*
vifions, &c
of ancient
Syria.
7,
Seleucus
the liril
Icing of
Syria after
Alexander
the Great.
3
Attempts
to deflroy
Earn cues.
Obliged hy
Antigonus
to fly into
Egypt.
SYRIA, a very ancient kingdom of Afia, lying between
the Mediterranean on the weft, the Euphrates on the eaft,
and Arabia Deferta, Phoenicia, and Palcftine, on the fouth.
In ancient times this country was called Aram, from A-
rarn the youngeft fon of Shem, who fettled here ; but in
procefs of time the name came to be changed into Syria,
from one Syrus, according to fome ; though others think it
is only a contra&ion of the word AJfyria. At firft it was
undoubtedly parcelled out into feveral petty ftates ; all of
which feem afterwards to have been reduced under fubjec-
tion to the four principal ones, Zobah, Damalcus, Hamath,
and Gefhur. Afterwards the whole country was divided in¬
to two parts only, viz. Ccelefyria and Phoenicia; though the
Phoenicians, Idumcans, Jews, Gazites, and Azotites, or the
whole country of the Philiftines, was included. After the
death of Alexander, Syria, in the great extent of the word,
was divided, according to Strabo, into Comagene, Seleucis
of Syria, Coelefyria, Phoenice on the fea coaft, and Judea in
the midland. Ptolemy, however, fubdivides theie; and in
the Proper Syria reckons only Comagene, Pieria, Cyrrhiiti-
ca or Cyrrheftica, Seleucis, Caftiotis or Cafiotis, Chalybo-
nitis, Chalcidice or Chalcidene, Apamene, Laodicene, Phoe¬
nicia Mediterranea, Coelefyria and Palmyrene.
The hiftory of the ancient Syrians, till the time of th^ir
being carried away by the kings of Affyria, is totally un¬
known, excepting a lew particulars which may be gathered
from Scripture, and which it is needlefs here to repeat.
During the continuance of the Affyrian, Babylonian, and
Perfian monarchies, the hiftory of this country affords no¬
thing remarkable; but after the death of Alexander, it gave
name to a very confiderable empire, which makes a confpi-
cuous figure in ancient hiftory. At this time, however, it
was not confined to Syria properly fo called, but compre¬
hended all thofe vaft provinces of the Upper Afia which
formed the Fevfian empire ; being, in its full extent, bound¬
ed by the Mediterranean upon one fide, and the river Indus
on the other. The fitft king was .Seleucus, one of the ge¬
nerals of Alexander the Great;'who, after the death of
that conqueror, being made governor of Babylon, was
tempted, by the example of Alexander’s other captains, to
let up for himfelf. Eumenes, who had fincerely at heart
the iptereft of Alexander’s family, folicited his affiftance
againlhAntigonus, who had openly revolted ; but Seleucus
not only refufed this afliftance, but attempted to deftroy Eu-
menes himfelf with his whole army, by cutting the fluices
of the Euphrates, and laying under water the whole plain
where they were encamped. Eumenes, however, found
means to efcape the danger without the lofs of a man. Up¬
on this Seleucus endeavoured to gain over his troops : but
finding that impoffible, he made a truce with Eumenes, and
granted him a iale paflage through his province; but at the
lame time lent an exprels to Antigonus, defiring him to fall
upon him before he was joined by the governors of Upper
Alia. Antigonus did not fail to follow his advice ; but
having prevailed again!! Eumenes through treachery, he
next thought of bringing Seleucus himfelf under fubjeftion.
On his return to Babylon, therefore, after having been feaft-
ed with his whole army by Seleucus, he demanded of him
an account of the revenues of his province. Receiving an
unfavourable anfwer to this queftion, Antigonus was fo
much exafperated, that Sdeucus, not thinking himfelf a
recovering what he had loft,
with icco foot and 200 horfe, he fet out with that {lender the recove-
force to attempt the recovery of Babylon. Nothing couldr y Baby-
have a more defperate appearance than this undertaking ,
yet Seleucus was not difeouraged. On.fcis arrival at Carrh«|orc€j
in Mefopotamia, partly by force and partly by perfualion,
he prevailed on the Macedonians who garrifoned that place
to icvolt from Antigorus and join him. Being thus rein¬
forced, he entered the territories of Babylon, where new
fupplies were continually added to his army ; his ancient
fubjedls flocking to him from all parts, and declaring them-
felves ready to ftand by him with their lives and fortunes.
This happened in confequence of the lenity with which they
bad been treated by Seleucus; whereas Antigonus was uni- 6
verlally detefted on account of his feverity.—As he ap-Becomes
preached the city, thofe who favoured Antigonus retired™3^6*
into the citadel, but were loon obliged to furrender ; and in1 c cltY’
that fortrefs Seleucus found his children, friends, and domef-
tics, whom Antigonus had kept priloners ever fince his
flight into Egypt.
Seleucus having thus made himfelf matter of Babylon, in
the year 312 B. C. began to psepare for encountering An¬
tigonus, who he knew would foon attack him with all his ^
force. Nicanor, eovernor of Media under Antigonus, firft Defeats
advanced again!! him at the head of 10,000 foot and yoooNRa“°r»
horfe ; but Seleucus, with only 3000 foot and 400 horfe,
having drawn him into an ambufh, cut off almoft the wholesuftan»»
of his army, and fuch of the foldiers as had efcaped the
{laughter willingly enlifted under his banner.
I he confequence of this victory was the fubmiffion of all
Media and Sufiana; which alarming Antigonus, he fent hi*
fon Demetrius with an army of 5000 Macedonian foot,
10,000 mercenaries, and 4000 horfe. Seleucus was then in
Media; and Patrocles, whom he had left to take care of
Babylon, finding his force inadequate to that purpofe, com¬
pelled the inhabitants to leave the city and difperfe them-
felves in the adjacent countries, while he himlelf, with what
troops he had, retired into two forts, which he thought
could ealily be defended. When therefore Demetrius en-
tered Babylon, he was furprifed to find it deferted, upon,
which he inftantly attacked the forts. One was quickly
reduced; but as the other held out till the expiration of
the time which had been allowed him by his father, he left
5000 foot and 1000 horle under the command of A.rche-
laus to carry on the fiege. With the reft he marched away, 1
fuffeffng his foldiers to live at diferetion as he went along ;
which fo provoked the Babylonians, that they were ever af¬
ter attached to Seleucus as if he had been their natural
prince.
On the return of Seleucus to Babylon, he eafily drove
out the troops left by Anrigonus, recovered the cattle
which he had garrifoned, and fettled his authority on fucli
a firm foundation, that it could never afterwards be moved. g
Having then marched again into Media, he defeated and Nicanor
killed with his own hand Nicanor or Nicator, whom Anti-aKQin de-
gonus had fent againft him ; after which, having fettled thef^,ted And
affairs of Media, he reduced all Perfia, Batlria, and Hyrca-
nia, fubjedfing to his new empire thefe and all the other
provinces on this fide the Indus which had been conquered.
Seleucus being now mafter of all the countries which lie
between the Euphrates and the Indus, took the title of king
of Babylon and Media. But, not fatisfied with thefe poffef-
fions, ample as they were, he croffed the Indus, in order to
T u r f. . ' o   ~ vtvivj nv. vitsmu. luc Aiiuub, 111 urucr uj>
maicn lor tum at that time, thought proper to fly into E- conquer thofe regions which had fubmitted to Alexander
P- u t o 1 » • ' beyond that river. But, during the time that the generals
A>y me rngnt ot bekucus, Antigonus was left matter of of Alexander had been making war upon his family and up-
SYR
[ 252 ]
SYR
cottos for
500 e,e-
phants.
Syria. on one another, one Sandracottus, a native of India, had
y—(Jj-Jven out the Macedonians, and made himfelf mafter of the
Cedes Indiaw^l0^e country. He oppofed'Seleucus with an army of
to Sandro- 600,000 men, and a prodigious number of elephants;
which intimidated the Macedonian fo much, that he offered
to leave Sandracottus in quiet pofTeffton of hiff dominions,
provided he would furniih him with 300 elephants. To
IO this Sandracottus readily affented ; upon which Seleucus
Defeats An-marched back into the weft againft Antigonus, and, in con-
tigonus, andjun<£^ion W1'th Lyfimachus and Ptolemy, engaged and totally
ci^ssmaii^defeated and killed him at Ipfus. Alter this Seleucus
marched into Upper Syria, which he reduced entirely, and
built the city of Antioch on the Orontes. In the fame
country he built feveral other cities ; one of which he call¬
ed Seitucia, from his own name ; another Apamea, from his
wife Apama, the daughter of one Artabazus a Petfian; and
a third Laodtcea, from his mother Laodice. He firft en¬
tered into an alliance with Demetrius, and married Strato-
nice his daughter; but foon after affifted Lyfimachus and
Ptolemy to deprive him of the beft part of his dominions.
*1 a as Demetrius being reduced fo low that he could give
him no farther jealoufy, Seleucus betook himfelf to the
building of another city, which he called likewife Se/euriay
and which flood on the place where the city of Bagdad now
Hands. Befidcs thefe, he built a great many others ; 16 of
which he called Antiochy from the name of his brother An-
tiochus; nine Sekuctay from his own name ; three Apamra,
from Apama his firft wife ; one Stratonicea, from his fecond
wife Stratonice ; and fix Laodiceay from his mother Lao¬
dice.
In 284 Seleucus entered into a war with Lyfimachus,
with whom he had hitherto lived in ftrift amity. Out of
36 general officers left by Alexander the Great, they two
only furvived, and both were upwards of 70 years old. Ne-
verthelefs they were both tilled with the ambition and ani-
mofity of young men. The two armies met at a place call-
tI ed Curopedion in Phrygia, where an obftinate engagement
Defeats and took place. Victory was long doubtful: but at laft Lyfi-
tnaV ni3C^us was run through with a fpear, and died on thefpot;
mac u.. on j113 tr00pS betook themfelves to flight, and left
Seleucus mailer of their baggage. This vidlory added to
the pofltffions of Seleucus all thofe provinces which had for¬
merly been fubjeft to Lyfimachus. The former exulted
much in his good fortune ; being chiefly pleafed that he
was now the laft of Alexander’s captains, and by this vic¬
tory became, as he fly led it, the conqueror cj conquerors; and
on this account he is generally called Aleatory or the conque¬
rs himfelf His triumph, however, on this occafion, was but fhort-
treacherouf.lived ; for, ieven months after, as he was marching towards
1/ murder- Macedon to take pofleffion of that kingdom, he was treach•
eroufly murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, on whom he had
conferred innumerable favours. Philetsems prince of Per-
gamus puichafed his body at a great price from Ptolemy,
and fent it to his fon Antiochus ; who, with extraordinary
pomp, burned it rn Seleucia on the fea coaft, ereClinu on
the place a magnificent chapel, which he called from his fur-
name Nicatonum.
Seleucus was fucceeded by his fon Antiochus Soter, who
held the empire 19 years. He refigned to Antigonus Go-
natus all pretenfions to the crown of Macedon; and having
tngaged in a war with Eumenes king of Pergamus, he was
defeated by him, and obliged to yield up part of his domi¬
nions. He died in 261 13. C. and was fucceeded by his
fon A ntiochus I heos; who having engaged in a war with
1 tolemy ihiladelphus king of Egypt, the Parthians and
Ladtrians took an opportunity to revolt, and could never
afterwards be reduced. In 2^6 B. C. he was poifoned bv
bis wife Laodice, whom he had divorced for Berenice daugh-
U
Anriochus
Soter.
.*4
Antiochus
Theos.
ter to Ptolemy, with whom he made peace on the revolt of Syria,
the Baftrians. On the death of Ptolemy, Antiochus di-
vorced Berenice, and took back Laodice ; v/ho, to fecure
herfelf againft the effefts of his fickle difpofition, poifoned
him, as we have juft mentioned, and railed to the throne her
own fon, named Seieucus Callinicus. Not thinking herfclfSeleucui
fafe, however, as long as Berenice lived, Laodice began im-Cdliakiij,
mediately to concert meafures for putting both her and her
fon to death. Berenice attempted to fave herfelf by retiring
to Daphne, where, fire fnut herfelf up in an afylum built by
Seleucus Nicator. There fbe was clofely belieged by the
fons of Seleucus ; of which the cities of Alia having intel¬
ligence, formed a confederacy in her favour. Pier brother
the king of Egypt alfo haftened to her relief with a conli-
derable army; but before either of thefe could come to her
affiftance, both fire and her fon were barbaroufly murdered,
with all the Egyptians who attended them. 16
Ptolemy, on hearing the melancholy news of his filler’s
death, determined to take the nioft fevere vengeance on herofh'.sdo‘
murderers. Joining his forces to thofe of the Afiatics, he"!^
carried every thing before him. Having in the firft place by Ptoiemy
put an end to the life of Laodice, he made himfelf mafter offiuergete*.
all Syria and Cilicia; then paffing the Euphrates, he fub-
dued all th£ country as far as Babylon and the Tigris; and
had not the progrefs of his arms been interrupted by a fedi-
tion Ulrich obliged him to return to Egypt, it is more than
probable that he would have fubdued the whole Syrian em¬
pire. As foon as he was returned, Seleucus attempted to
revenge himfelf ; but his fleet being deftroyed by a violent
ftorm, and his land army defeated by Ptolemy, he conclu¬
ded a truce for ten years. During all this time the Parthian
prince had eftablifhed himfelf fo firmly on the throne, that
it was in vain to think of dilpofieffing him. However, as
fooa as his other affairs would permit, Seleucus undertook j»
an expedition againft Arfaces the Parthian monarch ; byseleucia
whom he was utterly defeated, taken prifoner, and carried jdc.ted
into Parthia, where he died four years after. He was Arc-and taken
ceeded by his eldeil fon Seleucus Ceraunus, a weak prince, ^
who was poifoned by a confpiracy of two of his officers, thians.
when he had reigned one year; after which his. brother An¬
tiochus, furnamed the G’eaty afeended the throne in 22c
B. C. l8
In the very beginning of his reign, two of his generals, AmiAus
Alexander and Molo, rebelled againft him. The former hadth« G^41,
been appointed governor of Perfia, and the latter of Media;
but they, defpifmg the king's youth, refufed to obey. The
occafion of this revolt is faid to have been their dread of the
cruelty of Hermias the king’s prime minifter ; and as they
hoped to draw into their fchemes Achaeus governor of the
provinces of Afia Minor, they doubted not of fuccefs. In
this, howrever, they failed; but this did not difeourage them
from proceeding in their rebellion. Epigents, the comman¬
der of the troops about the king’s perlon, advifed him to
march without delay againft the rebels; but as Hermias re¬
proached him with treachery and a defign to betray the *9
king into the hands of his enemies, Antiochus lent two
his generals into the eaft, while he himfelf undertook an ex-“sfui ex¬
pedition againft Ptolemy Phihfdelphus, with a view of re-(edition**
covering Ccelefyria. In this attempt, however, he was dif-gainftE-
appointed ; and the generals whom he had fent into the
eaft were totally defeated, and their troops cut off ; upon
which he determined to lay afide for the prefent his Syrian
enterprife, and march in perlon againft the rebels. 'I his
was again oppofed by Hermias ; but as he found it impof-
fible to alter the king’s mind, tHtreacherous minifter found
means to get Epigenes the author of this project executed,
under pretence of holding a correfpondence'with Molo one
of the rebel chiefs. Antiochus in the mean time purfued
6 his
SYR
r 263 ]
SYR
Syria, hts march aramft the rebels, wl-.om he dereated in a pitched diers; but Antiochus having invefted the place, Scopaswas Syria.
7 -Lj. . ^ 6    tr.L c f. -
reduced to the neceffity of furrendering at difcretion. The
king purfued his conquefts; recovered all Paleftine and Coe-
lefyria ; after which he invaded Alia Minor, in hopes of re¬
ducing it alfo, and reftoring the Syrian empire to the fame
extent it had in the time of Seleucus Nicator. The free His con-
battle j upon which their chiefs laid violent grands on them-
S>' re IT'S felves. On his return he received the fubmifiion of the
one rebel- Atropatii, a barbarous people in Media ; and put to death
lion, but is his prime minifter Hermias, whom he found hatching treaeh-
embamflederoU8 jghgug againft him. During his lifetime, however,
by another. ^ trajtor> by accufirrg Achmus o1-treafon, had obliged him cities in Alia Minor immediately had recourfe to the Ro-(lUtfts
to revolt in his own defence ; fo that the king'had ftill two mans, who fent an embalfy to Antiochus on the occaiion y
important wars on his hands, viz. that with Ptolemy king
of Egypt, and the other againft Achreus. After fome de¬
liberation, he refolved to march firft againft the king of E-
gypt; and was at firft very fuccefsful, reducing many cities
in Ojelefyria and Paleftine, and defeating the Egyptians in
but as .both parties put on thofe haughty and imperious manSi>
airs to which they thought the greatnefs of their power
gave them a right, no fatisfatftion was given, but every thing
tended to an open rupture. While matters were in this ft-Hannibal
tuation, Hannibal the Great being obliged to leave his own flees to him
Is defeated a pitched battle : but in the year 217 B. C. being worfted country, fled to Antiochus : from whom he met with a{orProt<iC'
. ' . • ,1 .1 . . 1 __ C Ta  1.    —  U . 1.- .* A. A.. A. .. .. . MAA A • .AV. it Cl T—t A A .1.1a A. 1 t. A U A J ... A ■ tiOIt,
by the E-
j/yptians
but fup-
in the battle of Raphia, he was obliged to abandon all his
conquefts; of which Ptoleray immediately took pofleflion,
^reffes'the ant^ Antiochus was obliged to cede them to him, that he
rebellion, might be at leifure to purfue the war againft Achseus.
Antiochus Jraving made vaft preparations for his expedi¬
tion, foon reduced Achseus to fuch diitrefs, that he was
obliged to fliut himfelf up in the city of Sardis, which he
defended for fome time with great bravery ; till at laft, be-
ing betrayed by two Cretans, he was delivered up to the
Hisfuccef- king, and by his order put to death. Antiochus then un-
fes in the flertook an expedition againft the Parthians, whom he obli¬
ged to conclude a peace on very advantageous terms. He
then turned his arms againft the king of Badtria, whom he
alfo compelled to agree to his terms ; one of which was,
that he fhould give him up all his elephants. For the con¬
firmation of the treaty, the king of Badtria fent his fon to
Antiochus; who being taken with his majeftic mien and
agreeable converfation, gave him one of his daughters in
marriage. He then croffed Mount Caucafus, and entered
India ; where having renewed his alliance with the king of
that country, he received alfo of his elephants, which in-
eaft
gracious reception. As Hannibal had, while a child, fworn
perpetual enmity againft the Romans, he ufed all his eloquence
to perfuade Antiochus to make war with them ; and as the
many vidbories which he had gained over them left no room
to doubt of his capacity, Antiochus doubted nothing of be¬
ing able, by his afliltance, to conquer l^iat haughty people.
Several embaffies paffed between the two nations; but chief¬
ly with a defign, on the part of Antiochus, to gain time.
Hannibal endeavoured to draw his countrymen into the
confederacy againft Rome, but without effedt, A ntiochua Antiochus-
having ftrengthened himfelf by feveral alliances, at laft refolved neglefts the
to begin the war in earneft. To confult on the meafures af*vlC® of
proper to be taken, he called a council of war; but exclu-Halinix;:au
ded from it the only man whofe advice he ought to have
followed ; namely, Hannibal the Carthaginian. The rea-
fon of this was, that he had become jealous of him from the
too great intimacy, as he thought, which he had kept with
the Roman ambafladors. However, in this council it wa»
agreed that the war fhould be immediately commenced^
The King himfelf was prevailed upon by the JEtoiians to
pafs over into Greece, and at the fame time entirely to re*
creafed his ftock to 150. From India he marched into A- jedb the advice which Hannibal had formerly given, of fend
ing him with an army into Italy. Here he was made gene-
raliffimo of all the Greek forces; but made none of thofa
efforts that had formerly obtained him the title of Great*.
Indeed it now plainly appeared, not.only that he was inca¬
pable of carrying on war againft fuch enemies as the Ro¬
mans, but even of accepting proper advice when it was given
him. In another council, into which Hannibal was ad-
lachofia, Drangiana, and Carmania, eftabliihin r order and
difcipltne in all thofe countries: then paffing through Per-
fia, Babylonia, and Mefopotamia, he returned to Antioch,
after an ablence of feveh years.
Enter? into In the year 204 B. C. Antiochus entered into a league
a leag e with Philip of Macedon, on purpofe to derorive Ptolemy E-
^^^Ppiphanes, the infant king of Egypt, of all his dominions.    
again ft the T{^ Egyptians, however, put the young king under the mitted, that commander advifed the king, before he unler-
kingof E- tuition of the Romans ; who immediately required the con- took any thing elfe, to ufe his utmoft'endeavours to gaiiv
federate princes to defift from any enterprife againft the king  nu.-i.-- .r
of Egypt, under the penalty of incurring the difpleafure of
the republic. After delivering this meflage, M. Emilias
Lepidus, one of the ambafladors, repaired to Egypt, where
he took upon himfelf the office of regent and guardian to
the young king. Having regulated affairs there in the beft
manner he could, he returned to Rome, after having ap¬
pointed one Ariilomenes, an Acarnanian, to be chief mini
gypt*
over Philip of Macedon ; which, he faid, was a ftep fo im¬
portant, that if it could be gained, they might, without
much ado, become mailers of all Greece. But if Philip,
could not be prevailed on to make war on the Romans, he
was of opinion that the king fhould fend his fon Seleucus,
into Macedon at the head of an army, and thus prevent
Philip from giving the Romans any affiitance. But he ftill
... . - maintained, that the only way to defeat the Romans was to¬
ller to the kmg. Anftomenes being a man of prudence fend an army into Italy. This advice was again rejedied *
and fidelity, acquitted himfelf very well in his new ilation. and the king imprudently became the aggrefibr, by falling.
Having taken care to recruit his army as well as he could, on a body of 500 Romans before war bad been declared,
he fent ©ne Scopas, a man of great authority among the He alfo made king Philip his enemy, by entertaining the-
JEtohans, into that country, to raife auxiliaries. Scopas regent of Athamania, who was a pretender to the crown
f.n army of 6oy Bohans, at that time reputed of Macedon. To complete all, he himfelf fell in love tho?ftame.
t.ie beft foldiers m the world ; and having joined the Egyp- above 50 years of age, with a beautiful youn > woman ot ful beh^
tian army, reduced all Judea,, put a garrifon into the caitle Chalcis, whom he married ; and became fo great a flav-’ toVI0UX*
at Jerufalem, and, on the approach of winter, returned to this paflion, that he entirely negle&ed his affairs • the aorv
exandua loaded with booty. Thefe exploits, however, gave themfelves up entirely to diflipation and debaucherv
w*.re per.orined when Antiochus was abfent in Afia Minor; and every trace of military difeipline vaniihed
and no fooner was he returned, than the face of affairs was In the year 191 B. C. Antiochus was raifed from his le
33'
fcEgfp. WaS ¥'fed l? * tWy by „ declaration of war asainft him at Rome, and
taw aimy. o-i r 1 wey deftioyed. He himfelf efcaped to fet out for fEtolia. His army at this time amounted to no
bidon, where he Amt himfelf up with io,opq of Ids fd- more than 1 o;000 foot and 500 horfe. He had been made
t3>
SYR
r 264 ]
SYR
Syria.
Ik
.10
His fleet
Romans.
31
fatuated.
to believe tbat he would receive a vail reinforcement in iE-
i; — toj[a . kut when he came to make the experiment, he foon
found his miftake ; all the troops he could raife there
bv the^o- amounted to no more than 4000 men. With this force, fo
mans at exceedingly inadequate to the pmpofe, he was obliged to
Thermopy-oppofe the Roman army, who were advancing in conjunc¬
tion with the Macedonians, and hacf already made furprifmg
progrefs. Antiochus feized the Straits of Thermopylae;
but was driven from them hy the Romans, the king himlelf
being the firft that fled. Almoft his whole army was de-
ftroyed in the battle or in the purfuit, and Antiochus re¬
turned with difgrace into Alia.
Soon after his return, Antiochus equipped a fleet of 200
fail; on which he immediately embarked for the Thracian
Oherfonefus, now Grim Tartary, where he fortified the ci¬
ties of Lyfimachia, Seftus, and Abydos, with others in that
neighbourhood, to prevent the Romans from croffing the
Hellefpont. In the mean time Polyxenidas the Syrian ad¬
miral fent intelligence to the king that the Roman fleet had
appeared off Delos,.; upon which he defired him to feek them
defeated by out and engage them at all events. He did fo, and was de~
that^of the feated with the lofs of 40 flaps taken or funk in the engage¬
ment. This was foon after revenged by the deftru&ion of
the Rhodian fleet by the artifice of Polyxenidas ; but in
the end the king’s affairs went everywhere to wreck. Ha¬
ving laid fiege to the city of Pergamus, he was obliged to
raife it with lofs ; the Phoenician fleet commanded by Han-
Meets with nibal was defeated by the Rhodians; and foon after the
defeat^and ^eet un^er Polyxenidas was utterly defeated by the
becomes30*1 Romans. Antioch us was fo much difheartencd by thefe re¬
like one in- peated defeats, that he appeared like one infatuated. , In-
£'   ftead of fortifying more ftrongly thofe cities which lay on
the frontiers of his kingdom, he entir ely deferted them: and
thus Lyfimachia and Abydos, the two keys to Afia, fell
into the hands of the Romans without the leafl refiftance.
The arrival of the Romans in Afia ftruck Antiochus with
fuch terror, that he inftantly fued for peace. The terms he
offered were indeed very advantageous, but by no means
agreeable to the expeftations of the Romans. They there-
peace, but fore gave him this final anfwer : 1. That fince he had drawn
lArefufed. himfelf the war, he (hould defray the whole expence
of it; 2. That he Ihould reftorc liberty in general to all the
Greek cities in Afia ; and, 3. That to prevent future hofti-
lities, he {hould relinquifli all Afia on this fide Mount Tau¬
rus. Thefe terms, however, rtill appeared to him fo into¬
lerable, that he refolved to continue the war ; and determi¬
ned alfo to take the mod imprudent method of carrying it
on, namely, by hazarding all on the event of a general en¬
gagement. The king encamped near Magnefia, and ftrong¬
ly fortified his camp. The Romans infulted him in his
trenches, and propofed to attack his fortifications if he con¬
tinued to decline an engagement. At laft the king, think¬
ing it would be fhameful for him longer to refufe an engage,
xnent, being at the head of an army far more numerous than
that of the enemy, in a friend’s country, and in the midft of
his allies, refolved at all events to accept the challenge, and
accordingly piepared for a deciiive battle.
The Roman army confifted of'four legions, partly Ro¬
mans and partly Latins, each kg’on at this time containing
5500 men, and of 7000 auxiliaries fent by the kings of Per¬
gamus and Macedon ; but of thefe 2000 were ordered to
guard the camp during the aftion. The Romans were poll¬
ed in the centre, and the Latins in the two wings, the left
of which extended to the river. On the fide of the right
wing, to cover and fupport it, the conful pofied the auxi¬
liary troops of Lumenes, a fmall body of horfe, and fome
Trallians and Cretans lightly armed. Sixteen elephants
which the Romans had were placed behind the army by way
3*
Sues for
S3
Battle of
Magnefia
of corps-de-referve, the conful not thinking it proper to op* Syria,
pofe them to thofe of the enemy, which were tar more nu« u—v
merous, being in all 52, and betides excelled the Roman
elephants in ftrength, height, and courage, the former be¬
ing brought from India and the latter from Africa. As
fcr the Syrian army, all the nations of the eaft feemed to be
affembled to fupport the caufe of Antiochus. But the
main ftrength of it confifted in 1 6,000 foot, armed after «he
Macedonian manner, who compofed the phalanx. This
body faced every way, was armed with long pikes, and
taught to fight in clofe order, as the foldiers of Alexander
the Great had formerly been. Antiochus did not draw up
his phalanx as ufual, but divided it into 10 companies iepa-
rated from each other, placing, in the fpaces between each
of the companies, an elephant loaded with a tower full of .
armed men. On the right of the phalanx was drawn up in
a line part of the cavalry, viz. 1500 Afiatic Gauls, 3000
horfe armed cap-a-pee, and 1000 more, the flower of the
Median cavalry. At fome diftance from thefe followed the
cavalry of the king’s houfehold richly clothed, and wearing
bucklers plated over with filver. In the fame line 1200
Scythians on horfeback, armed with bows and arrows, made
a great figure, being all chofen men, and of an extraordi¬
nary fize. The light-armed troops, to the number of 3000,
partly Trallians and partly Cretans, with ie,ooo .Myfian
archers and 4000 men more, partly Cyrtceans armed with
flings, partly Perfians armed with bows, and partly Arabians
mounted on dromedaries, doled the right wing, which was
led on by the king in perfon, furroundcd by a body of Sy¬
rians and Lydians well mounted, but hot heavily armed.
The left wing was commanded by Seleucus and Antipater;
the former the king’s fon, and the latter his nephew, and
difpofed thus: Clofe to the phalanx were polled 15:0
Galatians and 2000 Cappadocians, which king Ariarathes
had fent to the afiiftance of his father-in-law. Next to thefe
were placed 2700 auxiliaries fent from different countries ;
thefe were followed by 3000 cuirafiiers well mounted; and,
laftly, in the flank of this wing marched 2000 horfe lightly
armed. At fome diftance were placed feveral fmall bodies
of light-armed troops both foot and horfe ; among which
were 2500 Galatian horfe, fome Tarentines, Cretans, Ca-
rians, Cilicians, &c. The phalanx, which was in the centre,
was commanded by three officers of diftindlion, viz. Minio,
Zeuxis, and Philip. A vaft number of chariots, armed with
hooks and feythes, were drawn up before the firft line, as
were likewife a great many elephants carrying towers with
feveral floors, all filled with {lingers and archers ; befides
many camels, animals then unknown to the Roman troops,
mounted by Arabians armed with fwerds fix feet long, that
the riders might from their backs reach the enemy. The
Romans had never feen a more numerous army, nor ene
more finely adorned; neverthelefs they never {bowed fo great
a contempt for an army as for this which they were now
going to attack.
On the day of the battle the weather proved very favour¬
able to the Romans ; for a thick fog rifing in the morning,
the day was almoft turned into night, fo that the Syrian
commanders could not have all the corps under their com¬
mand in view, on account of their great uxtent, nor fend
them proper orders in time; whereas the fog was not thick
enough to prevent the Roman generals from feeing their te-
veral bodies at the greateft diftance, as they took up but
little ground. Befides, the damp which was occafioned by
the fog flackened the firings of the enemy’s bows, fo that
the Aiiatics who ufed them could ftioot their darts and ar¬
rows but faintly. The whole dependence of Antiochus in
the firft attack was on his armed chariots, which were to
cut their way into the Roman army. For this purpofe they
had
SYR
r 2S.5 i
Syria.
T-allant be
laviour of
iuniene?.
35
'he dy-
.ans de¬
nted.
had long halberts fattened to their poles, and lharp hooks
to their axle-trees; the former were about the height of a
man’s head, and the latter almoft fvvept the ground, and-cut
off the legs of all who ftood in their way. But Eumenes
undertook to render them ufelefs, and even fatal, to the ene¬
my. This brave prince, putting himfelf at the head of the
bowmen and flingers, ordered them to charge, not in a bo¬
dy, but divided in platoons, and to aim only gt the horfes in
the chariots. Accordingly, as foon as the chariots moved,
Eumenes advanced at the head of his men, who pouring on
them from every quarter darts, ftones, and javelins, and at
the fame time (houting as loud as they could, fo frightened
the horfes that they could no longer be kept in order, but
fcouring up and down, and turning againft their own troops, ......
fell on the Arabians who fupported them, which occattoned eaft and weft,
a great confutton in that quarter. Thofe in the Syrian ar- Antiochus retired to Sard!
my who were at a diftance, hearing the noife and outcries,
SYR
Romans walking over heaps of dead bodies, efpecially where Syria,
the phalanx ftood, marched up to the Syrian camp, attack- ^
ed, and plundered it. The riches they found in it are not ,helr
to be defcribed : but the taking of it coft the Romans acaogr ta.
new battle, which proved more fatal to the Syrians thankeit’
that in the Geld ; for the Romans having, in fpite of a moft.
defperate refiftance, forced the intrenchments, gave no quar¬
ter, but put all to the fword wkhout diftinction. There
fell this day in the battle, in the purfuit, and in the plunder
of the camp, 50,000 foot and 4000 horfe ; 1500 were ta¬
ken prifoners, and x £ elephants. In the confular army there
were but 300 foot killed and 25 horfe. Eumenes had only
15 of his men killed ; fo that this victory, as we are told by
the ancients, feemed a prodigy to all nations both of the
j f 7
and not knowing the caufe of them, were ftruck with no
fmail terror. After this advantage, the Roman cavalry ad¬
vanced, and fell on thofe whom the chariots had put in dif-
01 der. The Syrians being alr eady intimidated, after a Jaint
reiiftance gave way ; and the Romans made a great (laugh¬
ter of their men and horfes, both being borne down with
the weight of their heavy armour. Eumenes charged the
left-wing, in which Seleucus commanded, with fuch vigour,
that he put it to flight; and the fugitives flying to the
phalanx for proteftion, put that body likewife in diforder:
which Domitius obferving, advanced againft it at the head
of his legionaries, but could not break it till he ordered bis
men to attack the elephants ; which, as before obferved,
were placed in the fpaces between the companies. The Ro¬
mans had learned, in their wars with Pyrrhus and Hannibal,
not to fear thofe monfters which were once fo terrible to
them. They attacked them, therefore, with great refo-
lution ; and driving them againft the phalanx, put that
body into diforder, by means of thofe very animals which
had been polled there for its defence.
But in the mean time advice was brought that the left
wing of the Romans was in great danger. Antiochus, who
bad obferved that the flanks of the left wing were quite
open and uncovered, the four fquadrons which covered it
having joined the reft of the cavalry to fall upon the ene¬
my’s left wing, had charged it at the head of all his auxili¬
aries, not only in front but in flank. The Roman infantry,
feeing themfelves in imminent danger of being furrounded
and hemmed in on all Tides, fled in great diforder to their
camp, which was guarded by 2000 men under the com¬
mand of a legionary tribune called JEmilius. This man fee¬
ing the Romans flying towards him, marched out at the
head of all his troops to meet them ; and after having bit¬
terly reproached them for their cowardice and ignominious
flight, ordered his men to draw their fwords, and cut in
pieces fuch as (hould advance one ftep farther, or refufe to
iac.. about againft the enemy, dhis order, given fo feafon-
ably, and put in execution without mercy again ft feme, had
?he defned eftedt. T. hole who were flying firft halted ; and
then, being both reinforced and encouraged by ^Smilius, re¬
turned under his conduct to wipe off the diihonour of their
flight. At the fame time Attains the brother of Eumenes,
having left the right wing on his receiving advice that the
lert was in danger, arrived very feafonably with 200 horfe.
Antiochus obferving that the troops which had fled were
returning- to the battle, and that the enemy’s right wing
was ready to fall upon him,, turned his horfe about and fled.
1 his ferved in a manner as a flgnal for the reft of the troops,
tor the whole Syrian army immediately turned their backs.
Eumenes alone purfued them at the'head of the cavalry,
" voTxvm -ptTf1 havock of the fu2itives' T1'e
with as many of his forces
that had efcaped the flaughter as he could draw together.
From Sardis he foon marched to rejoin his foil Seleucus,
who had fled to Apamea. As for the corlful, he took ad¬
vantage of the king’s defeat and flight, making himfelf maf-
ter of all the neighbouring countries. Deputies haftened
to him from all parts ; the cities of Thyatira, Magnefia,
Trallis, Magnefia in Carla, all Lydia, and Ephefus itfelf,
though highly favoured by Antiochus, declared for the Ro¬
mans. Polyxenidas, upon the news of the king’s defeat,
left the port of Ephefus, and failed to Patara, where he
landed with a very fmall guard, and returned by land into
Syria. The conful took the road to Sardis, which opened
its gates to him. As he flopped there, his brother Africa-
nus, as foon as his health allowed him, came and joined him
in that city, and congratulated him on the glory he had fo
lately acquired.
Antiochus finding his affairs in a bad fituation both by
fea and land, and not daring to appear before the confular
army in the field, fent Antipater his brother’s Ion, and
Zeuxis, who had been governor of Lydia and Phrygia, to
fue for a peace. They were ordered to treat chiefly with
the elder brother, of whofe clemency and good nature An¬
tiochus entertained a high opinion. Accordingly, on their
arrival at Sardis, where the conful then was with his bro¬
ther, they addreffed the latter, and were by him prefented
to the conful. Their fpeech was very fubmiflive, and fuch
as became a vanquifhed people.
Hereupon a council was fummoned, and after long de¬
bates the ambaffadors were called in ; and Scipio Africanus
being defired by the conful to acquaint the deputies with
the refolutions of the affembly, is faid to have exprefled him¬
felf in the following terms : “ We are fenfible that the vic¬
tory which we have lately gained is owing to the gods, and
therefore {hall treat the vanquilhed with moderation, de¬
manding little more of them now than we did at our firft
entering into Alia. Antiochus (hall obtain a peace upon Antiochus
the following terms: That he give up his pretenfions too!,tains
Europe, confine his dominions to Afia beyond Mount Tau-peace,on,
rus; and that he pay 15,000 Euboec talents for the ex-terms ^
pences of the war; 500 down, 2500 when the fenace and
people (hall confirm the articles, and 1000 more every year
for I2^years together. We alfo infift upon his fatisfying
king Eumenes, and his Saying him the 400 talents he owes
him, and what remains due for the corn which his father
fent to the king of Syria. It is likewife the pleafure of the
council that you deliver up to us Hannibal the Carthagi-
nian, hoas the jEtolian, Mnefilochus the Acarnanian, and
J hiio and Eubulus two Chalcidfans; for thefe have been the
authors of our diviiions, the incendiaries who kindled the
prefent war. Laftly, the king of Syria, for a further proof
of his fincerity, (hall give us 20 fuch hoftages as we (hall
choofe5 of whom Antiochus his youngeft fon (hall be one.”
L1 The
Syria.
SYR [ 266 ] SYS
Thr ambafladors of Antiocbus had been ordered to re- Maize thrives in the %ht foil of Balbec and even rice is
e r terms • and therefore thefe were accepted, and the cultivated with iuccefs on the borders oi the marthy coun-
Xle affair concluded. So that the Syrian ambaffadors try of Havula. They have lately begun to plant (u rar- >
nnw nreoaicd to fet cut for Rome, to get the conditions of canes in the gardens of Saide and of Bairout, and they fin.,
peace propofed by Scipio ratified there. In the mean time, them equal to thole of theDelta. Indigo grows without cul-
30
Jtyria be¬
comes a
Roman
province.
40
Climate,
toil, &c.
the conn
try.
the conful dividing his army into three bodies, put it into
winter-quarters; one part continued at Magnefia, another
was fent to Traliis, and the third to Ephefus, where the
Scipios took up their quarters. There they received a new
embaffy frem Antiochus, with thehoftages he had promifed,
the Roman prifoners and deferters, and the ftrangers which
tivating on the banks of the Jordan, in the country of Bifan,
and only requires care to make it of an excellent quality.
The hiil-lides of Latakia produce tobacco. Gaza produces r,
dates like Mecca, and pomegranate
„ 'chef l
like Algiers ; Tripoli fVW,,
affords oranges equal to thofe of Malta; Bairout figs like
thofe of Marfeilles, and bananas not inferior to thofe of St
Vul.
the Koman pruoners ana ceiercers, ana iuc n-icmgcio   , •
the conful had demanded, except Hannibal, who after the Domingo ; Aleppo enjoys the exclufive advantage of pro*
king’s defeat had fled out of Ins dominions ; and Thoas the ducing piftachios ; and Damafcus juilly boafts of polMmg
jEtolian, who, as foon as he heard that a treafy was on foot all tlm fruits known in our provinces. Its ftonv foil tints
between Antiochus and the Romans, had returned to iLto-
lia, where a war was likely to break out between that re¬
public and Rome. E. Aurelius Cotta was fent with the
ambaffadors to Rome, to acquaint the fenate with the par
ticulars of the treaty. When they appeared before the con-
feript fathers, they fpoke with great fubmiffion. and only
defired them to rati y the articles which the Scipios had of¬
fered to their mailer. The fenate, after examining them,
cidered that a treaty of peace fhouldbe concluded with An¬
tiochus, and the articles of it engraved on brafs, and fixed
up in the Capitol. They only added one claufe, which was,
That the Syrians fhould change every year all their hofta-
ges, except the Ion of king Antiochus, who fhould continue
all the fruits known in our provinces. Its ftony foil fuits
equally the apples of Normandy, the plums of Touraine,
and the peaches of Paris. Twenty forts of apricots are
reckoned there, the ftone of one of which contains a kernel
highly valued through all Turkey. The cochineal plant,
which grows on all that coaft, contains perhaps that pre¬
cious infett in as high perfection as it is found in Mexico
and St Domingo.
The inhabitants may be divided into three principal claf-
fes : the defeendants of the Greeks of the Lower Empire ;
the Arabs, their conquerors; and the Turks, the prefent
ruling power: and thefe again, the ftrft into three, the fe*
cond into four, claffes ; befides three wandering tribes of
Turkomen, Curds, and Bedouin Arabs. The ancient in¬
ges, except tne ion or rung rvnuocnus, wuu muuia auuLiuuu j. —  T, ,  .
at Rome as long as the republic thought fit. Fhe peace h?.bitants before tne Greeks under Alexanucr are entirely
Vs.i-inrr A f,a nn this fide Mount Taurus loft. The inhabitants are in general of a middling ftature,
3®
His death.
being thus ratified, and all Afia on this fide Mount 1 aurus
delivered into the hands of the Romans, the Greek cities
were by them reftored to their liberty, the provinces of Ca¬
rla and Lydia given to the Rhodians, and all the reft that
had belonged to Antiochus bellowed upon Eumenes.
Antiochus did not long furvive his misfortune at Magne¬
fia. Some tell us, that being greatly puzzled how to raife
the furn he had engaged to pay to the Romans, he feized
on the riches which had for many ages been depofited in a
temple of Jupiter Belas in the province of Elymais; upon
which the populace rofe in arms, and flew him and all his
attendants. Others inform us, that he was killed at an en¬
tertainment by one of his gnefts
loft. The inhabitants are in general of a middling ftature,
and the eyes of the women almoft everywhere beautiful, and
their fhape correct and well proportioned. The general
language is Arabic. Syriac is a dead language.
SYRINGA, the Lilac, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of diandria, and order of monogyma ;
and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 44th order,
Sepioria. The ,corolla is quadrifid, and the capfulfe is bilo¬
cular. There are three fpecies, the vulgaris, perfica, and
fufpenfa. '1 he two firft are natives of Perfia, and the laft
of Japan.—The vulgaris, which is diftinguifhed by ovate
heart-fhaoed leaves, was cultivated in Britain about the year
1597 by"Mr John Gerard —The perjica, which has lanceo-
tertamment oy one or ms gneies. oy/     > o V 1 in
Antiochus the Great died in 187, and with him the glory late leaves, was cultivated in 1658 ; but how long both
of the Syrian empire. The Romans now gave laws to the fpecies might have been introduced into Britain before thefe
kings of Syria, infomuch, that when Antiochus Epiphanes dates, it is oerhaos imooffible to aicertain.
the grandfon of Antiochus the Great hefltated at obeying
the commands of the fenate, one of the ambafladors drew a
circle round him with a rod on the floor, and told him that
he fliould not go out of that fpot before he had told him
what he was to do. The moll remarkable tranfa&ions of
this prince are h:s wars with the Jews, and perfecutions
of them ; of which a full account is given under the article
Jews. After a variety of ulurpers and tyrants, the king¬
dom of Syria fell under Tigranes king of Armenia in the
year 8^ B. C- ; and upon his overthrow by the Romans, it
became a province of the dominions of the republic. From
them it was taken by the Saracens tn the reign of the caliph
Omar, and is now a province of turkey in Afia.
Syria is in fome rjieafure only a chain of mountains, va-
of tying in their levels, fituation, and appearances. The part
- of the country, however, next the fea is in general low,
and befides this there are feveral extenfive valleys. The cli
dates, it is perhaps impoffible to afeertain.
SYRINGE, a well-known inflrument, ferving to imbibe
or fuck in a quantity of fluid, and to fquirt or expel the
fame with violence. The word is formed -from the Greek
cu^tyi, or-the Latin fyrinx “a pipe.” — A fyringe is only a
Angle pump, and the water afeends in it on the fame prin¬
ciple as in the common fucking-pump. See Hydrosta¬
tics, n° 2 ?, e/7^.
SYRUP, in pharmacy, a faturated folution of fugar, made
in vegetable decodtions or iftfufions. See Pharmacy, ch.
xxm.
.SYSTEM, in general, denotes an aflemblage or chain of
principles and conclufions, or the whole of any dodlrine,
the feveral parts whereof are bound together, and follow or
depend on each other; in which fenfe we fayr zfyjlem of phi-
lofophy, a JyJlcm of divinity, &c. The word is foimed from
the Greek o-vf-u/z-a “ compofition, compages.”
System, in the animal economy, the vafular, the ner-
diiu. LIXIJ V, ^ ' - * —-  ~  J   '
mate on the fea-coafl and in thefe valleys is very hot, but in % vous, and the cellular. See Anatomy.
.*1   _ C -U,. —.......... I- . - o -T-1.-.. in mnfi/- n r < n fTi-mKlju/P of 1
the higher parts of the country it bears a good deal of re-
fe'mblance to that of France. Syria is exceedingly fertile,
and the variety of its productions is very great. Befides
wheat, rye, bailey, beans, and the cotton plant, which is
Cultivated everywhere, Paleftine abounds in fefamum, from
which oil is procured, and doura as good as that of Egypt.
System, in rr.ufic, an affemblage of the rules for harmo¬
ny, deduced from fome common principle by which they are
reunited ; by which their connexion one with another is
foimed; from whence, as from their genuine fource, they
natively flow; and to which, if we would account for them,
we muft have recourfe. See the articles Chromatic, Dia-
- ' tohic*
SYS t s<S7 J
rnsic, Enharmonic, Harmony, Interval, ani Mu-
sic.
System, in botany. See Botany, page 430.
System, in aftronomy. See Astronomy.
SYSTOLE, in anatomy, the contraftion of the heart,
whereby the blood is drawn off its ventricles into the arte¬
ries ; the oppofite ftate to which is called the dioj}ole> or J/-
latation of the heart. See Ana.tomy, n' 124.
SYSTYLE, in architedlure, that manner of placing co-
S Y 2
iurr-ns where the fpaee between the two (hafts confjds of two
diameters or four modules.
SYZYGY, S Y 2 y g 1 a, in aftronomy, a term equally ufed
for the conjundlion and oppoiition of a planet with the fun.
lire word is formed from th<; Greek e-u^vyia, which proper¬
ly fignifies conjunBio. On the phenomena and circumftances
of the fyzygies a great jrart of the lunar theory depends.
See Astronomy.
T-
or t, the 19th letter and 16th confonant of our al¬
phabet ; the found whereof is formed by a ftrong
i T»       , 
expulfion of the breath through the mouth, upon a fudden
drawing back of the tongue from the fore-part of the palate,
with the lips at the fame time open. i he proper found of
t is exprefled in moft words beginning or ending with that
letter ; as in take> tell^ hot, put. Ti before a vowel has the
found o£ ji, or rather of Jlri, as in creation, except when f
precedes, as in qurjlion ; and in derivatives from words end-
ing in ty, as, mighty, mightier. Th has two founds ; the one
foft, as thou, father ; the other hard, as thing, think. The
found is iolt in thele words, then, thence, and there, with their
derivatives and compounds ; and in the words that, this, thus,
thy, they, though ; and in all words in which th comes be¬
tween two ^vowels, as, whether, rather ; and between r and
a vowel, as hut th,n.
in abbreviations, amongft the Roman writers, T. ftands
for 7 itus, ‘Tittas, &c.; iab. for 'Tabulnus ; I ab. P. IT. C.
‘TabuLirius Provmeue Wjpanhz Citerioris ; Tar. Tarquinius ;
Ti. Tiberius; i i. F. Tiberiiflius ; Ti. L. Tiler it libertus ;
1 i. lY. Titerii l\e;os ; F. J. d. V. P. V. D. tempore jueli-
cem arbitrumve pojluh.t at (let ; 1 . M. P. terminurn pojuit j
1'. M. D. D. terminum deelic Mt \ Tr. treins, tnbunus ; Tr.
M. or Mil. tr bunus mihtum ; TR. PL. DES. t'ibunui p/ebis
•dftgnaius ; TR. AER.. tribunu, ararii ; 1 RV. CAP. trium-
liti capitales ; i. P. or L RIB. POT. tribunicia potejlate \
Tub H. Tullus Uojiilius.
Amongft the ancients, T. as a numeral, ftood for one
hundred and fix ty ; and with a daft at top, thus, 7, it fig.
nified on.- hunartd and Jixty thoujand. In mufic, T ftands
ior tutu, “ all, or altogether.”
TABANUS, the breeze-fly : a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the order ot diptera. The mouth is extended
in a flefty piobolcis, terminated by two hps. The reftrum
is furmlhed with twro pointed palpi placed on each fide of
the ptob icis, and parallel to it Gmelin has enumerated
38 fpecies; of which three only are found in Great Britain,
the bovinus, pluviatilis, and ccecutiens.
1. I ne 'jovinus, or great horle fly, has a gtey head ; the
eyes almoft of a black brown, occupying the greateit part
of it. . 1 he tho'ax is of a grey colour ; the abdomen is
yellowift, w itli a triangular white fpot on the middle of
ereiy ring, which conititutes a longitudinal band of foots,
the point cf which is dirtffted towards the thorax. The
thighs are blackift, and the legs yellow. i he wings are
fomewhat dnflty, with brown veins of a deeper dye. i his
infect is the terror of horned cattle, horfes, &c. Its mouth
is armed with two ftarp hooks which penetrate their hide ;
while with its probofeis, which is fhaped like a fling, it
tucks their blood, of which it is very greedy. The punc¬
ture of the tabanus is keen and painful. T he infe& is very
tommon in damp woods and meadows, efpecially during the
.great heats, when it is moft troubkfome. The horned cat¬
tle are fometimes fo molefted by their flings, that they go Tabarca,
mad, run down precipices, tear themfelves on the flumps o:T l’af,fleeP-
trees, ftones, &c-
2. The p/uviati’is is of an aften grey colour ; its eyes are
green, with brown ftreaks. The thorax is brown, marked
with about feven longitudinal grey lines ; the wings, which
are brown agd aft coloured, are dotted over with fmall
wTrite fpots, and have a black fpot on the margin ; the legs
are furrounded with brown and white rings alternately.
’1 his Ipecies is very common in meadows, and is about four
lines in length.
3. The ceecutiens has a brown head; eyes green and brown,
with black fpots ; the thorax brown with black fpots; the
abdomen above, yellow with triangular brown fpots; yel¬
low Igus, and white wTngs with black and brown fpots.
The length is four lines and a half.
i'AB A RCA, a little ifland lying oppofite to a fmall
town ot that name* which divides the maritime coatls of
Tunis and Aigiers, in Africa, two miles from the land,
in pofleflion of the noble family of the Lamellmi of Genoa,
w ho have here a governor and a garrifon ot 200 men to pro¬
tect the coral fiftery. N. Lat. 36. 50 E. Long. 9. 16.
TABASHEER, a Periian word, fignirying a hard fub-
ftance found in the cavities of the bamboo or Indian reed,
and highly valued as a medicine in the Eaft Indies. Though
lome account was given of the tabafteer by the Arabian
phyficians, no accurate knowledge of it was obtained till
Hr Rufltl favoured the public with his obfervations on it.
According to this gentleman’s information, the tabafteer
is produced from the female bamboo, which is diftinguilhed
from the male by the the largenels or its cavity it is eafy
to difeover, without opening them, what bamboos contain
it, as they make a rattling noife when ftaken. i)r Ruffel
having examined a bamboo brought from Vellore, confid¬
ing or hx joints, found no appearance o^ tabafteer in two
o' them : all the rdP contained fome, but of various qua¬
lity and quantity ; the whole amounting to about 27 grains.
J he belt was of a bluift wTiite refembhn * fmall fragments
of fhells, harder alfo than the reft, but which might be eafily
crumbled between the fingers into a gritty powder ; and
when applied to the tongue and palate, had a flight faline and
tellaceous talte; the weight not exceeding four grains. I he
colour of the reft was cineritious, rouoh on the fur ace, and
-move friable; having fome particles of a larger iize inter¬
mixed, but light, fpongy, and fomewhat refemblmg pumice
ftones ; which appearance, our author fuppofes, led the A-
rabians to think that nre was concerned 111 the produAion.
i he two middle joints were of a pure white c lour within,
and lined with a thin film In thefe the tabafheer was prin¬
cipally found. The other joints, particularly the two up¬
per ones, were dilcoloured within ; and in fome parts ol the
cavity was found a blackift fubftance in grains or in now-
der, adhering to the ftdes, the film being there obliterated.
LI z Ib
tab
[ 268 ]
T A
Tabalheer In two or three of the joints z fmall round hole was found
at top and bottom, which feemed to have been perforated
by fome iniedt. . , _ , • n t u
Garzius informs us, that it is not found in all bamboos,
nor in all the branches indifcriminately, but only in thofe
e-rowing about Bifnagur, Batecala, and one part of the Ma¬
labar coaft. Dr Ruffcl was informed by a letter from a
medical gentleman attending the embaffy to the Nizam, that
though tabafheer bears a high price at Hydraba^, it is never
brought thither from Bifnagur ; and that fome of whatsis
fold in the markets comes from the pafs of Atcour in Ca-
noul; and fome from Emnabad, at the diftance of about 80
miles to the north welt; but that the molt part comes from
Mafulipatam. That fold in the markets is of two kinds ;
one the rate of a rupee per dram, but the other only half
that price ; the latter, however, is luppofed to be facti¬
tious, and made up moltly of burnt teeth and bones. Dr
Ruffe 1 himfelf alfo, is perfuaded that the tabafheer met
with in commerce is greatly adulterated. The above-
mentioned gentleman hkcwife informed the doCtor that ta¬
bafheer was produced in great quantities at Sylhat, where
it is fold by the pound, from one rupee to one and an halt ;
forming a confiderable article of trade from Bengal to Perfia
and Arabia. There is, however, a third kind, much lu-
perior to either of the two above deferibed ; diffenng not
only in its fuperior whitenels, but likewile in being much lefs
mixed with heterogeneous particles ; being likewife much
harder, heavier, and fcarcely in any degree triable by the
finger.
From the experiments of Dr Ruffel, it appeals that the
tabafheer is the juice of the bamboo thickened and hardened
to a certain degree. Its chemical qualities, Bs far as we have
heard, have not yet been minutely examined. T he follow¬
ing oblervations on its medical effefts were taken from a
Perfian work, intitled the “ 1 ofut ul Monein of Mahommed
Monein Hofeiny,” by Mr Williams, afurgeon in the fervice
of the Eaft India company. The tabafheer puts a flop to
bilious vomitings and to the bloody flux. It is alfo ot fer-
vice in cafes of palpitation of the heart, in faintings, and
for flrengthenmg thofe members of the body that are weak¬
ened by heat. It is ufeful alfo for the piles, and for acute
or burning fevers, and for puflules in the mouth (thrufh) ;
and, given with oxymei, is of lervice. again ft reitleffnefs,
melancholy, and hypochondriacal affedfions. The habitual
internal ufe of it is prejudicial to the virile powers,. It is
alfo faid to be prejudicial to the lungs. Its correctives are
the gum of the pine and honey. I he dofe of it is to the
weight of two d’herems., or feven mafhas.
TABBY, in commerce, a kind of rich filk which has un¬
dergone the operation of tabbying.
TABBYING, the paffing a filk or fluff under a calendar,
the roils of which are made of iron or copper varioufly en¬
graven, which bearing unequally on the fluff renders the
furface thereof unequal, fo as to reflect the rays of fight
differently, making the reprefentation of waves thereon.
TABELLIO, in the Roman law, an officer or ferivener,
much the fame with our notaries-public, who are often called
tabelliones.
TABERNACLE, among the Hebrews, a kind of build¬
ing, in the form of a tent, fet up, by exprefs command of
God, for the, performance of religious worfhip, facrifices,
&c. during the journeying of the Ifraelites in the wilderneis;
and, after their fettlement in the land of Canaan, made ufe
of for the fame purpofe till the building of the temple of
Jerufalem. It was divided,into two parts ; tire one covered,
and properly called the tabernacle ; and the other open, called
ike court. The curtains which covered the tabernacle were
made of linen; of feveral colours; embroidered.. There v/ere
ten curtains, twenty eight cubits long and four in breadth. Tftiernae
Five curtains faftened together made up two coverings,
which covered up all the tabernacle. Over thefe there were ^_C' _
two other coverings ; the one of goat’s hair, the other ot
(beep’s (kins. The holy of holies was parted from the reft of
the tabernacle by a curtain made laft to four pillars, Hand¬
ing ten cubits from the end. The length of the whole taber¬
nacle was 32 cubits, that is, about 50 feet; ' and the breadth
j 2 cubits, or 19 feet. The court was a fpot of ground 1 00
cubits long, and 50 in breadth, enclofed by 20 columns,
each 20 cubits high and 10 in breadth, covered with filver,
and Handing on copper bafes, five cubits diftant from one
another ; between which there were curtains drawn, and
faftened with hooks. At the eaft end was an entrance, 20
cubits wide, covered with a curtain hanging loole.
Feajl of Tabernacles, a folemn feftival of the Hebrews,
obferved after harveft, on the 15th day of the month Tifri,
inftituted to commemorate the goodnefs of God, who pro-
tetted the Iffaelites in the wildernefs, and made them dwell
in booths, when they came out of Egypt. On the firft day
of the feaft, they began to ereft booths of the boughs of
trees, and in thefe they were obliged to continue feven days.
The booths were placed in the open air, and were not to be
covered with cloths, nor made too clofe by the thicknefs of the
boughs; but fo loofe that the fun and the liars might be feen,
and the rain defeend through them. For further particulars
of the celebration of this feftival, feeLEVix. ch. xxiii.
TABERNfiE (anc geog.) See Tres Taberna.
TABERNiEMONTANA, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of pentandna, and order of mo~
tiogynia ; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the 30th
order, Contort*. There are two horizontal follicles, and
the feeds are immerfed in pulp. There are eight fpeciesj
all of foreign growth.
TABLE, a moveable piece of furniture, ufually made of
wood or ftone, and fupported on pillars or the like, for the
commodious reception of things placed thereon.
Table is alio ufed for the fare or entertainment fer-
ved up.
Table, in mathematics, fyftems of numbers calculated to
be ready at hand for the expediting aftronomical, geometrical;
and other operations.
TABLR-book. See Writing.
Table-Mountain, a mountain of Africa, being the moil
wefterly cape or promontory in that part of the woild, and.
near the Cape of Good Hope; Ihe bay whiclt is formed
thereby is called the Tuble-buy.
Laws of the Twelve Tables, were the firft fet of laws of
tke Romans; thus called either beeaufe the Romans then
wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden tablets covered with wax;
or rather, becaufe they were engraved on tables or plates of
copper, to be expoled in the moll noted part oi the public
forum. After the expulfion of the kings, as the Romans
were then without any fixed or certain fyftem of law, at
leaft had none ample enough to take in the various cafes
that might fall between particular perlons, it was refolved
to adopt the heft and wifeft'laws of the Greeks. One Her-
modorus was firft appointed to tranflate them, and tue c@-
cemviri afterwards compiled and reduced them into ten
tables. After a world of care and application, they were
at length enabled and confirmed by the fenate and an affem-
bly of-the people, in the year of Rome 303.. Ihe follow¬
ing year they found fomething wanting therein, which they
fupplied from the laws of the former kings o. Rome, and
from certain cuftoms which long ufe had authoriled : all
thefe being engraven on two other tables, made the iaw
of the twelve tables, fo famous in the Roman jurifpru-
dence, the lource and foundation of the civil or Ivoman law.
, ’ Table:
£>
TAG [ 269 ] TAG
Taboo Tamm of the Law, m antiquity, two tables on
II which were written tire decalogue, or ten commandments,
„ given by God to Mofes on mount Sinai,
u—y—/ TABOO, a word ufed by the South Sea iflanders, near¬
ly of the fame import as prohibited or interdi&ed. It ap¬
plies equally to perfons and things, and is alfo expreflive of
any thing facred, devoted, or eminent.
TABOR, a mountain of Galilee, about 12 miles from
the city of Tiberias. It rifes in the form of a fugar-loaf,
in the midfl ot an extenhve plain, to the height of 30 fta-
dia, according to Jofephus. The afccnt is fo eafy, that one
may afcend on horfeback. On the top there is a plain two
miles in circumference.
The fituation of Mount Tabor is moft delightful. Riling
amidft the plains of Galilee, it exhibits to the enchanted eye a
charming variety of profpefts. On,one fide there are lakes,
rivers, and a part of the Mediterranean ; and on the other a
chain of little hills, with fmall valleys, {haded by natural
Sroves* and enriched by the hands of the hulbandmen with
ravels 3 £reat nurnl)er ot ufeful productions. Here you behold
vol. ii. * an iuimenfity of plains interfperfed with hamlets, fortrefies,
and heaps of ruins ; and there the eye delights to wander
over the fields of Jezrael or Mageddon, named by the A-
rabs Ebn-Aatner, which fignifies “ the field of the fons of
Aamer.” A little farther you dillinguifh the mountains of
Hermon, Gilboa, Samaria, and Arabia the Stony. In
fhort, you experience all thofe fenfations which are produ¬
ced by a mixture and rapid fucceffion of rural, gay, gloomy,
and majeftic obje&s. v
It was upon this enchanting mount that the apoftle Pe¬
ter faid to Chrift, “ It is good for us to be here : and let
us make three tabernacles; one for thee, and one for Mofes,
and one for Elias.”
Flavian Jofephus, governor of Galilee, caufed the fummit
of this mountain, for the fpace of two miles and a half, to
be furrounded with walls. The inhabitants of Tabor long
braved the power of the Roman armies ; but being deprived
of water in confequence of the great heats, they were for¬
ced to furrender at difcretion to Plaeidus, the general of
Veipafian.
^ Several churches were built upon this mountain by St
Helen, who founded here alfo focne monafteries. Of the
two. moft remarkable, one was dedicated to Mofes, and in¬
habited by Cenobites of the order of St Benedict, who fol¬
lowed the Latin rites : the other was dedicated to the pro¬
phet Elias by monks of the order ot St Bairl, attached to
the Greek rites. rI he kings ot Hungary erecfed here alfo
a pretty fpacious convent for fome monks belonging to that
nation, of the order of St Paul the firft hermit. Tabor was
alio the feat of a. bifhop, dependant on the patriarchate of
jerufalem.
When Godfrey of Bouillon feized on this mountain, he
repaired the ancient churches, which were beginning to fall
into rums. Linder Baldwin I. in 1113, the Saracen troops
retook Tabor; and their fanguinary, fury gained as many
victories as there were prieits and Cenobites. This moun¬
tain agam fell into the hands of the .Chrillians ; but the Ca-
thohc Itandard was not long difplayed on it. Saladin
pulled it down the year, following, and deftroyed all the
churches. I he Chriftians retook it once more in 1252 ■
and their zeal made them rebuild all the facred places. At
diis time Rome being accuftomed to give away empires,
lope Akxander IV. granted Tabor to the Templars, who
.ortihed it again. At length, in the courfe of the year
1290, the fultan of Egypt deftroyed and laid wafte the
buildings of this mountain, which could never be repaired
tlvdt at ptefent it is uninhabited.
- * t AM AH AC A, in pharmacy, a folid refin, impro¬
perly called a gum in the {hops. It exudes from a fpecies Tacca,
of poplar ; and is in repute for mitigating pain and aches, d -citur. ^
and is alfo reckoned a vulnerary.
TACCA, in botany: A genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of dodecandria, and order of trigynia. The flower
is above. The corolla has fix petals, and is vaulted. The
calyx is hexaphyllous ; the fruit a dry, angular, three-
celled berry. There is only one fpecies known, the pinna-
tifida.
TACITUS (Cains Cornelius), a celebrated Roman hi-
ftorian, and one of the greateft men of his time, appears to
have been born about the year of Rome 809 or 810,
and applied himfelf early to the labours of the bar, in
which he gained very confiderable reputation. Having
married the daughter of Agricola, the road to public ho- Murphy r
nours was laid open to him in the reign of Veipafian ; but ^’pa”E-lUon-
i • .1 r , . . 0 y . of iasitm-,
clunng the ianoumary and capricious tyranny of Domitian,
he, as well as his friend Pliny, appears to have retired from
the theatre of public affairs. 'The reign of Nerva reftored
thele luminaries of Roman literature to the metropolis, and
■we find 1'acitus engaged, in the year 850, to pronounce the
funeral oration of the venerable Virginius Rufus, the col¬
league of the emperor in the confulfhip, and afterwards fuc-
ceeding .him as conful for the remainder of the year.
The time of his death is not mentioned by any ancient
author, but it is probable that he died in the reign of Trajan.
His v forks which {till remain are, 1. Five books of his
Hiftory. 2. His Annals. 3. A Treatife on the different
Rations which in his time inhabited Germany : and, 4. The
Life of Agricola his father-in-law. There is alfo attribu¬
ted to him a freatile on Eloquence, which others have a-
fcribed to Quintilian, The Treatife on the Manners of
the Germans was publifhed in 851.—In the year 853, Pli¬
ny and Tacitus were appointed by the fenate to plead the
caufe of the oppreffed Africans again ft Marius Prifcus, a
corrupt proconful, who was convifted before the fathers;
and the patriot orators were honoured with a declaration
that they had executed their truft to the entire fatisfa&ion
of the houfe. The exa6f time when Tacitus publifhed his
hiftory is uncertain, but it was in fome period ot Trajan’s
reign, who died fuddenly, A. U. C. 870, A. D. 117..— The
hiftory comprifes a period of 27 years, from the acceffion of
Galba, 822, to the death ot Uomitian, 849. The hiftory
being fimfhed, he did not think he had completed the ta-
blatnre of ftavery ; he went back to the time of Tiberius : -
and the lecond work, which, however, comes firft in the or¬
der of chronology, includes a period of 54 years, from the '
acctmon of Tiberius, 7^7? the death of Nero, 821 : this
work is his “ Annals.”
it ia remarkable, that princes and politicians have always hEogrctpli-
held uhe^works of lacitus in the higheft efteem ; which ^ -
look as if they either found their account in reading thern,*^'
or weie pieafed to find courts, and the pyople who live in
..hem, ro exaitly defcribed after the life as they are in his
writings.. I art of what is extant was found in Germany
by a receiver of Pope Leo X. and publifhed by Beroaldus
at Lome in 1515. Leo was fo much charmed with Ta¬
citus, that he gave the receiver a reward of 500 crowns }
aiiu promifed not only indulgences, but money alfo and ho-
nour, to any one. who fhould find the other part ; which it
is faid was afterwards: brought to him. Pope Paul III.
as Muretus relates, wore out his Tacitus by much reading
it; and Cofmo de Media's, who was the firft great-duke of '
i ideany, and formed for governing, accounted the reading
0 . him hls greateft pleafure. Muretus adds, that federal
princes, and pnvy-counfellors to princes, read him with
great application, and regarded him as a fort of oracle in
politics. A certain author relates, that Queen Chriftina of
Sweden; ,
TAG
[ 270 ]
TAG
Taclt’M*. Sweden, t^h extremely fond of the Greek tongue, which
{he made “ the diverfion of her leiture hours, was not re¬
trained by that from her ferious ftudies ; fo fhe called
a menu others Tacitus’s Hiftory, iome pages of which fhe
read conftantly every day.” Laftly, our late Lord Boling-
Stuiy broke, an authority iurely of no mean rank, calls him, “ a
mp4, favourite author,” and gives him manifeftly the preference to
1-ecter v. Qj-eek and Roman hiftorians.
No author has obtained a more fplendid reputation than
Tacitus. He has been accounted, and with good reafon,
the moft cultivated genius of antiquity ; and we mult not
feek for his parallel in modern times. It is impofiible not to
admire and recommend his intimate knowledge of the hu¬
man heart, the fpirit of liberty which he breathes, and^ the
force and vivacity with which he perpetually expreffes him-
felf. The reader of tafte is ftruck by the greatnefs of his
thoughts and the dignity o; his narration ; the philofopher
by the comprehenfive powers ot his mind ; and the politician
by the fariacity with which he unfolds the iprings or the
moft fecret traniaftions. Civil liberty and the rights of
mankind never met with a bolder or a more abie afferter :
fervitude, debafement, and tyranny, appear not in the wri-
tings of any other author in jufter or more odious colouis.
He has been cenfured as oblcure ; and indeed nothing can
be more certain than that he did not write for the common
mafs of men. But to thofe who are judges of his compofi-
tions, it is no matter of regret that his nitinner is his own,
and peculiar. Never were defeription and fentiment fo won-
derfully and fo beautifully blended ; and never were the ac¬
tions and characters of men delineated with io much ftiength
and precifion. He has all the merits of other hiftouans,
without their defeds. He poffeftes the dillr.'.&nefs of Xe-
nophon without his uniformity ; he is more eloquent than
l^ivy, and is free from his fuperftition ; and he has more
knowledge and judgment than Polybius, without his affec¬
tation of reafoning on every occafion,
One of the beft editions of the works of Tacitus was pub-
lifhed at Paris by Brotier, in' 4 vols ^to. There have been
four tranflations of his works into Lnghfh ; the fir if by
Green way and Sir Henry Saville, in the rei gn of Eliza¬
beth ;the fecond by Dry den and others ; the third by Gor¬
don, which is remarkable for affectation of ft)le, though
fome think it bears a {h iking refembhnea to the original;
and the fourth and beft by Murphy, in 1793, in 4 v°13 4tD*
a rope rjfed to confine the foremoft lower cor¬
ners of the courfes and ftay-fails in a fixed pofition, when
the wind croffes the drip's courfe obliquely. the fame
name is aifo given to the rope employed to pull out the
lower corner of a ftudding-fail or driver to the extremity of
its boom. „ r . ~ , . .
The main-fail and fore-fail of a fhip are furmfhed with a
tack on each fide, which is formed of a thick rope tapering
to the end, and having a knot wrought upon the largeft
end, by which it is firmly retained in the clue of the fail.
By this means one tack is always faftened to windward, at
the fame time that the fheet extends the fail to the leeward.
Tack, is alfo applied, by analogy, to that part of any fail
to which the tack is ufually faftened.
A fhip is laid to be on the {larboard or larboaid tack*
•when ftie is clofe-hauled, with the wind upon the ihr-
board or larboard fide ; and in this fenfe the diftance which
fhe fails in that pofition Is confidered as the length of the
tack ; although this is more frequently called board. See
that article.
To Tack, to change the courfe from one board to ano¬
ther, or turn the fhip about from the flarboard to the lar-
board tack, in a contrary wind. Thus a fhip being dole,
hauled on the larboard tack, and turning her prow iud-
denly to windward, receives the impreffion of the wind on
her head-fails, by which fhe /alls off upon the line of the MmS,
{larboard-tack. Tacking is alfo ufed in a more enlarged-TW
fenfe, to i in sly that manoeuvre in navigation by which a
fidp, makes an oblique progreffion to the windward, in a zig¬
zag dire diion. This, however, is more uiually called bed.
or turn /iq to windward. See Navigation, Sailing,
and Nova Tactici.
Tack, in Scots law. See Law", n° clxvii.
TACKLE, among feamen, denotes all the ropes or cor¬
dage of a fhip ufed in managing the fails, &.C.
TACKSMAN. See Tenure. , , r ,.r
TACTICS, in the art of war, is the method of difpo-
fing forces to the beft advantage in order of battle, and of
perrorming the ieveral military motions and evolutions. See
War.
Naval T AC I I C S;
ZJefinition.
»
Hiiiory.
Or, The Military
'Aval ta<?tics is the art of ranging fleets in fuch
. order or difpofition, as may be judged moft conveni¬
ent, either for attacking, defending, or retreatin '., to the
greateft advantage ; and to regula e their feveral movements
accordingly. It is not a fcience eftablifhed on principles ab-
folntely invariable, bat founded on inch reafons as the alte¬
ration and improvement of arms muft neceffarily occafion in
a courfe of time and experience ; from which alfo will natu¬
rally refult a difference in the conftmdlion of fhlps, m the
manner of working them, and; in fine, in the total dilpofi-
tion and reoulation of fleets and fquadrons. We {hall cur-
forily run through this fucccflion and change or arms, &c.
to the prefent improvement of our lines of battle, in order
to make us the more fenfibie of the reafons which have in¬
duced the moderns to prefer fo advantageous a choice as they
now follow in the arrangement of their (hips.
The ancient galleys were fo conftnnfted as to carry fe¬
veral banks of oars, very differently difpoled from thofe in
our modern galleys, which, howrever, vary the leaft of any
others from their ancient model. Advanced by the force
of their oars, the galleys ran violently aboard of each other,
Operations of Fleets.
and by the mutual encounter of their beaks aid prow*, and
fometimes o* their fterns, endeavoured to dalh in pic<. e> or
fink their enemies. '
The prow, for this purpofe, was commonly armed witti
a brazen point or trident, nearly as,low as the lur'ace ot the
fea, in order to pierce the enemy’s fh;ps under the water.
Some of the galleys w'ere furnifhed with large turrets, and
other acceflions ot building, either for attack or defence.
'1 he foldiers alfo annoyed their enemies with darts, and
flings, and, on their nearer approach, with fwords and jave¬
lins'; and in order that theit mifT.ve weapons mi >ht be di-
re&ed with greater force and certainty, the (hips were
equioped with feveral olatforms, or elevations above the le¬
vel of the deck. The fides of the fhip v'ere fortified with
a thick fence of hides, which-ferved to repel the darts of
their adverfaries, and to cover their own foldiers, who there¬
by annoyed the enemy wuth greater fecunty.
As the invention of gunpowder has rendered tnele s many
o" the machines employed in the naval wars o the ancie.-ts,
the great diftance of time has alfo configned many ot Them
to oblivion ; fome few are, neverthelefs, recorded m ancient
Introd. Naval T
Hi^rv authors, of which we (hall endeavour to prefent a (hort de-
V———■t,—feriotion. And firft,
rPhe A was a lar<re and maiTy piece of lead or iron,
cad in the form of a dolphin. This machine being fufpend-
ed by blocks at their maft heads or yard arms, ready tor a
proper occafion, was let down violently from thence into
the adverfe (hips ; and cither penetrated through their bot¬
tom. and opened a paffage for the entering waters, or by its
weight immediately funk the veffel.
The Apfjra.ov was an engine of iron crooked like a fickle,
and fixed on the top of a long pole. It was employed to
cut afunder the flings of the fail-yards, and, thereby letting
the fails fall down, to difable the veffel from efcaping, and
incommode her greatly during the afticn. Similar to this
was another inflrument, armed at the head with a broad two-
edged blade of iron, wherewith they ufually cut away the
ropes that fattened the rudder to the vettel.
Aopala v«uy.ay*, a fort of fpeavs or maces of an extraor¬
dinary length, fometimes exceeding 20 cubits, as appears
by the 1 jth Iliad of Homer, by whom they are alfo called
(J(.xxgxm
Kifofiai were certain machines ufed to throw large ftones
into the enemy’s (hips.
Vegetius mentions another engine which was fufpend-
ed to the main-matt, and refembled a battering-ram ; for it
confitted of a long beam and an head of iron, and was
with great violence puttied againft the fides of the enemy’s
galleys.
They had alfo a grappling-iron, which was ufually thrown
into the adverfe fhip by means of an engine : this inftrument
facilitated the entrance of the ioldiers appointed to board,
which was done by means of wooden bridges, that were ge¬
nerally kept ready for this purpofe in the tore-part of the
vettel. See the article Corvus.
The arms ufed by the ancients rendered the difpotttion of
their fleets very different, according to the time, place, and
circumftances of the engagement. They generally confi-
dered it an advantage to be to windward, and to have the
fun fhining d’^redlly on the front of their enemy. The or¬
der of battle chiefly depended on their power of managing
the fhips, or of drawing them readily into form ; and on the
fchemes which their officers had concerted. The fleet be¬
ing compofed of lowing vcffels, they lowered their fails pre¬
vious to the action ; they prefented their prows to the ene¬
my, and advanced againtt each other by the force of their
oars. Before they joined battle, the admirals went from
fhip to (Irip, and exhorted their foldiers to behave gallantly.
All things being in readinefs, the ttgnal was difplayed by
hanging out of the admiral’s galley a gilded (hield, or a red
garment or banner. During the elevation of this, the ac¬
tion continued ; and by its depreffion, or inclination towards
the right or left, the rett of the fhips were dire&ed how to
attack or retreat from their enemies. I'o this was added
the iound of trumpets ; which began in the admiral’s gal¬
ley, and continued round the whole fleet. The fight was
alio begun by the admiral s galley, by grappling, boarding,
and endeavouring to overttt, fink, or deflioy the adverfary,
as we have above delcnbed. bometimes, for want of grap¬
pling irons, they fixed their oars in fuch a manner as to hin¬
der the enemy rrom retreating. If they could not manage
their oars as dexteroufly as their antagonift, or fall along,
nde io as to board him, they penetrated his veffel with the
brazen prow. The veflels approached each other as w-ell
as their circumftances would permit, and the foldiers were
obliged to ln»ht hand to hand till the battle was decided :
nor indeed could they fight otherwife with any certainty,
mce the fhorteft diflance rendered their flings and arrows,
am. almo.L all their offeniive weapons, ineffectual, if not life-
w.i. ixie iquadions were loaietimes ranged in two or
A C T 1 C S. 2?*
three right lines, parallel to each other ; being feldottt drawn ^
up in one line, unlefs when formed into an half moon. This
order indeed appears to be the mott convenient for rowing
veffels, that engage by advancing with their prows towards
the enemy. At the battle of Ecnomus, between the Ro¬
mans and the Carthaginians, the fleet of the former was ran¬
ged into a triangle, or a fort of wedge in front, and towards
the middle of its depth of two light parallel lines. That of
the latter was formed into a re&angle, or Uvo fides of a
fquare, of which one branch extended behind, and as the
opening of the other profecuted the attack, was ready to
fall upon the flank of fuch of the Roman galleys as fhould
attempt to break theirline. Ancient hiftory has preferved
many of thefe orders, of which fome have been followed in
later times-. Thus, in a battle A. D. i34°> the Englifh
fleet was formed in two lines, the firft of which contained
the larger fhips, the fecond confifted of all the fmaller veflels,
ufed as a referve to fupport the former whenever necefiary.
In 1545, the French fleet under the command of the Mare-
fchal d’Annebault, in an engagement with the Englifh in the
Channel, was arranged in the form of a crefcent. The /
whole of it was divided into three bodies, the centre being
compofed of 36 fhips, and each of the wings of 30. He
had alfo many galleys ; but thefe fell not into the line, be¬
ing defigned to attack the enemy occafionally. This laft;
difpolition was continued down to the reigns of James I.
and Louis XIII.
Meanwhile, the invention of gunpowder in 1330 gradu¬
ally introduced the ufe of fire-arms into naval war, without
finally fuperfeding the ancient method of engagement. The
Spaniards were armed with cannon in a fea-fight againft the
Englifh and the people of Poitou abreaft of Rochelle in
T3‘72 ; and this battle is the firft wherein mention is made
of artillery in our navies. Many years elapfed before the
marine armaments were fufficiently provided with fire-arms.
So great a revolution in the manner of .fighting, and which
neceflarily introduced a total change in the conftrudlion of
fhips, could not be fuddenly effected. In fhort, the fqua-
drons of men of war are no longer formed of rowing vef¬
fels, or compofed of galleys and fhips of the line ; but en¬
tirely of the latter, which engage under fail, and difeharge
the whole force of their artillery from their fides. -Accord¬
ingly. they are now difpofed in no other form than that of &
right line parallel to the enemy ; every ffiip keeping clofe-
hauled upon a wind on the fame tack. Indeed the diffe¬
rence between the force and manner of fighting of fhips and
galleys, rendered their fervice in the fame line incompatible.
When we confider therefore the change introduced, both
in the conftru&ion and working of the fhips, occafioned by
the ufe of cannon, it necettarily follows, that fquadrons of
men of war mutt appear in the order that is now generally
adopted.
The machines which owe their rife to the invention of gun¬
powder have now totally iupplanted the others ; fo that there
is fcarce any but the fword remaining, of all the weapons
ufed by the ancients. Our naval battles are therefore almoit
always decided by fire arms, of which there arefeveral kinds,
known by the general name cl artillery. In a fhip of war, fire¬
arms are diftinguifhed into cannon mounted on carriages
fwivel-cannon, grenadoes, and mufquetry. See Cannon,
&c. Befides thefe machines, there are feveral others ufed iu
merchant fhips and privateers, as cohornsj carabines, fire-
arrows, organs, ftink-pots, &c.
I he writers on naval tactics have been but few, indeed,
confideung the importance of the fubjedf; and the only
countries that have produced writers on this fubjedf, fo tar
as we know, are trance and Britain, particularly the firft.
One would be led to imagine that Britain, from its infular
fituaucr.j having bred fo great a number gf excellent Teamen,
'£''7'% ' T'1? A V A L T
Hjilory, ari^ having fo often been engaged in naval conteils, would
naturally have produced a number of writer? on this, as well
.-as on fubje&s of much lefs confequence to it as a nation.
The reader will, however, no doubt be furpril'ed to hear,
that we have only one fcientific treatife on naval taftics,
intitled EJfay on Naval Tatties, life, by John Clerk,
;Efq‘; of Elden, near Edinburgh ; all the other treatifes
publifhed in Britain on this fubjeft being either tranf-
lations from the French, or remarks upon the French
authors (a). Some of the principal French treatifes on
naval taftics are the following : I. NArt des Armees Na-
vales, on Trade des Evolutions Nava/es, par Paul I/Hofte,
t vol. folio, printed at Lyons 172’]. This book was tranf-
lated and publifhed by Chriftopher O’Bryen, Efq; in 410, in
1762. 2. Tattique Navale, ou Trade des Evolutions et des
Signaux, par M. le Vifcompte de Morogues, 4to, Paris 1763*
3. Le Manceuvrier, par M. Bourde de Villehuet. 4. E’Art
de Guerre enMer, ou Tattique Navale, life, par M. le Vifcompte
a e t i e s.
de Grenier. Tranflations of the two laft have appeared in
Englifli in 4to in 1788, under the name of the Chevalier de
Saujeuil; and a tranflation of parts of the three laft is in the
2d vol. of the Elements and Prattice of Rigging and Sea-
manfhip, publifhed at London in 1794. Ocher books on
evolutions and tactics are, Theorie de la Manoeuvre des Vaif-
feaux, Paris, 1689. Pitot's Theory of IVorking Ships applied to
Prattice &c. tranflated by Stone, 1743. De la Manoeuvre
des Vaijfeaux, ou Trade de Mechanique et de Dynamique, life.
par M. Bouguer. The Britijh Mars, &c. by William Flex-
ney, 1763. A Sea Manual, by Sir Alexander Schomberg,
1789. A View of the Naval Force of Great Britain, See. by
an Officer of Rank, 1791, See.
We (hall occafionally confult all thefe works ; and as fome
of them treat largely of the tadtics in prefent ufe, while in
others new fyftems are propofed, our article will naturally
be divided into two parts, keeping the prefent practice and
propofed innovations totally diftindt from each other.
Part I. The PRESENT SYSTEM of NAVAL TACTICS.
^ Chap. I. Of the Orders of Sailing.
a UeetTnto -A- Fleet of {hips of war is ufually divided into three di«
thiee fqua-vifions or fquadrons, called the centre, van, and rear ; and
<irons, the each fquadron has a commanding officer. The commander
laid ce^tre,in chief, or admiral of the fleet, is in the centre column ; the
* r~ar' vice admiral has the command of the van ; and the rear ad¬
miral, that of the rear. The {hips of each fquadron are
diftinguifhed by the pofrtion of their colours. The {hips of
the firtt or centre fquadron carry their pendants at the main-
top-gallant mail head. The {hips of the {econd divifion
carry their pendants at the fore top-gallant maft head, and
thole of the third divifion at the mizen-top maft head.
Each fquadron ought, if poffible, to confift of the fame
number of {hips; and alfo to be of the fame force, fo that
each may be equally able to attack or repulfe the enemy ;
and when in a line, the feveral parts will be equally ftrong.
When the fleet is very numerous, each fquad„ron is fome-
times fubdivided in a fimilar manner into three divifions of
centre, van, and rear.
When the fleet is formed in the line or order of battle,
each admiral takes his poft in the centre of his fquadron,
the commander in chief being in the middle of the line. If
the enemy be not in fight, the ftore-fliips, fire-ftiips, Hoops,
See. are to be to the windward of the fleet, becaufe they can
be more eafily fupported, and can more readily obey the
fignals that may be made to them. There are frigates to
the windward of the van and rear of the convoy, for the
purpofe of looking out for the enemy, and keeping thofe
veffels in their proper ftations. But if the enemy is in fight,
then all thofe {hips which are not to be in the line ot battle
are to be on the other fide of the line with refpeft to’ the
enemy. If the fleet is failing in three columns, the firft
or centre fquadron is in the middle between the fecond and
third fquadrons ; one of which, according to circumftances,
forms the {larboard and the other the larboard column : and
each admiral leads his refpedtive divifion. If the fleet is
defticed for a certain place at a confiderable diftance, it is
generally formed into iquadrons ; but if cruifing in expec¬
tation of meeting the enemy, the admiral naturally keeps
his {hips in fuch failing pofitions as may be molt advanta¬
geous to form for adtron as quickly as pofiible. Thefe va¬
rious pofrtions or arrangements are called orders ; and that
they may be better underftood, it is neceffary to premife the
following definitions : 4
The {larboard line ofbearing, is that line upon which theTheftar.
{hips of a fleet, being ranged, bear from each other upon a1)oari'>
clofe-hauled line, whatever courfe they may be ileering ; and
fo that, upon hauling their wind or tacking together as may
be neceflary, the {hips will be in a line clofe-hauled upon the
{larboard tack. j i
The larboard line ofbearing, is that line from which the And to
fhips of the fleet, by hauling their wind, or tacking together,''^ 'jcl
may be formed in a line clofe-hauled on tlje larboard tack. 0 e”
A fleet of fliips is faid to be in the line a-breajl when they^iinj
{hips keels are parallel to each other, and their mainmafts in abreall.
the fame flraight line. 7
The bow and quarter line, is when the fhips are ranged inBowand
a ftraight line cutting their heels obliquely in the fame angle: 1uartM
Hence at any intermediate {hip, the {hips towards one extre-^nc‘
mity of the line will be on the bow, and thofe towards the
other extremity will be on the quarter, of that fhrp. ?
If feveral {hips {land on the fame line and fleer the fame Ships ftet'
courfe, but different from that line, they are faid it be in^g^
9
i, is when a fleet, ranged in one ofMarce vf
the orders of failing, and Handing on the fame line, the fame in fucctf-
manoeuvre is lucceffively performed by each firip as flieii°n
arrives at the wake of the van {hip of the whole fleet, if in
one line ; or of the van fliip of her particular divilton when
divided into fquadrons. So that a fleet tacks or veets, bears
away or comes to the wind in fucceffion, when all the {hips
of every line execute, one after another, the fame manoeuvre
on the fame point of the wake of the leading {hip, 10
The number of orders of lailing is commonly affirmed to bve or-^
be five ; and denominated the JirJl, fecond, third, fourth, and^s0
ffth orders of failing ; belides an order of battle, an order ot
retreat, &c.
In
echiquier, or cheqUerwife.
Manoeuvre in fucceffn
(a) The reafon why Britain falls {hort of the French in this refpect, is, that in various fea-ports in France there are
academies eilabliflied for the exprefs purpole of educating thofe intended for the navy in the various branches of naval fcience;
whereas, in Britain, there is only one academy eftablifhed at the expence of government, namely, the Marine Academy
at Portlmouth ; and, excepting navigation, fcarcely any other branch of naval fcience is taught in that feminary. It alfo
requires great, intereff to be admitted. We are, indeed, well aware that there are boys educated for the fea-fervice in
Chrift’s Hofpital, London, and at Greenwich fchool, &c. The education there is not, however, adapted for officers in
navy, being only writing, arithmetic, a little mathematics neceffary to underftand navigation, and navigation,
Part L N a v a l T
Orders of In the firfl order of failing, the fleet is ranged on one of
, t]:ic jjnes 0f bean'ng^ ancl each {^Jp fteering the fame courfe.
Pj'j.,, Thus, in fig i. let the wind be north, and the fleet ranged
ceccxcm, on the ftarboard line of bearing, and let th,e fhips fleer any
a courfe, as fouth-wefl. In this cafe, the fleet is ready to form
of failin'^1, ^ie ^ne on t^e ftarhoard tack by hauling the wind. Again,
‘‘ let the fleet be ranged on the larboard line of bearing, and
fleering the fame courfe as before, as in fig. 2.; then the fleet
is in a pofition ready to form the line on the larboard tack,
by tacking.
In a numerous fleet this method of failing is defe&ive ;
as the fleet will be too much extended, and therefore the
communication between the van and the rear rendered more
difficult than when in a more conne&ed order. It is of ufe,
however, when the enemy is in fight, as then the fleet may
be readily formed in order of battle ; and in that cafe only,
or in pa'ding through a ftrait, will it be neceffary to range
^ the fleet in this order.
Second or- I'1 ^ lecond order of failing the fleet is ranged on a line
der of fail- perpendicular to the direftion of the wind, and fleering any
h>g> proper courfe. This order, which is reprefented in fig. 3.
has the fame defedls as the former; and has alfo this difad-
vantage attending it, that the fleet cannot fafely tack in fuc-
ceffion from this order, as each fhip atthe time of tacking
is in danger of falling on board the fhip next aftern ; and
therefore, if the line is clofe, the fhip allern mufl bear up
confiderably, in order to avoid being on board the fhip a-
I3 head, which at that time is in flays.
Third, or. The third order of failing is that in which the whole fleet
ins'0* **'* 18 c^0^e^iau^cdj ranged upon the two lines or lines of bear¬
ing, and therefore containing an angle of twelve points ; the
admiral’s fhip being at the angular point, and the whole
fleet fleering the fame courfe. Thus, in fig. 4. the wind
being fuppofed north, and the fleet clofe-hauled on the
ftarboar .! tack : Then A being the admiral’s fhip, one part
of the fleet bears from him wefl-north-weft, and the other
part eafl-north-eafl.
this order of failing is no doubt preferable to either of
the former, as the {hips are more collefted, and can more
diitinaiy perceive and obey the fignals ; but if the fleet is
numerous, it will be too much extended.
, (. fourth order of failing, the fleet is divided into fix
iijg, * or more colarnnsj as may be judged neceflary: by which means
the fleet is much more connetled than in any of the former
ordrrs. The commanders, ranged upon the two lines of
hearing, have their fquadrons aflern of them upon two lines
parallel to the diredlion of the wind ; the lirll fhips of each
column being, with refpea to the commander of their fqua-
dion, the one on his flarbcard and the other on his larboard
quarter. i he diflance between the columns fhould, how¬
ever, be tuch, that the fleet may readily reduce itfelf to the
tlfitd order of failing, and from that to the order ef battle,
f In's order is adapted for fleets or convoys crofling the o-
eean, and is reprefented in fig. 5. But as it requires much
time to reduce a fleet from this order to that of battle, it is
15 therefore defedlive when in prefence of an enemy.
F’fth order The fifth and lafl order of failing is that in which the
failing, fleet is divided into three columns clofe-hauled, and there¬
fore parallel to each other; and alfo the refpeftive fhips
abread of each other. T. he van commonly forms the weather
column ; the centre divifion, the middle column ; and the
real divifion, the lee column. Circumflances may however
require the van to be the lee column, and the rear the
weather column. If the fleet is very numerous, each divi-
hon may be divided into two columns; and each admiral is
to p ace himfelf at a little diftance before, and in the direc-
thi" order',7Mni°f di’ifioa- K* 6‘ a“d 7-
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
14
Fourth or
der
iug
A C T I C S. 273
The diilance between any fhip and that adjacent to it in ^ 'Ts
the fame column, and alfo the interval between the columns, ^
are regulated by the commander in chief according to cir-
cumflances. The interval or perpendicular diflanc*; between Method of
the columns is commonly taken ; fuch as, that the angle con-f*1'r^'e
tained between the line of the columns and an imaginary7(ce~
line joining one of the extreme fhips of that column, andcoiumns>
the fhip at the other extremity of the adjacent column, may
be about two points. The meafure of this angle mufl how¬
ever depend in part upon the length of the column ; and
when it is determined upon, the diflance between the co¬
lumns may be found by multiplying the length of one of the
columns by the tangent of the above angle to the radius
unity : whence, if tha^ngle be taken equal to two points,
the length of a column multiplied by the decimal .414 v/ill
give the diflance between the columns. Thus let a column
contain fix fhips ; let the diilance between each be too fa¬
thoms ; and the length of each fhip from the extremity of
the bowfprit to the flern 46 fathoms ; then the whole length
of the column will be 776 fathoms. Now the above angle
being taken equal to two points, the diflance between the
columns is equal to 776X.414=3217 fathoms. 17
The order ef battle is formed by drawing up the fhips of Order of
the fleet in a line nearly clofe-hauled, and under an eafy fail dottle,
each fhip being at a certain alfigned diftance from that next
ahead, as a halt or a whole cable’s length. The fire-fhips, with
•frigates ahead and aftern, form a line parallel to the former,
and to the windward of it if the enemy is to the leeward; but
to the leeward if the enemy is to the windward. Without
this line another is formed, parallel thereto, of the flore-ftiips,
&c. with frigates ahead and aftern. Fig. 8. reprefents the
order of battle, the fleet being on the ftarboard tack. jg
In retreating from a fuperior force, it is neceffary to drawOrder of
up the fleet in fuch an order that it may, with the greateflre,;reat-
advantage, oppofe or annoy the faft failing vefl’els of the
enemy : for this purpofe, the order of retreat commonly ta¬
ken is that which is the inverfe of the third order of failing'.
As the fleet generally runs before the wind, the fhips of the
line are therefore ranged on the two lines of bearing ; hence
thefe lines contain an angle equal to 135 degrees. The ad¬
miral is at the angular point, and the frigates, tranfports.
See. are included within the wings to leeward. In place of
running before the wind, the fleet may take any other pro¬
per diredlion ; but ftill the angle contained by the wings is
to be 1350. This order of retreat is reprefented in fig. 9. ^
The order of convoy is that in which the fhips are all in Order of
the wake of one another, fteering on the fame point of theconvoy-
compafs, and forming a right line. If the fleet is numerous,
it may be divided into three columns, which are to be ran¬
ged parallel to each other, that of the admiral occupying the
middle, and all fleering the fame courfe.
Having defined the different orders of failing, we fhall
row proceed to fhow the method of getting a fleet under
way, and of bringing it to an anchor. 20
In order to get a fleet under way, the lee column is to To get a
get under way firft, and bring to all at the fame time, juftfleet und^
as they find themfelves after calling. The centre column
is then to perform the fame manoeuvre, and caft likewife as
foon as the other column is brought to ; and both columns
will remain in that pofition till the weather column, which
is ftill apeak, having weighed, fhall be alfo under way. The
three columns may often be got underway all at once : but
to execute this the fleet muft all aft together, and with
equal ardour; for the v/eather fhips muft not, at any rate,
be undpr way before the lee ones. If it be neceffary to get
immediately in order of battle, the weather columns are at
once to bear away two points together, that they may take
their polls in the line ol battle ahead of the lee column.
Mm If
274
Grders of
Sailing.
To bring a
fleet to an
anchor.
N AVAL
If the fleet be moored in a line, head to wind, the tear
fhip may get under way lirfl, and haul immediately by the
wind ; the others in fuceeffion, from the rear to the van,
can eafily*»take their ftation in her wake, fo that the rear
fhip will now become the leader. Or, the fleet may all get
under way at the fame time ; but the van fhip is to bring
to, while the reft, cafting the other way, would ftand on by
the wind on the fame tack on ivhich they have caft, and
come to ta^.k fucceffively in bet wake, to lorm the order
of battle.
To bring a fleet to an anchor, it ought, if confiderable,
to anchor in three parallel lines, on one of the lines of bear¬
ing, and at the proper diftance which the length of the
columns require ; the diftance between the adjacent fhips
in the fame column being about a cable’s length. I he van
and rear of the columns are to correfpond with each other
exactly in the direction of the wind, that they may with eafe
get under wav, and form the order of battle with facility,
fo as to be able to difpute the weather-gage with the enemy
if he fhould come in fight. As this evolution, is to be per¬
formed in moderate weather, the fleet being in tlwee columns,
they are all at the fame time to bring their Ihip’s head to
the wind under their topfails, and let go their anchors to¬
gether, clewing up their topfails with all poffible difpatch ;
putting the foot of the fails in the tops, and loofening the
fheets before hauling them down ; then veering away an
equal quantity of cable to preferve the aifi :ned diftance.
When it blows fo frefh as to require the topfails being reef¬
ed, two cables length may be kept between the fliips, and even
three if it be likely to blow hard.
If the fleet do not exceed 20 fliips, they may anchor on
one of the lines of bearing ; or parallel to the coaft, in places
where trade-winds are common, provided they blow in the
direction of the land ; for, in all cafes, they muft be in a
condition to get under way at the ftrft fight of the enemy,
whofe approach is never to be waited for at anchor ; becaufe,
if it be dangerous for a fingle fhip, it muft be ftill more io
for a fleet, the movements of which are interrupted by the
1 will be perpendicular to the direction
fhip beats away at the fame inftant, and the sailing.
23
To form
the fir ft
order of
failing.
A G T I C S. Parti,
fliip now gets into her proper ftation, by chafing that which Manner of
is to be ahead of her ; and when the whole fleet is formed , r.min&
in a line, which will
the wind, each
whole fleer the fame intended courfe.
In the third order of failing the admiral is in the middle T?4
of his fleet. Now, the fleet being formed in a line, on onefhe ^
of the lines of bearing, as above directed, and the fhips fleer-order of
ing in the wakes of each other, or ten points from the wind,failing,
the leading or leewardmoft fhip firft hauls her wind ; the
fecond fhip, as foon as fhe is in the wake of the leader,
hauls her wind alfo ; and in like manner each fhip until
the admirals fucceffively haul their wind as loon as they
have reached the wake of the leading fhip ; and at the fame
inftant that the admiral’s fhip hauls her wind, the other, or
iternmoit half of the fleet, do the fame. The fleet will
then be in the third order of failing, as represented in fig. 4.
From this order of failing the fleet can be expeditioufly
formed into the line of battle on either tack. _ 25
As the fleet, in the fourth order of failing, is divided into To bun
fix columns, and the three commanders ranged on
two lines of bearing, the commander in chief being at tbefa-lingt
angular point; in order, therefore, to form this order, the
admirals range thenjielves on the two lines of bearing, at a
proper diftance from each other, and fleer the proper courfe;
the fhips of the feveral columns come each into its refpec-
tive place, forming themfelves into lines in the diredtioa
of the wind, aftd parallel to each other, as in fig. 5. ^
In order to form the fifth order of failin the three lead-To fo m
ing fhios of the divifions are to take their polls abreait, and ^ fa h
to leeward of each other, keeping their wind unaer an ealy
fail. Then the fhips of each fquadron making fail, will range
themfelves in their refpeCtive flations, aftern of their leaders,
and keeping the fame courfe ; each ihip preferving the ap¬
pointed diftance from that next ahead ; and the comman¬
ders of each divifion, and each fecond, third, See. fhip, are
to keep themfelves mutually abreafl of each other.
To form the order embattle, it has already been obferved, To form
» 1 rt* 1*1* » 1 J *- n n nrdpP
ior a fleet, the movements or which are interrupted oy tne imui tuc uiuci y ; . , . ,
difficulty there is in getting with celerity under way fhips in the firil order of failing, that the mp vv lCl lb, to . ()f battle.
which are moored, and which, in that cafe, are not able mu- runs to the keward of the whole, ant. t ien nau s^ier vvmct
... . ...... . - .1 _ , 1 J * Q 1   ~r, ooltr toil a Qf h Inin.
tually to fupport one another, as is abfolutely requifite in a
fleet.
Chap. II. The Manner of Forming the feveral Or¬
ders of Sailing.
Th e firft order of failing is formed as follows: As the
fleet is fuppofed to be in no particular order, that flup which
is to lead on the propofed line of bearing on which the fleet
is to fail, runs to the leeward of the whole or greater part of
the fleet, and then hauls her wind, carrying an eafy fail :
each fhip then endeavours to get into her proper flation, by
chafing the fhip which is to be next ahead of her ; and
when in the umke of the leader, mull take care to preferve
the affnned diftance from the fhip immediately ahead, by
increafing or diminifhing the quantity of fail: and if any of
the fleet fhould happen to be fo far removed from her fecond
upon the tack direfted, carrying an ealy fail. Each fhip
then makes fail according to her diftance, and chafes tne
flno which is to be immediately ahead of her in the line,
and hauls in her wake in the line on which the van fhip is,
moving. *8
The admiral, or fhip appointed to make the angular To ftm
point, runs to the leeward of the fleet, and brings to ; then
each Ihip runs to its refpe&ive ilation in one of the lines of
bearing, and brings to ; one half of the fleet being on one
of the lines of bearing, aftern and in the wake of the admi¬
ral, and the other half on the other line of bearing, on the
{larboard or laiboard bow of the admiral. When this is ac-
complifhed, the whole fleet bears away before the wind: the.
two wings will now bear from the admiral two points De-
fore his beam, and ready to form the line of battle upon ei¬
ther tack ; the fhips on the admiral’s flarboard bow being
in the line of bearing for the larboard tack, and thole on his
*3
To form
the fecond
order of
failing.
tne fleet ihould happen to be lo tar removed from her iecond in the line ot Deanng ror tne rarooaiu lacs., dim w.,
ahead as not to be able to chafe her without getting out of larboard bow in the line of bearing for the ftavboard tack
her way towards the line, in that cafe the mufl take her fta- ^
tion difcretionally in a line with the leaders, and leave a Chap. III. To Change from the feveral Orders of
proper interval. The fleet will now be formed in the line Sailing to the Line of Battle.
o1- battle; from which the firft order of failing is formed by
each fhip bearing away at the fame inftant, and fleering
each the fame propofed courfe. *
To form the fecond order of failing, the leader runs to the
leeward of the whole, or of fo many of the fleet as that each
fhip may eafily fetch his wake, and then fleers a cowrfe
eight points from the wind, carrying an eafy fail. Each.
29
To form the line from the firft order of failing : If theTofonn^.
fliips be running large on the tack anfwering to the line °f:|)aft]e f,om
bearing on which they are failing and the line to be formed^ ftrittr
on the fame tack, all the fhips haul the wind at the fame der of
time, or at leaft each fhip hauls her wind immediately aftering.
the next to windward : but if the fieet be on the other tac r
Part I. N A V A x, T
To change w:th vc??(&. to the lir.e of bearing, ali the fnip? haul their
^rcni t: e wrixi and lark together, or all veer together accordin:'; to
circumftances. li the line of battle is to be formed on the
Plate
<xc xciv.
30
Frrn: the
lecond of-
<*er ot fail¬
ing.
Trom the
3l
From the
fii h order
of failing.
Order1- o!
.Su;lii p to
the Line of other line of nearing, the leeward mo !t (hip either veers or
Battle, tacks, and hauls Iter wind : the reft of the fleet veer or tack
v 1' at the fame time, and fteer with the wind four points free ;
and each fliip fuccefiively, as foon as fhe gets into the wake
of the leader, hauls her wind. Hence the line of battle will
be formed from the fir ft order 01 failing. See figs. 10.
and 11.
To form the line from the fecond order of failing, t^e
fleet running large or before the wind: All the (hips of the
fleet haul up together on the tack directed, prefenting their
heads on the line upon which they are ranged, or eight
points from the wind. The leadingr fhip then hauls her
wind, and is followed in fucceffion by the reft. i hat the
flops may not be too near each other, they make fail as they
haul their wind, or their feconds aftern fhorten fail to open
the order. See fig. 1 2.
To change from the third order of failing to the line
;Sl^r °f battle : The flops being fuppofed going large, that
wing which is in the lire of bearing for the tack on which
the line is to be farmed, and the fliip at the angular point,
haul their wind at the fame time ; the flops of the other
wing hr: 1 up together eight points from the wind ; then
each fhip moves in this dire&iori until fhe reaches rhe wake
of the other wing, where flic hauls clofe up. See fig. 1
To form the line of battle on the fame tack from the
firth order of failing : Let the weather column form the
van, and the lee column the rear. The centre brings to, or
only keeps fteerage-way ; the weather-column bears away
two points, and hauls its wind as foon as it is ahead of the
centre the lee-column tacks together, and runs under a
prefs of fail, to gain the wake of the centre, when it retacks
together and completes the line (fee fig. 14.) This evolu¬
tion may alio be performed as follows: The weather-column
biingsto; the centre and lee columns tack together, and
po away two points free: when the centre-column has
gained the wake of the van, it retacks together, and brings
to ; and when the lee-column has gained the rear-line, it
retacks together, and then all {land on : otherwife the lee-
column brings to ; the centre goes under an eafy fail two
points tree, to get ahead of the rear-iquadron ; while the
van carries a prefs of fail, alfo two points free, to get ahead
of the centre divifions.
Hitherto the weather column has uniformly been fup¬
pofed to iorm the van, and the lee-column the rear-divifion:
the line may, however, be formed by interchanging thefe
columns in a variety ol different ways, fome of which are as
follow.
1. Let the weather and centre columns interchange : In
this cafe the centre-column Hands on, the weather-column
bears away eight points, and as foon as it reaches the wake
of the centre-column, which now forms the van, hauls up
together: the lee-column tacks together, and goes under a
prefs of fail fcarcely two points free, fo as juft"to gain the
rear of the line, and then retacks together, as in fig. 15.
i his evolution may al!o be performed by the lee column
bi inging to ; the centre fquadron then bears away together
one point, and as foon as it has gained the head of the line,
hauls its wind ; and the weather-column bears away toge¬
ther three points, under an eafy fail; and when it has got
into the wake of the van, hauls up together, forming the
centre divifion.
2. Let the centre and lee columns interchange : The lee*
Juninshiter. CjQ umn ltands 011 clofe-hauled, under an eafy fail; the wea-
ctunging. t'ler-column bears away two points vnder a prefs of fail, until
u reacues the head of the line, and then hauls up: the centre-
^ 33
The centre
at d wea¬
ther co¬
lumns in¬
terchan¬
ging.
34
The centre
column -bears away eight points'; rnd when in'the wake rtf' To change
the lee-column, which is now the centre divifion, hauls its 1:0 11 the
wind. See fig. 16. Orders of
3. Phe weather and lee columns interchanging: For this die i.ioe of
purpofe, the lee-column (lands on clofe-hauled under a prefs Battle,
or fail ; the centre-column bears away two points under an "'v——'
eafy fail, and hauls up as foon as it has come’into the wake of j-j e'^..n
the new van fquadron ; and the weather-column bears away thera'ndhc
eight points until it gains the wake o£ the centre-column, columns
and then hauls up, as in fig. 17. in erchan-
4. The centre forming the van, and the weather-columngi;’g;r
the rear-divifion : The lee column brings to, the centre co-The centre
lumn bears away together two points, and forms the line a-forming
head of the new' centre fquadron ; the weather-column veerst,ie van an'f
away together feven points on the other tack, and forms tt!ieweat,itc
the rear fquadron. See fig. 18. Vhte
5-The lee-column to form the van, and the centre the ccccxcv.
rear divifion : In order to this, the lee-column ftands on un-. 37
der a prefs of fail, the weather-column bears away tosrether / ^ co"
th-ee points under an eafy tail, and the centre column bearsing the van
away eight points ; and each, when it has gained the wakea; d thecen-*
of the new van, hauls irs w ind. See fig. 19. tre the rear
To form the line of battle on the other tack from thedmfign‘
fifth order of failing. The weather-column firft tacks in r0 form
fuccefiion ; the centre and lee columns (land on, the firft the line on
under an eafy fail, and the fecond under {till lefs fail, accord-the ot;her
ing to the length of the columns; and the leaders tack when
they gain the wake of the new-formed van, and each ftiiprolumn'
tacks in fucceflion as it reaches the wake of the above men-f umn gthe
tioned van (fee fig. 20.) Very great care muft be taken by vaM>&c-
the centre and lee columns, left they draw too near the
fternmoft {hips of the van, and alfo each other.
To pertonn this evolution, the centre and weather co-The^ntrc
lumns interchanging : j he weather column brings to, theand wea-
centre column ftands on until the leader judges he will befherco'
fully able to clear the weather-column, and then the centre-
column tacks in fucceffion : when the laft fnip of this new- gmg.311
formed van has psffed the weather-column, that column
ftands on, and each {hip tacks in fucceffion as foon as it
reaches the wake of the van. The lee-column {lands on,
and tacks in fucceflion as the fiiips attain the wake of the
van, and at the {arr.e time can ying a moderate fail, that
there may be a fufficient interval left for the weather-co¬
lumn to form the centre divifion. See fig. 21.
To form the line from the fifth order of failing on theTBe^centrc
other tack, the centre and lee-columns interchanging. Thean<flee co-
centre-column brings to ; the weather-column tacks in fuc-lumnsin*
 J   1 *. . 1 r * * « . iF»rrh3n-
1 erchau-
ghig-
ceflion under very little fail, and the lee-column ftands on
under a prefs of fail: wdien the leader of the lee-column has*
gamed the wake of the line, he tacks, and is followed in
iucceffion by his divilion. The centre-column is to fill and
(land on, when the firlt fhip of that column, and the laft
fhip of the lee-colmnn, bear from each other in a line per¬
pendicular to the direction of the wind- See fig. 22.
1 o form the line on the other tack from the fifth orderThetvea-
of tailing, the w eather and lee-columns interchanging : 'i hetHrandlee
weather and centre columns bring to; the lee-column ftandscolum,lsiu'*
on under a prefs of fail, until it can pafs ahead of the wea-,,^ba¬
ther-column, and then tacks in fucceffion ; the centre-co-tU g
lumn fills where its leading {hip and the laft {hip of the
lee-column bear from each other, in a line perpendicular to
the direclion of the wind, and tacks in fucceffion when it
has gained the wake of the new van. In like manner, the
weather-column fills when its leading ffiip and the laft of the
centre bear in a line perpendicular to the w ind, and eachT]
fhip tacks in fucceffion wlien it has gained the w’ake of the.'
centre. See fig. 23. _ lumn pT-
io form the line on the other tack, the centre forming fi,!g to the
Mm2 thertar*
2j6
To chansre
. f;om the
LineofBat-
-tie to the
Orders of
Sailing.
43
The lee-co¬
lumn paf-
fmg to thfj;
van.
44
To form
the line
from the
order of re
treat.
45
To charge
from the
line of bat¬
tle to the
firft order
«f failing.
the van, and the weather the rear diviiion : The weather-
column brings to, the other columns make fail and Hand on,
till they can pafs on the other tack ahead of the weather-
column, when they tack in fuccefiion. When both columns
have palled the weather column, it fills, tacks in luccelhon,
and forms the rear. See fig. 24.
To form the line on the other tack from the fifth order
of failing, the lee-column forming the van : The weather
and centre columns bring to ; the lee-column carries a prels
of fail, and tacks in fucceffion when it can pafs a-head ot the
weather-column; and when the halt flrip of this new van has
palfed to the windward of the former weather-column, the
van fquadron fh01 tens fail, to give time for the other columns
to form : the weather and centre columns fill at the fame
time, to gain the wake of the van, when they tack in fuc¬
cefiion. See fig. 25.
To form the line from the order of retreat: The leader
of the wing, which is to form the head of the line, hauls
the wind, and that wing follows in fucceffion ; the other
wing goes four points free together on the fame tack, and
thus runs parallel to the wing which firft began the evolu¬
tion ; and they haul up together when they arrive in the
wake of the line. See fig. 26.
Chap. IV. To change from the Line of Battle to the
different Orders of Sailing.
To change from the line of battle to the firft. order of
failing on the fame tackAll the ftiips bear away together
the number of points directed by the admiral, obferving to
keep themfelves in the line of bearing for the tack they are
in. The fiernmoft fnip bears away firft, and the reft fuc-
ceflively as quickly as pofiible^ to prevent being too near
each other. 1
To change to the firft order of failing in bearing for the
line on the other tack : 'T he leader bears away four points
to leeward, and is followed in fucceffion by the reft. When
the fternmoft fhip has bore away, the whole haul up, and
they will be in bearing for the line on the other tack. See
fig. 27.
To change from the line of battle to the fecond order of
failing : The whole fleet bears away together ten points;
and fo proportions the failing from the van to the rear of
the line, that when the headmoft fhip, which firft prefies fail,
fhall come abreaft of the feeond fhip, the fecond fhip adapts
her fail to keep in this bearing and fo on in fuccefiion,
each obferving to keep the fhip that immediately preceded
her in the evolution in a line with herfelf, perpendicular to
the dire&ion of the wind ; and the whole fleet will now be
running before the wind (fee fig. 28.) But if it is intend¬
ed that the fleet fhall fteer any other given courfe than that
before the wind, the whole fleet may then alter together to
47 the propofed courfe.
To ct.ange To change to the third order of failing from the line of
order ofirdkatt‘e : w^10^e ^eet bears away together ten points;
failing.. tbe headmoft half of the fleet, including the centre fhip,
carry an equal degree of fail, in order to preferve their line
of bearing ; each flrip of the remainder of the fleet carries
lefs fail in fucceffion, fuch as will form and preferve on the
other line of bearing with refpe& to that upon which they
were ranged before the evolution ; and by this means the
fleet will be formed in the third order of failing. See
fig. 29.
To change from the line of battle to the fifth order of
the fifth failing on the fame tack : In the treatife of Naval Tatties,
failing on Publl{hed in the *fCond volume of The Elements of Rigging
the fame anc^ Seamanjhip, tnere are various rules for performing this
evolution; according as the different fquadrons in the fine of
Naval TACTICS. Part I.
battle are intended to form the weather, the centre, and the To change
lee columns, in the order of failing. We fhall give two of 1.r<m tile
.1 0 0 Li e of Bat.
them as examples.. tle t(;t})e
When it is intended to change from the line of battle Ouiersof
46
To charge
to the fe¬
cond order
cf failing.
Plate
ecccxcvi.
4iS
To charge
tack.
to this order of failing, fo as that the van fhall form the dailirg.
weather, and the rear the lee column, and the fleet at the "~~v—J
fame time keep as much to windward as poffible ; the van fhe^ar
and centre tack together, and run clo'fe-hauled in bow and forming the
quarter-line; the rear moves on in its former courfe under we tier
an eafy fail. When each fliip of the centre is abreaft of its^fherear
correfpondent fhip in the rear, the centre retacks: the van n,^6
Hands on until the centre and rear come up, and then re¬
tacks, and all the columns regulate their diftances. See
... ,5o
2. When it is intended that the van fhall form the lee,Ti e van
and the rear the weather column; the van bears away toge-forcing the
ther under an eafy fail, and goes at right angles with the tllc
line ahead : the centre at the fame time goes away two
points free, and each fhip fleers for that fliip of the van column,
refpedlively which is to be abreaft of her when in column.
The leader of the van mull determine the diftance, by not
hauling up with his divifion until his fliip and the fternmofl
fliip of the centre-column, which is drawn up with him, are
in a line at right angles with the wind: They then both
Hand on under an eafy fail, while the rear crowding fail
paffes to the windward of both. See fig. 31. 51
To change from the line of battle to the fifth order of To change
failing on the other tack : This evolution may be performed
in as many ways as the former, according to the intended f
pofitions of the different columns; but in fnch a Woik asthelineoi
our’s, it may be fufficient to obferve, that, battle on
1. When the van is meant to form the weather, and the^^ot u
rear the lee column : The van tacks in fucceffion; the ’ ^
leader of the centre tacks when the leader of the van is paf-The van
fuig him exadfly to windw-ard, and his divifion follows him;forrn'ligtne
the rear manoeuvres in the fame manner with refpecl to the
centre. See fig. 32.. the fie co-
2. When the rear is to form the weather, and the van thelumn.
lee column : The van tacks in fuccefiion ; and when about, _ 53
either brings to, or fhonens fail, to allow the other columns
time to form. The centre and rear then carry fail,, and tack weatj1er
in fucceffion. The centre tacks when its leader has the rd the van
centie of the lee-column in a line at right angles w’ith the 'fir ire co-
wind, or when its centre pafies aftern of the lee column.lun n*
When the centre is about, it regulates its rate of failing by
the lee-column, either by bringing to or making equal fail;
and thus both wait for the rear to pais to windward. The
rear tacks when its leader has the firit fliip of the lee column
in a line at right angles with the. wind, or when its centre
fhip pafles aftern of the laft fhip of the centre-column. See
fi£- S3* r . 34
1 o change from the line of battle to the order of retreat: To change-
The leader bears away four points ; and all the fleet follow- to the
ing clofe hauled, they will come to file off in lucceflion at
the fame point in the van fhip’s wake, till the centre fliip
arrives at the angle where the evolution began. Then the
order of retreat wfill be formed, and any courfe wdiatever
may be fleered, fince the two wings will be equal and in or¬
der on the (larboard and larboard lines of bearing, forming
confequently between them an angle of 135 degrees, fig.
34. reprefents the order of retreat formed from the line of
battle, the whole fleet going four points, free-
Chap. V. To Manoeuvre the Line of Battle.
The method of forming the line of battle, when the
fliips are in no previous order, has already been explained.
In this place it is intended to point out fome of the various
evolutions
der of re¬
treat.
tack by
tackb’g in
tucceiliun.
Part I. Naval T
Ma' oeuvre evolutions that are,'or may he, performed by a fleet which
the Line ofjs a]ready formed in line of battle.
, Ba^l:C- , The fleet being in line of battle, to form the line on the
55 other tack, by tackiny in fucceflion : The headmofl. iliip of
To f. nn the fleet tacks firft, having previoufly made more fail, or the
1 lie Mine on fecond having ihdrtened fail, in order to increafe the inter-
o ne» val between them; for it often happens that one or two
cables length are run over before the ihip ahead has been
able to fill her fails on the other tack. When the firft fhip
is about, either the fecond makes more fail, of the third
Ihortens fail; and then the fecond tacks as foon as the has
gained the wake of the leader, the helm being put down
at the inltant fhe opens the weather quarter of the firft (hip,
which is already on the other tack. In like manner the
third, fourth, &c. fhips tack each at the- inftant it has gain*
ed the wake of the leader ; and thofe (hips already about
muft preferve their afligned diftar.ees, by fhortening fail, if
neceffary, until the whole fleet is on the other tack. If a
fh:p miffes flays, fhe is immediately to fill again on the fame
tack, and make fail with all pofiible expedition, taking care
to keep as cloie as poflible to the wind, and not to fall off
to leeward. By this means fhe will get ahead and to wind¬
ward of thofe which fallow her ; and they will perform fuc-
ctffively their evolutions in the wake of the Ihips which are
already on the other tack, onlyftandingon a little farther than
they would have done if the fhip ahead had not miffed flays.
The fhip that miffed flays will return fooner to her ftation,
by making ail poflible iail to windward of the line. See
hg;35;
1 o form the line on the other tack without tacking in fuc-
cefhon : The whole fleet veers together: the rear fhip hauls
her wind on the other tack, and ftands on, while all the
others go two points free on the other tack, and haul up as
they fucceffively gain the wake of the leading fhip. Thus
the rear of the line on the one tack becomes the van on the
other tack. See fig. 36.
The line to veer in fucceffion : The van fhip of the line
veers round, and fleers four points free on the other tack ;
and when fhe is clear of the rear fhip of the lin*, fhe hauls
her wind ; the reft follow, and haul up in fucceflion. See
%. 37.
The line to tack and retack together r In tacking together,
the ilernmoft fhip of the line puts in flays; then her fecond
ahead puts her helm down ; and io on through the whole
line, to prevent the fhip ahead from falling on board the
fhips aftern. 1 he fleet will then be in bow and quarter
line ; from which, if tacking together, no fhip muft put in
flays till the fhip on her weather quarter is in the a£l of
tacking.
The line bear away together, preferving their bearing for
the line ; The rear begins this evolution, the fternrnoft fhip
bearing away the number of points propofed ; and fo on as
quickly as poflible, to prevent faliing on board of each
other. • ,
To turn to windward in line of battle: When the fleet has
fca-room, the moft advantageous method of gaining to wind*
waid is, that all the fhips of the fleet may go about toge-
; as by this means the whole fleet will nmiu as much to
windward as in the cafe of a Angle fhip. fhe fleet’will be
m fine o^ battle on the one board, and in bow and quarter
Lne on the oiher. i his is alfo the moft proper method to
T-t to windward on a coaft when the wind is parallel to the
:iu ': Tut if the fleet is turning to windward in a flrait
or between two fhores, the fleet fhould tack in fucceffioti;
tor 1. the ftfs tacked together, the van would be foon
111 flth the land on one fide, and foon after the fleet had re-
i-icked the rear would be in with the land on the other fide:
nexice tuts would occalion a nufober of jfhort boards. In
A C T I C S.
277
56
With .Ut
tanking in
ftccctiion.
57
To veer in
fucceflion.
58
To tack
ana retack
• <9
To bear a-
way toge¬
ther.
60
To turn to
windward.
peffing through a ftrait, ether circumflances are alfo to be M.wceuvr<
attended to, as tides, <kc. tl^Ff fU
To interchange the van and centre fquadrons: The van ()7der of
bears away a little, and brings to ; the centre paftes on to Sailing,
windward, edging a little, to get ahead of the former van —\r-—*
on the fame line ; the rear, coming on under an eafy fail, .6r
edges away likewife, to obtain the wake of the new centre ft0,
r , o j- o crut ge tne
iquadron. bee ilg. 3b, . van and
To interchange the van and rear fquadrons : The van and centre
centre fquadrons hear away a little, and then bring to, the^u&dronS;
van obierving to bear away a little more to the leeward Vantnd
than the centre. The rear ftands on to gain the head oftearfejua-
the line ; and when abreaft of the former van, the centre drons.
fills, and both Handing on, form ahead of the new rear, by
edging down until they are in a line with it. See fig. 39. <53
To interchange the centre and rear fquadrons : The van Centre and.
ftands on under an eafy fail, while the centre bears away a*.ear
little and brings to, and the rear at the fame time carries a drons’
prefs of fail to pafs the centre to windward and get into the
wake of the van The vaa and centre then edge away to
gain the line with the new rear fquadron, which then fills.
See fig. 40. 64
The van to pafs and form the rear; The van fquadron The van to
ed: es away a little and brings to; the other two fquadrons, Pafs t0 th,i-
crowding fail, Hand on till they get ahead of the new rear, rt'ar‘
and then edge away a little to form in the line; after which
the rear fills.
The rear to pafs and form the van : The van and centre The rear to
bear away a little and bring to ; the rear makes fail, paftes faf's tu
ahead of both, and then edges away to form on the fame JU*
line. Thefe two monoeuvres are fo iimple as not to Hand in.
need of illuftration by figures.
Chap. Vf. ‘T'o Manoeuvre a Fleet formed in the Fifth
Order of Sailing.
65
This order of failing is very advantageous for a nume-^0 tna*
rous fleet, as it keeps the fliips-clofer together, and there-^1^,*1**
fore more connecled with each other than either of the three Jf failin-!'
firft orders. The method of forming this order is fhown in
Chap. II.: and the method of manoeuvring in it, which
with very little alteration is alfo applicable to the fourth or¬
der, is to be the fubjeff of this chapter.
To tack tne columns in fucceffion : The Ibips of the lee-To tack in
column having more diftance to run before they can recoverfuccelilon*
their pofilion, muft go about firft in fucceffion. When the
centre leader finds himfelf abreatt of the leader to leeward of
him, or at right angles with the clofe-hauled line on the
other tack, upon winch the lee leader is now moving, he
tacks, and is followed in fucceffion by his divifion. The
weather column paying the fame regard to the centre-co¬
lumn, manoeuvres in the fame manner (fee fig. 41.) In this
evolution the weather-column Hill continues to windward ;
and fhould the columns have closed too much, or be too far
afunder, either of which may happen from the inequality in
the rate of [ailing of the different fliips, the order may be
recovered either by the ke or windward column bearing
away, fo as to make an angle equal to that propofed, as two
points, between any column, and a line joining the leader of
that^column and the iternmoft fhip of the next column.
If this evolution is to be performed in the night, the
weather-column muft tack firft. In order to prevent the
rifle ®f one column paffing through the van of the other co¬
lumns, the next column muft not tack till its leader is fen-
hbL that many flaps of the column immediately to wind-
ward are about. W hen about, the leaders make little fail,
wftile their followers make fucceffively a little more, in order
to form their refpedhve columns. The columns which are
com.-
.'27h
M v'ttxr-- c
N AVAL T A C T r
C S.
Part I.
a i. i tff in
t3u I'iiia
Ord-t of
68
To tadk tc
gether.
69
To veer in
luccefiior.
70
Tot urn to
■windward.
Plate
CCCCXCVil.
71
To inter¬
change the
weather
and centre
columns.
1*
The wea¬
ther and
lee co-"
Aumns.
p^-elv almut fcdttin cltl.ei htiti;: to smi wait for the next,
or fliould juft keep {teerag’e way ; thus the former weather-
column ihotild wait for the centre, end both fhoutd then
wait for the former lee-column. In tms evolution the we a •
t’ner and lee columns will be interchanged. As tome ruk
may attend the execution of this at ni:>ht, it is moil advi-
fatle to tack the columns together, amd lail in bow and quar¬
ter line ; became, fliould it become neceffary to rc-tack, or
fhould the wind change before the completion of this evo¬
lution, much confuhcn might cnfue. By tacking togethei
this will be avoided.
To tack the columns together : The flcrnmofl fliips of the
tliree columns put in flays together ; and when they, me
obferved to be fo, their ieconds ahead immediately put their
helm down, and fo on through the whole fleet. Each co¬
lumn will then be in bow and quarter line. See fig. 4c.
To veer the columns in fncceffion : rI he leader of tiieke-
eoliimn veers round, and fleers four points free upon the other
tack, followed by the fhips ct that divilion ; and of which,
when he is clear of the flernmofl fhips, he hauls up. i he
centre and weather columns perform fucceffively the fame
evolution, obferviug to continue Handing on till they luccef-
lively bring the point at which the lee-column began to veer
to bear in a right line to leeward of them. They likewiie
fucceffively hiring their luffs when the point at which the
lee column hauled its wind bears right to leeward (tig. 43.)
Each column having the fame diftance to run, if the evolu¬
tion be well executed, the leaders of the windward columns
will find themfelves, when they fpving their luffs, exactly a-
breaft of the leader of the lee-column, and fo will all the
other (hips. But tire making or (hortening fail will at all
events redlify the inequality of failing.
To turn to windward in the fifth order of failing: Let the
fhips of the fleet be fo arranged, that the leaders, and alfo
the correfponding fhips of the columns, may be in the di¬
rection of the wind ; as by this means the fleet will gain
more to windward, and at the fame time be lefs liable to
diforder. Now the van {hips cf the columns tack at the
fame inftant, and are followed in fuccefiion each by the re¬
maining (hips of the divifion, when they reach the wake of
their leaders, or the fame point when they went about;
hence there will always be three fhips in flays at the fame
time until the whole fleet has got on the other tack. The
fleet then Hands on any affigned diftance, and then retacks
in the fame manner as before. See fig. 44.
To interchange the weather and centre columns: The wea¬
ther and lee columns lie to, or only keep fteerage way. The
centre column tacks together; and forming a bow and quar¬
ter line, goes clofe-hauled to gain the wake of the weather-
column ; it then retacks together, and Hands on, while the
weather-column bears away to its new ftation in the centre,
and the lee-column fills. See fig. 45.
To interchange the weather and lee columns: The centre
column brings to ; the lee column Hands on under a prefs of
fail; and when its fternmoff fnip can pafs to windward of the
van of the centre column, which will be when the centre
fhip of the ke column is in a line petpendicular to the di-
redlion of the wind with the van of the centre column, the
lee column then tacks together, and Hands on clofe-hauled
till it comes in a line with the centre column, when it goes
large two points to get into the ftation which the weather-
column left; and then veers together, hauling the wind for
the other tack. At the beginning of the evolution, the
weather column bears away together under little fail, and
goes large fix points on the other tack, fo as to get into
the wake of the centre column ; it then hauls to the former
tack, going two points large, till it ranges abreaft of the
jntre column, when it. brings to, and for the new wea- Mw«u.-r«
ther column. See fig. 46.
To interchnn ie rhe centre and lee columns: The centre and
weather columns bring to, or keep fteerage way, as is mo'ft
convenient : the lee column tacks together and preffes fail
to gain the wake of the centre column 5 which, when they ^ '3
have effected, they re-tack together and Hand on ; the^V^T
centre-column then edges away under an ealy fail, fleering, iumaSi
if it lay to, eight points from the wind, and if it kept fleer-
age wav only two points, until it comes into the ftation of
the lee column, where it hauls to the wind ; while the wea¬
ther-column fills and Hands on : and the order is re-
efiablflhed by {hortening or making fail, according to cir-
cumflanees. 74
The weather column to pafs to leewtfnl : The weather-The wea- 1
column {lands on under very little fail, while the centre andj^A"
lee-columns tack together, and carry a prefs ot 1 ail till they f. tol I
reach the woke of the weather-column, when they retack, wari.
and crowd fail till they come up with the weather-column ;
and when they have gained the wake of the weather-co¬
lumn, it bears away twm points, to gain its ftalion to lee¬
ward, and then hauls to the wind or brings to till the new
weather and centre columns come up. See fig. 47.
The lee-column to pafs to windward : The weather and
centre columns bring to, while the lee column carries fail'.umn to
and tacks in fuccefiion as foon as the leading {hip can wea- !,a/s t0 )
ther the headmoft flrip of the weather-column; and when ar. W1:i wau..
rived upon the line on which the weather-column is formed,
it re-tacks in fuccefiion, forms on the fame line, and either
brings to or Hands on under very little fail. If it brings to,
the other two columns bear away together two points, to
pu: themfelves abreaft of the column now to windward ; but
if the new weather-column flcod on under an eafy fail, they
may bear away only one point to gain their proper ftations.
See fig. 48. _ _ «f>
As it is of the utmoft importance tliat each ftu'p be in her Method o!§
reipedlive ftation, both to preferve order, and that the van-keeping a I
ous evolutions may be more readily performed, the officerj.jl
of the watch will therefore be ever anxious to preferve the|T T)y
ftation of his (hip. This he may do by his quadrant; but me.i„s of ;
the more ready method for this purpoie is by means of the the naval
Naval Square, which is conftrufted as follows : iquare.
Upon fome convenient place at the middle of the quarter-
deck, deferibe the fquare ABCD (fig. 49.), of which theti0n,
fides AD and BC are parallel to the keel; through the
centre line G draw the line EF parallel to AD or BC, and
draw the diagonals AC and BD ; bifeih the angles EGD,
EGC by the ftraight lines GH, GI, and the naval fquare
will be conflru&ed. Now firree the angles FGD, FGC
are equal to four points, being each half a right angle ;
therefore the angles EGD, EGC are each equal to 12
points, and confequently the angles EGH, EG I are each
equal to fix points. Hence, if a fhip is running clofe-hauled
on the ftarboard tack, in the dirediion FE, the diredlion of
the wind will be IG, and her clofe-hauled courfe on the
other tack will be GC : But if fhe be tunning in the fame
diredlion FE upon the larboard tack, her clofe-hauled
courfe on the ftarboard tack will be in the diredlion
GD. . . 78
In order now to apply the naval fquare to the keeping of A-d applj I
fhips in their refpedlive ftations, let the fleet be formed in cation,
the fifth order of failing clofe-hauled, the correfponding
fhips of the columns coinciding- with the diredlion of the
wind, in order to turn to windward with greater facility.
The correfponding fhips in the column muft be kept in the
diredlion of GH^ or GI, according to the diredlion of the
wind and th? tack they are upon, while all the fhips of
a the
Part 1. N A v A L T
To reftore th« fame cxjlumn mill be in the direction of EF. See
th'i Oider
"otfshfc A min, let the fleet be in three columns in one of the
l ofth -Wi. d. lines of bearing, tne 'hip being clofe hauled on the other
1 v~~’ 1 tack. The fhips of each column will be in the direction of
one of the diagonals, while the correfponding Ihips oi' the
other columns will be in the direction of the other dia¬
gonal (fig. 51). It will alfo be the fame it the columns
are in one line oc bearing, and goin r four ooints large on
the lame tack. The application of the naval fquare in other
cafes will be obvious.
CiriAP. VII. ‘To rcflore or reforvt the Order of Battle
upon Shifts of the ly'ind.
7*9
Fo re here
he or !er
if batrle
1 on Ihifts
f roe vv ud
vin l co¬
ning for-
v ird lefs
han lix
loincs.
1. Let it be intended to reflore the order o^ battle
on the Lame tack, .the wind coming forward, and fhitt-
in r ahead lefs than fix points. In this cafe, the whole
fleet is to bring to exceot the leader ; who, in order
n the fame that the fame dillances between the fli’ps may be ore-
ark, the ferved when the Kne is reformed, ‘leers a courfe a b (tig.
52.), inch as to be at right angles to the middle point be¬
tween the former and prefent direction of the wind : hence
the courfe he mull ileer will be known by adding half the
number of points the wind has ihifted to eight points, and
applying this turn to the former clofe-hauled courfe. As
foop as the leader has arrived at the new clofe-hauled line
with refpeCl to the fecond (hip ahead, that fhip immedi¬
ately tills, and bears away the fame number of points as the
leader ; and when both thefe have reached the clofe-hauled
line with refoeCl to the third fhio, the alfo fills, and bea's
away. In like manner the remaining part of the fleet bear
away in fucceffion ; and when they have got into the clofe-
hauled line r with the fternmofl (hip, they ?.ll haul their
wind at the fame inllant, and the ilernmoil fhip fills and
Hands on clofe-hauled.
A very exped tious method of performing this evolution
is as follows : The whole fleet having ‘alien off as foon as
the wind fluffed the fame number of points which it chan¬
ged, the leader bears away eight points from the middle
point between the former and prefent directions of the wind ;
or, if the wind has fluffed near fix points, in this cafe the
leader mud bear away eight points Torn the new direction
o' the wind ; but then the fleet will be clofer than before,
and the leader hauls his wind as Ioqu as the fternmoit fnip
bears on the clofe-hauled line from him : The fecond fhip
bea rs'away when fire has reached the wake of the leader, and
alio hauls her wind when fhe has again gained his wake.
In like manner the third, fourth, &c fhips bear away, and
alio haul their wind in fucceffion, until the flernmoit and
the whole line is formed again. See fig. 53.
Fourpoints. If the wind fluffs exactly four points ahead, the whole
fleet is to veer round till the heads of all the fhips are direc¬
ted to the point exactly opposite to their former courfe ;
and the rear Ship, which has now become the van, is to run
four points large upon her new tack, and the red the fleet
to follow her in fucceffion ; and when the laft fhio, which was
the former leader, is got into the wake of the headmoft in
the line, the whole fleet is to veer together, and the order
will be reformed on the former tack-
Eieht;1 If the wind fhifts eight points forward, the fhips are to
points.
So
A C T I C S. 279'
veer round altogether till their heads are on the point of the The Battle,
compafs oppofite to their former courfe ; then the rear fhip, *"" *
having become the van, is to haul clofe by the wind on the
fame board ; all the other fhips are to haul up in fucceffion,
and range in the wake of the leading fhip.; and when the
laff fhip is in her llation, the order will be reformed on the
fame tack. gj
If the wind changes 12 points exactly, the fleet mud ^wdve
veer round together, and haul their wind in fucceffion on i,oults-
the firtl tack. g-
2. The wind coming forward, and the order of battle to Fo reform
be reformed on the other tack. 'hf’ order of
If the wind fhifts ahead lets than fix points, all the fhips
of the fleet are to veer round, till their heads come to the tack -.he
oppofite point of the como-ifs with reipect to their former wiui co-
courfe ; and then, the rear fhip, which is no*v become the nvn£ f°r-
van, is to haul clofe by the win.! on that tack, and the^.^H^8
other ihios follow her in fucceffion. From hence the fleet p0iats.
mi rht pals to the line of battle on the former tack by veer- 84
ing in fucceffion. Ir the wind comes ahead more than lix Between fix
points, but lefs than twelve, the fleet is to manoeuvre in the
fame manner as before. If the wind comes ahead exactly
twelve points, the tack is to be changed. TwAve
3. When the wind fhifts aft, and the order of battle to no*nts-
be reformed on the fame tack. TheAvind
If the wind has fhifted Lefs than two points, the leader
hauls his wind, the fleet (lands on as before, and each fhip and ths or-
hauls her wind in fucceffion as fhe gains the wake of the ^er "f ^at-
leader. If it is intended to change the tack, the whole fAr 'ieAo’ix”
fleet tack together, and the fternmoil thip, which now be-the fame
comes the leader, hauls up, and the reit bear down and haul tack,
up in iucceffion. s7
If the wind changes fixteen points, all the fhips brace
about for the other tack immediately, by which means the »s ^ *
fleet will be going four points large; then the fhips tack-The wind
ing or veering initantly together, the order of-battle will be changing
reliored or formed again on the fame tack as they were be-ilx?ee'1
J non:
tore the wind change !.
points.
Chap. VUI. Of the Battle.
89
In a naval engagement, the prefent mode, as has already'h" 'he line
been obfervefl, is to dr^w up the fleet in a ilraight line uponut hatue.
one of the clofe-hauled lines under an eafy faij. The fri¬
gates, fire-fliips, tranfports, &c. are placed at proper di-
ilances on the other tide, with re Ip eft. to the enemy (b).
The diffarce between two adjacent fhips in the line is ufu-
ally about a cable’s length ; but the admiral increafes or di-
minilhes this interval according to circumftances. The[ts
nearer, however, the fhips are to each other, the itronger is.3^5hy
the line, and the move difficult to be broken or forced by the mg clofe,
enemy ; but flail there muff be a fufficient interval left, fo
that if a.fhip receive confiderable damage, (lie may be got
out of the line without becoming foul or falling aboard of the
fhip next affern, which would be the means of putting the
whole line in confufion.
9X
i he flrength at a fleet depends alfo more on the largenefs crmi”
of the fhips, and the weight of the metal, than in their num-ftf;,
ber. The fewer the number of fhips in a fleet, the more though ^
diitinftly will the fignals. be perceived and anfvvered by thofeiewer in
ne?.«»the extremities of the line ; the better alfo will the 0r-numberj
der
(n) Several able officers have been of opinion,, that when fleets are ranged in order of battle, inltead of beiffir clofe-
hauled, they fhould have the wind two points free, or upon the beam. Some of the reafons alleged in fupport’of this
opinion are, that the ihips can more eafily keep their itanons ; and-i: any fhip fhould happen to fall to leeward, fhe may
ealny regam her ilatioxr, which would be almoll impoilibie were the fleet dole-ha tiled,.
9*
Ad van''a-
pes of the
iltet to
2g.0 Naval T
The Battle, der of battle be kept, and the fleet more eafily maneeuvered.
A lar^e Ihip is not fo foon difabled as a fmall one ; and in
the ea?e of a three-decker, althouirh the upper deck fhould
happen to be confufed with the wreck of broken malts,
yards, See. and hence it being fcarcely poffible to work the
guns on that deck, yet if the weather be not tempeftuous,
the guns on the other two dicks may be worked. If
boarding fhould be deemed practicable, it is evident that the
large fhip, upon account of the height of her fide, as well as
for other reaions, will have greatly the advantage over one
of a lefs fize. Large {hips are alfo for the moft part more
able to encounter a ftorm than fmall ones ; and in a gale of
wind large fhips have commonly the advantage in point of
failing. Hence it is obvious, that a fleet compofed of large
fhips may have greatly the advantage over a fleet confuting
of lefs {hips, though much more numerous.
As in a naval engagement the two fleets are drawn up
clok-hauled. on two lines parallel to each other, one of thele
fleets is therefore to the windward of the other. The wind¬
ward fleet has feveral advantages not, poflefled by the fleet
to leeward, and the leeward fleet has alfo advantages over
the weather fleet. The advantages and difadvantages of
each of thefe fleets are as follow :
The fleet to windward may approach the leeward fleet at
pleafure, and can therefore determine the time of commence-
windward. ment; °f the add ion. If the weather fleet is more numerous,
it may fend down a detachment of fhios on the rear of the
leeward fleet, and thereby out it into confufion. If any of
the {hips of the fleet to leeward fhould be difabled, the fleet
to windward may with great eafe fend down their ftre-fhips
upon them, or fend a detachment after any part that gives
■way. The weather fleet may board if the admiral thinks
proper; and it is fcarcely incommoded with the fmokc, which
is carried off by the wind to the fleet to leeward.
The difadvantages of the fleet to windward are, an inabi-
fleet to hty to quit •‘he fight when once engaged, without being
windward, obliged to pafs through the enemy’s line, which is extreme¬
ly dangerous ; becaufe the {hips being already very much in¬
jured before they are obliged to fly, they mufi: expeft to be
{till more fo ; and as they have it no longer in their power to
form the order of retreat, this manoeuvre is abfolutely a de-
fperate one. If the fleet to windward tack altogether, in
order to pet off, the line to leeward may do the fame, after
having raked the weather fhips in ftays, and follow them
on the other tack, with the advantage of having gained the
wind of the centre and rear divifions of the flying line. If
it blow- frefh, it is feldom that weather {hips have their
lower deck guns iufficiently elevated ; whence it refults, that
the fhfp being a little inclined on the lee fide, the guns of¬
ten run out again at their ports after being fired, which very
much retards the fervice of the artillery, firce the guns
are obliged to be bowfed in again every time for loading ;
and oftentimes they can make no ufe at all of their lower
tier. Again, fuch of the {hips as are fo difabled as to be
obliged to quit the line, cannot eafily do it, becaufe in veer¬
ing, for want of being able to tack, they fall between the
two lines, where they are raked ahead, and by that
means completely put in diforder: but (hould they be
fortunate enough to be able to finifh their evolution, it is
{till very difficult for them, difabled as they are, to get to
windward of their line, and very often they fall foul of •the
next {hips aftern ot them, which have it fcarcely in their
power to prevent the accident on account of the fire and
fmoke, elpecially it the line is much contracted ; and {hould
theie perceive it,, and try to avoid being run foul of by fall¬
ing back on their next {hip aftern, and fo on thus fuccef-
fively, it might happen, that from one to the other a great
part of the fleet being obliged to manoeuvre, their fire would
. ‘93
Difadvan¬
tages of the
A C T I C S. Part I.
leflen, and very often ceafe, by their covering each other; * he Battb,
when, if the enemy take the advantage of this critical mo-' 'IT"
ment, the diforder increafes, and all is loft. But thefe
inconveniences may be partly prevented by having the dif¬
abled {hips quickly towed out of the line by the boats of
the fleet, which for that purpofe ftiould always be hoifted
out from each {hip before the engagement begins. Other-
wife, if the fhips in the weather line, not being too clofe,
have the necelfary fpace to obferve what pafles ahead of
them, and to manceuvre, they ought to range themfelves to
leeward of the difabled fhip, in order to cover her, and ap-
preach nearer to the enemy ; all the other ihips bearing
up alfo together to preferve the line. 94
The {hips in the line to leeward have the advantage ofAdranu-
ferving with facility and effeCf their lower deck guns in alljp* °f
weathers proper for fleets to come to aftion : they canwar j °'e ’
quit the engagement at pleafure : their difabled {hips can
without difficulty quit their ftations when neceffity requires
it: they can form the order of retreat with more readinds,
or continue the aftion as long as convenient : in fhort, the
lee line of battle, if fuperior in number, can alfo double the
enemy, by making fome o{ the fhips in the van or rear to
tack, and put one of the extremities of the enemy’s line be¬
tween two fires ; and if they are *ormed in time, they may
cannonade the enemy while bearing down to the attack. ^
The di lad vantages of the fleet to leeward are, its being And its dif.
very much annoyed by the Imoke, and a continued fhoweradvantages,
of fire from the wads falling on board, repelled by the wind,
which if not attended to may be productive of dreadful con-
fequcnces. The fliips of the line to leeward cannot attempt
to board thofe of the other whatever may be their inclina¬
tion for it; they can hardly do more than accept the battle,
without being able to determine either time or diftance: it
is even with great difficulty that they can avoid being board¬
ed, or orevent their line from being broken, if the weather
{hips are bent upon doing it; and their fire-fliips are very
feldom of ule.
A general rule for the adoption of either the weather orN
lee gage cannot be laid down. Sometimes the one is pre-^lruf
ferable, and fometimes the other ; and very often the com-'^r‘"j^
mander in chief has it not in his power to make an option. pire tj,e
Having proceeded fo iar with refpett to the line ot battle,other,
it may not be improper to introduce in this place an account
of a naval engagement, with the conduft to be obferved pre¬
vious to, and .during the time of, its continuance. ^
I he erg; gement will not begin till the admiral makes The adion
the fignal, urdefs an adlion is infenfibly brought on by fome not to be-
unavoidable circumftances in the line, or pofition of the van*™
or rear of both fleets in forming or approaching each other. rnajefor
The admiral in Inch cafe will make the proper fignal for the that pur-
van or rear, by the diftinguiftung flag of either of thele di-pofe.
vifions, which will undoubtedly regulate the neceflary ma¬
noeuvres of the reft of the fleet throughout the whole line. ^
During the time of an engagement the greateft filence is precau'bns
to be obferved in each fhip ; no one mull quit his poll upon to byobfer-
pain of death ; and {hould any one happen, to refufe obey-'^^1^
ing an officer, he {hall he put to death on the fpot; thement”
fame alfo fhall be done to any one who {hall hide himfelf,
or feign to be wounded. The wounded muft be carried or
conduced to the furgeon by thofe who have been appoint¬
ed by the captain for that purpofe. Should any one dii-
cover an advantage to be taken, he {hall inform the offi¬
cer who {lands neareft him. No kind of rigging what¬
ever is to be touched without an order. Should any dange¬
rous {hot be received at the water line of thedhip, fuch of
the calkers, or carpenters, or any other perfon who perceives
it, ftiall inform in private the captain with it, without fay¬
ing a word of the lame to any one elfe upon pain of death,
/, unlefi
96
' eene-
for
The fleet
to carry
little fail
100
No captain
to quit his
?oit in
h:
101
Nor make
an attack
without or
di- r fr m
the admi¬
ral.
Parti. . Naval T
The Battle, unlcfs it be a fuperior officer; the fame precaution fhaii alfo
~—v  te obferved about any part of the ffiip catching fire.
Whillt the fleets are engaged, the admiral carries but
little fail: in this, however, he mult conduct himfell by the
motions of the enemy, the fhips always oblerving to keep
clofc in the line ; and if any fhip happen to get out of the
line, the fhip which immediately follows is to pay no
regard to her, but endeavour to keep her ftation in the
line.
A captain muft not quit his jpolJ in the line upon any
*'j|s pretence whatever, unlefs his fliip fhould be fo greatly dama¬
ged as to render hgr incapable of continuing the action.
'1 he little fail a fleet is under at Inch a time may in gene¬
ral give the fhips, though damaged in their rigging, &c.
time enou rh to repair their defedts, without caufing an un-
tieceffary interruption in the line, by withdrawing out of
action w'hen their fervice might perhaps be of the utmoll
importance to the reft of the fleet.
A captain, through too impetuous a defire of diftinguifh-
ing himfelf, ought never to break the order of the line,
however inviting the advantage of an attack might then ap¬
pear to him to fecure fuccefs : he muft wait with patience
the fmnal of the admiral or commanding officer of his divi-
fr n, becaufe it is always more effential to preferve and fup-
port a clofe line in - action, as it conftitutes the princip J
ftrength of a fleet in general, than to attend to a particular
attack between two fhips, which commonly decides but
little with regard to the whole, however glorious in appear¬
ance, ur.lefs w’ith a view at the fame time or taking or de-
ftroying a flag fhip of the enemy’s, and where fuccefs alone,
even then, can jultify the attempt.
The iwo immediate ftconds to the admiral ought to di-
red! part of their fire againft the enemy’s flag-fhio, or any
other that may attack their admiral ; fo that their chief at¬
tention fhould be employed more in his defence than in that
of their own proper fhip, as they muft facrifice every other
confideration to the honour of their flag.
i he fame attention muft likewiie be paid to any other
fhip that may find herfelf engaged wuth one of the enemy’s
flag-fhips ; the next to her ahead and aftern fhould lerve in
that reiptdf as feconds, by dividing part of their fire
againft inch flag officer, in order to make him ftrike the
fooner.
if any flag-officer ftand in need of being affifted, he will
of courle make a fignal for the corps de referve ; or if there
fhould be none, he will fignify the lame to his divihon ; on
v hich his two feconds, w'ith thoie neareit him, will clofe in
to cover him, and continue the adlton. The frigates of his
fquadron will likewife be ready to give him the neceflary
alfiitance ; and it he fhould itill continue the attack, he
will in a particular manner be fupported by his whole di-
viflon.
i hofe fhips which happen to be moft expofed to danger
fhipsmutu will naturally make the ordinary fignals upon the occaiion
to! cadT ffi°u*d receive any hurt or damage, in order to be
other<1C fupported by fuch of the line as are neareil to them.
104 When a fleet is fo far luperior in number as to be able
Th. h jfly to extend itfelf both ahead and aftern confiderably beyond
of referve enemy}s line) the admiral generally forms the excefs into
Formed in’ a boc,-y of referve, drawn up in a line on the other fide of
aline with the fleet with refpedl to the enemy. If the body of referve
the fri- is to windward, the fhips compohng it are to be drawn up
gates. jn a line with the frigates neareft abreaft of the centre ; but
if to leeward, a little ahead of them ; being careful at the
fame^ time to keep within reach of obferving diftindtly all
the iignals a«d motions of the fleet, and to be ready to re¬
place fuch of the Ihips as may happen to be difmafted or
driven out of the line, where all intervals muft be properly
Vot. XVIII. Part I. '
The admi.
ral to he
iupported
by his fe-
coads,
>03
And the
A C T I C S. 281
ftrengthened, and carefully filled Up again without lofs of The Battle,
time. I he body of referve is ufually formed at the lame -—y"—*1
time with the line, to prevent any irregularity that may hap¬
pen on leaving any intervals or ooenings ; yet the admiral
may draw fhips out of the line to form a body of referve,
according to the time and circuraftances of his fituation. 106
i he oidelt captain, after the lenior officer who commands Th - chiefs
the body of referve, ought to relieve the fiift, or clofe that01 tai ci*
part of the line which the difabled fhip has been obliged'ei>t the .
to quit; and 10 on iuccefiively of the reft. e- to re-
'ihe commanding officer of the body of referve will noth eve the
be detached with the whole corps, uniefs on fome preffingfii'!i d
occaiion, to fortify the line, where fuch reinforcement Jsbied flap,
abfolutely neceflary. If to defend one of the flag-officersThe whole
of the three fquadrons, he will be followed by the next body of re-
fenior officer ot the referve who was not before detached,iervc llo!-
in order to place themfelves as feconds, the fir ft ahead
the other aftern of the flag they ere to fnpport, with-Ief, in Caio
out any diminution of the honour of his own prooer fe-T a>ier-
conds at the fame time, as they are only called in throughl’.cncy-
neceffity on that emergency, being not engaged before, and
confequently better able to affift and fupport the admiral ;
their duty being likewife to exert their utmoft efforts in at¬
tacking, or, if poflible, in boarding, the enemy’s flag fhip, to
force him to yield, except they are particularly ordered off
to fome other quarter or part of the fine. ,0g
The admiral will fometimes order the whole body of re-T e adnu-
ferve to reinforce one of the three fquadrons or the fleet, as yd niay or-
he n ay fee occation ; which, when he does, the body muft
make all the fail it can, that each fliip may place herfelf ro re:n^
fucceffively, the firft in the firft interval, the fecond in the force ei-
fecond interval, and fo on throughout. If a part ordy of ffier t^e
the body of referve is v/anted, the proper fignal will be made uluadron®-
accordingly. _ I09
When the admiral has no further occafion for the body The body
of referee, fie will make the proper fignal for the fhips com- ^ referve
poling it to refume their refpedtive pofts in the line, andtl?r?J0la
thefe fliips will repeat the fignals. ' e 11,^’
It any captain in the fleet think he can board with fuc-ln caie 3.
cefs one of the enemy’s fhips, he will fignify the fame to the T1*’11
admiral by hoifting tbs. boarding flag, together with hisflloul(i
particular pendant, to be more plainly diftinguilhed ; the^
admi.al in return will make the proper fignal of approba- practicable,
tion, or oth-rwife if he difapprove of the attempt, by let¬
ting fly that {hip’s particular pendant that fhe may obferve
the lignal the better. Before, the captain make the fignal,
he ought to conlider well the ill confequences that might
attend fuch an enterprife if he {liquid fail ot fuccefs ; for
the breaking of the order or difpoiition of the line, by quit¬
ting his poll, may be of much greater difadvantage to the
whole, than any advantage aiding from his victory, except
that over a flag-fhip.
When the admiral makes the fignal for his fleet to pre-Thefire-
pare for adbon, the tire-lhips will at the fame time get ready (flips to
their grappling-irons, fire-engines, &c. for boarding, andPrf',,are
will likewiie ditpofe all their combuftibles into their proper^6” t^°
channels of communication, &c. as foon as poffible after the to
atftion begins: all which, when ready, they will take care.linage,
to make known by lignal to the particular divihon or fqua-
dron they belong to, and they of courfe will repeat the fame
to the admirals.
ihe fire-ftups muft be particularly careful in placing To bt out
themfelves out of the reach of the enemy’s guns, whieh'ftiAc
they may do abreaft and under Ihelter of their own fhips in eic^
the line, and not in the openings between the fhips, uniefs'
to prevent any of the enemy’s ffiips that ihould attempt to
iorce through their line, when they muft in fuch cafes ufe
their utmoit efforts to prevent them. They ought always
N n to
The Battle
Naval TAG
IT.l
The fire-
fhip in her
w av to the
enemy to
be alii (led
by the fhip
ahead of
which Ihe
paffes.
114
Particular
defcription
of a naval
engage¬
ment be¬
tween two
Ihips.
Divided
into pre¬
paration,
adlion, and
repair.
116
The pi epa-
ration.
to be very attentive to the admiral’s fignals, as well as thofe
of the commanding officer of the particular fquadroo tkey
belong to, that they may lofe no time when the fignal is
made for them to a&, which they muft quickly anfwer by
a fignal in return.
Although no fhip in the line fhould be particularly ap¬
pointed to lead down or proteft the fire-(hips, beiides the
frigates already ordered for that particular purpofe; yet the
fhip ahead of which the fire-fhip paifes in her way to the
enemy, whatever divifion fhe may belong to, is to efcort
her, and muft affift her with a boat well manned and armed,
as well as any other fuccour fhe may itand in need of: I he
two next fhips to her muft likewife give her all neceffary af-
fiftance. The captain of a fire-ftiip is to confider, in fhort,
that he is anlwerable for the event, in proportion as he ex¬
perts to be honourably rewarded if he fucceed in fo daring
and hazardous an enterprife.
Since a general engagement of fleets or fquadrons of men
of war is nothing elie than a variety of particular actions
of Angle fhips with each other, in a line of battle, it may
not be improper to begin by deferibing the latter, and
then proceed to reprefent the ufual manner of condufting
the former.
The whole economy of a naval engagement may be ar¬
ranged under the following heads ; namely, the preparation,
the action, and the repair or refitting for the pmpofes of
navigation.
The preparation is begun by iftuing the orders to clear
the fhip for aftion, which is repeated by the boatfwain and
his mates at all the hatchways or ftaircafes leading to the
different batteries. As the management of the artillery, in
a veffel of war, requires a confiderable number of men, it is,
evident that the officers and failors muft be reft rained to a
narrow fpace in their ufual habitations, in order to preferve
the internal regularity of the fhip. Hence the hammocs,
or hanging beds, of the latter are crowded together as clofe
as poffible between the decks, each of them being limited to
the breadth of 14 inches. They are hung parallel to each
other, in rows ftretching from one fide of the fhip to the other,
nearly throughout her whole length, fo as to admit of no
pafiage but by (looping under them. As the cannon there¬
fore cannot be worked while the hammocs ate fufpended in
this fituation, it becomes neceflary to remove them as quickly
as poffible. By this circumftance a double advantage is ob¬
tained : the batteries of cannon are immediately cleared of
an encumbrance, and the hammocs are converted into a fort
of parapet, to prevent the execution of fmall-fhot on the
quarter-deck, tops, and forecaftle. At the fummons of the
boatfwain. Up ail hammocs ! every failor repairs to his own,
and, having flowed his bedding properly, he cords it up
firmly with a lafhing or line provided for that purpofe. He
then carries it to the quarter-deck, poop, or forecaftle, or
wherever it may be necefl'ary. As each fide of the quarter¬
deck and poop is furnifhed with a double net-work, lup-
ported by iron cranes fixed immediately above the gunnel
or top of the fhip’s fide, the hammocs thus corded are firmly
flowed by the quarter-mafter between the two parts of the
netting, fo as to form an excellent barrier. The tops,
waifte, and forecaftle, are then fenced in the fame manner.
Whilft thefe offices are performed below, the boatfwain
and his mates are employed in fecuring the failyards, to pre¬
vent them from tumbling down when the fhip is cannona¬
ded, as fhe might thereby be difabled and rendered incapable
of attack, retreat, or purfuit. The yards are now likewife
lecured by ftrong chains or ropes, additional to thofe by
which they are ufually fufpended. The boatfwain alfo pro¬
vides the neceffary materials to repair the rigging, where-
ever it may be damaged by the fhot of the enemy, and to
TICS. Part I.
fupplv whatever parts of it may be entirely deftroyed. The The Battle,
carpenter and his mates, in the meanwhile, prepare (hot- —v~—J
plugs and mauls, to clofe up any dangerous breaches that
may be mad<? near the fur face of the water ; and provide the
irontwork neceffary" to refit the chain-pumps, in cafe their
machinery fhould be wounded in the engagement. The
gunner with his mates and quarter-gunners is bulled in exa¬
mining the cannon of the different batteries, to fee that
their charges are thoroughly dry and fit for execution ; to
have every thing ready for furnifhing the great guns and
fmall arms with powder as foon as the attion begins ; and
to keep a fufficient number of cartridges continually filled,
to fupply the place of thofe expended in battle. The ma¬
iler and his mates are attentive to have the fails properly
trimmed, according to the fituation of the fhip ; and to re¬
duce or multiply’them, as occafion requires, with all poffible
expedition. The lieutenants vifit the different decks, to fee
that they are effedlually cleared of all encumbrance, fo that
nothing may retard the execution of the artillery ; and to
enjoin the other officers to diligence and alertnefs, in ma¬
king the neceffary difpofitions for the expefted engage¬
ment, fo that every thing may be in readinefs at a moment’s
warning.
When the hoftile fhips have approached each other to a
competent nearnefs, the drums beat to arms : The boat-
fvvain and his mates pipe, sill hands to quarters / at every
hatchway : All the perfons appointed to manage the great
guns immediately repair to their reipeftive ftations : The
crows, handfpikes, rammers, i'punges, powder-horns, matches,,
and train tackles, are placed in order by the fide of every
cannon : The hatches are immediately laid, to prevent any
one from deferting his poll by efcaping into the lower apart¬
ments : The marines are drawn up in rank and file on the
quarter-deck, poop, and forecaftle : The lafhings of the
great guns are call loofe, and the tomptons withdrawn :
The whole artillery, above and below, is run out at the
ports, and levelled to the point blank -range, ready for fi¬
ring. . 117
The neceffary preparations being completed, and the of-The adion,
ficers and crew ready at their refpeCtive ftations to obey the and
order, the commencement of the aftion is determined by the
mutual diftance and fituation of the adverfe fhips, or by the
fignal from the commander in chief of the fleet or fquadron.
The cannon being levelled in parallel rows projecting from
the (hip’s fide, the moft natural order of battle is evidently
to range the ihips abreaft of each oilier, especially if the en¬
gagement is genet al. The moft convenient diftance is pro¬
perly within the point blank range of a mufket, fo that all
the artillery may do effectual execution.
The combat ufually begins by a vigorous cannonade, ac¬
companied with the whole efforts of the fwivel-guns and the
fmall arms. The method of filing in platoons, or volleys
of cannon at once, appears inconvenient in the fea-fervice,
and perhaps fhould never be attempted unlefs in the batter¬
ing of a fortification. The fides and decks of the (hip, al¬
though fufficiently ftrong for all the purpofes of war, would
be too much fhaken by fa violent an explofion and recoil.
The general rule oblerved on this occafion throughout the
fhip, is to load, fire, and fpunge the gunS with all poffible
expedition, yet without confufion or precipitation. rI he
captain of each gun is particularly enjoined to fire only
when the piece is properly directed to its objeCt, that the
fhot may not be fruitlelsly expended. The lieutenants, who
command the different batteries, traverfe the deck to fee
that the battle is profecuted with vivacity ; and to exhort
the men to their duty. The midfhipmen fecond thefe in¬
junctions, and give the neceffary afliftance, wherever it may
be required, at the guns committed to their charge. The
8 gunner
Part I. N a v A l T
The Battle jrunner fcoulc! be particularly attentive that all the artillery
is fufficiently fupplied with powder, and that the cartridges
are carefully conveyed along the decks in covered boxes.
The havock produced by a continuation of this mutual al-
fault may be readily conjectured by the reader’s imagination:
battering, penetrating, and fplihtering the Tides and decks;
(battering or difmounting the cannon ; mangling and de-
itroying the rigging ; cutting afunder or carrying away the
malts and yards j piercing and tearing the fails fo as to ren¬
der them ufele's ; and wounding, difabling, or killing the
fhip’s company ! The comparative vigour and refolution
ol the aflailants to efferit thele pernicious confequences in
each other, generally determine their fuccefs or defeat: we
fay generally, becaufe the fate of the combat may fometimes
be decided by an uiUorefeen incident, equally fortunate for
the one and fatal to the other. The defeated (hip having
acknowledged the vidfory by ftriking her colours, is im¬
mediately taken pofftilion of by the conqueror, who fecures
her officers and crew as prifoners in his own fhip ; and in¬
verts h s principal officer with the command of the prize un-
ug til a captain is appointed by the commander in chief.
Hepair. The engagement being concluded, they begin to repair :
the cannon are fecured by their breechings and tackles with
all convenient expedition. Whatever fails have been render¬
ed unferviceable are unbent; and the wounded marts and
yards rtruck upon deck, and rtfhed or replaced by others,
i he Handing rigging is knotted, and the running-rigging
fpliced wherever necefl’ary. Proper fails are bent in the
room of thofe which have been difplaced as ufelefs. The
carpenter and his mates are employed in repairing the breach¬
es made in the (hip’s hull, by {hot-plugs, pieces of plank,
and (beet-lead. The gunner and his affillants are bulled in
replenifhing the allotted number of charged cartridges, to
fupply the place of thofe which have been expended, and
in refitting whatever furniture of the cannon may have been
damaged by the adfion.
Such is the ufual procefs and confequence of an engage¬
ment between two (hips of war, which may be confidered
as an epitome of a general battle between fleets or fquadrons.
1 he latter, however, involves a greater variety of incidents,
and neceffarily requires more comprehenlive (kill and judge¬
ment in the commanding officer. A ffiort account of which
Up alto we fhall next proceed to lay before our leaders. .
Defer:j>tion Vv hen the admiral or commander in chief of a naval ar-
w^enuiit iname.nt *ias Covered an enemy’s fleet, his principal con-
hetween cerl1 18 u^ua^y 1:0 approach it, and endeavour to come to
two fleets, action as foon as poffible. Every inferior confideration muft
be facrificed to this important objedt, and every rule of ac¬
tion fhould tend to harten and prepare for fo material an
«vent. T he- ftate of the wind, and the fituation of his ad-
veriary, will in fome meafure didtate the condudl necefi'ary
to be purfued with regard to the difpofition of his (hips on
this occalion. Fo facilitate the execution of the admiral’s
orders, the whole fleet is ranged into three fquadrons, each
of which is darted into three divifions, under the command
of different officers. Before the adtion begins, the adverfe
fleets are drawn up in two lines, as formerly deferibed. As
foon as the admiral difplays the fignal for the line of battle,
the feveral divifions feparate from the columns, in which
they were difpofed in the ufual order of failing, and every
fhip crowds fail to get into its rtation in the wake of the
next ahead ; and a proper diftance from each other is regu¬
larly oblerved from the van to the rear. The admiral, how¬
ever, will occafzonally contradl or extend his line, fo as to
conform to the length of that of his adverfary, whofe ne-
gledt or inferior (kill on this occafion he will naturally con¬
vert to his own advantage, as well as to prevent his own
A c T I c S. 2!?3
line from being doubled; a circumftance which might throwTHe Batrle-
his van and rear into conhifion. '
When the adverfe fleets approach each other, the courfes
are commonly hauled up in the brails, and the topgallant-
fails and flay-fails furled. The movement of each fhip is
chiefly regulated by the main and foretop fails and the jib ;
the nrizen topfail being referved to haften or retard the
courfe of the (hip; and, in fine, by filling or backing, hoirt-
ing or lowering it, to determine her velocity.
The fignal for a general engagement is ufually difplayed
when the oppoflte fleets are fufficiently within the range of
point blank fhot, fo that they may level the artillery with
certainty of execution, which is near enough for a line of
battle. The aftion is begun and carried on throughout the
fleet in the manner we have already deferibed between fingle
fhips. The various exigencies of the combat call forth the
(kill and refources of the admiral to keep his line as com¬
plete as poffible when it has been unequally attacked ; by
ordering (hips from thofe in referve to fupply the place of
others which have fuffered greatly by the aftion ; by di¬
recting his fire (hips at a convenient time to tall aboard the
enemy ; by detaching fhips from one part ot the line or
wing which is ftronger to another which is greatly prefled
by fuperior force, and requires affiftance. His vigilance is
ever neceffary to review the fituation of the enemy from van
to rear ; every moth n of whom he fhould, if poffible, anti¬
cipate and fruflrate. fie fhould feize the favourable mo¬
ments of occafion, which are rapid in their progrefs, and
never return. Far from being difconcerted by any unfore-
feen incident, he fhould endeavour, if poffible, to make it
lubfervient to his defign. His experience and refledion will
naturally furnirti him with every method of intellh ence to
difeover the rtate of his different fquadrons and divifions.
Signals of inquiry and anfwers, of requeft and aflent, of
command and obedience, will be difplayed and repeated on
this occafion. Tenders and boats will alio continually be
detached between the admiral and the commanders of the
feveral fquadrons or divifions.
As the danger prefies on him, he ought to be fortified ,
by refolution and prefence of mind ; becaufe the whole fleet .
is committed to his charge, and the conduCt of his officers
may in a great degree be influenced by his intrepidity and
perfeverance. In fhort, his renown or infamy may depend
on the fate of the day.
Chap. IX. Manoeuvres performed by adverfe Fleets
•when in fight of each other.
120
To difpute the weather-gage with the qnemy.—'When'1’0 difpute
the enemy- is to windw-ard, and it is wifhed to gain
w-eather gage of him, the fleet to leeward ffrould avoid ex-CIieIUy,
tending itfelf the length of the enemy’s line, in order to
oblige them to edge down upon theirs, if they intend to at¬
tack them ; which will be a mean, if they rtill perfift in
doing fo, of lofing the advantage of the wind.
It is impoffible for a fleet to leeward to gain to windward
fo long as the enemy keep their wind, unlefs a change hap¬
pens in their favour: therefore all that a fleet to leeward
can do, muft be to wait with patience for fuch a change;
which they will undoubtedly avail themfelves of, as well as
any miftake or inadvertency the enemy may commit in the
mean time. And as long as the fleet to leeward does not
extend its line the length of the enemy’s, it will be impof-
fible for the latter to bring them to a&ion without run¬
ning the hazard, by bearing down, of lofing the advantage
of the wind, which both fleets will be lb defirous of pre-
ferving.
N n 2
Hence
Manoeu¬
vres per¬
formed bv
adverfe
each other
Seaman [hip
vol 11.
i^Si.
Naval T A
Hence, that an admiral may benefit by the fhifts of the
wind that frequently happen, he mull in a manner force
aavene t*16™ ; wh'ch will not appear fo extraordinary to officers of
Fleer when any experience, who know what winds reign moll on the
in fight of coaft, or off the head-lands, where they may expedt an ene¬
my; and though an admiral may be fometimes out in his
conjecture, he alfo as often fucceeds fo happily as to gain
the advantage of his enemy. The difpofition of projecting
head-lands, and the felting of tides or currents, alio contri¬
bute greatly towards gaining the wind of the enemy.
Again, the fleet to windward ought to keep that to lee¬
ward as much as poflible always abreait of it ; becaufe, by
doing fo, they will preferve the advantage they have, unlefs
the wind changes much again.lt them. They fhould force
them likew’ife to keen their wind, unlefs they think it more
prudent not to engage ; but when that is the cafe, they
/hould keep entirely out ot^ fight.
The following obfervations, with refpeCt to the drifting
of the wind, are given by M. Bourde de Villehuet : I. If
the weather fleet be in order of battle, and the wind draw
ahead, the'lee fleet, if they be ahead and in order o'- battle,
ought to box oft on the fame tack as before, in order to
Elements cf jn fuccelf10n in the wake of one another, to reftore the
F.c-oi/’! nn orf|er . drawing at the fame time a great deal to
windward. This 'manoeuvre may even be the means of
weathering the enemy, if the wind fhould drift much ; for
they have no other method to regain the order of battle,
without lofing much ground : though they will always lofe
a great deal with reipeCt to the pofition of the enemy to
leeward.
2. If the lee fleet be aftern, and the wind drifts aft while
they are on the contraryr tack with the enemy in order of fail¬
ing on one line, the lee fleet ought to tack or veer altogether,
and at the fame inftant ; becauie this drift of wind will be
ahead for all the drips in refpeCl to their tacks then on
board, and aftern in refpeCt to the order of battle. When
the van fhip is full on the other tack, as well as all the reft
in their former order of battle, (he ftrall haul by the wind,
while the reft of the fleet run large on their firft line of bat¬
tle as many points as the wind has ftriited aft, to get into
her wake fucceffively, and reftore the order of battle while
approaching the enemy ; by which they gain the wind of
him, or elfe double him if the drift has been great; for the
only means they have of reftoring the line of battle is
by the vqn fhip hauling by the wind, and the reft coming
into her wake in fucceffion. If the drift of the wind was
four points, the fleet to leeward would be obliged ftill to
perform the fame manoeuvre, that they might go about,
after a certain time, fucceffively to windward of the enemy,
who could only in the mean time have tacked all together,
to bring their fleet fuddenly in a line of battle on the
other board.
If, when the wind drifts aft, the lee fleet is aftern in or¬
der of battle, and the enemy be on the other tack in the
order of failing, the leading fhip muft haul clofe to the wind
immediately, while the other vefltls will, in fucceffion, bear
away as many points as the wind has drifted, in order to
perform the lame manoeuvre and rtftcre the line of battle.
By obferving this mode of manoeuvring, yon will approach
the enemy, and gain as much to windward of him aspoffible,
or get even the weather-gage of hirn entirely, if the wind
has drifted confiderably. The rear drip of the fleet to lee¬
ward may immediately keep clofe to this new wind on the
fame boaro, while all the reft of the fleet, after having tack¬
ed together and at the fame time, will come and place them-
felves clofe by the wind in her wake, where they are again
to tack fucceffively, in order to follow their rear fhip, which
is now become the leader, and which may break the ene-
C T I C S. Pan T,
my’s line, or at lead gain the wind of him. But, to be able Marceu-
to go through this evolution, you muft have nothing to fear
from the enemy ; for the fleet will be obliged to go about
twice before the order of battle can be reftored. The Fleets when
weather fleet ought to keep their wind as clofe as poffible, in ii h of
holding the enemy always exadlly to leeward of them, by llthen
keeping on the lame tack as he ; and if the wind fhifts a v_
little, and becomes favourable to the enemy which is to lee¬
ward, the weather fhips are then to keep exaffly their wind,
without caring for the prefervation of the line, unlefs the
two fleets be very near one another. N
To force the enemy to nSlion.
T. When the enemy has the weather-gage.—When two To force
adverfe fleets are in fi jht of each other, an engagement is enemy
aim oft unavoidable : For iince it may be prefumed that the^’^'™.
fafteft failing fhips of the one fleet will fail fafter than theto wmj/
flowed failing veflels of the other fleet, hence the fleet that ward,
is in purfuit will gain upon the other. The lee fleet, which
is wifhing to bring on an engagement, muft therefore keep
always on the fame tack with the weather fleet ; and taking
care to keep them fo exactly abreaft as to prevent the leaft
danger of lofing fight of them, and hence be ready to Uid,
take the advantage of the firft favourable fliift of windtoP-384»
make the attack. Night is certainly the time when an al¬
teration of the cotirfe may be heft attempted. But the lee
fleet is to have frigates on the look-out ; which, by fignals,
will continually give notice of the manoeuvre and courfe of
the retreating fleet to windward ; which, by thefe means, is
always expofed to be purfued without being able to get off
unfeen, and muft. fooner or later be compelled to come to
attion, unlefs they can get into fome port, or a gqje of wind
fhould come to refeue them by difperfmg both fleet?, and
thus furnifli the means of retreating in a ftorm. 121
2. When the enemy is to leeward.—If the lee fleet keep When he i#
clofe to the wind in the order of battle, the fleet to wind r° itewar
ward is to Hand on in the fame manner till it is abreaft of
the enemy, fhip to fhip, when they are all together, and at
the fame time, to bear away, and fleer exaftly lo as to bring
their refpedlive opponents, in the adverfe line, on the fame/i/y, and
point of the compvfs with them; obferving the principles Maw**,
of chafing, which are to be obferved by every chafer to wind-™'"'’
ward. Thus the fleets will be near enough to begin the ac-
tion, in prefenting the bow of each fhip to her opponent in
the order of failing, which wall be eafily changed for the line
of battle, by all the ftups hauling clofe to the wind together,
in the moment which precedes the beginning of the adlion.
If the fleet to leeward be inclined to engage, it might
bring to, to prevent lofing time; a?, by this manoeuvre, lefs
time will be requifite for the weather fleet to join them ;
then they will fill as foon as the aftion begins, becauie it is
more favourable to a lee line to be advancing ahead ; fince,
if a fhip be difabled in the weather line (which is obliged
to follow with the topfails full), fhe will infallibly drop, and
run fe ul of the next veffel aftern of her, covered with fire
and fmoke, which may be produ&ive of great difofder.
As the lee fleet fills and hands on cloie by the wind, it
is neceffary that the weather-line fhould be abreaft and pa¬
rallel to the other before they bear away to come within
the'requifite diftance for adb'on, in order that the van fhip
o1^ the weather fleet fhould always keep to windward of the
leading fhip of the lee line, and be guarded agairft luch a
fhift of wind as might come ahead ; which would not be
the cafe it they were aftern ot the van (hip in the lee fleet;
which, as well as the rell of the line, would be able then to
double them to windward, by tacking in luccefiion.
Another reafon tor the weather line being right abreaft
of the enemy to leeward, and for every fhip fleering on the
lame point in approaching her opponent in the leeward line
n V of
Part I. N a v A i, T
Marian- of battle, is, that the fleets may be placed exa&ly parallel
vres per other; for, as the weather line muft not be aftern, be-
fomieil by caufe 0^' t[je r^1c Df t}ie wind coming more forward, neither
fleetavvhen muft they be ahead of the line to leeward, in cafe the wind
in fi„ht of fhould come aft; for then the lee fleet, keeping dole by the
each other. win£J fn tlie wake of their leading {hip, might, by this fliift,
v be as far to windward as the oppoting fleet, or even get the
weather gage of them. But ii the weather fleet keep ex¬
actly abreaft of the other, they will always be in a fituation
to preferve their advantage without expoling themielves.
It is, notwithtlanding, that thofe (hips keeping more away
than the line to leeward will find themfelves, when come
within gun-(hot, in a very dilagretable fituation with refped;
to the enemy’s (hips, which will have it then in their power to
rake them as they bear down. This may occafion much dif-
oider among the fhips of the weather line, which, for that
moment, have it not in their power to fire their whole
broadfide at the enemy, who has the advantage of beginning
the ahtion.
If the lee fleet bear away four points to move their order
of battle on the other tack and avoid the addon, filing off
in iuccefifion in the wake of the van fhip, the weather line,
by bearing away all together eight points, cannot fail, as
both fleets are iuppoied to fail equally, to pafs through
the middle of their line, and force them to fight with dif-
advantaoe, it their extent be double the diftance between
the two fleets. If the extent or the fleet be lels than the
above limitation, then the weather fleet will divide the lee
fleet more unequally ; and if the diftance between the fleets
be considerable, the weather fleet will not be able to break
through the line.
It the ke fleet bear away four points all together, being of
equal extent with the fleet to windward, and their diftance
from each other equal to half the length of one of the lines;
fhculd the weather fleet bear away at the fame time eight
points, they will approach very near the fternmofl of the
retreating fleet; but they will not have it in their power to
cut ofl any part of that fleet, even with an equality of fail¬
ing ; lo that the only advanta e gained by this manoeuvre
will be an ability of attacking the rear, and bringing it to
adion.
It the van fhip and the reft of the weather fleet had a
fufficient velocity to keep the centre fhip of the ke line on
the fame point of bearing; in that cafe the leading fhip
may break through the enemy’s line about the middle fhip
of the centre divifion : for, luppofing the fleets in order of
battle, on the ftarboard tack, fleering eaft, with the wind
at louth-fouth eaft, being at two leagues diflance from each
ctnei, both the lines being four leagues in extent; then the
ke line bearing away all together four points, will run north-
eaft, while the fleet to windward, bearing away all top ether
eight points, will fleer north ; the van fhip of which will
keep tiie centre divifn n of the lee line on the point ol bear¬
ing north-weft. As fhe is luppofed to be able to continue
m this pofitioti, it follows, that the van of the weather line
muft clofe the centre ot the flying line to leeward, after having
run four leagues. i he time and diftance nccefiary t® cut
oft a rt treating fleet may always be known according to the
la.ft L-ppofttion. Should the lee fleet get upon the other
tacK and run large, flill preferving the order of battle, they
will be dill it oner cloied and forced to adlion by the weather
fleet, who have only to keep away from eight to nine points
on the fame tack, or run right before the wind.
I he weather fleet can always force the lee one to adion,
whatever movements they make ; for, if they run with the
wind right aft in order o battle, they cannot, ftippofing an
cqua ity o ailing, avoid being cloied or broken marly about
site centre by the weather line, which has only to fteer two
A C T I C S. 285
points on each tack nearer the wind than the retreating fleet, Manoeu-
So that the rear of the weather fleet having bore away no ^.vr^
more than eight points, will be found at the end of a cer- y
tain time to have approached extremely near the centre ofFleetswhen
the retreating fleet; and, in a fhort time more, will be able in fight of
to bring their rear to a&ion. The weather fleet have yeteac^
another advantage ; becaufe, as their fhips have the wind on v "" '
the. quarter, they fail with greater celerity than thofe of the
lee fleet, which .run before the wind. The ke fleet being
abfolutely determined to fly, has therefore no other expedi*
ent left to prolong time but to combat in the order of re¬
treat right before the wind, or on the fame courfe as the
puriuing fleet ; for other advantages are not to be relied on,
if purftred by a vidorior.s foe.
If, from all that has been laid, it refults that it is not
poftible for a fleet ot equal force to avoid an atlion, how
then muft it be with one much inferior ? The more nume¬
rous has nothing to do but to form a detachment of fupe-
rior faikrs, which gain upon the lee fleet and begin the
adtion, while fome others approach to finifh it. Whence
we may conclude, that when in prtfence of too powerful an
enemy, it will never be poflible to avoid an action if he ia
determined to came to one.
To avoid coming to Action. 1-53
1. When the enemy is to windward.—The lee fleet, which To avoid
is wifhing as much as poffible to avoid an engagement,
ought to form the order of retreat to fly trom the enemy ifbtmp
they are In view of him, and run on the fame tack as their wi dwardj,
chafer. But if he is yet out of fight, and they have intel-
li .ence of his approach by their frigates which are looking
out, they may ruh large from the heft tie fleet, without con¬
fining themielves to keep the wind exactly a(t, unlefs they
be in the order of retreat. There are, however, circum-
ftances when the ke fleet may run with tire wind aft, with¬
out afiuming the order of retreat ; as, for example, when
they wifh to gain time, or refolved to engage the enemy, if
they ftiil continue to purfue them. But except on fuch
extraordinary occafions, a fleet flrould not fly before the
enemy without being in the order of retreat, as the rear is
then in the beft fituation to extricate themfelves in cafe of
accident. ' 124 '
2. When the enemy is to leeward.—The weather fleet Fh; enemy
can fcarcely ever be forced to engage; becanfe it can al-
ways continue on that tack which increafes its diftance from
the enemy, by Handing on one tack, while the enemy con¬
tinues upon the other. If the wind was to remain on the
fame point of the compafs for any confiderable fpace of time,
it would’be very eafy for the .fleet to windward to keeo in
fight of the enemy, without being under any apprehenlions
of being forced to come to aflion ; but the inconftancy of
the wind obliges the moft experienced admiral to avoid meet¬
ing the enemy when he thinks it improper to engage him.
ft 0 double the lone my, or to bring a Part of his Fleet between
two Fires. r, ^
i- When the enemy has the weather-gage.—The fleet To doubk-
which attempts to double an enemy ought always to be fu-the enemy
penor to him in number of (hips. The lee fleet ought to|v^er!1,2
endeavour to range exactly abreaft o’, and parallel to, the ^gather-
weather fleet, lo that the van or rear may extend bevond^age.
their line, in order to over-reach them, by tacking in fuccef-
fion to double to windward their van or rear, and bring
them between two fires, Provided this manoeuvre be pro- F.lemcnU cf
perly executed, it will be impofiible tor the fhips in the
weather line, thus preffed, to continue long in their ports ; for vol> *
there is no veffei clofely attacked by two others of equal ^.386.
force which can long itfift being overcome, fince it is al¬
ways in the power of one of them to get into Inch a pofi-
tioa
.2-85
Naval T
Manceu- tion as to be able, without much danger on her tide, to de-
vresper- fl_rov the enemy in a very fhovt time. But whether the
oi med by mo^ at]v3ntapeous evolution is to double the van or the rear,
'Fleet-when is rereffary to be confidered ; for there h fo confiderable an
in fight <,f advantage attending each of thefe evolutions, that either of
.each other. t}ieiri may in a very little time determine the fate of the
battle.
As, in the prefent cafe, the enemy is fuppofed to be to
-windward, either their van or rear may be doubled; butthevan
-may with the greateft facility, becaufe, if they are engaged
by the Ihips abreaft of them, thofe which are advanced a*
■head will be able, by making all fail, to get on the perpen¬
dicular to the direction of the wind with the van of the enemy,
and tack in fucceffion to gain the wind of them on the other
board, thus keeping them to leeward ; and when they are
come fufficiently to windward, they are again to go about,
in order to keep the two headmoft fhips of the enemy’s line
-continually under their fire. If there be two or three ihips
to tack in fucceffion and gain the wind of the enemy, they
may edge down on the van of the weather line at pleafure,
keeping thenrfelves ?. little to windward of it; and as that van
is already engaged by the other fhips abreaft on the other fide,
fie muft neceffavily be foon difabled. If they bear away,
they muft drop upon the line with which they are engaged
to leeward, while the fhips to windward ftill continue to can¬
nonade them. If they attempt going about, in order to at¬
tack more clofely the fhips to windward, they will be raked,
while in ftays, by their opponents to leeward and to wind¬
ward, who enfilading them with whole broadlides, which
they cannot return, muft abfolutely complete their diforder.
If they make fail, in order to fruftrate the defign of the fhips
inclined to double, thofe with which they are engaged
abreaft to leeward have only to perform the fame manoeuvre,
and keep them under their fire; while the others, after having
haraffed them as much as poffible, will do their beft to per¬
form the fame manoeuvre on the fucceeding fhips.
The captains deftined to double the enemy ought to be
men of known ability1-, as well as of approved courage. They
fhould not be ordered upon that fervice but in weather fit
for failing at the rate of three knots an hour at leaft ; and,
for the greater promptitude and certainty of fuccefs, none
but the beft going fhips are to be employed.
If any of the ftiips in the van of the weather-line happen
to be difabled in their mafts or yards, as will moil probably
be the cafe after having been between two fires, they will
drop aftern and run foul of the next which follows, and thefe
again of their fubfequent comrades ; at laft, diforder will be¬
come prevalent, by fhips running foul of each other, or ma¬
noeuvring to avoid the fame accident : ,fo that the order of
battle will be-broken ; while, on the other hand, the line to
leeward is preferved with all the advantage poffible. The
fhips which have gained the wind of the enemy will, by
continuing their manoeuvre, augment the confufion ; enga¬
ging. however, no more than they like ; and if, by chance or
misfortune, they fhould be crippled, it will not certainly be an
eafy matter for them to extricate tlremfelves. But as they
may, on the other tack, drop aftern to windward of the ene¬
my’s line, or veer again like him, they muft extricate thetn-
felves as well as they can, and always advantageoufiy enough if,
Dy doubling the van, they are able to thiow it into diforder.
If the rear of the lee fleet be extended beyond the ftern-
moft fhip of the weather line, they will be obliged, if they
Want to double the rear of the enemy to windward, to make
fail and tack in fucceffion ; in which manoeuvre the headmoft
-hip of thofe deffined for this fervice is to go about firft ;
then, continuing to keep up a biifk cannonade as they corne
to the wind, they will go and heave about again a little to
wmdw ard of the rear of the enemy, in order to bring their
A C T I C S. ■ Parti,
ftern fhips between two fires: and fhould they have the good M«>ceu.
fortune to oblige them to bear awav, they muft go on luc* V"C8 f'er*
ceffively from one fhip to another, as long as they find they advert
fucceed in forcing them to give way. Should diforder take Fketswhcn
place in the rear of the weather fleet, it will not be near fo in light of
prejudicial to the enemy as if it had happened in the van jea-h other,
on the contrary, it may turn out to Vie of fome advantage to ^
them. But the vefiels combating to windward can eafily
withdraw from -the fight, by backing aftern when they find
themfelves too hard prefled. ^
2. When an enemy is to leeward.—The fhips of the wea-Todoub'e
ther-line having extended their van beyond that of the lee-'l16 eneng
line, are to veer, in order to bring the headmoft fhips of the
enemy’s line between two Bres. But, let them do as they ’
will, there never can refult fo much advantage from this ma¬
noeuvre as when doubling a fleet to windward, becaufe the Hid,
difabled fnips can always veer with facility. True it is, theyP-3^
cannot fail becoming at the fame time the prey of the ene¬
my; for both thofe which have doubled them, and thole with
which theyr are engaged ?.breaft in the weather-line, will al¬
ways have it in their power jointly to prefs as clofe as they
think proper.
If the fhips which have doubled the van of the lee fleet,
with which they are engaged, be difabled, they will be
obliged, as they cannot make fail, to pafs along the lee-line{
and they cannot efcape being totally deftroved if they do
not bear away before the wind, to get out of gun-fhot ; du¬
ring which manoeuvre they cannot avoid being ftill in a very
dilagreeable fituation.
Should the fternmoft ftiips of the weather fleet be difabled
in doubling the enemy’s rear, they have only, if they want
to extricate themfelves, to drop attern, and let the two fleets
advance ahead ; and after having refitted themfelves, they
will reaffume their ports. »
7 o avoid being doubled. uy
1. The enemy being to windward.--For this purpofe, itTo avoid
has been propoied to extend the line, by leaving a greater
interval between the fhips towards the centre than in theenen’)r,|)e,
van or rear ; but in this cafe the line runs the rifle of being ;n,r to
divided, unlefs prevented by a corps de relerve, confifting of windward
a few fhips of the line and fire-fhips. It has alfo been pnpofed
as a general rule, that the flag-officers of the lee fleet fhould
oppole themfelves to thofe of the enemy ; by which means
feveral of the enemy’s fhips will be rendered ufelefs in the in-1
tervals. This method has, however, its inconveniences ; as
fometimesthe van and rear of each divifion may be expofed
to the fire of two drips at the fame time : nor is the laft di¬
vifion out of danger of being doubled. In order to remedy
thefe defefts, the larger fhips ought to he placed in the van
and rear of each divifion ; and the whole fleet muft regulate
its failing in inch a manner that the rear of the enemy may
not be aftern of the rear of the laft divifion.
Other methods have been propofed to avoid being dou-
bed; as, that each fquadron of the lee fleet ftiould attack its
correfponding fquadron in the weather fleet ; each divifion
of the lee fleet, however, extending its line far enough to
prevent the enemy from leaving any fhips aftern of it, but
rather ahead. , It has alfo been propoied, that the lee fleet
fhould extend its line as long as the Cherny’s line. 1 his
method will be advantageous for the lee fleet, provided it is
compofed of fhips of fuperior force, thougn fewer in num¬
ber, than the enemy. In other caf es, it is probably the wot ft
method that can be followed by the lee fleet, as it gives the
enemy’s fleet all the advantage it can defire of exerting its
whole force upon the inferior line. _ riS
2. When the enemy is to leeward.—The weather fleet isThe enemy
to keep aftern of tire enemy, fo that the van of the weather
fleet may be oppofed to and attack the enemy’s centre: e
1 ™ ' hence
Parti.
U<)
To force
the ene-
jny’s line
Hid,
l’»3s9
Naval T
Marce i- hence tlic enemy** van will become ufdefs for fome time ;
vre» per- and if it fhould attempt to tack and double upon the wea-
t^!er ^eet:, muc^ t‘me 'n performing that evolu-
Fleet«when tion ; and it alfo runs the rifle of being feparated by the
in fight of calm which generally happens in the courfe of a fea-engage-
each other, ;n confequence of the continual difcharge of cannon.
A confiderable interval might alfo be left between the centre
and van, provided the neceffary precautions be taken to pre*
vent the van from being cut off.
To force the enemy's line.
This is a manoeuvre which the lee fleet may execute to gain
the advantage of the wind. It is performed by the van Ihip, if
within gun-fhot, tacking when fhe and the centre ihip of the
weather line are on a perpendicular to the direftion of the
wind ; then all the lee fleet tack in fucceffion, and thus may
pafs through the enemy’s line, or perhaps a little more to¬
wards the enemy’s van, and go about again in fucceffion to
windwmrd of him. But as he will not be long, without doubt,
before he performs the fame manoeuvre, he will thus be able
to regain the wind, if he be not forced to give way before
his evolution is finiflred. The enemy to windward may even
caufe his van fhfp to tack, as well as the reft of the van'
fquadron to follow in fucceffion, as foon as the leading fliip
of the lee fleet ihall have pafled through his line and be
ready to go about; by which means he will bring them be¬
tween two fires. This manoeuvre, w’dl executed, might per¬
haps give no little trouble to the fliio attempting to force
the line.
This evolution may be performed with advantage, if, by
fome accident or fault in the manoeuvring, the centre divi-
fion of the weather-line be feparated from their van or rear.
For example, when the centre drvifion to wrndward is en-
cumoered with diiabled flnps, then the Drips of the centre
divifion of the fleet to leeward, having all fails fet, are to
tack in iucceffion, and force with promptitude through the
weathei fleet, leaving their own van divifion to engage that
of the enemy on the other tack.
To prevfnt the line being forced.
When the flops of the fleet go about in fucceffion, in or¬
der to force the weather line, the whole line to windward is
to tack together, and at the tame time to get upon the fame
board as the lee fleet ; then that fleet will neither be able to
traverie nor join them. To. perform this evolution with ad-
vantage, it will be requifite to permit fome of the van fhips
of the lee fleet to pals to windward ; then the weather fleet
muft go all about rapidly, in order to put and keep them
between two fires : thus may thefe flops be deftroyed with¬
out their own fleet being able to give them any effedlual
affittance.
.. Il is eal’y ^ perceive, from what has been faid, that there
is httle oecafion to fear being traverfed, as inch a manoeuvre
may turn out to be more prejudicial than advantageous to
thole who perform it. Neverthelefs, it may and ought to
be put in practice when the weather fleet leave Inch vacan¬
cies between their divifions as to allow fome fhips of the
lee fleet to be ina&ive. In this cafe, the fhips which are.
without opponents abreaft of them are made to tack, with
ah fails fet, in fucceffion, and pafs through thefe intervals in
t e weather line, in order to double the centre divifion, or
any other part of it, and bring it between two fires.
T30
To pre¬
vent the
line hein
Forced.
131
vhafing i
Chap, X. Of Chafing.
the cafe of . r ’ N ^ c^e °( ^'Ps-—It is fcarcely neceffary to
fingk 0f ^rve’ th.at ,the ftip which gives chafe is ufually called the
fhips. a"d that which is purfued is called the chafe. Un-
ifrihnCha/erbertJhe faftdt filing veffel of the two, it is
b. era y uppofed that fhe will ieldom or never come un
A C T I C S.
with the chafe : but we have heard experienced officers fay,
that a chafing flop, failing equally fall, in other circumftan-
ces, will gain on her chafe ; becaufe flie has an objeft to
fteer by, whereas the chafe cannot fleer fo nicely by the
compafs. In what follows, however, we ffiall fuppofe the
chafer to be the fafteft failer. "
When the chafe is to windward, it is evident that as foon The chafe
as fine perceives a ilrange flop which fhe takes for an enemy,t0
fhe will haul her wind, in order to prolong the chafe, a3windward,
otherwife her retreat would be focn cut off. The chafer
then Hands on alfo nearly clofe-haulcd until he has the chafe
on his beam ; he then tacks, and (lands on clofe-hauled un¬
til the chafe is again on his beam, and then retacks. In
this manner he continues tacking every time he brings the
chafe perpendicular to his courfe on either board ; and by
manoeuvring in this manner, it is very certain that the cha¬
fer will, by the fuperiomy only of his failing, join the other
in the fhorteft time. For fince the chafer tacks always as
foon as the chafe is perpendicular to his courfe, fhe is then
at the fhorteft diftance poffible on that board ; and fince the
chafer is fuppofed to be the fafteft failer, thefe fhorteft di-
flanccs will decreafe every time the chafer tacks. It is
therefore of advantage to the chafe to keep conilantly on
the fame courfe, without loiing her time in going about;
as tacking cannot be fo favourable to her as to her adver-
fary, whofe failing is fuperior. If the chafer fhould fo little
underfland his profeffion as to Hand on a long way', and’
tack in the wake of the chafe, the bed thing fhe can do is
to heave in flays, and pais to windward of him on the other
tack, unlefs fhe would have a fuperiority in going large ;
for il the chafer perfifts in tacking in the wake of the other
fliip, it is an unqueflionable fail that the chafe will be very1
much prolonged. '
The chafe being to leeward, the chafer is to fleer thatThe eliafe
courfe by which he thinks he will gain moll upon her. IF,!'’eiI‘g '<>
after having run a fhort time, the chafe is found to draw eeVS:UU
more alt, the chafer is then to bear away a little more ; but
if the chafe draws ahead, the purfuer is to haul up a little,
and by this means the courfe may be fa regulated that the
chafe may always bear on the fame point of the compafs,
and then the chafer will get up with the chafe in the fhort¬
eft time poffible ; for were any other courfe fleered than*
that which keeps the chafe always on the fame-point, the
chafer would then be either too far ahead, or too far a- -
ftern ; and hence the chafe would be prolonged.
The chafe ought to run upon that conrfe which will car-
ry fer directly from the chafer ; and, in general, to confult
which is her beft trim with re Ip eel to the wind, that (he¬
rn ay move with-the greateft rapidity poffible from the (hip
which purfues her ; for fome veffels have more advantage in
going Lrge than others, fome with the wind right aft, and
others again are to be found that faff beft clofe-hauled • fo
that attention ffiould be paid by the officer to the known
qualities of his fhip, in order to take the moft advantageous-
direcfion capable to effe& a retreat.
Another method has alfo been propofed for chafing a
fhip to leeward, that is, by conftantly fleering diredly for
the chafe: In this cafe, the tradt the purfuer deferibe-s thro’ 13.?.
the water is called the line or curve of purfuit. In order toCurve ',c
nluflrate this, let A (fig. 54.) reprefent the purfuer, and B I1
the chafe direAly to leeward of it, and running with lets
velocity than the purfuer, in the dire'dlion BC, perpendicu-
lar to that of the wind. Now, to conftruft this curve, let
be the diftance run by the chafe in any fhort interval of
time; join A by and make A 1 equal to the diftance run by
the purfuer in the iame time. Again, make b c, c d, de, e f
&c. each equal to B if; join 1 c, and make 1 2 equal to At;
join 2d^ and make 23 equal to Aiy in like manner pro-
, ceed;
rluit.
sSB
Of Cha-
Naval TACTICS
ccecl until the two diflances carried forward meet as r.t C,
and a curve defcribtd through the points A, i, 2, 2, See.
will reprefent nearly the curve of purfuit ; and the lefs the
interval At is taken, the more accurate will the curve be
formed. In this particular cafe the length of the diftance
BC may be found, as follows, provided the diftance AB
and the proportional velocities of the two fhips be knov/n.
Bet the velocity of the chafe be exprefted by a fra&ion,
that of the chafer being unity. Multiply the given diftance
AB by this fradtion, and divide the product by the com¬
plement of the iquare of the fame fradtion, and the quotient
will be the diftance run by the chnte E. Eet Al>, the di¬
ftance of the chafe direftly to the leeward of the purfuer,
be 12 miles, and the velocity of the chafe three-fourths ot
that of the chafer ; the diftance to be run by the chale be¬
fore fhe is overtaken is required ?
y ^ ^ o •
|gow ^ x — 20 t miles ; and fmee the
l — |1 to-
•veloeity of the purfuer to that of the chafe is as 4 to 3 :
heuce the diftance run by the dialer will be z= 20 X y-
2”] If miles.
As the purfuer alters his courfe at every point, and ftnee
it is prefumed his fliip will fail better with the wind in one
diredfion, with refpedl to her courfe, than in another, her
velocity will therefore be different at different points of the
courfe. Thus fuppofe her to fail fafter when the wind is up¬
on the quarter, her velocity will conftantly increaie until fne
has attained a ceitain point, and then it will decreafe:
hence in real pradhee this curve will not be precifely the
lame as above, and of courfe the meafure of I3C will differ
a little from the preceding determination. The inveftiga-
tion of the foregoing rule is in Simpfon’s Fluxions, d. ^ (6.;
and the application of the curve of purfuit in Sir Crtorge
Pococke’s engagement in the Eaft Indies in the year 175^1
is given in Clerk’s Effay on Naval Tadics, p. /6o. It
mult be confeffed, however, that Mr Simpfon’s inveftigation,
though a oretty fpecimen of mathematical ir.veftigation,
proceeds on certain phyheal affumptions, wThich are by no
means fandlioned by experience. See wTat has been laid of
thefe affumptions and principles in the articles Resistance
cj Fluid*, and Seamanship.
Hitherto we have conftdered chafing in the cafe of fmgle
PartIL NEW SYSTEM
Parti
{hips only; the fame rules are alfo applicable to fleets; Of Cha.
we {hall, however, fubjoin the following remarks with re* f,ne.
fpedt to chafing as ptadlifed by fleets. -
If the whole fleet is to give chafe, the admiral will make Jhgg ra,
the prooer fignal ; and then each fhip will inffairtly makepraftiied
all the fail pofllble. If the retreating fFet is not much in-hySeeo. ;
ferior to the other, a few of the faff-eft failin * veffels only are
to be detached from the vidfotious fleet, in order to pick no
any ffragglers or thofe fhips which may have fallen aftern ;
and the remaining part of the fleet will keep in the fame
line or order of failing as the retreating flee', fo that they
may, if poffible, force them to add ion. But if the retreating
fleet is much inferior, the admiral of the funerior fleet will
make the fignal for a general chafe ; and then each fhip will
immediately'' crowd all the fail poffTle after the Retreating •
fleet ; or, if the chafe be ftill lefs numerous, rhe admiral will
detach one of the fquadrons of his fleet, by hoifting the pro¬
per Signal for that purpofe, and he will follow with the re¬
mainder of the fleet. The fquadron that chafes, or the crui-
fers detached from the fleet, fliould be very careful not to
engage too far in the chafe for fear of being overpowered;
but at the fame time to endeavour to fatisry themlelves as
much as may be In their power with regard to the objedt of
their chafe. They muff pay great attention to the admi¬
ral’s fignals at all times; and in order to prevent feparation,
they Ih mid colledt themfelves before night, elpecially if
there be any appearance of thick or foggy weather coming
on, and endeavour to join the fleet again. The (hips are
diligently to obferve when the admiral makes the frgnal to
give over chafe ; that each regarding-the admiral’s fliip as a
fixed point, is to work back or make fail into her ftation,
to form the order or line again as expeditroufly as the na¬
ture of the chafe and the diftance will permit. 136
When a fleet is obliged to run from an enemy who is in Prucau- I
fight, it is ufual to draw up the {hips in that form or order,|
called the order of retreat, which has been already defcribed;hy fll.
and the admiral, when hard purfued, without any probability'which is I
of efcaping, ought, if pradticable, to run his (hips a{hore,iaufUi-<h|
rather than fnffer them to be taken afloat, and thereby
transfer additional fftength to the enemy. In fhort, no¬
thing fhould be neglefted that may contribute to the prefer-
vation of~ his fleet, or prevent any part of it from tailing
into the hands of the conqueror.
of NAVAL TACTICS.
have now laid before our readers as comprehenfive
' ^ a view as the limits preferibed to fuch articles will
permit of the various evolutions ufually pradtifed by fleets
in naval war. Though we have tranferibed liberally from
the moft approved writers on the fubjedt, we doubt not but
the fcientific officer will perceive that we have compiled
aukwardly and unlkilfully: but we are not feamen ouvfelves ;
and the generofity of British officers ■will pardon the blun¬
ders into which mere literary landimen could hardly avoid
falling. The young Teaman, who has the noble ambition
to excel in bis proffffion, will confult the authors whom
we have mentioned in our introduction, is whofe works he
will find our deficiencies amply fupplied ; but that the pre-
fent article may be as complete as we can make it, a view
muff be given of the fyftem dr tadfics propofed by the Vil-
count de Grenier and our countryman Mr Clerk ; becaufe,
whether thefe fyftems {hall ever be adopted or not, they are
the offspring of ingenuity, and as fuch merit attention.
Chap. I. View of De Grenier s TaSlics-
Of all the orders, that of battle is the moft important in
naval tadlics ; but the order of battle which was firft formed
in the laft century by the Duke of York, and has been con¬
tinued in ufe to the prefent day, the Vifcount de Grenier
thinks extremely defective. Various caufes may confpire to j
render the talk ot breaking it not difficult. Its great ex-Defeds<j
tent mu ft make it no eafy matter ior the admiral to judge
what orders are proper to be iffued to the fhips ftationed inttie(,|{j
its extremities ; whilft his fignals, however diftindtly made, ta(^c5i
are liable to be miilaken by the commanders of thole {hips.
The extremities of a long line are neceffarily defencelefe,
efpecially if it be to leeward 4 becaufe, after it is formed,
the enemyr may throw himfelf with a fuperior number on its
van or rear, and put that iquadron to flight before affift-
ance can be lent to it from the other fquadrons. i hefe
defefts the Vifcount de Grenier thinks may be remedied by
never
:nunt ne
Jienier.
139
Objevft of
iJe Greni-
p]V>\l' Naval T
View oi never prefenn'njr to the enemy any part of a fleet without
Be Greni- jts jjei!1g flanked ; fo that were the commander of the ad-
id-’sr;u‘iics, yerk ^eet to tjlafe parts which hitherto have been
reckoned weakeft, he mitrht find himfeif defeated when he
Unfeflied looked for conqueft. With this view he propofes a new or-
jy the Vif-^er 0f . in which the fleet, compofed of three divi-
flons, inftead of beintr drawn up in one line as ufual, {had
be ranged on the three fides of a regular lozenge, formed by
the interfering of the two clofe-hauled lines. . It is obvious
that one of the divlions of a fleet ranged in this manner will
alwavs be formed in the order of battle; whilft the two
■others, refting upon the firil (hip ahead and the laft atlern of
that diviflon, will be formed on the clofe-hauled line oppo-
fite, and will Hand on checquerwile on the faftie tack writh
the (hips which are in the line of battle, ferving te cover the
•headmoft and fternmoft of thofe {hips, and thereby prevent
the enemy from penetrating the line or doubling the rear.
@ur author thinks it a great miftake, though very gene¬
rally fallen into, that the weather gage is of any advantage
to a fleet equal in force to its enemy and willing to engage.
To him the great art of war at fea appears to confift in
drawing or keeping to windward a part of the adverfe fleet,
cr’s tallies. ari(H collecting all one’s forces againfl that part; and it is
chiefly to effeft this purpofe that he propofes his new fyf-
tem of taftics. The reader, who would underftand his
principles, muft never lofe fight of this evident truth, that
each {hip of a fleet neceflarily occupies at all times the centre
of an horizon ; wdrich the author divides into two unequal
parts, calling the greater the direct and graduated /face, and
the lefs the indireft, crojfed, and ungraduated fpace. The rea-
fon of thefe appellations is, that on the greater fegment of
the horizontal circle there are twenty different points, which
may be marked by degrees from one of the clsfe-hauled
lines to the other, and to which a fhip may fail from the
centre by fo many direft courfes without tacking ; whereas
to the other twelve points, including that from which the
wind blows, fhe cannot arrive but by fleering crofs courfes,
which muft neceffarily delay her progrefs.
Suopofe now a fleet to leeward, fo dilpofed as that only a
part of it caq fight with another equally numerous, and
ranged to windward in a Angle line ; and let the lee fleet be
ranged on the three fides of a lozenge ab, c d, e f (fig. 55.).
The fquadron a b, which is mod to windward, being drawn
up in line of battle, cannot be fought but by an equal num¬
ber AB of the weather fleet AB, CD, F. All the reft of
that fleet therefore muft remain ina&ive, unlefs the {hips
which are not engaged fhould try to pafs to leeward of the
'fleet ah, c d, e f. But fhould the (hips of the weather fleet,
which are placed between B and F, bear away as they ap¬
pear in the figure between C i and F it is evident that the
fhips between A and B, which are fighting to windward,
cannot bear away with them. Suppole now that, after the
fhips between C i and F i have paffed to leeward, the fqua-
drons c d, ef, which are ranged according to the new fyftem,
and have not yet been engaged, fhould come to windward
and join with their friends a b againftf that fquadron of the
enemy AB which is ftill to windward and engaged; it feems
almoft inevitable but that the'fquadron AB mull be de-
itroyed by fo great a fuperiority, before it could receive any
affiitance from the fhips to leeward between Ci and Fi. No
doubt thofe fhips would endeavour to fuccour their friends;
but with refpebl to them, the Iquadron AB muft be confider-
td as placed in that part of the horizon which our author calls
crojfed and indirect, and to which they would not be able to
repair but by fleering alternately the two clofe-hauled lines;
and affiftance brought by fo tedious a ceurfe would come
too late to be of effential fervice. It is from this apparent¬
ly well fupported conclulion that the vifeount de Grenier
Vot. XVIII. Part I.
140
Principles
t)f his fy-
ttem.
A C T I C R. - 2S9
deduces the propriety of his prooofed orders of failing and Dew of
order of battle. erVlzaZ.
Of orders of lulling, he thinks, there can be no occanon
for more than three ; one, when a fleet is to pafs a ftrait ; 141 -
another, when it fleers in an open fea, either looking for the
enemy or trying to avoid him ; and the third, when it has an0i ai in*»‘
extenfive crpife to perform, in which the fhips fnould be
fo difpofed as not to be ftirprifed or cut off by the enemy.
His firft order of failing differs not from that in common
ule. It is and muft be obferved (fays he) in any narrow
road, whatever may be the ocqafion of its narrovrnefs,
whether rocks or fands. 14a
In the fecond order of failing, when the fleet is looking Second of¬
fer the enemy or trying to avoid him, the columns a b, c d,dtn
e f, are to be formed on three fides of a regular lozenge, and
ranged on the two clofe-hauled lines. The fhips of the two pj.itc
divifions cd, ef, fometimes to windward (as in fig. 56.), ant^ccccxcviji,
fometimes to leeward (as in fig. 57-), of the third divifion
ab, are to be formed on two parallels of one of the clofe-
hauled lines in the wakes of their refpeftive headmoft fhips ;
and the third divifion 0 £ is to be ranged ahead or aflern of
the two others on the other clofe-hauled line, and neverthe-
lefs to fleer chequerwife the fame couvfe as the two divi¬
fions c d and e When ab is to windward oi e d and ef
(fig. 57.), the vifeount calls that the primitive windward
order of failing ; and when to leeward (fig. $6.), the fleet is
in the leeward primitive order of failing, 'I he pofition of
the threv divifions in the windward primitive order of fail¬
ing is the fame for the order of battle natural ; for the or¬
der of retreat; and for the order of circumvallation, when
the objedl is to feparate from the hoflile fleet a part of its
fhips in order to engage the remainder with more advantage.
The pofition of the three divifions in the leeward primitive
order of failing is alfo the fame for the order of battle in¬
verted ; for the order of chafing ; and for the order of con¬
voy ; fo that in no poflible cafe, when looking for the ene¬
my or wifhing to avoid him, need the admiral perplex him¬
feif with more than thefe two pofitions on the one or the
other tack, whatever movements he may wifh the fleet to
make. t 143
In the third order of failing, the divifions c d and ef, in-Third or-
(lead of bearing on the headmoft and fternmoft {hips of the'd^*
diviiion a b, may be very conveniently placed at conlider-
able diftances from that divifion, without the fmalleft dan¬
ger of being furpiifed by the enemy, provided the Ihips of
each of the divifions keep always their refpeftive pofitions
in the two lines of bearing. For if we fuppofe the three
divifions to be in fuch pofitions that a b and ef are at the
diftance of fix leagues from each other (fig. 58), and that
the two divifions c d and e f reft on the extremities of the
bafe of the triangle STV, while the centre {hip of the divi¬
fion a b refts on its fummit T ; none of the divifions could
be cut off by an enemy, however formidable, feen from its
centre (hip at the diftance of iix leagues. For if, upon the
proper lignal being thrown out, the dtvifion a b fhould fteef1
from T towards X, on the courfe oppofite to the clofe-haul¬
ed line it fleered before, and the two divifions c d and tf
fleer from V and S towards X likewife ; it is plain that
each of thefe three divilions would have only three leagues
to run in order to join the other two in the windward pri¬
mitive order of failing, which is the fame with the order of
battle natural; whilft the enemy, which was firft perceived at
the diftance of fix leagues, muft neceffarily run. nine before he
could come up with the neareft ol thefe fquadrons. And
if frigates were placed ahead, and in the intervals .between
the divifiens, at the points v to windward and leeward of
the fleet, the enemy might be feen at a ftill greater diftatice,
and the danger of furprife be ftill fo much Ids.
0 O o We
2qo Naval T
View of We have faid, that the pofitlon of the three divifions in
t^ie pnmitive orders of failing- is the fame with our author’s
? s ^ 1C‘i propofed order of battle; but there is this dilfeience be-
i ,4 tween them, that in the order of battle only the fhips of one
Qrder of of the three divilions Hand in the wakes one of another, and
battle. that thofe of the two other divifions are ranged on two pa¬
rallel lines, and fleer checquerwife. So that if it be want¬
ed, to change a fleet from the windward primitive order of
failing’ to this new order of battle on the other tack, the
movement will be infinitely quicker than thofe which, in
former known taftics, are coKimonly prefcribed, to pafs
from all the orders ot failing either in one line, or on the
©btufe angle oF chafing or retreating, or in three or fix di¬
vifions, to the ufual order of battle. For it will be fuflici-
ent for the fliips of the three divilions, ranged in the wind¬
ward primitive order of failing, to heave in flays all toge-
ther, and get on the other tack in the oppolite line of bear-
ing, and they will inllantly find themfelves in this new pro-
pofed order of battle (fig. 59.) ; and Ihould the fleet be in
the leeward primitive order of failing, it would be fufficient
for the fliips of the three divifions all together to haul their
wind on the fame tack as they fleer, and they would find
thcmfelves in order of battle (fig. 60).
Natural When the two columns c d, ef, are to leeward of the
and invert-third dtvifion ab, ranged in order of battle, our author calls
ed. that the order of battle natural; and when c d and ef are
to windward of a b, the fleet is in the order of battle invert¬
ed. The former of thefe orders is calculated fijr a fleet
combating to leeward, and the latter for a fleet which mufl
combat to windward. '
Advanta- That we may form fome notion of the advantages which
gcs of thefe our author experts from drawing up a fleet for battle in the
faili-^ind ^8rm a l°zenge> let us fuppofe the line AB, CD, EF
ef battle, (fifih 61.) to reprefent the fleet of an enemy to windward
in the ordinary order of battle on the clofe-hauled line of
bearing, and on the ftarboard tack. Then the leeward line
a b will reprefent one of the divifions, in order of battle on
the ftarboard tack, of the fleet ranged according to the new
natural order, which the enemy wifhes to attack, and to
which he believes himfelf fuperior, becaufe that divifion of¬
fers a front much inferior to his own. The two lines c d,
ef, will reprefent the two other divifions Handing on
checquerwife on the fame tack as the line of battle, and
formed on the oppofite clofe-hauled line. On this fuppofi-
tion, if the divifions AB, EF, of the hoftile fleet, which
have it not in their power to attack the fliips of the line a b,
with to fall on the headmoft fliip a or the fternmoft b of that
line, they will be obliged to bear away in order to attack
the two fliips a and b. To prevent this, each of the divi¬
fions c d, ef, of the fleet ranged according to the new or¬
der, fliould make the following evolutions, according to
their refpe&ive fituations and to the manoeuvres of the
t47 enemy.
Evolutions ift, The fhips of the divinon a l are to flacken as much
formed4** as poflihle their headway, and form a very clofe line, till the
when eu- enemY makes a movement to attack the headmoft or ftern-
ga^ing, moll flnp of that divifion.
2dly, The fliips of the divifion r J are to make fail till
they come under the fecond or third fliip of the rear of the
line of battle a b, when they will take the fame fail as the
A C T I C S. Part It.
fliips of that divifion, to preferve that pofition until the ho- View of
ftile fhips make their evolution to attack the rear (hips oF ■Re (7irEe,|k
that divifion. In this fituation the fhips of the divifion c d'" 3
will be able to obferve the manoeuvres of the enemy, in or¬
der to change tack and form themfelves in order of battle
on the oppolite board as foon as the hoftile fliips fhall have,
after'their bearing away, run over a certain fpace ; becaufe
the fhips of the divilion c d, fleering afterwards clofe-hauled
in the wake of the fteinmolt fliip of the divifion a b, will be
able to cover the rear fhips of that divifion, and get the
weather-gage of the hoftile divifions which are bearin *
away ; rake their fhips; run alongfide of them ; double
their rear-guard, and put it between two fires, if thofe hoftile
fhips are following in the wake of each other (c) ; divide it
if they bear away checquerwife, or gain to windward, and
put between two fires the enemy’s divifion CD, while it is
engaged with the divifion a b.
gdly, The fhips of the divifion e f may abandon their poft
and run checquerwife under a prefs of fail, in the fame
courfe and in the fame order they were formed, as foon as
they perceive that the enemy falls ahead of the divifion ab;
in order that if the divifion AB of that enemy makes
any manoeuvre to bear away and fall on the divifion
ef, or on the van of the divifion a b, they may, by going
about, fleer in order of battle clofe-hauled on the oppofite
line of bearing, and cover the headmoft fhip of the divifion
a b, double the hoftile divilion CD ahead, or divide the other
hoftile divifion AB, which is running checquerwife on the
oppofite tack. ^ g
The two divifions c d, ef, might again manoeuvre another When the f
way, in cafe the fhips ef the enemy were ranged in one enemy is ml
fingle line, not well formed, or fhould be in diforder anda fA'A Kuol
leave too great a diftance between them while they are Cn-
gaged very clofe with the divifion ab (fig. 62).
I ft, By putting about the fliips of the divifion ef, and
likewife the fhip a. headmoft of the divifion a b. 2dly, By
making at the fame time the fhips of the divifion c d tack,
and likewife the fhip b of the divifion a l, to keep by the
wind on the oppofite clofe-hauled line, fldly, By making
all the fhips oF the divifion a b (which flood between the
headmoft a and the flernmoft b) bear away four points at
the fame time, and making them alfo take the fame tack as
the fhips of the other two divifions when they are on the
beam of the fternmoft fliips of thole two divifions; becaufe,
in that petition, the fliips of the two divifions c d, e f, get¬
ting to windward on two parallels in order of battle, in the
wake of the two hcadmoft a and b, might put between two
fires a part of the enemy’s fhips, which then would be obli¬
ged to take the fame tack as thefe two diviiions, becaufe
the fhips of the divifion a b (which are on the fame tack as
thofe two divifions) might prevent the fliips of the enemy
fleering the courie oppofite to that tack.
From this fuccindl expofition it may be obferved, that,
in the firft fuppofition, the way of thus difpofing the forces
of a fleet is fo much the more fuitable to the defence of the
headmoft and fternmoft fliips of a line of battle, as the fliips
of the diviiion c d, being covered by that line of battle, are
able to manceuvte without any one fliip of that divilion being
expofed to the fire of the enemy ; that the divjlion ef the
headmoil fhip of which is e, always prefents the fide to
(c) If the hoflile fliip^ which are not engaged with any of thofe of the divifion ab bear away in fucceffion in the
wake of their he ad molt, in order to pafs to leewaid of the divifion ab, and to put it between two fires; then the
frups of the divifion e f mufl necefiarily take the weather-gage of them, fince the headmoft of that divifion e/ is by her
very fituation already to windward of the headmoft of the adverfe fliips which are bearing a way, and fhe has the opportuni¬
ty to come as clofe as pofEble to the flernmoft fliip b of the line of battle
iruift be
formed.
Partll.' Naval T
View of the enemy, without any one fiiip of that dmfion bem^ ex-
De Greni- pofe(i to receive the fire of the enemy either ahead or attern,
er’s Tadics kecau{-e t}iey are not range in a line of battle unlels the
" enemy runs large or before the wind ; and that, in the ie-
cond fuppofition, the only fhips which are liable to be raked
aftern, while they change tack, axe the headmaft and ftern-
moft of the divifion in line of battle which cover the fhips
of the other two divifions. _ ,
Howto As it is of the utmoft advantage to know, at firit light
know on of the enemy, whether it be to wundward or leewau o t e
v/hat tack gee^. rann*ed lozcnge-likc, on what tack, and on what i e
the fleet ^ fleet mufl. formed, in order to defend itfelf or attack
the enemy with advantage, it is to be obferved, that in both
the windward and leeward primitive orders of failing the
direftion of the wind always traverfeg both the weathermoft
and leewardmoft fliips of the fleet (figs. 57.’and 56.) ; that
this leewardmoll fhip is always placed in the centre o an
horizon, which is to be confidered as the horizon of the
whole fleet; and that it is from that fhip you are to judge,
by means of the rules which are known and praftifed in
fuch cafes, udiether the lozenge-like fleet be to windward or
to leeward of that of the enemy.
If you want to know, at fight of the enemy, feen either
to windward or to leeward, on what fide the line of battle
is to be formed in order to be able to fend one of the divi¬
fions on that fide of the lozenge where there is none, it is
the pofition of the enemy, with refpeft to the dire&ion of
the wind, which is to determine it ; becaufe, if the enemy is
to windward of the fleet ranged in the windward primitive
order of failing, and if it bears down on that fleet, with
the wind large or right aft, it belongs to its weathermoft
fhip to obferve what follows. If that fhip, by fetting the
enemy, finds him to {larboard of the direAion of the wind,
the divifion which is ftarboard of that direftion of the wind is
to take the ftarboard tack, and range in order of battle before
the enemy is arrived within gunfhot: if, on the contrary, the
above-mentioned fhip finds the enemy to larboard, it belongs
to the larboard divifion to aflume the order of battle, and to
take that tack, before the enemy can come to aftion. T. he
old rule for choofing the proper tack is to be obferved by
a fleet in the leeward primitive order of failing ; obferving,
that it is the bufinefs of that fleet’s leewardmoft fhip to de¬
termine it; and the point of the horizon which is oppoflte
to that whence the wind blows, is the point towards
which the obferver is to be turned to judge on what fide,
whether flarboard or larboard, the line of battle is to be
formed ; becaufe,- in that pofition, the ftarboard fide muft
always be on his right hand and the larboard on his left.
By following this general rule, the line of battle will ne¬
ver be expofed to be too much lengthened either to wind¬
ward or to leeward, in order to oppofe all the fhips of the
adverfe fleet formed in one fingle line, nor even to be lur-
prifed in diforder by that fleet while you are forming in or¬
ders of battle natural or inverted.
Our author’s orders of chasing, of retreat, and of
convoy, are very eafily formed. We have already faid
what they are ; and the feaman, or even the landfman, who
has any tolerable conception of his orders of sailing and of
BATTLE, will not ftand in need of any farther defeription of
them. It muft, however, be obfervtd, that in the order of
chafing, the fleet in the lozenge-like pofition prefents the
obtufe angle of chafing, as when ranged according to the
ordinary taftics; with this difference, that, in order to form
themfelves in order of battle, it is enough that, in this lo-
zenge-like poiition, the fhips of the fecond divilion fhould
all keep the wind on the fame board they were Handing on,
becaufe they would afterwards find themfelves in a line in
A c T 1 c s. .. ,.291
the wake one of another ; but, according to the ufnal ta&ics, ^ ^,g
the fhips have a long fpace to run before they can execute
the fame evolution.  —*
We fib all conclude this fhort view of the Vifcount de^r
Grenier’s taftics, with his directions for the molt advanta-How^the
geous placing of the admiral’s fh!p, the frigates and tian-^
fports, belonging to a lozenge-like fleet, wjicther it be fan-^.^tes,
ged in the order of failing or of battle, &c. and tranf-
In the order of failing, the admiral A is to be placedport^ are
ahead of the fleet, at a fliort diftance from the headmoft of^" p
the fecond divifion, and in the direction of the wind with
the headmoll of the firft divifion (fig. 63.). Two of th$
frigates f f are to obferve the fame rule and the fame pofir
tion, with reipeft to the van fliip of the third divifion and
the fternmoft of the firft. In the order of battle, on the
contrary, the admiral is to be in the centre of the lozenge,
and two of the frigates on the fourth fide of the lozenge,
(fig. 64). As for the tranfports and ftore-fhips, when there
are any, their ftation is to be in one line on the fide oppo¬
flte to that of the enemy, when ranged in order of battle ;
and, if in order of failing or convoy, they may occupy the
fpace circumlcribed by the lozenge. In any' other cii cum*
fiances thefe fhips are to occupy the different ftations ap¬
pointed for them, that they may diftinguifh the fignals and
execute the commands of the admiral. Lafily, when the
fleet fhall pafs from the order of battle to any other order
whatever, or from any order to the order of battle, trie
admiral’s flnp is to bring to, and not to take any of the
pofitions above mentioned till after the complete execution
of the movement.
1 jo
The orders
fcf chafintr,
retreat, and _
'convoy.
Chap. II. View of Mr Clerk's Tadics.
Whether the Vifcount de Grenier’s order of battle and
of failing would be attended with all the advantages which
he hopes from them, experienced feamen alone can judge}
but we are now to introduce to our readers part of a iyftem
which has met with very great approbation from feme of
the ableft officers in the Britifh navy, and which to us ap¬
pears to be founded on principles lelf-evident. Mr Clerk,
in the introdu&ion to his Effay, informs us, that upon con-
fidering the great fuperiority difplayed in the three laft ways
by the Britifh feamen over their enemies, when engaged in
fingle fhips, and comparing it with the very little that, pre¬
vious to Lord Rodney’s glorious a&ion, they had atchieved
when engaged in fleets drawn up in line of battle, he was
led to conclude, that there muft be fomething wrong in our
mode of making the attack. He turned his thoughts to
the fubjeA, and in 1790 publifhed part of a large work,
comprehending, yl Theory of Attack from IVindivard;
2. A Theory of Attack from Leeward ; and, 3* Hijlorical
Sketch of Naval TaSics. We think it not much to the ho¬
nour of our countrymen, that he has not yet had encourage¬
ment to publifh more than the firft part ; but in h«pes of
exciting their curiofity, we fhall lay before them a diitinA
view of that part, beginning, as he begins, with
Observations on the present Method of bringing
Ships to Action.
It has often, if not generally, been the pTa&ice, in the D i fad van-
cafe of iingle fhips, as well as in that of fleets, for the wea-
ther fhip or fleet, when it is wifhed to bring the other todown
aftion, to fleer direftly down upon that fhip Or fleet, with-reftly on
out reflecting that, by doing fo, it gives the enemy an op-'he enemy,
portunity of completely difablmg it, before it can attain its
wifhed for ftation. For each fhip in the lee line can ufe
all the guns upon one fide ; whereas the fhips in the wea-
O 0 2 ther-line,
IJ2.
2gs
Naval T
Vl^'v < ther-Iiae, bearing direftly dov/n, have it only in their pow-
Udhc/&er to u^e their bow-chafes. This method of attack ap-
 pears, therefore, to be the world poffible for the weather-
fleet, and the moll advantageous for the lee fleet. For fup-
pofe a Angle Ihip of 80 guns to windward at B (fig. 65.),
difcovering an enemy’s (hip of equal force to leeward at F,
to bear diredlly down upon her endwife, the receiving fliip
F, by lying to as in fig. 66. would prefent a broadfide of
40 heavy guns bearing upon B during a courfe of two
miles, in which every fhot might take effedl; while B, in
this pofitiou, would have it in her power to bring only
the two light guns of her forecaflle or bow-chafe to bear on
F ; a disadvantage greatly exceeding twenty to one. Be-
fides, the receiving fhip F, by lying broadfide to, will have
. ifll her mails and rigging more open, and confequently will
allow Ihot to pafs with lefs effedt than the fhip B, which,
coming endwife, is liable to be raked by every fhot from
Item to ftern. The confeouence of which muft be, that B
Would be difabled in her rig ' ing, &c. long before flie could
arrive at a proper pofition for annoying F ; and when fhe
, had attained that pofition, F, by being entire in her rig¬
ging, would have it in her power to fight in any pofition, or
153 to make off at pleafure.
Proper me- q'hg method then is, B having the wind, fnould run down
?a'°k ° at aftern, as />er dotted line, and getting into the courfe, or
near the wake of F, or a pofition that will bring her paral¬
lel to the courfe of F, at a proper diftance, fhe fhould then
run up clofe alonpfide of F, upon equal terms, as in fig. 67;
or otherwife, on fhooting ahead, fhe may veer, and run
down on the weather-bow of F, as in fig. 68. till fhe firali
force F to bear away to leeward, keeping clofe by F on
equal terms ; but during the courfe, in both cafes, carefully
watching that F may not have it in her power to bring her
154 broadfide to bear upon B without retaliation.
Modes of It having been often faid that the French have made it a
Be'tSritrfh ni^e to t^row ^ie whole effeft of their fhot more particularly
andFrench. ‘nto t^ie rh2'g*ng their enemy, and that the Britifh, on
the other hand, have been as attentive to point the fo'ce
of their fire againft the hull of the fhip ; it may be proper
< here to ftate the two cafes, and compare the effedfi.
Let us fuppofe a fhip of 80 guns wifhing to avoid the
effedfs of a clofe engagement, but at the fame time lying to
as at F (fig. 63.), intending to receive, with every advan¬
tage, an enemy B of equal force, coming down with an in¬
tention to fight her ; and let us fuppofe that F, by aiming
her fire at the rigging of B, fhall have carried away any of
the principal ftays, eight ©r_ten windward fhrouds, or a fore-
topmaft, or any other rigging, though of much lefs confe-
quence, but, at the fame time, without having wounded a
fingle man of the fhip B ; and luppofe a fecond fhip, con-
fbrt to F, receiving fuch another fhip as B, and by firing
at her hull only, fhall, without other damage, have killed 3,0
or 40 of her men : In this critical junflure, when F and
her confort are defirous ot avoiding a clofe engagement, it
is evident that the fhip at B, which has loft part of her rig¬
ging, is more completely difabled from clofing with them
than the other fhip, whofe rigging is entire, though fhe may
have loft 100 of her men.
It has been often faid, that fome particular fhip has been
expofed in battle to the cannonade of thr«e, four, or even
4 ^ve ikips, all extended in tire enemy’s line, and all bearing
to the fire upon her at one and the fame time ; but this can never have
^rJ.r 11 ^ a keen the cafe, but when the fhip fo expofed was at a very
great diftance. Let I, H, F, H, I, (fig. 70.) reprefent
hve fhips extended in line of battle ahead at the diftance of
one cabk 3 length, or 240 yards, from each other; let the
length of each flnp be 40 yards, fo that the whole fpace
between head and head of any two adjacent fhips is "2 80
*k!
N {hip n
the line of
battle can
expofed
A C T I C S. Partll
yards ; and let the perpendicular line FK, proceeding right view of
out from the beam of the middle fhip F, to the diftance of f-'kA
fix cable’s length or 1440 yards, be divided into fix equal 1 a<^1C5-
parts : It is evident, from infpe&ion, that a fliip ftationed ’ "
at the point E of the line FK, 7 20 yards diftant, cannot
for any length of time be expoled to the fire or more than
the centre fhip F of the fleet I, H, F, H, I. For fuppo-
fing the fhips H, K, ahead and aftern of F, to be able to
bring their broadfldes to bear on E (a fiippofition which, if
the line be clofe-hauled, cannot be made of the headmoft of
thofe fhips), it is evident, that by putting themfelves in po-
fuions proper for that purpofe, the fhips II, H, will not
only diforder their own line, but alfo leave, the one her head,
and the other her ftern, expoied to a raking fire from their
oppefites B, B, in the enemy’s line.
But if the opponent fhip cannot well be expofed to the
fire of the two fhips H, H, at the point E, ftie muft be ftsll
lefs expofed at the point C, 480 yards diftant; and it will
be almoft impoffible for the fhips H, H, to touch her at the
point G, 240 yards, or one cable’s length, diftant.
But one cable’s length afunder is too imall an allowance
for accidents that may happen by the fhips I, H. F, H, I,
extended in line of battle ahead. Therefore let us iuppofe
the* three fhips, which are faid to be at once upon a fingle
opponent, to be ftationed at I, F, I, at the diftance of two
cable’s length or 480 yards from each other. Then it is
evident that the opponent fhip cannot now be more expo-
fed at the point K, at the diftance of '440 yards, than fire
was, on the former iuppofition, at the point £,7 0 yards
diftant; and if we fuppof'e the line of battle to be formed
at one and an hal? cable’s length afunder, (he muft be at Ly
diftant ic8o yards, before fhe can be annoyed even to this
degree by the three hoftile fhips at once. JT;nce we may
fairly conclude, that if one fhip has any time been expoied
at once to the fire of five, four, or eveg three fhips of the
enemy’s line, fuch fhip muft have been at a very great di¬
ftance, and in no great danger.
Having finifhed the above obfervations, our author pro-Primiple*
ceeds to the prineiples neceffary to be known for enabling ”ect^ry |
us to judge of the different modes of bringing great fleets jn_
to adlion. For this purpofe he fuppofes a fleet of 10, 204toa6Uon,
or more fhips, of 80 guns each, extended inline of battle
to leeward, and lying to at F (fig. 71.), with the intention
of avoiding an attack; whilft another fleet at B, of equal
number and force of fhips, alfo extended in line of battle,
three or four miles to windward, is defirous of making an
attack, and coming to clofe a&ion on equal terms with the
fleet F. In this difpoiltion of the two fleets, fhould that
to windward run down headlong fhip for fhip on its oppo¬
nent, as in figs. 66. and 69. it is evident, from what ha^
been faid in the beginning of this chapter, that each indivi¬
dual fhip of the weather fleet might be completely difabled
before it could poffibly come to clofe a&ion with the fleet
to leeward. But let it be luppofed that the commander of
the weather fleet B, though his fhips have been much dif¬
abled in their rigging during their courfe aa a from wind¬
ward (fig. 72.), has made them bring to at a great diftance,
from whence he can hurt F; is it to be expefted that F,
whofe defire has always been to avoid a clofe engagement,
and who has already difabled the {hips of B, will patiently
lie ftill, or wait until B ihall have time to ditable him in his
turn ? No furely. While enveloped in his own fmoke, as
well as that of his enemy, he will bear away unhurt to a
new ftation G, and there remain out of the reach of B’s-
cannon-fhot, who muft repair his rigging before he can ati-
tempt a fecond attack
Again, fuppofe that B, in place of going headlong and
endwife down, were to run down in an angular courfe, or
lajhing
Part II. N A v A r, T
View of l/ijklnz as it has been called ; it is evident from fig. 7^. that
Mr Clerk’s fhould any fhip in this annular line come to be crippled, her
1 way being' flopped, might of conftquence occafion a confu-
* fion amongft the fhrps next aftern to her, fome running to
leeward and others to windward of the dilabled (hip ; and
thus the time be loft f r affording the neceffary fupport to
the (hips ahead, and now fo far (eparated from their com¬
panions. Should it be faid, that a ftoppage of one (hip
ahead will not neceffarily produce a ftoppage of every (hip
aftern, became they may , 0 to leeward of the difabkd (hip;
we antwer, that the (hips ahead in the van A (fig. 74* n°
1.) may be now engaged, and of confequence not having
much headway, may be faid to be ftationary; therefore eve¬
ry (hip aftern, if fhe (hall attempt to bear down, as at D, D,
from being confined to a determined courfe, muft be brought
into the pofition of being raked when coming down before
the wind, as in figs 76. and 69. and confequer.tly of being
completely difabled long before fhe can get dole enough
alongfide of the enemy.
Again, the headmoft (hips, or van of B, having attained
their llatioii at A, that is, ahreaft of the van of F ffig. 74.
n0 1.), and having begun the cannonade, may we not fup-
pofe that F, whole condud or defire has always been- to fave
his (hips, has inftru&ed the commanders of thole in the van
of his fleet to withdraw from danger as foon as they begin
to feel the effeds of a cannonade ? and if fo, may not thofe
(hips, as foon as they have thrown in their fire upon the
van of B, bear away in fucceffion as at H, followed indeed
by the whole (hips of F’s fleet, which, having poured in
their fire upon the van of B, may form a new line ef battle
two or three miles to leeward at II (fig. 74. n° 2.), and
there be in readinefs to receive a fecond att?.ck, if B fhall
be fo imprudent as to attempt it ? And is it not farther evi¬
dent, that it any one or more (hips of the fquadron of F (hall
be crippled, they will have it in their power to quit their
ftation, being covered with fmoke, at any time, and to fall
to leeward as at G, where they will be in fafety ?
ecccxcix. ,er^er to ihuftfate this (till farther, let B (hg, 7".)
reprefent a fleet putting before the wind, each (hip with an
intent, when brought to at a determined diftance at A, to
take up her particular antagonift in the line of the enemy
F to leeward ; and, for argument’s fake, let F be fuppofed
at reft, without any motion ahead. There feems to be no
difficulty in conceiving, that while the alternate (hips of F’s
line, under cover of the fmoke, withdraw from battle to
GGGT the intermediate (hips left behind them in the line
will be fufficient to amufe even the whole of B’s fleet,
till the (hips G (hall form a new line Hi I as a fupport
Irom the leeward. In fuch cafe B, alter being difabled, as
he muft be, and not having forefeerr the manoeuvre, will
neither be able to prevent the intermediate (hips with which
he is engaged from bearing away to join their friends, nor,
were he able, would it be advifable to follow them ; for the
lame manoeuvre with equal fuccefs can again and again be re¬
peated.
In order to (how the relative motion of both fleets, let F
(fig. 76.) be a fleet confiding of' twelve (hips, drawn up in
line ot battle, at one cable’s length or 120 fathoms afundtr;
and let the length of each fhip from the end of the jib-
boom to the ftern be 36^ fathoms ; the whole fleet will
then occupy a ipace of two Englifti miles ; alfo, let its rate
(ailing be four knots an hour in the direction FG, fo
that in the (pace of an hour it may have moved Jrom F to
G four miles diftant from its former pofition.
Let B be the opponent fleet, confifting ?.Ifo of twelve
.1 ips, and lour miles to windward ; and let the point A be
440 yards, or one quarter of a mile, right to windward of
A C T I C S., 293
the point G. Then if B, by bearing away in the direction View of
BA, fhall arrive at the point A at the fame inftant that F, 3
the fleet to leeward, has arrived at the point G, the mo i.. s
lion of the fleet B will have been at the rate of 54- miles
nearly per hour ; and the angle contained between the di¬
rection of its line of bearing and prefent courfe 43° 9', or
nearly 4 points. For in the right-anoled triangle ABM
are itiven BM =: 4 miles, and AM = 3’ miles. Now
BM = 4m. : AM=3^m. : : R : tan. ABM = 43 9', and
R : fee. ABM. 43® 9' : : BM^ m. : ^ B~ C.-83 m.
Again, if F, as in fig. 77. by carrying more (ail, (hall
move at the rate of fix miles an hour, that is, from F to G;
then B, having his courfe made thereby the more flaming,
will .have juft (o much the greater difficulty of keeping his
(hips in line abreaft while coming down to the attack : For
the leading fhip meeting with no obflruCtion in her courfe,
will pufh on ; whereas every accident of obftruCtion accu¬
mulating, as it happens to each (hip progreflively, the rear,
being affedted in the greateft degree, will for that realon be
left the farther aftern. But, trom the very form of this
flanting courfe, e^-ery ffiip aftern will be apt to get into the
wake of the (hip ahead. Therefore the whole fleet of B,
van and refr, _will not arrive in the fame time at the line
AD, lo as to be in a perfect line abreaft, and parallel with
the fleet to leeward ; but will have affirmed the talking
form, as reprefented at the points M, N, and O, in the dif¬
ferent parts of the courfe. In this cafe, the dfftance run
by the van ©f B, from B to A, is 7,075 miles, or 7 miles
and 13 2 yards, and the angle contained between the line of
bearing and the diftance BA is 3 2® o'.
And a tain, as in fig. 78. if the fleet to leeward (hall lie
up one o »int higher, as FG, then the rears of the two fleets
will thereby be removed at a much greater diftance, and the
van A of confequence mutt be fooner up with the enemy’s
van, and evidently fo much the farther from fupport; while
F, by bringing up his fhips in fucceffion, will have it in his
power to difable the van of A, and will afterwards bear away,
as at H, unhurt and at pleafure ; while B, at this time, by
the fuppofition, being crippled, or having his rear D ob-
ftru&ed, and at a diftance, will be unable to prevem him.
And in all the three cafes, it is evident that the fleet B, fo
foon as he (hall approach within reach of gun-fhot, muft be
expofed tor the fire of F’s whole line ; for he will be abreaff
of B continually in every part of his courfe. But the diffi¬
culty of bringing the rear of the windward fleet to action
will (till be more increafed, if the fternmoft fhips of the fleet
to leeward, in place of keeping their wind, lhall bear away oc-
cafionally as at ML. All which being admitted, the diffi¬
culty of bringing adverfe fleets to clofe engagement may be
accounted for, without being obliged to have recourfe tor
that (uppofed inferiority in point of failing, imputed to our
fhips, compared to thofe of the French our enemy.
Hence it appears, that a fleet B to windward, by extend¬
ing hi* line of battle, with a defign to flop and attack a
whole line of enemy s (hips to leeward, muft do it at a great:
difadvantage, and without hope of fuccefs ; for the recei¬
ving fleet F to leeward unquellionably will have the four
following advantages over him : 1. The fuperiority of a fire,
above 20 to 1 over the fleet B, while-coming down to at¬
tack. 2. That when the fhips of B are brought to at their
refpeftive ftation, if it bio us hard, the fhot from F, by the
lying along ol the fhips, will be thrown up into the air, and
will have an effeft at a much greater diftance ; whereas, on
the other hand, the fhot from B, from the fame caufe, will
be thrown into the water, and the effe<ft loft. 3. That F
will have the power of directing and applying at pleafure:
the fire of fits whole line againft the van of who is nowr
3 - unable-
294 Naval T
View of unable to prevent It, bis fhips being difabled, feparated, and
Mr Clerk’s therefore unfupported. 4. That F will alfo have a greater
i at^ 1CS‘ . facility of withdrawing from battle the whole or any one of
the difabled Ihips of his line.
If then, after a proper examination of the late (n) fea-en-
gagements or rencounters, it fhall be found that the French
admirals have never once fhown a willingnefs to risk the ma¬
king of the attack, but invariably have made choice of, and
earneftly courted, a leeward pofition; if invariably, upon fee¬
ing the Britifh fleet difabled, they have made fail, and de-
molifhed the van in palling; if invariably, upon feeling the
effeft of the Britifh fire, they have withdrawn at pleafure
either a part or the whole of thei; fleet, and have formed a
new line of battle to leeward ; if the French repeatedly have
done this upon every occafion :—and, on the other hand, if
it fhall be found that the Britifh, from an irrefiflible defire of
making the attack, as conftantly and uniformly have court¬
ed the windward pofition ; if, uniformly and repeatedly,
they have had their fl ips fo difabled and feparated, by ma¬
king the attack, that they have not ©nee been able to bring
them to clofe with, to follow up, or even to detain one fhip
of the enemy for a moment—fhall we not have reafon to be¬
lieve, that the French have.adopted and put in*exeeution
fome fyllem which, if the Britifh have difeovered, they have
not yet profited by the difeovery ? /
Our author therefore, iuftead of the ufual mode of attack,
which, by being made principally on the van, feems to be
the refult of a groundlefs expedfation ©f being able to take>
deftroy, or difable the whole of the enemy’s line, propoies
A N£W MODE OF ATTACK FROM THE WlNDWARD UPON
the Rear of the Enemy.
>57 r r
Mr Clerk’s Suppofe, fays he, a fleet of ten, twenty, or more fbips,
rack^0on*”'extended in line of battle at F (fig. 79. )> endeavouring to
the rear°of avoid a c^oi"e engagement;, but at the fame time keeping un-
the enemy. ^er an eafy fail, wuth the intention of receiving the ufual
attack from another fleet ef equal number, three or four
miles to windward at B, failing in any form, but let it be
in three lines or divifions; it is required by what method
Ihall B make the attack on F with advantage ?
The improbability, or rather impotfibility, of attacking
and carrying the enemy’s whole line of fhips, having been
demonftrated by every aft ion wdiich has been fought at fea,
the next confideration wall be, how many finips may be at¬
tacked and carried wdth advantage ? X^et it be fuppofed that
the three fternmoft fhips only, and not exceeding the fourth,
are poflible to be carried; let a fufficient ftrength A be fent
dowm to force an attack upon thefe three fhips, difpofed and
fupported according to the judgment of the admiral, while
in the mean time he keeps to windward with the reft of his
fleet, formed into fuch divifions as may beft enable him to
attend to the motions of the enemy and the effeft of his at¬
tack ; being himfielf fo far difengaged from aftion, as to be
able to make his obfervations, and give his orders, with
fome degree of tranquill'ty.
By placing the fleet B in fuch divifions as reprefented in
tne figure, when the attacking fquadron comes up with the
reer of the enemy, the whole will be fo difpofed, and fo
connefted together, as to be able to give the f'upport and
attention that may be required to any fhip, or any part of
t re fleet, and in preference to a long extended line of fix or
ACTIOS. . Part If,
feven miles in length, where it muff be irapra&icable to give View of
the neceflary fupport to fuch fhips as may be difabled. The^1' tJlerk'i
fhips of the fleet F may, in general, be better failers than, ra<^‘C8-
the fhips of the fleet B ; but it is not conceivable but that
the fwitteft fliips of B mult come up alongfide of the ftern-Attack up,
moft and dulleft failing fhips of the enemy F; while, at theon thcer.e*
fame time, F, by attempting to outfail !>,. muft be thrownst*lree
into the diforder of a downright flight: Therefore, ofjhij"^9
courfe, it muft be admitted, that if the enemy F continues particular-
going off in line of battle, and endeavouring to avoid a'>r coni‘J«r.
clofe engagement, it will be impofiible to prevent the fleet8<*‘
making the attack from getting into the pofition B A.
But by this pofition, it is evident that the three ihips at" I
of the fleet F will be in the power of the admiral of B ; for,
by keeping fo many fhips to windward, he will be enabled
to fend down frefh fhips from time to time, either for the
fupport, or to fupply the ftation, of any of thofe that maybe
difabled in making the attack, while it may be imagined that
the three ihips in queltion, by being difabled, or being de¬
prived of the wind now taken out of their fails by the fhips
to windward, will be prevented from following their friends.
Hence the enemy ahead muft either abandon his three ftern¬
moft ij^s, or he muft double back to fupport them; which
mi’ft be done either by tacking, or veering. But let it be
fir ft examined what is naturally to be done by tacking ; and
for the greater fatisfaftion, let every pofiible cafe that can
happen be examined feparately. ' ij,
Firft, let us fuppofe that the enemy at F, fig. 80. has The cue.
continued to protradt his courfe in line of battle upon them7 3at'
fame tack, and that the headmoft fiiip H, with the three
next aftern of her, have tacked to windward, and that the three ftem.
whole remaining fhips intend to tack the fame way, but in moft (hips
fucceffion ; is it not evident that F has then left his three ^7
fternmoft fhips at I in .the power of the fhips at A ; that he ,l!
muft alfo leave expofed his fourth and fifth fhip G to ano¬
ther attack from another diviiion of B at C, which will
alfo be on equal term? as with his three fternmoft at I; and
laftly, if he p’-ofecutes his intention of fupporting his three
fhips, he will be obliged to begin a difadvantageous attack
upon the admiral, with the main body of the fleet lying
ready to receive him ? The coufequence of all which muft
be, that he will not only lofe his three fternmoft fhips, but
in all, probability the fourth and fitth alio, as at G ; and
will be forced to begin an attack, and clofe and mix fliip
with fhip on equal terms ; a iituation which he at all times,
with the greateft anxiety, hath avoided, and which B with
equal anxiety has always courted.
Again, fuppofe that his three fternmoft fhips have been
attacked, and that he has ordered his fleet to tack all at one
time, as in fig. 81. The conlequences will then be, that
this movement, having required fome time and fome length
of courfe, will have produced a confiderable diftance between
his main body and his three fhips; or, in other words, that
thefe three fhips have beeir delerted ; for it will not be in
their power to tack with the reft of their friends. He muft
alfo, in bringing his fhips heads round, expofe the fhips ’
neareft his enemy to be raked by a dreadful cannonade; be-
fides running the rifk of having his fleet thrown into a ge¬
neral diforder, by many of his fhips miffing flays, veering,
and running to leeward. Laftly, upon a fuppofition that
his fhips have all tacked, and none of them miffed flays, ftill
(d) This was written during the American war, and before Lord Rodney’s decifive vidlory on the 12th of April
vf,- as well as the flill more brilliant one of Lord Howe on the ift of June I794> we have heard the
author diftinguifli from thofe battles which, with great propriety, he calls fea-rencounten, and do ample juftice to the feien-
,tmc manoeuvres of both the noble admirals.
l6o
The ene-
Tny’ii at.
tempt to
fuppon his
three ftern-
mort fhips
Part It. Naval T
View of he mud of neceflity be^in the attack, mix his ihips, and
Mr Clerk’scome to a clofe engagement, as in the former cafe.
Taohes. ^ Having fhown the confequences of an attempt to fuccour
the three dernmoft fhips by tacking, let us alfo examine
what may be expe&ed from an attempt to do it by veering
the fleet. Suppofe the two fleets in the fame pofition as in
fig. 79. that is, the main body of the enemy extended in
line of battle to leeward, his three fternmoft fhips entangled
with the fleet B, whofe admiral, with the main body, keeps
by veering to windward to obferve, with a rigid attention, the motions
his fleet. 0f the enemy. At the fame time fuppofe that the admi¬
ral F has ordered his iternmoft fhip G to veer (fig. 82.),
and afterwards the whole line ; and that he is now running
upon a contrary tack to leeward, as at FI, wifhing to fup-
port or bring off his three fhips. From infpedtion, it will
be evident that this attempt may he more dangerous than
the attempt to windward ; for it will expofe a number of his
fhips to a raking fire while in the aft of veering ; and the
fauadron, by getting fo far to leeward, will be unable to
give the proper fupport to the three Ihips. It will open a
gap for the fleet of 13 (who will immediately veer alfo and
follow him) to break in, as at A, and cut off the three fhips
■without hope of recovery. And if F {half ftill perfifl in the
endeavour to recover his three fhips, he will be obliged to
begin the attack under all the ufual difadvantages.
Again, upon another fuppofition, that the headmoft fhip
of the enemy H (fig. 83,), with the four or five next aftern,
have wore, and are running uoon a contrary tack, wifhing,
as be!ore, to fupport or bring off the three fhips, the reft of
the fleet intending to weer alio, and follow in fuccefiion ; it
is evident that this movement, being more unfeaman-like,
will be worfe than the laft; It will expofe an additional
number of fhips, particularly the laft two, as at G ; and will
at the fame time make an opening for the main body of B’s
fleet to fall in and cut off the three fhips, as in the for¬
mer cafe.
Again, fhould the enemy F veer and bear away with his
whole fhips at one and the fame time, it is evident that this
movement muft have the confequence of a downright flight,
with the certainty of lofin.r the three {hips.
From what has been faid, it will appear, that a fleet B,
keeping connefted in a body to windward, may come up
with and entangle the three fternmoft fhips of an enemy F,
extended in line of battle and going off to leeward, and at
the lame time be able to overawe the remaining main body
of their fleet ; and that, having forced the pofition, the
whole confequences, as already deferibed, muft follow; that
is, F muft fubmit to the lofs of three fhips.
What has been hitherto faid proce’eds upon a fuppofition
that the fleet F has kept on his courfe till the fleet 13 has
come up with his rear. Let it then be examined what other
attempts the enemy F can make to avoid coming to dole
engagement upon equal terms.
The enemy ^uppofe a fleet of fhips of the enemy ftanding on the lar-
endtavonr- board tack to leeward, and going off as before at F, and a
iny m a- fleet of fhips in a collefted ftate or pofition to windward, as
void the at B (fig. 79.) ; and fuppofe that the enemy F, perceiving
<m his rear ^ ^eet ^ pointing an attack againft his rear, in place
by veeiinji,0^ keeping on his courte upon the fame tack, fhould veer, and
and palling endeavour to pafs on contrary tacks to leeward (for it will
V'D contrarynet be admitted that he can get to windward) : what will
jaebto tee-then be the effeft ?
Is it not evident, that the headmoft fhips of F muft be
forced to leeward by the fleet B obftrufting his line of di¬
rection, or the line of his courfe i1 that they muft be for¬
ced to begin an attack at any diftance B may cboofs ? that
they may receive fuch damage as will flop their way ? that
their way being flopped, will of courfe be an obftruftion to
A C T I C S.
2Q
the
this
e next aftern ; or that thefe fubfequent fliips, to prevent vFw of
is flop, muft bear away to leeward of their crippled fhips,
ward.
as at G (fig. 84.), which will not only prevent thefe fhips
from damaging the headmoft fhips of B, but will give time
and oppertunity to B to bring down bis windward fhips to
fall in either ahead or aftern, that is, to the right or left of his
headmoft (hips A, and oppofe (hip for ihip of the enemy upon
equal terms ? But fhould none of the headmoft fhips of the
fquadron F be crippled, that is, fhould F pafs B without,
reach of cannon-fhot, which undoubtedly he will do if he
can ; ftill, while bearing away, he may be forced to fuffer a
diftant cannonade, fhip with -fhip on equal terms, whether
he veers and gets back upon his former tack, as at G in
fig. 85. or continues to run before the wind, as at P in fig.
86. But if F perhits to pafs on a contrary tack to lee¬
ward, and without reach of cannon-fhot, it is evident, whe¬
ther he put right before the wind, or run off fhip by fhip
as he beft can, that B muft at fomc time or' other come up
with his rear.
So far the attack has proceeded with the wind fixed EffeCb pro¬
in'one and the fame quarter. To make the propriety of^ceii
it the more apparent, it will be neceffary to inquire. What
might be the effedl produced by a change of wind, fhould rjng the
that take place during the adlion ? For this purpofe, let action,
the opponent fleAs be placed in fome one of the prece¬
ding pofitions, reprefenting the attack upon the three ftern¬
moft fhips of the enemy, as in fig. 87. ; in which the fleet
defirous of making the attack is reprefented in four djvi-
fions, as at B, B, B, A, and F the fleet defirous of avoid¬
ing the attack, at the hazard of abandoning his three ftern¬
moft fhips at G. _ - ,63
In the commencement of the attack, let us fuppofe the The wind
wind to be N. and the fhips going two points free on the^^'S 'D^
larboard tack, or (landing E.; and foon after the c°m-
mencement let the wind be fnppofed to veer round to the aft.
W.; then it is evident, by the difpofition of the two fleets,
that the fleet F, by fuch a change, will have acquired no
advantage whatever ; on the contrary, it will thereby be
thrown juft fo much the farther to leeward.
Again, if the wind, by taking an oppofite courfe, fhall I'he wind
fhift ahead and come round by the eaftern quarter to I.,
the admiral or the fleet F will not have it in his power to<^hr^es
avail himfelf of this circumftance, provided the commander^,}
of B, continuing carefully to watch his motions, and feel¬
ing the impnlie of the veering wind, fhall ftretch his {hips,
as at 00, to the windward of the three (hips at G, fepara-
ted from F’s fleet, and at the fame time to the leeward of
the main body of that fleet. This will be apparent from
figures 88. and 89. which exhibit the two fleets, after this
manoeuvre, both on the larboard and flat board tack.
Let the wind he fnppofed to wear round gradually from The wind
the E. towards the S. and from thence to the W. and thencominuillg
quite round the compafs. Then F being fnppofed to have^J^JA
gained the wind, it will be in his power to maintain it, andc°miafs.e
make a circular eourfe to windward of B ; but as he can be 1
attended all the while by the fleet B, who will cut him off
to leeward, he never will be able to recover his three fhips,
luppofed to be cut off. This is evident without the illuftra-
tion of a figure. _
Laftly, if the wind in changing fhall in one inftant fhift The wind
in diredt oppofition where it was when the attack began, in»
that is, from north to fouth ; then and in that cafe, beforeftHantly t0
it can be judged whether fuch change flrall he favourable forSe El
F or not, it will be neceffary that the relative fituation of the
two fleets fhould be determined, fueh as it was when the
change took place. For example, if the headmoft (hips
of the fleet F, that is, if his van and centre fhall have fepa-
rated at any confiderablc diftance from his rear, and fhall, iii
4 con*
5K.S N A V A '
I'.bvu 'mf/mtim of tbi» Mode of oftack, have advanced to a po-
B-ve-ssof as tcpreicnted in fig. 90. it is evident that r, though
w«ncl. j'y change r1*e (hall have got to windward, will yet not
”be able to avail himi'df of this feeding advantage, the fleet
B having it ftill in their power to cut him off from his three
On the other hand, if this inflantaneous change of wind,
in direct oppofition, {hall have taken place more early in the
action, that is, when the pofitions ol the two fleets lhail.be
inch as reprefented in fig. 87. (the fleet B in the pofition
of four divifions B, B, B, and A, and the enemy in the po¬
fitions F and G) ; then F, who before was to leeward, by
this inftantaneous change of wind from the north to the
fouth, having now got to windward of every divifion of the
fleet B, is it not evident that it may be practicable for him
to carry afiiflance to his three {hips at G in the rear, and
perhaps even to cut off fome of B’s fhips at A, if they^ do
not with all convenient fpeed bear away to put themfeives
under the proteftion of their friends B to leeward i But
whether F {hall attempt to effedt this manoeuvre, by veer¬
ing his Blips in the line, or, what feems moil eligible, by
making his {hips tack, as it is to be prefumed that his three
fhips, which have been fome time engaged, muft.be confider-
ably crippled, and not able to make fufficient lail; while en¬
deavouring to bring them off, it will be difficult for him to
prevent being drawn into a general and clofe engagement,
which, by the fuppofition, he has all along endeavoured to
avoid.
Chap. III. 0/ Partial Breezes of IVind,
167
The fleet
It often happens at fea, that when two {hips are in fight
of each other, one of them will be failing at a confiderable
rate, being favoured with a breeze of wind; while the other at
the fame time is lying becalmed, having no other motion than
what fire receives from the tide or a current, if any, or from
the fwell of the fea. -As this may be the cafe with refpedl
to two adverfe fleets when in fight of each other, that fleet
which has the advantage of the wind will evidently ufe eve¬
ry poffible method to profecute the advantage that may re-
fult from it. Thus if the fleet delirous of making the at¬
tack be favoured with a breeze of wind, while the other fleet
at the fame time is lying becalmed, it is evident that the
commander of this fleet will endeavour to get as near the
opponent fleet as poffible; whereas, if the fleet wifhing to
avoid an engagement be favoured with the wind, the other
lying becalmed, then that fleet will avail thenafelves of this
opportunity of making their efcape.
If the attack upon the three fternmoft ffiips fhall have
purfued be- menced before this partial breeze in favour of the fleet
cd with a purfued has taken place ; then the variety ot pohtions in
partial which the two fleets may be affe&ed is fo great, and the re-
breeze after fupjng COnfeque«ces fo numerous, that it would be an endlefs
uporThis to g‘ve a feparate defeription of each. In the mean
three ftern-time, therefore, as it is imagined nothing in fuch inveftiga-
molt fhips tion will be found that can materially affefl the general
^ommen'iffue; and fince no breeze whatever can favour the fleet F,
fo as to enable it to fail round and round the fleet B,
1(f 8 which all the while is fuppofed to be lying becalmed, it will
Oflittle ad-not be too much to fay, that this partial breeze in favour of
vantage, the fleet F, taking place after the attack began, although it may
facilitate the efcape of his van and centre, will not avail him
much in the recovery of the three fhips in his rear—perhaps
not in any cafe as yet exhibited, excepting this one, where
the wind in one inftant had changed in direct oppofition.
Now let, as formerly, the attack be commenced before the
partial breeze in favour of the fleet purfued has taken place.
TACTIC S. . Part II
but that the wind has inftantaHeoufly fliifted in direct op- I'a tial
pofition; then, even in this cafa, the fame breeze which
would favour F (fig. 87.) in the attempt to bring off his  ^
three fhips, would at the fame time favour the eicape of the 169
(hips of B at A, as formerly deferibed. That this partial Hie wind
breeze would require to be of confiderable duration, other-
wife F, in thus attempting to bring off his three {hips, crip-oui|. ^',,
pled as they will be, tnuft hazard a general engagement, inre<ftopp4
like manner as already deferibed. tlon-
Mr Clerk employs a fection of his book to fhow the Pr°-of !fo7°e
priety of his proposed attack from windward, in places where othfr^.
the hoftile fleets are liable to encounter winds blowing in con-thodsofit-
trary direffions at the fame inftant; but as this is a cafe tack,
which does not furely often happen, we fhall refer our read-
era to the work itfelf, and conclude this article with fome
other methods of attack, which have been fuggefted as im¬
provements of that which is commonly followed.
1 ft, It has been propofed that the attack ffiould be made
with the greater part bearing down before the wind, upon
the fix flernmoft fhips oi the enemy. It is, however, evi¬
dent, that fhips by making the attack in this manner muft
be expofed, without a poffibility of return, to as many broad-
iides from each of thefe fix fhips as can be got ready du¬
ring a courfe of two miles. Hence, as the llups making
the attack will affuredly be difabled before they can have it
in their power to hurt the enemy, this mode ot attack can¬
not be proper.
2d, It has alfo been imagined, that fome part of the force
chofen to make the attack' fhould be fent to leeward as well
as to windward of the three ffiips determined to be attack¬
ed. But-,the danger fuppofed, of {hot paffing over the ene-
my’s ffiips, and finking thofe of friends, may be an objec¬
tion to this mode.
3d, Others have been of opinion, that the headmoft fhip
chofen to make the attack ffiould come clofe up alongfide
of the fternmoft of the enemy, and having delivered her fire,
puffi along the line as far as poffible, which may be fuppo¬
fed to be the fixth ffiip of the enemy; and as it is evident
that this firft fhip may have received fix broadfides, that is,
a broadfide from every one of the fix fhips of the enemy
during her coutfe in paffing them, it has been thought pol-
fible that the other five ffiips, by following clofe after her,
may attain their ftations, each abreaft of her oppofite, with¬
out having received a greater number of broadfides than
they have had it in their power to return ; and therefore
that by this mode the number of ffiips to be attacked will
be determined : For as many ffiips as the leading ffiip wall
be able to reach, as many will the attacking fleet be able to
carry.
4th, Again, let it be fuppofed, as in the former cafe, that
the fleet making the attack has been brought up to aaion
in a collected manner, but fubdivided only lo far as the fervice
may require, and that the leeward divifion ffiall he more parti¬
cularly deftined for the immediate attack, while, at the fame
time, the body of the fleet keeping to windward ffiall be
fuppofed attentive to give the neceffary fupport where re¬
quired ; then let it be fuppofed, that the headmoft .ffiip
making the attack having been foon crippled, ffiall not have
been able to pufh farther than the third or fourth fhip of
the enemy’s line—is it not eafy to conceive, it is alked, that
fome one or more of the ffiips to windward, attentive to fup¬
port and fupply her place, may bear down on the fourth
ffiip of the enemy, under cover ot the fmoke, throw in her
fire, and puffi on to the fifth or fixth ffiip, or perhaps far¬
ther ; and that fo far as this freffi ffiip, or a fecond frefh
ffiip, may be able to pufh, fo many ffiips of the enemy may
be cxpe&ed to be carried i For whatever {hips of the enemy
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Chip. V, Naval T
Partial cap be got abreaft of, at a proper dliUnce, may be dtfailed^
° an<l t^erefore commanded, by the numerous freih fliips kept to
L ' wintlvvard for this purpofe.
In all thefe various methods of attack, the fleet making
the attack is fuppofed to fail falter than the other, or at leaft
to come up with it; and that fo foon as the Ihips are enga¬
ged, their velocity will confequently be diminilhed. That be¬
ing premifed, a more proper mode of attack than any of the
preceding will peihaps be as follows :
5th, The firfl: or headmoft, of the fliips intended to make
the attack is to range alongfide of the enemy, and preferve
that ilation. The fecond Ihip is to make all poflible fail
to luff up and pafs the firft Ihip, which is now luppofed to
be engaged, and get alongiide of the laft but one of the
enemy, which fhe is to engage. In like manner, the third
of the attacking (hips is to get alongfide of the laft but two
of the enemy, whom Ihe is to engage ; and if it be deemed
expedient, the fourth, &c. ftu’p may be engaged. It is,
however, evident that this method can only be pradlifed
A c T 1 c s, ' 207
when the wind is brifk, and that a calm, in eonfequenee of Partial
a vigorous cannonade, may render the attack upon more BrTzes of
than three or four of the enemy’s Ihips impoffible. ',Vin^~ .
In all the different attacks upon the rear, it has by feme ~"’~v
been thought a great objedf, if practicable, to throw a ra¬
king fire into the rear of an enemy’s line of battle, by fliips
detached for that purpofe. For if {hot, as has been faid,
can take effeCt at a diftance of two miles, from this polition
it will furely reach the fixth fliip, if the enemy’s line fnall
be formed at two cable’s length afunder ; and if formed at
one cable’s length afunder, it may reach and may cripple the
twelfth £hip.
We have now given a curfory view of Naval Taftics in
its prefent improved ftate ; and fliall take leave of the fub-
je&, with earneftly recommending to our nautical readers
Mr Clerk’s Effay, which, if allowance be made for the au¬
thor’s peculiarity of ftyle, will furely meet the approbation
of every officer who wiflies to fee the praCtice of naval war
founded on principles of fcience.
T AS N
Tacfcafter TADCASTER, a town in the Weft Riding of York■»
Tania. ^*re» noted for the great plenty of limeftone dug up near it;
. ai1^ f°r being one of the hi ft places in which a building was
ereCted for Sunday fchoals. It is nine miles from York, and
188 from London.
TADMOR. See Palmyra.
TADPOLE, a young frog before it has difengaged it-
felf from the membranes that envelope it in its firft ftage of
life. ''
TJENIA, in zoology; a genus of animals belonging to
the clafs of vermes, and order of intejlina. The body is
long, depreffed, and jointed like a chain, and contains a
mouth and vifeera in each joint. According to Gmelin,
there are 92 fpecies ; all which inhabit the inteftines of va¬
rious animals, particularly of quadrupeds.
Seven fpecies of taenia are peculiar to man. 1. The vlf-
ceralis, which is inclofed in a vefrcle, broad in the fore-part,
and pointed in the hinder part, inhabits the liver, the pla¬
centa uterina, and the fack which contains the fuperfluous
fluid of droplical perfons. 2. The celluloftr, which is inclo¬
fed in a cartilaginous velicle, inhabit? the cellular fubftance
of the mufcles; is about an inch long, half an inch broad,
and one-fourth of an inch thick, and is^very tenacious of
life. 3. The dentata, has a pointed head ; the large joints
are ftreaked tranfverfely, and the fmalljoints are all dilated ;
the ofculum or opening in the middle of both margins is
• fomewhat raifed. It is narrow, xo or 12 feet long, and
broad in the fore-parts ; its ovaria are not viiible to the na¬
ked eye; and the head underneath refembles a heart in
fhape. It inhabits the inteftines. 4. The lata, is white,
with joints very flrort and knotty in the middle; the of¬
culum is folitary. It is from r 8 to 120 feet long ; its joints
are ftreaked tranfverfely ; its ovaria are difpofed like the pe¬
tals of a rofe. 5. The vulgaris, or common tape-worm, has
two lateral mouths in each joint ; it attaches itfelf fo firmly
to the inteftines, that it can fcarcely be removed by the
moft violent medicines; it is flender, and has the appearance
of being membranaceous; it is fomewhat pellucid, from 10
to 16 feet long, and about four and an half lines broad at
one end. 6. The trutta, which chiefly inhabits the liver of
the trout, but is alfo to be found in the inteflines of the hu¬
man fpecies. 7. The folium, has a marginal mouth, one on
each joint.
. ftru&ure and phyliology of the taenia is curious, and
;t may be amufing as well as inftrmftive to conlider it with
more attention. As the taenia is often the occalion of dif-
Vol. XVIII. part I.
T AS N
eafe, we may be apt to confider it not only as ufelefs, but Tasnia.
even as naturally hurtful ; but it is impoffible to fuppofe that ——y—-
the Benevolent Father of mankind created a fpecies of ani¬
mals folely for the purpofe of producing difeafe. The crea¬
tion of the taenia is rather a ftriking inftance of that rule
which the Deity feems to have laid down to himfelf, to
leave no place deftitute of living creatures where they could
multiply their fpecies. He has therefore not only covered
the earth with animals, but the furface of animals with other
animals ; and has even peopled fuch of their inter nal parts
as could fupply nourifliment without difadvantage. Per¬
haps therefore a certain proportion of thefe animals is con¬
ducive to health, juft as a certain proportion of different
fluids is fo, tho’ an exceffiye increafe always produces difeafe.
there is almoft every different fpecies of quadrupeds in
a different fpecies of tasnia, which is a full proof that thefe
worms have their ftrufture and fituation determined with as
much attention and fkill as any fpecies oi animals whatever.
It is alfo a very curious fad, that thofe fpecies of tamia
which are peculiar to the human race are alfo peculiar to
particular countries. Thus the vulgaris is moft common
in Sweden, the lata in Switzerland and Ruffia, and the foli¬
um in Great Britain, Saxony, and Holland
The taenia appears deftined to feed upon fuch juices of
animals as are already animalized, and is therefore moft
commonly found in the alimentary canal, and in the up¬
per part, where there is the greateft abundance of chyle ;
for chyle feems to be the natural food of the taenia. As
it js thus fupported by food which is already digefted,
it is deftitute of the complicated organs of digeftion. As
the taenia folium is moft frequent in this country, it may be
proper to deferibe it more particularly.
It is from 3 to 30 feet long, fome fay 60 feet. It is
compofed of a head, in which is a mouth adapted to drink
up fluids, and an apparatus for giving the head a fixed fitu-
Etion. The body is compofed ©f a great number of diftin<ft
pieces articulated together, each joint having an organ
whereby it attaches itfelf to the neighbouring part of the
inner coat of the intelline. 1 he joints neareft the head are
always fmall, and they become gradually enlarged as they
are farther removed fro/n it; but towards the tail a few of
the laft joints again become dmnnifhed in frze. The extre-
mity^of the body is terminated by a fmall iemieircular joint,
which has no opening in it.
i he head of this animal is compofed of the fame kind of
materials as the ether parts of its body ; it has a rounded
P p open-
T JE N [
Ttenis# opening at its extremity, which is conf5dere<3 to be its
”’~v 'mouth? See Plate DL fig. I, 2. This opening is con¬
tinued by a fiiort dudt into two canals ; thefe canals pafs
round every joint of the animal’s body, and convey the ali¬
ment (fig. 3-). Surrounding the opening of the mouth
are placed a number of projecting radii, which are of a fi¬
brous texture, whqfe direction is longitudinal. Thefe radii
appear to ferve the purpofe of tentacula for fixing the ori¬
fice of the mouth, as well as that of mufcles to expand the
cavity of the mouth, from their being inferted along the
brim of that opening: (See fig. i.) After the rounded
extremity or head has been narrowed into the neck, as is
reprefented in fig. 2. the lower part becomes flatted, and
lias two fmall tubercles placed upon each flatted fide ; the
tubercles are concave in the middle, and appear deftined to
ferve the purpofe of fuckers for attaching the head more ef¬
fectually. The internal ftruCture of the joints compofing
the body of this animal is partly vafcular and partly cellu¬
lar ; the fubftance itfelf is white, and fomewhat refembles in
its texture the coagulated lymph of the human blood. The
alimentary canal paffes along each fide of the animal, fend¬
ing a crols canal over the bottom of each joint, which con¬
nects the two lateral canals together. See fig. 3.
Mr Carlifle, who gives the befl: account of the ftruCture
and economy of the t£fenia which we have feen, injeCted
with a coloured fize by a fingle pufti with a fmall fyringe
three feet in length of thefe canals, in the direction from
the mouth downwards. He tried the injeCtion the con¬
trary way, but it feemed to be {topped by valves. The
alimentary canal is impervious at the extreme joint, where
it terminates without any opening analogous to an anus.
Each joint has a vafcular joint occupying the middle
part, which is compofed of a longitudinal canal, from which
a great number of lateral canals branch off at right angles.
Thefe canals contain a fluid like milk.
The taenia feems to be one of the fimpleft vafcular ani¬
mals in nature. The way in which it is nourifhed is Angu¬
lar ; the food being taken in by the mouth, paffes into the
alimentary canal, and is thus made to viiit in a general
way the different parts of the animal. As it has no excreto¬
ry duds, it would appear that the whole of its alimentary
fluid is fit for nourifhment ; the decayed parts probably
difiblve into a fluid which tranfudes through the {kin, which
is extremely porous.
This animal has nothing refembling a brain or nerves, and
feems to have no organs of fenfe but that of touch. It is
moil probably propagated by ova, which may eaiily pafs
along the circulating veffels of other animals. We cannot
otherwife explain the phenomena of worms being found in
the eggs of fowls, and in the inteftines of a foetus before
birth, except by fuppoling their ova to have paffed through
the circulating velfels of the mother, and by this means been
conveyed to the foetus.
The chance of an ovum being placed in a fituation where
it will be hatched, and the young find convenient fubfift-
ence, muft be very fmall; hence the necefiity for their being
very prolific. If they had the fame powers of being pro¬
lific which they now have, and their ova were afterwards
very readily hatched, then the multiplication of thefe animals
298 ] TAG
400 joints, contained a young taenia compofed of this num*
ber of pieces; but we have feen young tasnia not half a foot
long, and not poffefied of 50 joints, which ftill were entire
worms. We have alfo many reafons to believe, that when a
part of this animal is broken off from the reft, it is capable
of forming a head for itfelf, and becomes an independent
being. The fimple conftru&ion of the head makes its rege¬
neration a much more eafy operation than that of the tails
and feet of lizards, which are compofed of bones and com¬
plicated vefiels ; but this laft operation has been proved
by the experiments of Spallanzani and many other naturai-
ifts.
When inteftina! worms produce a difeafed {late of the
animal’s body which they inhabit, various remedies are advi-
fed for removing them; many of which are ineffectual, and
others very injurious by the violence of their operation,
Draftic purges feem to operate upon tsenia, partly by irri¬
tating the external furface of their bodies, fo as to maker
them quit their holds, and partly by the violent contractions
produced in the inteftine, which may fometimes divide the
bodies of taenia, and even kill them by bruifing. Mr Car¬
lifle propofes the trial of a fimple remedy, which’(d priori)
promiies to be fuccefsful ; namely, fmall ihocks of electricity
pafled frequently through the regions of the abdomen ; the
lives of the lower orders oi animals feeming to be eafily de-
ftroyed by fuch (hocks of electricity as do not injure the lar¬
ger and more perfect animals.
Plate Dt. fig. 1. (hows the head of the taenia magnified;
the mouth is in the middle of the circular plane, where
the body becomes flatted and broad ; there are two hollow
tubercles reprefented by the two dark (haded fpots. Fig. 2.
is the fame head, of its natural bignefs, and which belonged
to a taenia 20 feet in length. Fig. 3. (hows the alimentary
canals, in a portion of the fame taenia, of their natural big¬
nefs. The dark-ftraded undulating lines are the alimentary
canals, which are feen to their full extent in this portion of
the worm. Fig. 4. (hows the middle fyftem of veffels, ia
two joints, which are reprefented by the dark lines, tig.
(hows two joints, from one tide of which a flip was tora
down to (how the veffels underneath, and alfo the direction
of the fibres in the flip, which are accumulated into little
fafciculi like mufcular fibres. Fig. 6. exhibits three joints,
having the duds leading from the lateral ofcula injefted;
the dark tranlverfe lines leading from each ofculum fhow
the fize, direction, and extent of thefe duefts. Fig. 7. ftiows
the edge of two joints turned forwards, and the appearance
of the ofcula in this point of view. Fig. 8. reprefencs the
whole of thefe canals in their relative fituations.
For a more complete account of the taenia, we muft re*cr
to Mr Carlifle’s ingenious paper in the Linnaean Tranfacflions,
TAFFETY or taffeta, in commerce, a fine (mooth
fxlken fluff, remarkably gloffy. There are taffeties of all co¬
lours, fome plain, and others ftriped with gold,, filver, &c.
others chequered, others flowered, &c. according to the
fancy of the workmen.
TAGARA, a city of ancient India, the metropolis of a
large diftriCt called Ariaca, which comprehended the greateft
part of the Subah of Aurangabad, and the fouthern part of
Concan. Arrian fays, that it was lituated about ten days
would be immenfe, and become a nuifance to the other parts journey to the eaftward of Pultanah ; which, according to
of the creation. the rate of travelling in that country with loanee, carts,
Another mode of increafe allowed to tsenia (if we may might be about 100 Britiflr miles. . This fixes its fituation
call it increafe) is by an addition to the number of their at Deoghir, a place of great antiquity, and famous through
joints. If we confider the individual joints as drftindl be- all India on account ot the pagodas of Eloula. it is now
ings, it is fo ; and when we reflect upon the power of gene- called Dou/et-abad.
ration given to each joint, it makes this conjecture the more TAGETES, marygold, in botany : A genus o. plants
probable. We can hardly fuppofe that an ovum of a tsenia, belonging to the clafs of fyngencfia, and order of polygarrna
which at its full growth is 30 leet long, and competed of fuperjiua j and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 49^*
T A I
Tagfte* order, Cmpo/iu. The receptacle is naked; the pappus
Ij eonfifts of five ere& awns or beards} the calyx is mono-
'rai1, phyllous, quinquedentate, and tubular ^ and there are four
perfiftent florets of the ray. There are three fpecies, the
palula, eretla, and minuta ; of which the two firft have been
cultivated in the Britifli gardens, at leaft, iince the year lyyd,
for it is mentioned in Gerard’s Herbal, which was publilhed
that year. They are both natives of Mexico.
The enEld) or African marygold, has a ftem fubdivided
and fpreading, and has formed itfeli into a great many va¬
rieties; i. Pale yellow, or brimftone colour, with Jingle,
double, and fiftulous ffowers. 2. Deep yellow, with Jingle,
double, and fiftulous flowers. 3. Orange-coloured, with
tingle, double, and fiftulous flowers. 4. Middling African,
with oran.re-coloured flowers. 5. Sweet-fcented African.
•Thefe are all very fubjeft to vary ; fo that unlefs the feeds
are very carefully faved from the fineft flowers, they are apt
to degenerate: nor fliould the fame feeds he too long
town in the fame garden, for the fame reafon ; there¬
fore, thofe who are defirous to have thefe flowers in per¬
fection fliould exchange their feeds with fome perfon of
integrity at a diftance, where the foil is of a different nature,
at leaft every other year. If this is done, the varieties may
be continued in perfection. This plant is fo well known as
to need no defeription. It flowers from the beginning of
July till the frofl puts a flop to it.
The patula has a Ample ereCt ftem, and the peduncles
are fcaly and multiflorous.
It has been long in the Brkifti gardens, where it is di-
ftinguiftied from the firft by the title of French matygold.
Of this there are feveral varieties, fome of which have much
larger flowers than others, and their colour varies greatly :
there are fome which are beautifully variegated, and others
quite plain ; but as thefe are accidents arifmg from culture,
fo they do not merit farther diftinftion ; for we have always
found that feeds faved from the moft beautiful flowers will
degenerate, efpecially if they are fown in the fame gar¬
den for two or three years together, without changing the
feed.
Thefe plants have a ftrong difagreeable feent, efpecially
when handled ; for which reafon they are not fo greatly
efteemed for planting near habitations : but the flowers of
the fweet-feented fort being more agreeable, are generally
preferred, -efpecially for planting in fmall gardens.
TAGUS, the largeft river of Spain ; which, taking its
rife on the confines of Arragon, runs fouth-weft through the
provinces of New Cattile and Eftremadura; and paffing by
the cities of Aranjuez, Toledo, and Alcantara, and then
croffing Portugal, forms the harbour of Lifbon, at which city
it is about three miles over ; and about eight or ten miles
below this it falls into the Atlantic ocean.
TAHOEREWA, one of the Sandwich iflands. It is
fmall, deftitute of wood, and its foil fandy and unfertile. It
is fituated in north latitude 20° 38', in eaft longitude 203°
27'. See Cook’s Difcoveries, vol. v. n° 88. and Sand/vich-
JJlands,
TAHOORA, one of the Sandwich iflands in the South
Sea. It is uninhabited, and lies in north latitude 210 43',
and in eaft longitude 199° 36'. See SANDtvicH-IJlands.
TAJACU, or Peccary, in zoology, a fpecies of hog.
See Sus.
TAI-ouan, the Chinefe name of the ifland of Formofa.
See Formosa.—Tai-ouan is alfothe name of the capital of
the ifland.
1 AIL, the train of a beaft, bird, or fiJh ; which in land
animals ferves to drive away flies, &c. and in birds and fifties
to direft their courfe, and affift them in afeending or de-
Icending in the air or water.
T A I
Taix, or fee-tAiL) m law, is a conditional eftate or fee,
oppofed to fee-See Fee.
A conditional fee, at the common law, was a fee reitrain-
ed to fome particular heirs exclufive of others; as to the
heirs ol a man's body, by which only his lineal defeendants
were admitted, in exclufkm of collateral heirs ; or to. the
heirs male of his body, in exclufion both of collaterals and
lineal females alfo. It was called a conditional fee, by reafon
of the condition expreffed or implied in the donation of
it, that if the donee died without fuch particular heirs, the
land ftiould revert to the donor. For this was a condition
annexed by law to all grants whatfoever, that on failure
of the heirs fpecified in the grant, the grant fhould be at
an end, and the land return to its ancient proprietor. Such
conditional foes were ftridtly agreeable to the nature of
feuds, when they firft ceafed to be mere eftates of life,
and were not yet arrived to be abfolute eftates in foe*
Ample.
With regard to the condition annexed to thefe fees by
the common law, it w^as held, that fuch a gift (to a man and.
the heirs of his body) was a gift upon condition that it
fhould revert to the donor if the donee had no heirs of his
body ; but if he had, it fhould then remain to the donee.
They therefore called it a fee-fimple on condition that he had
iffue. Now we muft obferve, that when any condition is
performed, it is thenceforth entirely gone ; and the thing to
which it was before annexed becomes abfolute and wholly
unconditional. So that as loon as the grantee had any iffue
born, his eftate was fuppofed to become abfolute by the per¬
formance of the condition ; at leaft for thefe three purpofes:
1. To enable the tenant to alienate the land, and thereby to
bar not -only his own iffue, but alfo the donor, of his intereft
in the reverfion. 2. To I'ubjedt him to forfeit it for treafon s
which he could not do till iffue born longer than for his own
life, left thereby the inheritance of the iftue and reverfion of
the donor might have been defeated. 3. To empower him
to charge the land with rents, c®mmons, and certain other
encumbrances, foas to bind his iffue. And this was thought
the more reafonabk, becaufe, by the birth of iffue, the pof-
fibility of the donor’s reverfion was rendered more diJtant
and precarious: and his intereft feems to have been the only
one which the law, as it then ftood, was folicitous to protect,
without much regard to the right of fucceffion intended to
be veiled in the iffue. However, if the tenant did not in
fa£l alienate the land, the courfe of defeent was not altered by
this performance of the condition ; for if the iffue had af¬
terwards died, and then the tenant or original grantee had
died, without making any alienation, the land, by the terms
of the donation, could defeend to none but the heirs of his
body ; and therefore, in default of them, muft have reverted
to the donor. For which reafon, in order to fubjeft the
lands to the ordinary courfe of defeent, the donees of thefe
conditional fee-ftmples took care to alienate as foon as they
had performed the condition by having iffue ; and afterwards
repurchaled the lands, wfliich gave them a fee fimple abfo¬
lute, that would defeend to the heirs general, according to
the courfe of the common law. And thus ftood the old
law with regard to conditional foes: which things, lays Sir
Edv/ard Coke, though they feem ancient, are yet neceffary
to be known, as well for the declaring how the common law
ftood in inch cafes, as for the fake of annuities, and fuch-
like inheritances, as are not within the ftatutes of entail, and
therefore remain as the common law. T he inconveniences
which attended thefe limited and fettered inheritances were
probably what induced the judges to give way to this fubtle
fineffe (for fuch it undoubtedly was), in order to ftiorten
the duration of thefe conditional eftates. But, on the other
hand, the nobility, who were willing to perpetuate their
P p 2 pofleffions
[ 299 1
T A I [ 300 ] TAX
’rai'J> pofTeffions iri their own families, to put a ftop to this prac-
tice, procured the ftatute- of Weftminfter the fecond (com-
monly called the flatute de dvnis conditionalibus) to be made;
which paid a greater regard to the private will and inten¬
tions of the donor, than to the propriety of fuch intentions,
or any public conliderations whatfoever. This flatute re¬
vived in feme fort the ancient feodal reftraints which were
originally laid on alienations, by enafting, that from thence¬
forth the will of the donor be obferved ; and that the tene¬
ments fo given (to a man and the heirs of his body) fhould
at all events go to the iiTue, if there were any ; or if none,
fhould revert to the donor.
Upon the conflruttion of this aft of parliament, the
judges determined that the donee had no longer a condi¬
tional fee fimple, which became abfolute and at his own dif-
pofal the inftant any iffue was born ; but they divided the
eftate into two parts, leaving in the donee a newr kind of
particular eftate, which they denominated a fee-tail; and
veiling in the donor the ultimate fee-fimple of the land, ex-
peftant on the failure of ifiue ; which expeftant eftate is
what we now call a reverfion. And hence it is that Little¬
ton tells us, that tenant in fee-tail is by virtue of the ftatute
of Weftminfter the fecond. The expreffton fee-tail, or feo¬
dum talliatum, was borrowed from the feudiils (fee Crag.
L s. t. 10. § 24, 25.), among whom it fignified any mutilated
or truncated inheritance, from which the heirs general were
cut off; being derived from the barbarous verb taliare, to
cut; from which the French tailler and the Italian tagliare
are formed, (Spelm. Glojf. 531.).
Having thus fhown the original of eftates tail, we now
proceed to conlider what things may or may not be entailed
under the ftatute de donis. Tenements is the only word
ufed in the ttatute : and this Sir Edward Coke expounds to
comprehend all corporeal hereditaments whatfoever; and alfo
all incorporeal hereditaments w hich favour of the realty, that
is, which iffue out of corporeal ones, or which conce.n or
are annexed to or may be exercifed within the fame ; as
rents, eftovers, commons, and the like. Alfo offices and
dignities, which concern lands, or have relation to fixed and
certain places, maybe entailed. But mere perfonal chattels,
which favour not at all of the reality, cannot be entailed.
Neither can an office, which merely relates to fuch perfonal
chattels ; nor an annuity, which charges- only the perfon,
and not the lands of the granter. Butin thefe laft, if grant¬
ed to a man and the heirs uf his body, the grantee hath flill
a fee conditional at -common law as before the ftatute, and
by his alienation may bar the heir or reverfioner. An eftate
to a man and his heirs for another's life cannot be entailed ;
for this is ftriftly no eftate of' inheritance, and therefore not
v-ithin the ftatute de donis. Neither can a copyhold eftate
be entailed by virtue of the ftatute ; for that would tend to
encroach upon and reftrain the will of the lord : but, by the
fpeci d cuftom of the manor, a copyhold may be limited to
the heirs of the body for here the cuftom afeertains and
and interprets the lord’s will.
As to the feveral fpecies of eftates-tail, and how they are
lefpeftively created ; they are either general or fpecial.
Tail.general is where lands and tenements are given to one,,
and the heirs of his body begotten : which is called tail-
general; becaufe, how often foever luch donee in tail be
married, his iftue in general, by all and every fuch marriage,
is, in fucceffive order, capable of inheriting the eflate tail
per formam tioni. I enant in tail-fpecial is where the gift is
reftramed to certain heirs of the donee’s body, and does not
go to all of them in general. And this may happen feveral
* ways. We fhall inftance in only one ; as where lands and
tenements are given to a man and the heirs of his body, cn
Mary his now wife to be begotten. Here no ifiue can in¬
herit but fuch fpecial ifiue as is engendered between them Tail,
two ; not fuch as the hufband may have by another wife ; y—
and therefore it is called fpecial tail. And here we may ob-
ferve, that the w'ords of inheritance (to him and his heirs)
give him an eftate in fee ; but they being heirs to be by him
begotten, this makes it a fee-tail; and the perfon being alfo
limited, on whom fuch heirs {hall be begotten (viz. Mary his
prefent wife), this makes it a fee-tail fpecial.
Eftates in general and fpecial tail are farther diverfified
by the diflin&ion of fexes in fuch entails ; for both of them
may either be in tail male or tail female. As if lands be
.given to a man, and his heirs-male of his body begotten,
this is an eftate in tail male general; but if to a man, and
the heirs-female of his body on his prefent wife begotten,
this is an eftate in tail female fpecial. And in cafe of an
entail male, the heirs-female fhall never inherit, nor any de¬
rived from them ; nor, e converfo, the heirs male in cafe of
a gift in tail female. Thus, if the donee in tail male hath
a daughter, who dies leaving a fon, fuch graridlon in this
cafe cannot inherit the eftate-tail; for he cannot deduce his
defeent w-holly by heirs-male. And as the heir-male mull con¬
vey his defeent wholly by males, fo muft the heir-female wholly
by females. And therefore if a man hath two eftates-tail, the
one in tail male and the other in tail female, and he hath iffue
a daughter, which daughter hath iffae a fon ; this grandfon
can fucceed to neither of the eftates, for he cannot convey
his defeent wrholly either in the male or female line.
As the word heirs is neceflary to create a fee, fo, in far¬
ther imitation of the ftriftnefs of the feodal donation, the
w'ord body, or fome other words of procreation, are necefiary
to make it a fee-tail, and afeertain to what heirs in particu¬
lar the fee is limited. It, therefore, either the words of
inheritance or words of procreation be omitted, albeit the
others are inferted in the grant, this will not make an eftate-
tail. As if the grant be to a man and the iflue of his body,
to a man and his feed, to a man and his children or offspring;
all thefe are only eftates for life, there wanting the words
®f inheritance, “ his heirs.” So, on the other hand, a gift
to a man, and his heirs male or female, is an eftate in fee-
fimple and not in fee-tail; for there are no words to afeer¬
tain the body out of which they fhall iffue. Indeed, in laft
wills and teftaments, wherein greater indulgence is allowed,
an eftate-tail may be created by a xlevife to a man and his
feed, or to a man and his heirs-male, or by other irregular
modes of expreffion.
There is flill another fpecies of entailed eftates, now indeed
grown out of ufe, yet ftill capable of fubfifting in law; which
are eftates in libero maritagio, or Frankmarriage. See
that article.
The incidents to a tenancy in tail, under the ftatute
Weftminfter 2. are chiefly thefe : 1. That a tenant in tail
may commit walte on the eftate tail, by felling timber, pul¬
ling down honfes, or the like, without being impeached or
called to account for the fame. 2. That the wife of the
tenant in tail fhad have her dower, or thirds, of the eftate-
tail. 3. That the hufband of a female tenant in tail may
be tenant by the curtefy of the eftate-tail. 4. That an
eftate-tail may be barred, or deftroyed, by a fine, by a com¬
mon recovery, or by lineal warranty defeending with affets
to the heir. See Assets.
Thus much for the nature of eftates tail: the eftablifh-
ment of which family-law (as it is properly flyled by Pi-
gott) occalioned infinite difficulties and dilputes. Children
grew difobedient when they knew they could not be fet
afide : farmers were oufted of their leafes made by tenants
in tail; for if fuch leafes had been valid, then, under co¬
lour of long leafeSi the iffue might have been virtually dif-
inherited : creditors were defrauded of their debts ; for, if
2 a
T A I [ 3°r ! T A L
Tail, a tenant in tail could have charged his eflate with their
-v—* payment, he might alfo have defeated his iffue, by mortga¬
ging it for as much as it was worth : innumerable latent en¬
tails were produced to deprive purchafers of the lands they
had fairly bought ; of fuits in confequence of which, our
ancient books are full: and treafons were encouraged, as
eitates tail were not liable to forfeiture longer than for the
tenant’s life. So that they were j.uftly branded as the fource
of new contentions and mifehiei's unknown to the common
law ; and almoft univerfally confidered as the common grie¬
vance of the realm. But as the nobility were always fond
of this ftatute, becaufe it preferved their family-eftates from
forfeiture, there was little hope of procuring a -repeal by the
legiOature ; and therefore, by the connivance of an active
and politic prince, a method was devifed to evade it.
About 200 years intervened between the making of the
ffatute de donts, and the application of common recoveries
to this intent, in the 12th year of Edward IV. ; which
were then openly declared by the judges to be a fufficient
bar of an elfate-tail. For though the courts had, fo long
before as the reign of Edward III. very frequently hinted
their opinion that a bar mifiht be effected upon thefe prin¬
ciples, yet it was never carried into execution ; till Edward
IV. obferving (in the difputes between the houfes of York
and Lancafter) how liitle effedt attainders for treafon had
on families whofe eftates were protefted by the fanftuary of
entails, gave his countenance to this proceeding, and fuf-
fered Taltarum’s cafe to be brought before the court:
wherein, in confequence of the principles then laid down, it
was in effeft determined, that a common recovery luffered
by tenant in tail fhould be an effeftual deftruftion thereof.
Thefe common recoveries are fi&itious proceedings, intro¬
duced by a kind of pia frausy to elude the ftatute de donisy
which was found fo intolerably mifehievous, and which yet
one branch of the legiflature would not then conlent to repeal:
and that thefe recoveries, however clandeftinely begun, are
now become by long ufe and acquiefcence a moft common
afluraace of lands ; and are looked upon as the legal mode
of conveyance, by which a tenant in tail may difpofe of his
lands and tenements: fo that no court will fuffer them to
be fhaken or reflefted on, and even afls of parliament have
by a fide-wind countenanced and eftablifhed them.
This expedient having greatly abridged eftates-tail with
regard to their duration, others were fqon invented to ftrip
them o? other privileges. The next that was attacked was
their freedom from forfeitures for treafon. For, notwith-
flanding the large advances made by recoveries, in the com-
pafs of about threefcore years, towards unfettering thefe in¬
heritances, and thereby fubjefting the lands to forfeiture,
the rapacious prince then reigning, finding them frequent¬
ly refettled in a fimilar manner to ftiit the convenience of
families, had addrefs enough to procure a flarute, whereby
all eftates of inheritance (under which general words eftates-
tad were o vertly included) are declared to be forfeited to
die king upon any conviction of high-treafon.
The next attack which they differed, in order of time,
was by the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 28. whereby certain
leafes made by tenants in tail, which do not tend to the
prejudice of the iffue, were allowed to be good in law, and
to bind the iffue in tail But they received a more violent
blow in the lame feffion of parliament, by the conftruftitm
put upon the ftatute of fines, by the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII.
c- 36- which declares a fae duly levied by tenant in tail to
be a complete bar to him and his heirs, and all other perfons
claiming under fuch entail. This was evidently agreeable
to the intention of Henry VII. whofe policy it was (be-
foie common recoveries had obtained their full ftrength and
authority) to lay the road as open as poflible to the aliena¬
tion of landed property, in order to weaken the overgrown Taft
power of his nobles. But as they, from the oppofite rea- _ . U .
ions, wrere not eafily brought to confent to fuch a provi- _ ^
lion, it was therefore couched, in his a&, under covert and
obfeure expreffions. And the judges, though willing to
conftrue that ftatute as favourably as poflible for the defeat¬
ing of entailed eftates, yet hefitated at giving fines fo exten-
five a power by mere implication, when the ftatute de donis
had exprefsly declared that they fhould not be a bar to eftates-
tail. But the ftatute of Henry VIII. when the do&rine of
alienation was better received, and the will of the prince
more implicitly obeyed than before, avowed and eftablxfiied
that intention. Yet, in order to preferve the property ©f
the crown from any danger of infringement, all eftates-tail
created by the crown, and of which the crown has the re*
verfion, are excepted out of this ftatute. And the fame
was done with regard to common recoveries, by the ftatute
34 and 35 Hen. VIII. c 20. which ena&s^that no feign¬
ed recovery had againft tenants in tail, where the eftate was
created by the crown, and the remainder or reverfion con¬
tinues ftill in the crown, {hall be of any force and effeft.
Which is allowing, indirecftly and collaterally, their full
force and effe& with refpeft to ordinary eftates tail, where
the royal prerogative is not concerned.
Laftly, by a ftatute of the fucceeding year, all eftates-tail
are rendered liable to be charged for payment of debts due
to the king by record or fpecial contra& j as fince, by the
bankrupt-laws, they are alfo fubjefted to be fold for the
debts contracted by a bankrupt. And, by the conftruc-
tion put on the ftatute 43 Elia. c. 4. an appointment by
tenant in tail of the lands entailed to a charitable ufe is
good without fine or recovery.
Eftates-tail being thus by degrees unfettered, are now
reduced again to almoft the fame ftate, even before iftue
born, as conditional fees were in at common law, after the
condition was performed by the birth of iftue. For, firft,
the tenant in tail is now enabled to alienate his lands and te¬
nements by fine, by recovery, or by certain other means;
and thereby to defeat the xntereft as well of his own iftue,
though unborn, as alfo of-the reverfioner, except in the cafe
of the crown : fecondly, he is now liable to forfeit them for
high treafon : and, laftly, he may chai-ge them with reafoxi-
able kales, and alfo with fuch of his debts as are due to the
crown on fpecialties, or have been contra&ed with his fel¬
low fubjefts in a courfe of extenfxve commerce.
TAILZIE, in Scots law, the fame with Tail. See
Law, N° clxxx. 9.
TALAPOMS-or Talomns, priefts of Siam.—They
enjoy great privileges, but are enjoined celibacy and aufte-
rity of life. They live in monafteries contiguous to the
temples : and what is fingular, any one may enter into the
priefthood, and after a certain age may quit it to marry,
and return to fociety. There are talapoineftes too, or nuns,
who live in the fame convents, but are not admitted till they
have palled their fortieth year. The talapoins educate chil¬
dren ; and at every new and full moon explain the precepts
of their religion in their temples ; and during the rainy
feafon they preach from fix in the morning till noon, and
from one in the afternoon till five in the evening. They
drefs in a very mean garb, go bareheaded and barefooted 5
and no perfon is admitted among them who is not well Hul¬
led in the Baly language.
They believe that the univerfe is eternal; but admit that
certain parts of it, as this world, may be deftroyed aftd
again regenerated. They believe in a univerfal pervading
fpirit, and in the immortality and tranfmigration of the foul;
but they extend this laft dodfrine, not only to all animals,
but to vegetables and rocks. They have their good and
T A L
T Ac.
pfenl!, an3 particular local deities
refts and rivers, and interfere in all fublunary affairs.
For the honour of human nature, we are happy to find fo
pure a fyftem of morality prevail among thefe people : It
not only forbids its followers to do ill, but enjoins the ne-
ceffity of doing good, and of ftifling every improper thought
er criminal delire.
Thofe who with to perufe a more particular account of
the talapoins, may confult Voyage de M. Je la Loubere \
Sketches relating to the Hiftory, &c. of the Hindoos; or
Payne’s Geography.
TALC, in mineralogy, a fpecies of fofiil arranged under
the magnefian earths. In Magellan’s edition of Cronftedt’s
Mineralogy, it is confidered as a fpecies of Mica, and has
accordingly been mentioned by us under that article. On
the other hand. Dr Kirwan has claffed the mica under the
filiceous earths, while he places talc under the magnefian.
According to the analyfis of Dr Kirwan, “ talc confifts of
pure magnefia, mixed with nearly twice its weight of filcx,
and lefs than its own weight of argil.” It is compofed of
broad, flat, and fmooth lamina, or plates. There are two
varieties of it, the Venetian talc and Mufcovy talc ; for the
difference of which, fee the article Mica.
The Venetian talc has not derived its name from being a
produftion of the territories of Venice (for it is not often
to be met with in that country), but probably from being
an article of Venetian commerce. It abounds in England,
Norway, Hungary, Bohemia, Spain, and in many countries
of Alia. Venice talc, with half its weight of alkaline fait,
may, in a ftrong fire, be brought into perfeft fufion, though
riot to perfcft tranfparency : with equal its weight, or lefs,
of borax, it runs into a beautiful, pellucid, greenilh yellow
glafs. Talc does not melt with any other earth, nor even
bake or cohere with any but the argillaceous : Mixtures of it
with them all are neverthelefs brought into fufion by a re¬
markably lefs quantity of faline matter than the ingredients
feparately would require. Thus equal parts of talc and
chalk, with only one-fourth their weight of borax, melt in
no very vehement heat into a fine tranfparent greenifh glafs,
©f confiderable hardnefs and great lultre. On fubllituting
gypfeous earths to chalk, the fufion was as eafy, and the
glafs as beautiful; in colour not green, but yellow like the
topaz. Talc, with half its weight of fand, and a quantity
of nitre equal to both, yielded alfo a tranfparent topaz yel¬
low glafs. Several further experiments on talc may be feen
m a memoir by Mr Pott in the Mem. de l'Acad, de Berlin,
Mufcovy talc, called alfo lapis fpecularis, is found in many
parts. The Hand of Cyprus abounds with it. It is very
common alfo in Ruflia, and has of late been difcovered to
abound in the Alps, the Apennines, and many of the moun¬
tains of Germany. It is imported in large quantities into
England, and is ufed by the lanthorn-makers inftead of horn
in their nicer works; by the painters to cover miniature
piftures ; and by the microfcope-makers to preferve fmall
cbjefts for viewing by glafies. The ancients ufed it inftead
©f glafs in their windows. Some take the lapis fpecularis to
have been a fpecies of gypfum, and compofed of the acid of
vitriol and calcareous earth. It came into ufe at Rome in
® P/. 90, the age oi Seneca*; and foon after its introduftion was ap¬
plied not only to lighten apartments, but to p rot eft fruit-
trees from the feverity of the weather ; and it is recorded,
that the emperor < iberius was enabled, principally by its
means, to have cucumbers at his table during almoft every
month in the year. Dr Watfon apprehends it is ftill ufed
in iome countries in the place of glafs : however, it is well
known, that it was fo ufed in the time of Agricola ; for he
jEnentionsj- two churches in Saxony which were lighted by it.
[ 302 i t a I.
who prefide over fo- Agricola efteemed it to have been a fpecies of plafter-ftone j Talent.
and in fpeaking of it he remarks, that though it could bear, «“■■■
without being injured, the heat of fummer and the cold of
winter, yet the largeft maffes of it were wafted by the rain.
It differs from plafter-ftone in this property, that it does
not, after being calcined and wetted with water, fwell and
concrete into a hard ftony fubftance *. * W'aih
Although we have treated of Mufcovy talc and lapis fpe-
cularis as the fame, we are not ignorant that a diftinc-
mi's Ktji
of
7*.
T)e Nat,
Fojf. lib. s
vol. ii.
S as tire rainc, wc cue nut ignurauu itiat a uuuuv-p. ^
tion has been made between them, by fome chemifts: ’
but as we have found a greater degree of confufion on this
fubjeft in feveral valuable fyftems of mineralogy than we
had reafon to expeft, we continue the old names as formerly,
till a more fatisfaftory analyfis make it proper to apply them
differently.
Talc is employed, in thofe places where it is found in any
confiderable quantity, in compofitions for earthen veffels;
and by iome for lefts and cupels. From its fmoothnefs,
unftuofity, and brightnefs, it has been greatly celebrated as
a cofmetic ; and the chemifts have fpbmitted it to a variety,
of operations, for procuring from it oils, falls, tinftures,
magifteries, &c. for that intention. But all their labours
have been in vain ; and all the preparations fold under the
name of talc have either contained nothing of that mineral,
or only a fine powder of it.
TALENT, fignifies both a weight and a coin very com¬
mon among the ancients, but very different among different
nations.
The common Attic talent of weight contains 60 Attic
mime, or 6000 Attic drachmae ; and weighed, according to
Dr Arbuthnot, 56 lbs. 11 oz. ly^gr. Englifh troy weight.
There was another Attic talent, by fome laid to confift of
80, by others of 100 minas. The Egyptian talent was 80
minae ; the Antiochian alfo 80 ; the Ptolemaic of Cleopa¬
tra 86-|; that of Alexandria 96 ; and the Iniular talent
120. In the valuation of money, the Grecian talent, accord¬
ing to Dr Arbuthnot, was equal to 60 minse, or, reckoning
the mina at L. 3 : 4 : 7, equal to L. 193, 15s: The Syrian
talent in this valuation confifted of 15 Attic minae; the
Ptolemaic of 20 ; the Antiochian of 60 ; the Euboic of 60 ;
the Babylonia of 70 ; the Greater Attic of 80 ; the Tyrian
of 80 ; the Eginean of 100; the Rhodian of 100 ; and the
Egyptian of 80 minas.
There is another talent much more ancient, which Dr
Arbuthnot calls the Homeric talerrt of gold, which feems to
have weighed fix Attic drachms or three darics, a daric
weighing very little more than a guinea. According to
this talent, fome reckon the treafure of king David, parti¬
cularly that mentioned 1 Chron. xxii. 14. which, according
to the common reckoning, would amount in gold talents
to the value of L. 547,500,000, and the filver to above
L. 342,000,000 ; or, reckoning according to the decuple
proportion of gold to. filver, the two fums would be equal.
As David reigned in Judaea after the fiege of Troy, it is not
improbable but Homer and he might ufe the fame numeral
talent of gold.
Among the Romans there were two kinds of talents, the
little and the great talent : the little was the common talent;
and whenever they fay Amply talentum, they are to be un-
derftood of this. The little talent was 60 minae or Roman
pounds ; the mina or pound eftimated at 100 drachmae or
denarii: it was alfo eftimated at 24 great fefterces, which
amounted to 60 pounds.
The great talent exceeded the lefs by one-third part.
Budaeus computes, that the little talent of filver was worth
I.. 75 Sterling, and the greater L- 99 : 6 : 8 Sterling. 1 he ^
greater of gold was worth L. 1125 Sterling.
Talent, as a fpecies or money, among the Hebrews,
was
T A L
[ 303 1
T A L
MIkmIui was foraetimts ufed for a gold coin, the fame with the (he-
II kel of gold, called alfo Jlater, and weighing only 4 drachms.
TaHy. rjahe jj^rews reckoned by thefe talents as we do by pounds,
L T gjCi Thus a million of gold, or million of talents ot gold,
among them, was a million of {hekels or nummi; the num-
mus of gold being the fame weight with the fhekel, viz.
four drachms. _
But the Hebrew talent weight of filver, which they call¬
ed cicar, was eqmvalent to that of 3000 fhekels, or 113 lb.
10 oz. 1 dwt. lOYgr- Englifh Troy weight, according to
Arbuthnot’s computation.
TALIACOTHIS (Gafpar), chief furgeon to the great
duke of Tufcany, was born at Bojjpnia in Italy in 1553*
He wrote a Latin treatife intitled Chirurgia Notate Curtis
JMemlris, in which he teaches the art of engrafting nofes,
ears, lips, &c. giving reprefentations of the inftruments and
proper bandages 1 though many are of opinion that he never
put his art in praftice. However, his doftrine is not fingu-
lar; for he (hows that Alexander Benedidlus, a famous chi-
rurgical writer, deferibed the operation before.
TALLIO (fox talionis), a fpecies of punilhment in the
Mofaic law, whereby an evil is returned fimilar to that com¬
mitted againft us by another ; hence that exprefiion, “ Eye
for eye, tooth for tooth.” This law was at firlt inferted in
the 12 tables among ft the Romans; but afterwards fet afide,
and a power given to the prsetor to fix upon a fum of money
for the damage done.
TALISMANS, magical figures cut or engraved with
fuperftitious obfervations on the charafterifms and configu¬
rations of the heavens, to which fome aftrologers have attri¬
buted wonderful virtues, particularly that of calling down
celeftial influences. The talifmans of Samothrace, fo famous
of old, were pieces of iron formed into certain images, and
fet in rings; thefe were efteemed prefervatives againft all
kinds of evils. There were likewife talifmans taken from
vegetables, and others from minerals.
TALLAGE {tallagiurn), from the French tdille, is meta¬
phorically ufed for a part or {hare of a man's fubftance carved
*out of the whole, paid by way of tribute, toll, or tax.
TALLOW, in commerce, the fat of certain animals melt¬
ed and clarified. It is procured from moft animals, but
chiefly from bullocks, fheep, hogs, and bears. Some kinds
of tallow are ufed as unguents in medicine, fome for making
foap and drefling leather, and fome for making candles. See
Chemistry, nJ 1429.
T/illcw Tree. See Croton.
TALLY, is a flick cut in two parts, on each whereof is
marked, with notches or otherwife, wrhat is due between
debtor and creditor, as now ufed by brewers, &c. And this
was the ancient way of keeping all accounts, one part being
kept by the creditor, the other by the debtor, &c. Hence
the tallier of the exchequer, whom we now call the teller.
But there are two kirtds of tallies mentioned in our flatutes
to have been long ufed in the exchequer. The one is term-
cd tallies of debt, which are in the nature of an acquittance
for debts paid to the king, on the payment whereof theie
tallies are delivered to the debtors, who carrying them to the
clerk of the pipe-office, have there an acquittance in parch¬
ment for their full difeharge. The other are tallies of re¬
ward or allowance, being made to fhetiffs of counties as a
recompenfe for fuch matters as they have performed to their
charge, or fuch money as is call upon them in their accounts
of courle, but not leviable, &c. In the exchequer there is
a tally-court, where attend the two deputy-chamberlains of
the exchequer and the tally-cutter: and a tally is generally
the king’s acquittance for money paid or lent, and has writ¬
ten on it words proper to expreis on what occafion the mo¬
ney is received.
a perfon that fells or lets goods, clothes, &c.
to be paid by fo much a-week.
TALMUD, a colle&ion of Jewifh traditions. There
are two works which bear this name, the Talmud of Jeru-
falem, and the Talmud of Babylon. Each of thefe are
compofed of two parts; the Mifhna, which is the text, and
is common to both, and the Gemara or commentary. See
Mishna and Gemara.
The Mifhna, which comprehends all the laws, inftitutions,
and rules of life which, befide the ancient Hebrew ferip*
tures, the Jews thought themfelves bound to obferve, was
compofed, according to- the unanimous teftimony of the
Jews, about the clofe of the fecond century. It was the
work of Rabbi Jehuda (or Juda) Hakkadolh, who was
the ornament of the fchool at Tiberias, and is faid to have
occupied him forty years. The commentaries- and additions-
which fucceeding Rabbis made were colledled by Rabbi Jo-
chanan Ben Eliezer, fome fay in the 5th, others fay in the
6th, and others in the 7th century, under the name of Ge-
mara, that is, completion ; becaufe it completed the Talmud.
A fimilar addition was made to the Miffina by the Babylo*
nifli doftors in the beginning of the 6th century according
to Enfield, and in the 7th according to others.
The Mifhna is divided into fix parts, of which every one
which is intitled order is formed of treatifes, every treatife
is divided into chapters, and every chapter into mifhnas or
aphorifms. In the frjl part is difeuffied whatever relates to
feeds, fruits, and trees t in the fecond feafts r in the third
women, their duties, their diforders, marriages, divorces^
contrafts, and nuptials : in the fourth are treated the dama¬
ges or Ioffes fuftained by beads or men, of things found, de-
polits, ufuries, rents, farms, partnerffiips in commerce, inhe¬
ritance, fales and purchafes, oaths, witneffes, arrefts, idola¬
try ; and here are named thofe by whom the oral law was
received and preferved: in the fifth part are noticed what
regards facrifices and holy things : and the fixth treats on
purifications, veffels, furniture, clothes, houfes, leprofy,
baths, and numerous other articles. All this forms the Milh-
na.
As the learned reader may wiflr to obtain fome notion of
rabbinical compofition and judgment, we fhall gratify his
curiofity fufficiently by the following Ipecimen : “ Adam’s
body was made of the earth of Babylon, his head of the land
of Ifrael, his other members of other parts of the world,
R. Meir thought he was compaft of the earth gathered ouS
of the whole earth; as it is written, thine eyes did fee my fuh-
fiance. Now it is elfewhere written, the eyes of the Lord an
over all the earth. R- Aha exprefsly marks the twelve hours
in which his various parts were formed. His ftature was
from one end of the world to the other ; and it was for his
tranfgreffion that the Creator, laying his hand in anger on
him, lefl'ened him; for before (fays R. Eleazar), ‘ with his
hand he reached the firmament.’ R. Jehuda thinks his fin
was herefy ; but R. Ifaac thinks that * it was nourifhing
his forefkin.”
The Talmud of Babylon is moft valued by the Jews;
and this is the book which they mean to exprefs when they
talk of the Talmud in general- An abridgment of it was'
made by Maimonides in the 12th century, in which he re-
jefted fome of its greateft abfurdities. The Gemara is fluf¬
fed with dreams and chimeras, with many ignorant and im¬
pertinent queftions, and the ftyle very coarfe. ! he Miffina
is written in a ftyle comparatively pure, and may be very
ufeful in explaining paffages of the New Teftament where
the phrafeology is fimilar. This is indeed the only ufe to
which Chriilians can apply it ;■ but this renders it valuable.
Lightfoot has-judiciouily availed himfelf of fuoh informat:orr
as he could derive from it. Some of the popes, with a bar¬
barous
Talmud,
TAM
C 304 1
TAM
Ts?r» barous zed, and a timidity of fpirit for the fuccefs of the
II Chriftian religion, which the belief of its divinity can never
1 arnann- excufe> ordered great numbers of the Talmud to be burned.
. Gregory IX. burned about 20 cart-loads, and Paul IV.
ordered 12,000 copies of the Talmud to be deftroycd.
The laft edition of the Talmud of Babylon, printed at
Amfterdam, is in 12 vols folio. The Talmud of Jerufalem
is in one large folio.
TALPA, the mole ; a genus of quadrupeds belonging
to the order of fer<e and clafs of mammalia. It has fix une¬
qual foreteeth in the upper jaw, and eight in the lower ;
one tufli on each fide in each jaw; feven grinders on each
fide above, and fix below. There are feven fpecies; the
- European, the flava or American, the criftata, longicaudata,
fulca, rubra, and aurea.
The European mole is the only fpecies of this animal
found in Britain. There are feveral varieties of it ; the
black, the variegated, the white, and the grey mole. This
fpecies inhabits the whole of Europe except Ireland, where
it is laid no moles are found. It is alfo common in the
northerly parts of Afia and Africa. It chiefly frequents
moift fields that are expofed to the fun, meadows, ail'd gar¬
dens ; through thefe it conltrufts fubterraneous reads or gal¬
leries in every diredfion in fearch of worms, on which and
the larvae of infeds it feeds, and not at all on vegetables,
though it does great damage by loofening the roots of plants.
It is moft a&ive in its operations before rain, becauie then
the worms are in motion. The penis of the male is exceed¬
ingly long in proportion ; they feem to pair and propagate
in fpring, the female bringing four or five young at a birth,
which are placed in nefts made of mofs, leaves, and dried
grafs, under the largeft hillocks of the field ; thefe are con-
flruded with wonderful ingenuity, conlilting of an interior
hillock, furrounded with a ditch, which communicates with
feveral galleries, on purpofe to carry off the meifture ; and
the ntft is covered over with a dome of earth, like the flat
arch of an oven. Moles are deftroyed by means of a pafte
compofed of palma-chrifti and white hellebore, or by flood¬
ing the fields which they infeft ; though, in the latter cafe,
they fometimes efcape by afeending trees.
This fpecies is five inches and three quarters in length,
and its tail is about one inch long. It has a large head,
without any external ears, and eyes fo very fmall and fo
completely .hid in the fur as to make it vulgarly believed
that it has none. As it lives entirely below ground, it has
certainly no occafion for eyes like other quadrupeds ; and
as it probably finds its food by its fenfe of fmell, which is
acute, its eyes may ferve merely as a fafeguard to warn it
when it happens to emerge from the ground tp return to its
fubterraneous dwelling. This warning may be given by the
light falling upon its eyes, which may produce a painful
fenfation. For the truth of this conjedlure, however, we
muff refer to the anatomiff, who might eafily determine,
from the ftrudTure of the eyes, what purpofe they are fitted
to ferve
TAMANDAU, in zoology. See Myrmecophaga.
TAMARINDUS, the tamarind-tree, in botany: A
genus of plants arranged by Linnaeus under the clafs of tri-
andria and order of monogynia ; but Woodville, Schreber,
and other late botanifts, have found that it belongs to the
clafs of monodelfhia and order of triandria. In the natural
fyilem it is ranked under the hmntacee. There is only one Timirin,
fpecies, the indica, which is a native of both Indies, of A-
merica, of Arabia, and Egypt, and was cultivated in Bri-
tain before the year 163
The tamarind-tree vifes to the height of 30 or 40 feet,
fending off numerous large branches, which fpread to a con-
fidtrable extent, and have a beautiful appearance ; the trunk
is eredt, and covered with rough bark, of a greyilh or afh-
colour; the leaves are fmall and pinnated, and of a yellowifh
green colour : the flowers refemble the papilionaceous kind,
and grow in lateral clufters: the calyx confills of four leaves,
and the corolla of three petals, which are of a yellowifh hue,
and are beautifully diverfified with red veins : the fruit is a
pod of a roundifh comprefled form, from three to five inches
long, containing two, three, or four feeds, lodged in a dark
pulpy matter. The flowers appear, according to Jacquin,
in Odlober and November; but, according to Dr Wright,
they continue during the whole of June and July, and
then drop off.
The pulp of the tamarind, with the feeds connedfed to¬
gether by numerous tough firings or fibres, are brought to
us freed from the outer (hell, and commonly preferred in
fyrup. According to Long, tamarinds are prepared for
exportation at Jamaica in the following manner : “ The
fruit or pods are gathered (in June, July, and Auguff) when
full ripe, which is known by their fragility or eafy breaking
on fmall preffure between the finger and thumb. The fruit,
taken out of the pod, and cleared from the fhelly fragments,
is placed in layers in a calk; and boiling fyrup, juft before it
begins to granulate, is poured in, till the calk is filled : the
fyrup pervades every part quite down to the bottom, and
when cool the calk is headed for fale.” He oblerves, that
the better mode of preferving this fruit is with fugar, well
clarified with eggs, till a tranfparent fyrup is formed, which
gives the fruit a much pleafanter flavour : but as a princi¬
pal medicinal purpofe of the pulp depends upon its acidity,
which is thus coupteiadted by the admixture of fugar, it
would therefore be of more utility if always imported here
in the pods. The fruit produced in the Eaft Indies is more
efteemed than that of the Weft, and eafily to be dillinguifh-
ed by the greater length of the pods, and the pulp being
dryer and of a darker colour.
Ufes. This fruit, the ufe of which was firft learned of
the Arabians, contains a larger proportion of acid, with the
faccharine matter, than is ufually found in the frudhis acido-
du/cis, and is therefore not only employed as a laxative, but
alfo for abating thirft and heat in various inflammatory com¬
plaints, and for corredling putrid difordeis, efpecially thofe
ot a bilious kind; in which the cathartic, antifeptic, and re¬
frigerant qualities of the fruit have been found equally ufe-
ful. When intended merely as a laxative, it may be of ad¬
vantage to join it with manna, or purgatives of a fweet kind,
by which its ufe is rendered fafer and more effettual. Three
drachms of the pulp are ufually fuflicient to open the body;
but to prove m@derately cathartic, one or two ounces are
requir ed. It is an ingredient in tlettuarium e cafiia, and dec-
tuarium e fenna or lenitive ele&uary (a).
We are informed by Dr Wright, that preferved tamarinds
are kept in moft houfes in Jamaica either as a fweet-meat,
or for occafional ufe as a medicine. See Pharmacy, n° 394
and 39 c.
TAMARIX,
(a) “ Tournefort relates, that an effential fait may be obtained from tamarinds, by diflblving the pulp in water, and
letting the filtered folution, with fome oil upon the furface, in a cellar for feveral months ; that the fait is of a iouriih
tafte, and difficultly diffolulfte in water; and that a like fait is fometimes found alfo naturally concreted on the branches of
•ihe tree. I he fait, as Beaume obferves, may be obtained more expeditioufly, by clarifying the deco£lion of the tama¬
rinds
T A M
t 3°5 1
TAN
'.imeriaT1
Tamaris TAMAF-^Xi the tamarisk, in botany; A genus of
ft pjdnta belonging to the clals of pentandna^ and order oi tri.
‘gynias and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 13th
order. Succulent*. The calyx is quinquepartite ; the petals
are five ; the capfule is unilocular and trivalvolar, and the
feeds paopous. There are only two fpecies known ; the
galiica or French tamarifk, and the germanica or German ta-
marillc.
TAMBAC, in the materia medica. See Excjecana.
TAMBOUR, in architefture, a term applied to the Co¬
rinthian and Compofite capitals, as bearing fome refemblauce
to a drum which the French call tambour. Some choofe to
call it the •uo/r, and others canipana of the bell.
. Tambour is alfo ufed for a little box of timber work,
covered with a ceilinrr, withinfide the porch ol certain
churches ; both to prevent the view of perfons palling by,
and to keep off the wind, &c. by means of folding-doors,
&c.
Tambour, alfo denotes a round courfe of Hone, feveral
whereof form the lhaft of a column, not fo high as a dia¬
meter.
Tambour, in the arts, is a fpecies of embroidery. The
tambour is an inftrument of a fpherical form, upon which is
ftretched, by means of a itring and buckle, or other fuitable
appendage, a piece .of linen or thin lilken ftuiT; which is
wrought with a needle of a particular form, and by means of
filken or gold and filver threads, into leaves, flowers, or other
figures.
TAMBOURIN, is the name of a dance performed on
the French ftage. The air is lively, and the movements are
quick.
TAMERLANE, or Timur Bek, a celebrated prince
and conqueror. At the age of 25 he attained the higheft
dignities, with furprifing courage, and an ambition aftonilh-
ing to all the world. Endeavouring to perfeft the great
talents which he had received from nature, he fpent nine
years in different countries ; where his great fenfe and ele¬
vated genius appeared in councils and affemblies, while his
intrepidity and valour, whether in perfonal combats or pitch¬
ed battles, drew upon him the admiration of all mankind.
He made himfelf mailer of the three empires of Jagatay
Khan, Tufhi Khan, and Hulaku Khan; fo that his power,
richfes, and magnificence, were immenfe. There remain vaft
monuments of his grandeur in the cities, towns, caftles, and
walls, which he built; in the rivers and canals which he dug,
as well as the bridges, gardens, palaces, hofpitals, mofques,
and monafteries, which he erefted in divers parts of Afia in
•fo great a number, that a king might be accounted very
powerful and magnificent, who fliould have employed 36
years only in building the great edifices which Timur cau-
fed to be founded.
Timur, according to the hiftorian Arabfhah, was in his
perlon very corpulent and tall. He had a large forehead
and big head. His countenance was agreeable, and his
complexion fair. He wore a large beard, was very ftrong,
and well-limbed ; had broad fhoulders, thick fingers, and
long legs. His conflitution was amazingly vigorous; but
he was maimed in one hand and lame of the right fide. His
eyes appeared full of fire; his voice was loud and piercing ;
he feared nothing; and when far advanced in years, his un-
derftanding was found and perferff, his body vigorous and ro-
buft, his mind conffant and unfhaken like a rock.
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
Tan.
He did not like faillery, and could not hear a Ke. There Tamerlane
was no joking or fooling before him ; for he loved the na¬
ked truth, even althou ;h it was to his own difadvantage.
He neither grieved if he rnifearried in any attempt, nor ap.
peared overjoyed on any great fuccefs. The device of his
feal was, “ I am fincere and plain.” He had a clear and
folid under (landing, was furprifmgly happy in his conjee-'
tures ; vigilant, a&ive, and unfhaken in his refolutions. He
took great delight in reading hiftory, and was well verfed
in the ftate of countries, provinces, and, cities. He was pe¬
netrating, fubtle, clofe, and diffembling; juft by inclination,
liberal from difpofition ; but ambition had in a great mea-
lure extinguifhed his humanity ; war had familiarized him
to blood ; and his religious zeal had infpired him with the
moil cruel, implacable, and pernicious fanaticifm.
He died on the ift of April 1405, in the 71ft year ofhis
age and 36th of his reign. When he found death approach¬
ing, he fent for his principal officers, declared his grandfon
his heir, and made them fwear to execute his will. Having
recommended brotherly love and concord to the princes hi$
children, he ordered one of the dotlors to read the Koran at
his bed’s head, and ofteq repeat the unity of God. At
night he feveral times made profeflion ofhis belief, “That
there is no other God than God,” and then expired. See
Moguls, n° 15, &c.
TAMTAM, a flat drum ufed by the Hindoos, refembling
a tabor, but it is larger, and founds louder.
TAMUS, black Be. ion y, in botany: A genus of plant#
belonging to the clafs of chacia, and order of hexandria ; and
in the natural fyftem ranging under the 1 ith order, Sarmen-
taLe<r. The male and female flowers are both lexpartite ;
there is no corolla; the ftyle is tritld ; the berry is triloctf*
lar and inferior, and contains two feeds. There are only
two fpecies known; the elephantipes, which is a native of
the Cape of Good Hope, and we believe was firft deferibed
by L’Heritier ; and the communis.
The communis, or common black briony, is a native of
England, but has not been obferved growing wild in Scot¬
land. It has a large root, which fends forth feveral long
flt nder Items; the leaves are large, heart-fliaped, dark green,
and grow on long footftalks ; the flowers are greenifh, and
the berry red. It flowers from May to Auguft, and is fre¬
quent in hedges.
TAN, the bark of the oak after it has been ground and
ufed by the tanner. The fmaller fort is generally made up
in little fquare cakes called turf, and fold for firing. The
coarfer fort is fometimes dried in the fun, and ufed by ba¬
kers for heating their ovens, &c. but its chieffufe is for ma¬
king of hot-beds to raife pine-apples and other plants.—
William III. introduced the ufe of it from Holland, for the
purpofe of railing orange trees ; after which it was difeon-
tinued for many years : but about 1719, when ananas were
firft brought into England, it came into general ufe, and
has ever fince been in great eftimation with gardeners for
all the purpofes of forcing, &c. on account of its ftrong
and lading fermentation. The fmaller the tan the quicker
it heats ; but the larger fort acquires heat more gradually
and retains it longer : the fkilful gardener therefore ufes the
one or the other, or a mixture of both, according to the
time and purpofe for which it is wanted. It is fome time
after the tan coihes out of the tanner’s pit before it beginf
to heat, and therefore it is not fit for immediate ufe j but ha-
q ving
vmds with whites of egos, then filtering it, and evaporating it to a proper confiftence, and fetting it to cool: the fait
flioots into cryftals of a brown colour and very acid tafte; but in diffolving and cryftallizing them again, or barely waftt-
ing them with water, they lofe almoft all their acidity, the acid principle of the tamarinds feeming not to be truly cry«
Aallizable.” Vide Lewis’s Mat. Med. p. 633,
TAN
[ 3°6 3
TAN
Ta
gier.
Tanacetum v|ng Iain a week or two, it enters into a Hate of fermenta-
" tion, and if put into hot-beds properly prepared, will re-
j tain a moderate heat for three or four months. When it
becomes ufelefs for the hot-houfe, it is faid by Miller and
others to be an excellent manure for fome kinds of land.
The word tan is fometimes, though improperly, ufed for
the bark itfeF, which is the chief ingredient in the tanning of
leather. Oak bark, on account of its great aftringency and
gummy-refinous properties, is preferred to all other fub-
ilances for the purpofe of tanning, as it not only preferves
the leather from rotting, but alfo, by condenhng the pores,
renders it impervious to water. See Tanning.
TANACETUM, tansy, in botany: A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of fyngene/ia, and order of polygamia
fuperjlua; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 49th
order, Compofitx. The receptacle is naked ; the pappus
fomewhat emarginated; the calyx imbricated and hemifpheri-
cal; the florets of the radius are trifid, and fcarcely diftin-
guifhable. Gmelin has enumerated feven i'pecies ; of which
one only is a native of Britain, the vu/gare.
The vulgare, or common tanfy, grows three or four feet
high ; the leaves are bipinnated and ferrated ; the flowers
yellow, and terminate the branches in flat Umbels. It is
found fometimes on the borders of fields and dry banks : it
abounds at Wark, and Ford-cattle in the neighbourhood of
Kclfo, on the borders of Scotland ; and on the fide of Gare-
loch on the weftern coaft ot Rofs-fhire ; it has alfo been
found in Breadalbane. It flowers generally in Auguft. Of
this fpecres there is a variety with curled leaves, which is
therefore called curled tanfy. The tanfy has a bitter tafte,
and an aromatic fmell difagreeable to many people.
Ufes. It is eftcemed good for warming and flrengthen-
ing the ftomach ; for which reafon the young leaves have
obtained a place among the culinary herbs, their juice be¬
ing an ingredient in puddings, &c. It is rarely ufed in
medicine, though extolled as a good emmenagogue. A
drachm of the dried flowers has been found very beneficial
in hyfteric diforders arifing from fuppreffion. The feeds and
leaves were formerly in confiderable efteem for deftroying
worms in children, and are reckoned good in colics and
flatulencies. In fome parts of Sweden and Lapland, a bath
with a^decoftion of this "plant is made ufe of to affift partu¬
rition. See Pharmacy, n9 193.
TANiECIUM, in botany : A genus of the anghfperma
order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 25th order, Putaminea.
The calyx is monophyllous, tubulated, truncated, and entire $
the corolla long, monopetalous, and white ; the tube cylin¬
drical ; the lymbi eredt, fpreading, and nearly equal; the
fruit a berry covered with a thick bark, large, oblong,
internally divided into two parts ; in the pulp are contained
a number of feeds. There are only two fpecies of this ge¬
nus ; the jaroba and parafiticum, both natives of Jamaica.
They grow by the fides of rivers, and climb on trees and
butties.
TANAGRA, tanager, in ornithology, a genus of
birds belonging to the order of pajferes. The beak is coni¬
cal, acuminated, emarginated, almoft triangular at the bafe,
and inclining a little towards the point. Dr Latham has
deferibed 44 fpecies, all of which are of foreign extrac¬
tion.
TANA IS, or Don. See Don.
TANGENT of an Arch, is a right line drawn perpen¬
dicularly from the end of a diameter, patting to one extre¬
mity of the arch, and terminated by a right line drawn from
the centre through the other end of that arch, and called
ifxt fecant. See Geometry.
TANGIER, a port-town of Africa, in the empire of
Morocco and kingdom of Fez, fltuated at the entrance of
the Straits of Gibraltar, in W. Long. 5. 50. N, Lat. 38. 49.
In 1662, this place belonged to the Portuguefe, and was
given to king Charles II. upon his marriage with the In¬
fanta of Portugal: but he, growing weary of the charge of
keeping it, caufed it to be blown up and dettroyed in
1684 ; ever fince which time it has been only a poor fifhing
town. Anciently it was called Tingis, and gave name to
the province of Mauritania 1 ingitana.
TANK, in the language of Indoftan, a place inclofed for
receiving and retaining the rain. During the periodical rains
the tanks are filled, and thus in the dry feafon furnifti water
for the rice fields and cattle. Some of them are of great ex¬
tent, meafuring 300 or 400 feet on the fide ; they ate of a
quadrangular form, and lined with granite, defending ia
regular fteps from the margin to the bottom
TANNER, one who dreffes hides by tanning them. See
Tanning.
Tanner (Dr Thomas), an Englifh prelate and celebra¬
ted antiquarian, born in 1674. He was admitted or Queen’s
college Oxford, where a limilarity of tafte for antiquities
produced a clofe friendfliip between him and Edmund Gib-
fon atterwards bifhop of London. In 1697, he was cholen
fellow of his college ; and having already publifhed fome
fpecimens of his Ikill in the antiquarian way, foon after be¬
came known to Dr Moore bifhop of Norwich, who made
him chancellor of his diocefe. In 1722, he was made arch¬
deacon of Norwich, and in 1731 bifhop of St Aiaph. . He
died at Oxford in 1735 ; and after his death was publifhed
an elaborate work, faid to have employed him for 40 years,
under this title, Bibliotheca Britannica Hibernica,fi vs de Scrip-
toribus qui in Bn glia, Scotia, et Hibernia, ad Jeculi XVII. ini-
tium floruerunt, &c.
TANNING, the art of manufa&uring leather from raw
hides and fkins.
Before we detail the procefs, it may be proper to obferve*.
that raw hides and fkins being compofed of minute fibres
interfering each other in every direftion, the general ope¬
ration of tanning conlifts chiefly ip expanding the pores, and
diflblving a fort'of greafy fubftance contained in them; and
then, by means of the aftringency and gummy-refinous pro¬
perties of oak bark, to fill and reunite them, fo as to give
firmnefs and dm ability to the whole texture. But this theo¬
ry has been controverted by fome chemifts, who fuppofe
that the animal jelly contained in the flein is not diffolved,
tut unites during the procefs with the attringent principle
of the bark, and forms a combination infoluble in water.
The procefs of tanning varies confiderably, not only in Method oil
different countries, but even in different parts ot the famet-nnmg-
country. The following is the method rooft approved and
practifed in London and its vicinity, where the beft leather
is generally allowed to be manufactured.
The leather tanned in England confifts chiefly of three
forts, known by the name of butts or backs, hides, and
Jkins.
Butts are generally made from the ftouteft and heavieft
ox hides, and are managed as lollows; After the horns are
taken off, the hides are laid fmooth in heaps for one or two
days in the fummer, and for five or fix in the winter : they
are then hunc^ on poles, in a clofe room called & fmoke-houfe9
in which is kept a frnouldering fire of wet tan ; this occa-
frons a fmall degree of putrefaction, by which means the
hair is eafily got off, by fpreading the. hide on a fort of
wooden horfe or beam, and feraping it with a crooked
knife. The hair being taken off, the hide is.thrown into a
pit or pool of water to eltanfe it from the dirt, &c. which
being done, the hide is again fpread on the wooden beam,
and the greafe, loofe flefh, extraneous filth, &c. carefully
- ferubbed
%
BiittJ.
TAN
C 307 ]
TAN
.3
Hide
ranniiig. fcrubbed out or taken off; the hides are then pvit into a
“—pit of ftrong liquor called ooze or wooze, prepared in pits
called letches or taps kept for the purpofe, by ihfufing
ground bark in water ; this is termed colouring: after which >
they are removed into another pit called a /cowering, which
confifts of water ftrongly impregnated with vitriolic acid, or
with a vegetable acid prepared from rye or barley. This
operation (which is called raifing'), by diftending the pores •
of the hides, occaiions them more readily to imbibe the
ooze, the effect of which is to aftringe and condenfe the
fibres, and give firmnefs to the leather. The hides are then
taken out of the fcowering, and fpread fmooth in a pit com*
monly filled with water, called a binder, with a quantity of
ground bark Itrewed between each. Alter lying a month
or fix weeks, they are taken up ; and the decayed bark and
liquor being . drawn out of the pit, it is filled again wn’th
ftrong ooze, when they are put in as before, with bark be¬
tween each hide. They now lie two or three months, at
the expiration of which the fame operation is repeated ;
they then remain four or five months, when they again un¬
dergo the lame procefs ; and after being three months in the
kit pit, aie completely tanned, unlefs the hides are lo re¬
markably itout as to want an additional pit or layer.—The
whole procefs requires from 11 to 18 months, and fome-
times two years^ according to the fubftance of the hide, and
difcretion of the tanner. When taken out of the pit to be
dried, they are hung on poles ; and after being compreffed
by a Heel pin, and beat out fmooth by wooden hammers
called beetles, the operation is complete ; and when thorough¬
ly dry, they are fit lor fale. Butts are chiefly ufed for the
foies of flout fhoes.
The leather which goes under the denomination of hides
is generally made from cow hides, or the lighter ox hides,
which are thus managed. After the horns are taken off, and
the hides waihed, they are put into a pit of water faturated
with lime, where they remain a few days, when they are ta¬
ken out, and the hair fcraped off on a wooden beam, as be¬
fore defcribed ; they are then wafhed in a pit or pool of wa¬
ter, and the loofe fielh, &c. being taken off, they ate remo¬
ved into a pit of weak ooze, where they are taken up and
put down (which is technically termed handling) two or
three timqs a-day for the fivll week : every fecond or third
day they are fhifted into a pit of frefh ooze, lomewhat
stronger than the former; till at the end of a month or fix
weeks they are put into a ftrong ooze, in which they are
handled once or twice a-v/eek with frefh bark for two or
three months. They are then removed into another pit,
called a layer, in which they are laid fmooth, with bark
ground very fine ftrewed between each hide. After re¬
maining here two or three months, they are generally taken
up, when the ooze is drawn out, and the hides put in again
with frefh ooze and frefh bark; where, after lying two or
three months more, they are completely tanned, except a
few very flout hides, which may require an extra layer : they
aie then taken out, hung on poles, and being hammered and
Imoolhed by a fteel pin, are, when dry, fit for fale.
ri hele hides are called crop hides; they are from 1 o to 18
months in tanning, and ate ufed for the foies of (hoes.
Shins is the general term for the fkins of calves, feals, hogs,
dogs, Sec. Thefe, after being wafhed in water, are put in*
to lime-pits, as before mentioned, where they are taken up
and put down every third or fourth day, for a fortnight or
three weeks, in order to dilate the pores and diffolve the
gelatinous parts of the lie in. The hair is then fcraped oft',
and the flefh and exctefcences being removed, they are put
mto a pit of water impregnated with pigeon-dung (called a
grainer or majlring), forming a llrong alkaline ley, which in
a week or ten days foaking out the lime, greafe, and fapo-
4
Skins.
naceous matter (during which period they are fevera! times Tanning,
fcraped over with a crooked knife to work out the dirt and —
filth J, foftens the fkins, and prepares them for the reception
of the ooze. They are then put into a pit of weak ooze,
in the fame manner as the hides, and being frequently hand¬
led, are by degrees removed into a ftronger and Hill flronger
liquor, for a month or fix weeks, when they are put into a
very flrong ooze, with frefh bark ground very fine, and at
the end of two or three months, according to their fub¬
ftance, are fufficiently tanned ; when they are taken out,
hung on poles, dried, and fit for fale.
Thefe fkins are afterwards drefled and blacked by the
currier} and are ufed for the upper-leathers of fhoes, boots,
&c.
The lighter fort of hides, called dreffmg hides, as well as
horfe-hides, are managed nearly in the fame manner as
fkins ; and are ufed for coach-work, harnefs-work, &c. &c. y
As the method of tanning above defcribed, and all othersSchunes to
in general life, ate extremely tedious and expenlive in their
operation, various fchemes have at different times been fug- ^
gelled to fhorten the procefs and leffen the expence.— expence.
Though moll of thele fchemes have ultimately proved un-
fuccefsful, yet it in a work of this kind it may be expedted
that we fhould not pafs them over wholly unnoticed.
Some have imagined, and perhaps juilly, that cold water
alone is not an adequate menflruum for extradling the refi-
nous qualities of bark, however affiited by the mucilage of
the bark and of the fit in ; a decodtion, irrflead oi Ample rn-
fufion, has therefore been recommended as a more effectual
mode of obtaining thofe properties.
The la^e Dr Macbride of Dublin having been concerned
in a leather manufadlory, publifhed in 1778 a new method
of tanning. His projedled improvements may be briefly
claffed under two heads : the one recommending the ufe of
•vitriolic rnflead of vegetable acid, brewed from rye or barley :
the other fubflitutrng lime-water, for the purpole of extrac¬
ting the virtues of the bark, intlead of the water commonly
ufed by tanners. With refpedt to the firft, it is generally
acknowledged that the vitriolic acid is very proper for railing
or diflending the pores of the hides intended for butts, as its
operation is not only more Ample and certain than the acid
formerly ufiid, but as it tends more effedlually to render the
texture of the leather firm and durable : it is therefore ftill
preferred by the mofl flulful tanners. As to lime-water in-
flead of water, it has been found inefficacious; and if the
utmofl care and attention be not obferved, the leather is li¬
able to fuffer much injury. Even the fhortening of the
time and leffening of the expence (which were its chief re¬
commendations) being very problematical, it is now almofl
generally exploded.
A very ingenious chemift has obferved, that it is neceffa-
ry, on account of a chemical combination between the
aflringent principle and the animal fubftance in the procels
of tanning, that tree accefs fhould be given to the pure air ;
and therefore fuppofes that the procefs could not be conduct- * Phil.
ed properly in clofe veffels *. voTfxvir
The methods of tanning in different provinces of France BarthQlet.
are fo various, io complicated, and fo contrary to the ac¬
knowledged principles of the manufacture, that it would
be an endlefs and ufelefs tafk to endeavour to detail them :
we fliall therefore content ouyfelves with a general reference
to M. de la Lande’s elaborate Treatife on this fubjedl.
It has been faid, that every part of the oak tree contains
a great portion of ailringent, gummy-refinous matter, and
will therefore tan leather as effe&ually as the bark itfelf.
This opinion, which was firft publifhed in 1674 by the Ho¬
nourable Charles Howard (Phil. Tranf. vol. ix.), has fince
been countenanced by the celebrated Buffonwho adds, that
(^q 2 the
TAN
[ 3°8 1
TAN
•f- Mem.
AcaJ. St.
Pans,
1786.
Tanning- the harh of birch will anfwer the purpofe of tanning even
 v Tole leather, which, it is well known, requires the ilrongelt
and molt penetrating materialsf.
A long memoir, written by M. Gleditfch, recommends
the leaves, branches, fruit, and flowers, of a vail number of
plants as fubftitutes for oak bark. Heath dried and pnl-
verifed, pah nuts, and the bark of birch, are laid by M.
Gefner to be ufed in different provinces of Germany. Abbe
Nollet informs us, that the leaves of myrrh are ufed by the
tanners in Naples. In Corfica they make ule of the leaves
of wild laurel dried in the fun and beaten into powder,
and in the ifland of St Kilda they tan with the tormentil
root. In fome parts of Italy leather is tanned with myrtle
leaves. In Ruffia, it is faid, that leather is tanned with the
bark of willow t nnd it may here be oblerved, that a late
writer has recommended the extraft of bark to be made in
America, in order to leflen the expence of freight, &c. in
conveying the bark itfelf to Europe.
In the year lydt* the Society of Arts, &c. granted a
premium of L.- too for the difeovery of a method of tan¬
ning with oak faw-duft ; which method has been adopted in
Germany : and the Reverend Mr Swaine has lately revived
the exploded fubftitute (mentioned by Gleditfch and others)
of oak leaves.
The following propofal was communicated to the Bath
Society for extracting the effeneeof oak batH :
Suppofe (fays the author) the operator has at hand a com¬
mon family brew-houfe, with its neceffary utenfils ; let him
procure a ton of good oak bark ground as ufual for the pit;
and having placed a ftrainer to the mafli-tub, fill it two-
thirds with the bark ; heat as much water, nearly boiling,
as will fufficiently moiften it, and mafh it well together.
After it has Hood about two hours, draw it off clear, and put
it into a calk by itfelf. Make a fecond extract with a fmaller
quantity of boiling water than before, fo as to draw off a
quantity nearly equal to the firlt, and put that alfo into the
fame calk with the former.
Thefe two extrafts will probably contain in them as much
of the virtues of the bark as the quantity of liquid will ab-
forb.
A third extract, rather more in quantity than the other
two, may be made from the fame bark, and as foon as drawn
off, fhould be returned into the copper again when empty,
and employed for the firft and fecond mafh of a quantity of
frelh bark, as the three extra&s may be fuppofed to have
carried off the virtues of the firft. Then proceed as before
till all the bark is fteeped, and a ftrong liquid extract is
drawn from it. The bark, when taken out of the copper,
may be fpread in the fun to dry, and ferve as fuel in the
fucceeding operations.
The next procefs is, to evaporate the watery particles
from the extract by a gentle heat, till it comes to the con¬
fidence of treacle. This may be done either by the air and
heat of the fun, or by the Hill or iron pan over the fire.
Anthony Day, Efq; of London, obtained a patent, dated
17th July 1790, for a new method of tanning, “ with half
the b?rk in half the ufual time.” This plan chiefly con-
fifts in concentrating the bark into a ftrong extraft, and in
fome mechanical improvements in the conftrudlion of the
tan-yard. But neither the one nor the other have yet been
adopted.
ihe 12th May 1795, a patent was granted to Mr Tuc¬
ker of Wickham, Hants. He propofes that the vat, made
of wood, be inclofed in a metallic coating or copper pit, com¬
pletely foldered, to prevent the efcape of any of the fluid.
’I his is to be furrounded with a cafe of brick-work, leaving
an interftice of a few inches ; and a fire is to be made in a
grate near the bottom of the pit, to keep the ooze mode¬
rately warm, and thus to ftiorten the procefs. But the Tanning
great expence of thefe triple pits and of the fuel, it is to be Tantalus!
feared, will counterbalance any advantages which might o- '—‘v*—
therwife be derived from this invention.
Monficur Seguin of Paris has lately fubmitted to the
Frenck Convention a new method of tanninsr, which is faid
to poffefs wonderful advantages. He has certainly exploded
the ignorant and abfurd fyftems of the French tanners, which
we have above hinted at, and has fhown much ingenuity
and chemical knowledge in the profecution of his dif&ove-
ries ; but his leading principles ieem, in fad!:,, to be nearly
fimilar to thofe which have been long known and pradlifed
in England.
An ingenious manufacturer in London has, by the appli¬
cation of warm air, conveyed by means of flues from ftove*
properly conftrudted, and by other contrivances not gene
rally known, conftderably abridged the ufual procefs of tan¬
ning. Some experiments have likewife been lately made
with the bark of afh and of horfe-chefnut.
A fubftitute for oak bark, the price of which has lately
been enormous, is the grand dejideratum in the manufacture
of leather. Moft of thofe above enumerated have hitherto
been found ineffectual; but a patent, bearing date 16th Ja¬
nuary 1794, has been granted to Mr Aflrton of Sheffield,
Yorkfhire, for his difeovery of a cheap and expeditiousrme-
thod of tanning leather. This method chiefly coniiifs in
applying a preparation of mineral fubftances inftead of oak
bark. Thofe which, on account of their cheapnefs, are moft
to be preferred, are the drofs of coal-pits, called fulphur*
Jlone or pyrites, and the yellow ferruginous earth or red
ochre ; and, in general, all aftringent, fulphureous, or vitrio-
lated fubftances.
If this difeovery, which is yet in its infancy, ffiould prove
fuccelsful, it may caufe a material alteration in the procefs
or this manufa&ure ; and by reducing the expence, may ul¬
timately be of great advantage to the public. Many other
experiments are now making in England for the improve¬
ment of tanning; and as there are many perfons of ingenui¬
ty and knowledge engaged in the leather manufacture, much
may be expedfed from their induftry and Ikill. g
As the a£ts of Parliament refpeCIing leather, See. are very 0f
numerous, and many of them almoft obfolete, we {hall refer Parliament
our readers to Burn’s Juftice, or to the Statutes at Large. ^ refyec.
We cannot, however, help remarking, that the a£l oLj^ *ea’
1 James T. cap. 22. which preferibes the mode and manner ia
which leather {hall be tanned, the materials to be ufed, and
the time to be employed, is fo palpably abfvird and oppref-
five, that it ought to be immediately repealed.
The revenue arifing from the duty on leather tanned in
Great Britain (excluiive of oiled leather) is upwards ©f
L. 2 CO,OOO per annum.
TANTALUS, in fabulous hiftory, king of Phrygia and
Paphlagonia,1 was the fon of Jupiter and the nymph Plota.
He one day entertained the gods at his table ; when, to
prove their divinity, he ferved up his fon Pelops cut in pie¬
ces. All the deities, except Ceres, perceived his cruelty
and impiety, and would not touch his provifions. 1 hat
goddefs, whofe thoughts were folely employed about her
daughter Proferpine, inadvertently eat a part of his left
fhoulder. Pelops, however, was reftored to life ; and an
ivory ftroulder given him in the room of that which had
been eaten ; while Tantalus was thrown into I artarus,
where he was punifhed with perpetual hunsrer and thirft.
He was chained in a lake ; the water of which reached up
to his chin, but retired when he attempted to drink. The
branch of a tree loaded with fruit hung down even to his
lips, but on his attempting to pluck the fruit the branch
fprung upwards.
'j Tan*
T A O [ 3°9 ] T A p
"H talus TA»TAtus, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging
' I! to the order ef grallar. The bill is long, fubulated, and
aormina. fornewhat crooked ; the face naked ; the tongue Ihort; and
—   tjje feet have four toes palmated on the under part, '[’here
are, according to Dr Latham, 2 3 fpecies ; of which the
mod remarkable is the ibis, the bird fo much valued by the
ancient Egyptians.
The ibis was formerly held in great veneration in Egypt,
on account of ics utility in freeing the country from ferpents.
Serpents muft therefore have been numerous, or they could
not have been very offenfive ; and the ibis muft have been
numerous, or they c\>uld not have been ufeful. Yet we are
allured by Mr Bruce, that the ibis is at prefent unknown in
Egypt, and ferpents are no nuifance ; and he thinks it im-
poffible that a country, covered with water for five months
of the year as Egypt is, could ever have abounded with fer¬
pents. Ke t“dcavour^, however, to reconcile the accounts
of ancient hiftorians with the fttUe of Egypt.
In former times, when Egypt was in its flourifhing ftate,
the inhabited country extended much farther than it does
at prefent ; reaching even a conliderable way into the fandy
defert of Libya, where ferpents have their abode. Thele
parts were fupplied with water by immenie lakes, dug by
the magnificent princes of thole times, and filled by the an¬
nual inundation of the Nile. Thele frontier diftridfs
would naturally be infefted with vipers from the Libyan de¬
fert, and the vaft lakes would as naturally be fupplied by
numbers of water-fowl, of which the ibis is a fpecies. This
bird being likewife an enemy to lerpents,' the inhabitants
would foon become acquainted with his ufe, and their fuper-
flition would loon reward him. In after ages, however,
when the ancient improvements were loft, and thofe vaft
lakes dried up which brought the ibis thither, the lerper.ts
eeaied to give any offence, becaufe there were none of the
human fpecies there whom they could annoy ; and in confe-
quence of the want of water, the birds ceafed to annoy
them, retiring to their native place Ethiopia, where they
continue to frequent the great ftagnant pools which are com¬
mon in that country.
Mr Bruce found a bird in Abyffinia, which, after compa¬
ring it with the defeription of the ancient writers, and the
embalmed ibis of Egypt, he concludes is the fame with the
Egyptian ibis. It is called abou Marines, fignifying “ fa¬
ther John,” from its appearing annually on St John’s day.
This bird is minutely deferibed by Mr Bruce. It has a
beak fliaped like that of a curlew, two-thirds ftraight, and
the remaining third crooked ; the upper part of a green
horny fubftance, and the lower part black. It meaiures
four inches and an half from the occiput to the place where
it joins the beak. The leg, from the lower joint of the
thigh to the foot, is fix inches ; the bone round and very
ftrong ; and from the lower joint of the thigh to where it
joins the body, is five inches and a half. The height of
the body from the foie to the middle of the back is 19
inches ; the aperture of the eye one inch ; the feet and legs
black : three toes before armed with fharp and ftraight
claws ; and a toe behind. The head is brown, and the plu¬
mage ©f the fame colour down to the back, or the place
where the neck and hack are joined. The throat is white,
as well as the back, breaft, and thighs ; the largeft feathers
of the wing are of a deep black for 13 inches from the tail;
and iix inches up the back from the extremity of the tail is
black likewiie.
Cup. See Hydrostatics, n° 44.
I ANZY, or Tansy, in botany. See Tanacetum.
TAORMINA, a town in Sicily, is fituated on a rock
which rifts to a confider. ble elevation above the level of the
and is lurrounded by other rocks, the height of which
is ftill more confiderable. It is 88 miles fouth of Meffina, Taormina’
and was founded by a colony from Naxos, which were pro-
bably induced to choofe the fituation, not io much on ac- *
count of its grandeur, as for the fecurity which it would
afford. It is alfo very wholefome. The road to f aormina,
up the north fide of the hill on which it Hands, is very fteep
and difficult of afeent.
Of the origin of Taormina, as of other cities, almoft no¬
thing is known A colony from the ifle of Naxos fettled
at the foot of Etna, at no great diftance from the fhore,
and at about a league or a league and an half from the pre¬
fent fituatjon of Taormina. Dionyfins the Tyrant attack
ed this colony, and either took or fet fire to their city. The
inhabitants retired to the rocks of Mount Taurus ; among
which they found a trafft of ground fufficiently level,, and of
fufficient extent, for them to raife habitations upon it. It
was a fituation in which they might be fecure from every
attack. Here, therefore, they built a city ; which, after
the mountain, they named Mauromenium. It was at length*
railed to a very flourifliing ftate by trade, and became ce¬
lebrated as a feat of the arts. There are itili many remains
to be feen, which {how that the fine arts muft have been
once fuccelsfully cultivated at Tauromenium.
Among other remains of the ancient Tauromenium, ftill
to be feen at Taormina, there is a ipacious theatre. Near
the theatre is a tomb, and behind the tomb a large natural
grotto. The grotto appears to have been anciently adorn¬
ed within with artificial ornaments. It was poffibly confe.
crated by the Greeks to fome rural deity, perhaps to the
nymphs, to whom the ancient heathens u!ed generally td
coniecrate grottoes. After the inhabitants of Taormina em¬
braced Chriftianity, they ftill continued to vifit this grotto-
with devout veneration. Inftead of the Eagan divinities to
whom it had before been facred, they lubftituted a faint, the
venerable St Leonard, inftead of the fportive nymphs. But
St Leonard did not. long draw crowds to this grotto ; and
the Chriftians have either defaced its Pagan decorations, or
luffered them to fall into decay by* the injuries of time. It
is now black and fmoky ; and it is with difficulty that any
remains of the Greek paintings with which it was once or¬
namented can be diltinguifoed. Perhaps it might be iacred
to Pales rather than the nymphs.; She was the prote&refs
of flocks ; and the circumjacent grounds are, and always
have been, excellent for pafture.
There are alfo to be feen in the neighbourhood of Taor¬
mina a variety of tombs, the remains of a gymnafium, with
a number of other monuments which ftill preferve the me-- /
mory of the ancient Tauromenium.
TAPE-worm. See Taenia.
TAPER, Tapering, is underftood of a piece of tim¬
ber, or the like, when thick at one end, and gradually di«-
minifhing to the other; as is the cafe in pyramids, cones, ■
&c.
To meafure TiiPER-Timler, &c. See Sliding Rule.
Taper Bored, is applied to a piece of ordnance when it*
is wider at the mouth than towards the breech.
Taper, alfo denotes a kind ot tall wax candle, placed in
a candleftick, and burnt at funeral proceflions, and in other
church lolemnities.
Tapers are made of different fizes ; in fome places, as I-
taly, &c. they are cylindrical; but in moft other countries,,
as England, France, &c. they are conical or taper ; whence ’
poffibly the name; unleis we rather choofe to derive ta¬
per, in the adjective lenfe from the fubftantive taper, in the
Saxon tapen or uipon, cereus, “ wax-candle. Both kinds are
pierced at bottom for a pin in the candleftick to enter.—
There are two ways of making tapers, the firft with the
ladle, the fecund by hand; Lot which, fee Candle.
PaJchaJ
TAP [31
Tapsr, Pafchal Taper, among the Romanifts, is a large taper,
1 al whereon the deacon applies five bits of frankincenfe, in
'r holes made for the pnrpoie, in form of a crofs ; and which
he-lights with new lire in- the ceremony or Eafter-Satur-
day.
The Pontifical makes Pope Zofimus the author of this
ufage ; but Baronins will have it more ancient, and quotes
a hymn of Prudentius to prove it. That pope he fuppofes
to have only eftablifhed the ufe thereof in parilh-churches,
which, till then, had been reltrained to greater churches.
F. Papebroch explains the original of the pafchal taper
more diftinttly, in his Conatvs Chronl'o- HJioricui, &c. It
feems, though the council of Nice regulated the day where¬
on Eafter was to be celebrated, it laid it on the patriarch of
Alexandria to make a yearly canon thereof, and to fend it
to the pope. As all the other moveable fealts were to be
regulated by that of Eafter, a catalogue of them was made
every year ; and this was written on a taper, cereus, which
was blefled in the church with much folemriity.
This taper, according to the abbot Chaftelain, was not a
wax candle made to be burnt; it had no wick, nor was
it any thing more than a kind of column of wax, made on
purpofe to write the lift of moveable feafts on ; and which
would fuffice to hold that lift for the Ipace of a year.
For among the ancients, when any thing was to be writ¬
ten to lail for ever, they engraved it on marble or fteel;
when it was to laft a long while, they wrote it on Egyp¬
tian paper ; and when it was only to laft a ftiort time, they
-contented themfelves to write it on wax. In procefs of
time they came to write the moveable teafts on paper, but
they ftill fattened it to the pafchal taper. Such is the origi¬
nal of the benedi&ion of the pafchal taper.
TAPESTRY, a kind of cloth made of wool and filk,
adorned with figures of different animals, &c. and formerly
ufed for lining the walls of rooms, churches, &c.
I he art of weaving tapettry is fuppofed to have been bor¬
rowed from the Saracens ; accordingly the workmen em¬
ployed in this mar.ufa&ure in France were formerly called
Sarazins or Sarazinois. Guicciardini aferibes the inven¬
tion of tapeftry hangings to the inhabitants of the Nether¬
lands ; but he has not mentioned at what time the difeovery
was made. This art was brought into England by Wil¬
liam Sheldon, near the end of Henry VIII.’s reign. In
1619 a manufacture was eftablifhed at Mortlake in Surry
by Sir Francis Crane, who received L. 2000 from King
James to encourage the defign. i he fir ft manufacture of
tapeftry at Paris was fet up"under Henry IV. in 1606 or
1607, by feveral artifts whom that .monarch invited from
Flanders. Under Eouis XIV. the manufacture of the Go¬
belins was inftituted, which has introduced very beautiful
cloths, remarkable for ftrength, for elegance of defign, and
a happy choice of colours. The fineft paintings.are copied,
and eminent painters have been employed in making defigns
for the work.
. I apeftry-work is diftinguifhed by the iVorkmen into two
kinds, viz. that of high and that of low warp ; though the
difference is rather in the manner of working than in the
work itfelt; which is in efteCt the fame in both : only'the
looms, and confequently the warps, are differently fituated ;
thofe of the low warp being placed flat and parallel to the
horizon, and thole of the high warp eredted perpendicular-
Ihe Englifh anciently excelled all the world in the ta¬
peftry of the high waip ; and they ftill retain their former
°, Wltb fome little change : their low warps are
fM admired ; but as for the high ones, they are quite laid
alide oy the French The French, before the Revolution,
bad three conhderable tapeftry manufadures befides that of
the Gobelins j the firft at Aubutton in Auvergne, the fecond
o ] TAP
at Felletin in the Upper Marche, and the third at Beauvais. Taptflr?
They were all equally eftablifhed for the high and the low  v—
warp ; but they had all laid aftde the high warp excepting
the Gobelins. 1 here were admirable low warps likewife in
Flanders, generally exceeding thofe of France; the chief and
ahnoft only Hemilh manufactures were at Bruffels, Ant¬
werp, Oudenard, Lille, Tournay, Bruges, and Valenciennes;
but of the flate or thefe manufactures now we are ignorant.
The ufual widths of tapeftry are from two ells to three
ells Paris meafure.
The Manufacture of Taptflry of the High Warp. — The
loom on which it is wrought is placed perpendicularly : it
confifts of four principal pieces ; two long planks or clieeks
of wood, and two thick rollers or beams. The planks are
fet upright, and the beams acrofs them, one at the top and
the other at the bottom, or about a foot diftance fiom the
ground. They have each their trunnions, by which they
are fufpended on the planks,.and are turned with bars. In
each roller is a groove, from one end to the other, capable
of containing a long round piece of wood, fattened therein
with hooks. The ufe of it is to tie the ends of the warp
to. The warp, which is a kind of worfted, or twilled wool¬
len thread, is wound on the upper roller; and the work, as
fall as wove, is wound on the lower. Withinfide the planks,
which are feven or eight feet high, fourteen or fifteen inches
broad, and three or four thick, are holes pierced from top
to bottom, in which are put thick pieces of iron, with hooks
at one end ferving to futtain the coat-ftave : thefe pieces of
iron have alio holes pierced, by putting a pin in which the
ftave is drawn nearer or fet farther off; and thus the coats
or threads are ftretched or looftned at pleafure. The coat-
ftave is about three inches diameter, and runs all the length of
the loom ; on this are fixed the coats or threads, which
make the threads of the warp crofs each other. Irhas much
the fame effedl Irere as the fpring-ftave and treddies have in
the common looms. The coats are little threads fattened to
each thread of the warp with a kind of Aiding knot, which
fornas a fort of mafh or ring. They ferve to keep the warp
open for the paffage of broaches wound withfilks, woollens,
or other matters ufed in the piece of tapeftry. In the laft
place, there are a number of little flicks of different lengths,
but all about an inch in diameter, which the workman keeps
by him in bafirets, to ferve to make the threads of the warp
crofs each other, by patting them kcrofs ; and, that the
threads thus crofted may retain their proper fituation, a
packthread is run among the threads above the flick.
The loom being thus formed, and mounted with its warp,
the firft thing the workman does is to draw on the threads
of this warp the principal lines and ttrokes of the defign to
be reprefented on the piece of tapeftry ; which is done by
applying cartoons made from the painting he intends to co¬
py- to the fide that is to be the wrong fide of the piece,
and then, with a black lead pencil, following and tracing
out the contours thereof on the thread of the right fide ;
fo that the ftrokts appear equally both before and be¬
hind.
As for the original defign the work is to be finifhed by,
it is hung up behind the workmen, and wound on a long
ftaff, from which apiece is unrolled from time to time as the
work proceeds.
Befides the loom, &c. here deferibed, there are three
other principal inftruments required for working the filk or
the wool of the woof within the threads of the warp ; thele
are a broach, a reed, and an iron needle. The broach is
made of a hard wood, feven or eight inches long, and two-
thirds of an inch thick, ending in a point with a little
handle. This ferves as a fhuttle ; the filks, woollens, gold,
or filver, to be ufed in the work being wound on it. The
. . T A .P t 3
Tapcflry. reed or comb is alfo of wood, eight or nine inches long,
"—'V—*■' and an inch thick on the back, whence it grows lefs and
lefs to the extremity of the teeth, which are more or lefs
apart, accordino' to the greater or lei’s decree of finenefs of
the intended work. Laftly, the needle is made in form of
the common needle, only bigger and longer. Its ufe is to
prefs clofe the wool and filks w'hen there is any line or co¬
lour that does not fit well.
All things being prepared for the work, and the work¬
man ready to begin, he places himfelf on the wrong fide of
the piece, with his back towards the defign ; fo that he
works as it were blindfold, feeing nothing of what he does,
and being obliged to quit his poll, and go to the other fide
of the loom whenever he would view and examine the piece,
to corredl it with his preffing-needle. To put filk,~ &c. in
the warp, he firft turns and looks at the defign ; then, ta¬
king a broach full of the proper colour, he places it among
the threads or the warp, which he brings crofs each other
with his fingers, by means of the coats or threads faftened
to the ftaff; this he repeats every time he is to change his
colour. Having placed the filk or wool, he beats it with
his reed or comb; and when he has thus wrought in feveral
rows over each other, he goes to fee the effefts they have, in
order to reform the contours wdth his needle, if there be
occafion. As the work advances, it is rolled upon the lower
beam, and they unrol as much warp from the upper beam
as fuffices them to continue the piece : the like they do
of the defign behind them. When the pieces are wide, fe¬
veral workmen may be employed at once.
# have but two things to add : the firft is, that the
high warp tapeftry goes on much more flowly than the low
warp, and takes up almoft twice the time and trouble. The
fecond is, that all the difference that the eye can perceive
between the two kinds, confifls in this, that in the low warp
there is a red fillet, about one twelfth of an inch broad,
running on each hde from top to bottom, which is wanting
m the high warp.
Manufadure of Tape/iry of the Low Warp. — The loom
or frame, whereon the low warp is wrought, is much like
that of the weavers ; the principal parts thereof are two
ftrong pieces of wood forming fthe iides of the loom, and
bearing a beam or roller at each end : they are i’uftained at
bottom with other ftrong pieces of wood in manner of
treftes ; and, to keep them the firmer, they are likewife
faftened to the floor with a kind of buttreffes, which prevent
any fhakinu-, though there are fometimes four or five work¬
men leaning on the fore-beam at once.
T. ne rollers have each their trunnions, by which they are
fuftamed: they are turned by large iron pins three feet long.
Along each beam runs a groove, wherein is placed the wich,
a piece of wood of about two inches diameter, and ahnoft
of the length of the roller : this piece fills the groove en¬
tirely, and is faftened therein, from fpace to fpace, by wood¬
en pins. Fo the two wiches are fafterifed the two extremi¬
ties of the warp, which is wound on the farther roller, and
the work, as it advances, on the nearer.
A crofs the two fides, ahnoft in the middle of the loom,
palies a wooden bar, which fuftains little pieces of wood, not
unlike the beam ol a balance : to thefe pieces are faftened
firings, which bear certain fpring-ftaves, wherewith the
workman, by means or two treddles under the loom where¬
on he lets his feet, gives a motion to the coats, and makes
- threads of the warp rife and fall alternately. Each
loom has more or fewer of thefe fpring-ftaves, and each ftaff
more or fewer coats, as the tapeftry confifts of more or fewer
threads.
1 he defign or painting the tapeftry man is to follow is
piactd underneath the warp; where it is fuftained from
ii ] TAR
fpace to fpace with firings, by means of which the defign is
brought nearer the warp.
The loom being mounted, there are two inftmments ufed
in working it, viz. the reed and the flute. The flute does
the office of the weaver’s (buttle; it is made of an hard
polifhed wood, three or four lines thick at the ends, and
fomewhat more in the middle, and three or four inches long.
On it are wound the filks or other matters to be ufed as the
woof of the tapeftry. The comb or reed is of wood or ivo¬
ry ; it has ufually teeth on both fides; it is about an inch
thick in the middle, but diminifhes each way to the extre¬
mity of the teeth : it ferves to beat the threads of the woof
clofe to each other, as fall as the workman has paffed and
placed them with his flute among the threads of the warp.
The workman is feated on a bench before the loom, with
his breaft againft the beam, only a cufhion or pillow between
them ; and, in this pofture, feparating, with his fingers,
the threads of the warp, that he may fee the defign under¬
neath, and taking a flute, mounted with a proper colour, he
paffes it among the threads, after having raifed or lowered
them, by means of the treddles moving the fpring-ftaves and
coats.
Laftly, To prefs and clofe the threads of the filk or yarn,
&c. thus placed, he ftrikes each courfe (/. e. what the flute
leaves in its palling and coming back again) with the
reed.
TAPIOCA, a fpecies of ftarch, which the Brazileans
make from the roots of the cafl’ada plant, which is already
defcribed under its botanic name Jatropha.
TAPIR, in zoology, a quadruped of the order of lellua,
refembling the hippopotamus, has the fore-hoofs divided into
four, and the hind hoofs into three parts. The nofe of the
male extends tar beyond the lower jaw, is flender, and forms
a fort of probofcis ; it is capable of being contracted or ex¬
tended at pleafure, and its fides are falcated. The extre¬
mities of both jaws end in a point, and there are ten cutting
teeth in each. Between them and the grinders there is a va¬
cant fpace ; and there are ten grinders in each jaw, The ears
are ereCt, the eyes fmall, and the body is fhaped like that of
a hog. The back is arched ; the legs are fhoit; and the
hoofs fmall, black, and hollow. The tail is very fmall. The
animal grows to the fize of a heifer half a year old. The
hair is fhort : when young, it is fpotted with white ; when
old, of a dulky colour.- It inhabits the woods and rivers of
the eaftern fide of South America, from the Ifthmus ot Da¬
rien to the river of Amazons. It fleeps during day in the
darkefl and thickeft foreft adjacent fo the banks, and goes
out in the ni 'ht-time in fearch of food. It lives on grafs,
fu rar-canes, and on fruits. If difturbed, it takes to the water j
fweems very well; or finks below, and, like the hippopota¬
mus, walks on the bottom as on dry ground. It makes a
fort of biffing nolle.—This is the largeft of the American
animals.
TAPPING, in general, the a& of piercing a hole in a
veffel, and applying a tube or canula in the aperture, for the
commodious drawing off the liquor contained therein.
Tapping, in furgery. See Surgery.
TAPROBANE, the ancient name of the ifland of Cey¬
lon. See Ceylon.
TAR, a thick, black, unftuous fubftanee obtained chiefly
from old pines and fir-trees by burning them with a dole
fmot he ring heat. It is prepared in great quantities in Nor¬
way, Sweden, Germany, Ruffia, and North America, and
in other countries where the pine and fir abound. For the
method of obtaining it, fee the article Pinos,qiage 765.
Becher, the celebrated chemift, firft propofed to make tar
from pit-coal. Manufaftures for this pijrpofe have been
eftablilhcd many years ago in the bilhopric of Liege, and
S tm
T A R r 3 *
Taranto in feverai oarts of England. In tlie year 17^ eat^ pf
|l Dundonal'd obtained a patent for extra<?;infr tar from pit.
Targioma. cQaj ? new pr0cefs of diftillation (fee Coal, pa^e Bf).).
Great hopes were entertained of the value of this difco-
very, but we have not heard that it has anfwered expeo
tation.
Tar, which Is well known for its economical ufes, is pro¬
perly an empyreumatic oil of turpentine, and has been much
ufed as a medicine both internally and externally (fee Phar-
tuac ¥-/«'&*. )• Tar-water, or water impregnated with the
more foluble parts of tar, was formerly a popular remedy.
See Pharmacy, n° 405.
TARANTO, the ancient Tarentum, a fea-port town
of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra de
Otranto. It is a ftroncr and populous place, with an arch-
biftop’s fee, and the title o’ a principality. It is feated on
a peninfula, and is defended by a ftrong caftle ; but the har¬
bour is choaked up. E. Long. 17. 29. N. Lat. 40. 35.
TARANTULA, a fpecies of Aranea, (o called from
Taranto, the place where they are faid to abound. See
.Aranea', fpecies 13.
TAR A SCON, an ancient, populous, and handfome town
of France, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone,
and late province of Provence, with a well-built caftle, feat¬
ed on the river Rhone, oppofite Beaucaire, with which it
communicates by a bridge of boats. Its commerce confifts
in oil, brandy, ftarch, and (tuffs that are much worn, one
fort being of coarfe (ilk, and the other of the fame material
and wool. It is ro miles north of Arles, and 375 fouth by
-eaft of Paris. E. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 43. 46.
TARAZONA, a ttrong town of Spain, in the kingdom
of Avragon, and on the frontiers of Old Caftile, with a bi-
fhoms fee. It is feated partly on a rock, and partly in a
fertile plain, on the river Chiles. It was taken from the
Moors in 1 110. W. Long. 1. 26. N. Lat. 42. 10.
TARCHONAN THUS, flea-bane, in botany: Age-
tnts bf plants -belonging to the clafs of fyngenejia, and to
the order of polygamla aqualis ; and in the natural fyftem
ranging under the 49th order, Compofita. The receptacle
is villous, and the pappus plumy : the calyx is monophyl-
lous, turbinated, and half divided into feven fegments. There
are only three fpecies known ; the camphoratus, glaber^ and
eric aides.
TARE, is an allowance for the outfide package that
contains fuch goods as cannot be unpacked without de¬
triment } or for the papers, threads, bands, See. that in-
clofe or bind any goods imported loofe ; or though import¬
ed in calks, chefts, &c. yet cannot be unpacked and weigh-
\ ed neat.
Tare, or vetch. See Vicia. .
TARGET, a kind of (hield or weapon of defence made
«fe of by the anefents.
TARGIONIA, in botany; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of cryptogamia^ and natural order of alga.
The calyx is bivalved, including a globular body. There
is only one fpecies ; the hypophylla^ which is a native of
Great Britain. The hypophylla, or vetch targionia, has
leaves about a quarter of an inch long, of a heart-(hape, in¬
verted, and growing proftr^te in a clump together: their
upper furface is green, covered with whitKh papillte, and
their lower furface is black. The fru&ification grows at
the great end of the leaf on-the lower fide, and confiits of
two concave valves or hemifpheres, of a reddifh black colour,
inclofing a chocolate-coloured globule, refembling the feed
of a tare or veten, full of a yellow powder. The leaves in-
creafe by (hooting out young offsets from their fides like
the polypus. This plant is found in the north of England,
aad near the Tarbet of Cantirs in Scotland.
2 ] TAR
TARGUM, a name <riven to the Chaldee paraphrafes of 'Urg-um,
the books of the Old Teitament. They are called/arv-'■—■“V’-*
phrafes or expofitions, becaufe they are rather comments and
explications than literal tranflattons of the text. They are
written in the Chaldee tongue, which became familiar to the
Jews after the time of their captivity in Babylon, and waa
more known to them than the Hebrew itfelf. So that
when the Hebrew text was read in the fynagogue, or in the
temple, they generally added to it an explication in the
Chaldee tongue for the fervice of the people, w-ho had but
a very imperfeft knowledge of the Hebrew tongue. It is
probable, that even from the time of Ezra this cuftom be¬
gan, fince this learned feribe, reading the law to the people
in the temple, explained it, with the other priefts that were
with him, to make it underfiood by the people (Nehem.
viii. 7—■9.).
But though the cuftom of making thefe forts of expofi¬
tions in the Chaldee language be very ancient among the
Hebrews, yet have they no written paraphrafes or targums
before the era of Onkelos and Jonathan, who lived about the
time of our Saviour. Jonathan is placed about 30 years be¬
fore Chrift, under the reign of Herod the Great. Onkelos is
fornething more modern. The targum of Onkelos is the
moft of all efteemed, and copies are to be found in which it
is inferted verfe for verfe with the Hebrew. It is fo fhort
and fo Ample, that it cannot be fufpeffed of being corrupted.
This paraphraft wrote only upon the books of Mofes ; and
his ftyle approaches nearly to the purity of the Chaldee, as
it is found in Daniel and Ezra. This targum is quoted ia
the miina, but was not known either to Etifebius, St Je¬
rome, or Origen.
The targum of Jonathan fon of Ukiel is upon the greater
and leffer prophets. He is much more diffufe than Onkelos,
and efpecially upon the leffer prophets, where he takes great
liberties, and runs on in allegories. His ftyle is pure enough,
and approaches pretty near to the Chaldee of Onkelos. It ie
thought that the Jewifh doeftors who lived above 700 year*
after him made feme additions to him.
The targum of Jofeph the Blind is upon the Hagiogra-
pha. This author is much more modern, and lefs efteemed
than thofe we have now mentioned. He has written upon
the Pfalms, Job, the Proverbs, the Canticles, Ecciefiaftes,
Ruth, and Efther. His ftyle is a very corrupt Chaldee,
with a great mixture of words from foreign languages.
The targum of Jerufalem is only upon the Pentateuch ;
nor is that entire or perfect. There are whole verfes want¬
ing, others tranfpofed, others mutilated ; which has made
many of opinion that this is only a fragment of feme ancient
paraphrafe that is now loft. There is no targum upon
Daniel, or upon the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.
Thefe targums are of great ufe forghe better underftand-
ing not only of the Old Teftament, on which they are writ¬
ten, but alfo of the New. As to the Old Teftament, they
ferve to vindicate the genuinenefs of the prefent Hebrew
text, by proving it to be the lame that was in ufe when
thefe targums were made, contrary to the opinion of thofe
who think the Jews corrupted it after our Saviour’s time.
They help to explain many words and phrafes in the He¬
brew original, and they hand down to us many of the an- ,
cient cuftoms of the Jews. And feme of them, with the
phrafeologies, idioms, and peculiar forms of fpeech, which
we find in them, do in many inftances help as much for
the better illuftration and better underftanding oi the New
Teftament as of the Old ; the Jerufalem Chaldee dialed, in
which they are written, being the vulgqr language of the
Jews in our Saviour’s time. They alfo very much ferve the
Chriftian caufe againft the Jews, by interpreting many of the
prophecies of the Mefiiah in the Old Teftajnent in the fame
manner
.'.tar r 3
Tanf manner as the Chriftians do. Many inftances are produced
to this purpofe by Dr Prideanx in his Connect, of the Hiji.
aftary' . ,Jf the 0!d and New Tejl. vol, iv. p. 777, &c.
Thefe targums are ptibliilied to the bell advantage in the
fecond edition of the great Hebrew Bible fet forth at Ba-
fil by Buxtorf the father, anno 161 o ; for he has reftihed
the Chaldee text, and reformed the vowel pointings in it :
the targums having at firft been written without vowel
points, which were afterwards added very erroneoufly by
fome Jews.
TARIF, a table or catalogue containing the names of
different forts of merchandize, with the duties to be paid as
fettled by authority amongft trading nations.
TARPA (Spurius Mecius), a Latin critic in the time
of Julius Caefar and Augudus. He had his tribunal in the
temple of Apollo, where, with four affiftants, he paffed fen-
tence on the works of the poets. Cicero and Horace make
honourable mention of this critic.
TARPAULIN, a piece of canvafs, well tarred over, to
keep off the rain from any place. The term is alfo often
applied in a burlefque fenfe to a perfon that has been all his
life bred to the lea.
1 ARPEIAN, in Roman antiquity, an appellation given
to a Iteep rock in Rome; whence, by the law of the
twelve tables, thofe guilty of certain crimes were precipi¬
tated. It took its name from I arpera, a veftal virgin,
w-ho was killed by the Sabines, as related under the article
Rome, n° 24.
I ARQUIN the Elder, king of Rome, fucceeded Ancus
Martins 615 B. C. See Rome, n° 35—40.
Tarouin the Proud, a tyrant and ufurper. See the ar¬
ticle Rome, n° 49—51, &c.
IARRAGON, or dragon-wort. See Artemisia.
TARROCK, in ornithology, a fpecies of Larus.
. TARSHISH, or Iartessus, a town frequently men¬
tioned by ancient authors, the lituation of which it is difficult
to afceitain. See the opinions of Mr Bruce and Dr Doig
on this fubjeft under the article Opher.
TAR i AN, in fea language, a fmall coafting veffel navi¬
gated in the Mediterranean fea, and having only one mail
and a bowfprit, the principal fail, which is extremely large,
being extended by a lateen-yard. When tartans put up a
fquare fail, it is called a fail of fortune.
. FAR PAR, a hard folid fubftance which feparates from
wine after complete fermentation, and adheres to the top
and fides of the calks. See the Index to Chemistry and
Pharmacy.
TARTARY, a very large country of Afia, fituated
between 570 and 1600 of E. Long, reckoning from the
welt end of the ifle of Ferro, and between 370 and 55°
of Lat. It is .bounded on the north by Siberia, or that
part of Afia which belongs to Ruffia ; on the weft by the
mers Don, Wolga, and Kama, which feparate it from
Ruffia; on the fouth by the Euxine and Cafpian Seas,
Karazm, the two Bukharias, China, and Korea; and on
the eaft, by the Oriental or Tartarian ocean. It extends
from eaft to weft the fpace of 104 degrees in longitude, or
miles; but its breadth is not proportion-
able, being not above 960 miles where broadeft, and where
narroweft 330.
I his vaft region is divided into two great parts; the one
Caw thC lVeJiern' the other the Eajlern Tart ary.
, Fartary, which is much more extenfive than
tne itaitern, containing 139 degrees of longitude out of
r ’ ,S lnhabited by a great number of nations, or tribes
• people who are called Mungls or Mungals, by them-
tfons! ’ and M°SUls °r Tartdrs> indifferently, by other na-
Vox.. XVIII. Part I,
13 ] TAR
ihe principal mountains, or rather chains of mountains, Tartsry.
found in this part of Great Tartary, may be divided into —
three clailes : firlf, thofe which run along the northern bor¬
ders of it ; and though perhaps not always contiguous, or
of the fame denomination, go under the general name of
U/ug Tag, or Dag, that is, the Great Mountain. 'Secondly, ' '
thofe which make the fouthem bounds, and are called
Kichug' Tag, or the Lefftr Mountain. The third great
chain is called Mount Altay, lying nearly in the middle,
between the Cafpian Sea and Eaftern Tartary, and ex-
tending between the other two, in about the noth degree
of longitude.
The principal rivers of Weftern Tartary, befides the Dnie¬
per, Don, and Wolga, are the Jaik or Yaik, and Yem,
both defeending from the Ultrg Tag, and falling into the
Cafpian Sea on the north fide : the river Hi or Khonghis,
which rifes out of the Kichug Tag, on the borders of Lit¬
tle Bukharia, and runs north-weft into the lake Palkafi,
which is about forty miles long, and 30 broad, in latitude
48°, longitude 970, reckoning from the ifie of Ferro : on
this river the khan of the Eluths or Kalmucks ulually re-
fides : the river Irtiffi, Irtis, or Erchis, which rifes in Mount
Altay, and runs weftward, inclining to the north, between
two branches of it, into the lake Sayfan, Saffan, or Ifan,
called alfo Honhotu-Nor, 90 miles long from weft to eaft,
and 40 broad, in latitude 470 30', longitude 104° ; from
whence iffuing again, it paffes north-weft, through part of
Siberia, and falls into the Oby, which has its fource in the
fame mountain, about one degree to the north of that of the
Irtiffi ; and feven or eight degrees to the r.orth-eaft rifes the
Kem or Jenifea, which runs weftward for the fpace of feven
or eight degrees, and then turning northward enters Siberia.
The next river of note is the Selinga, which riles out of the
lake Kofogol, Hutuktu or Khutuktu, which is 70 miles
long from fouth to north, and 20 broad, in latitude 520,
longitude 1180, not far from the fource of the Jenifea, and
taking a fweep fouthward, round by the eaft, falls north¬
ward into the lake Baykal in Siberia, about 30 leagues
north-weft of the city Selinghinfkoy, which ftands upon it.
Into the Selinga runs the Orkon, coming from the Youth-
weft ; and into the Orkon the Tula, rifing eaft ward in
Mount Kentey. On the fame mountain rifes alfo two other
rivers, viz. the Onon, called alfo by the Tartars Sagba/ian
Ula, or the Dragon river, and by the Ruffians Amur;
which running north-eaftward, and then taking a large
fweep by the fouth, rolls along the bounds of Eaftern Tar¬
tary, and falls into the Eaftern Ocean. On its banks Hand
two cities ; Nerchinfltoy or Nipchew, a frontier of the Ruf¬
fians, almoft due north of Pekin in China ; and Saghalian
Ula, poffefled by the Chinefe. Another large river is the
Kerlon or Kerulon, which running north-eaftward, falls in¬
to the lake Kulon or Dalay, which is 6o miles long from
fouth-weft to north-eaft, and 27 broad, in latitude 48° 30',
longitude 135°> and iffuing out again under the name of
Ergona or Argun, joins the Saghalian Ula, about 170 miles
beyond Nerchinlkoy. To thefe let us add the river Kalka,
fiorn whence, though fmall, the Kalka-Moguls or Mongols
take their name. It rifes in the mountains, feparating Eaft-
ern from Weftern Tartary, and, running eaftward, falls in¬
to the lake Puir, and then into that of Kulon, before fpo-
ken of. r
In the middle of a defert, on the banks of the river Ir«
tifti, is a remarkable piece of antiquity called Sedmy Pala-
ty, or the feven palaces.
• Falaty, towards the fource of the Ir-
tifh, grows the belt rhubarb in the world, without the leaft:
culture. . In the plain of this country alfo, about eight or
ten days journey from Tomfky in Siberia, are found many
R r tombs
TAR . £ 31
T’rtary. tombs and biiryin j-places of ancient heroes, who in all pro-
^— bability fell in battle. Thefe tombs are eaiily diftinguifhed
by tlie mounds of earth and ftone raifed over them. The
Tartars fay, Tamerlane had many engagements in this coun¬
try with the Kalmucks, whom he in vain endeavoured to
conquer. Many perfons go from Tomlky, and other parts,
every fummer, to thefe graves, which they dig up, and find
among the afires of the dead confiderable quantities of gold,
filver, brafs, and fome precious Hones, but particularly hilts
of fwords and armour. They find alfo ornaments of fad-
dles and hr idles, and other trappings for horfes ; and fome-
times thofe of elephants. Whence it appears, that when
any general or perfon of diHinftion was interred, all his
arms, his favourite horfe and fervant, were buried with him
in the fame grave ; this cuftom prevails to this day among
the Kalmucks and other Tartars, and feems to be of great
antiquity. It appears from the number of graves, that
many thoufands muH have fallen in thofe places ; for the
people have continued to dig for treafure many years, and
Hill find it unexhaufted. They are, indeed, fometimes in¬
terrupted, and robbed of all their booty, by parties of Kal¬
mucks, who abhor tliflurbing the afhes of the dead. Arm¬
ed men on horfeback, call in brafs, of no mean defign and
•workmanfiiip, with the figures of deer caft in pure gold,
have been dug out of thefe tombs. They once difeovered
an arched vault, where they found the remains of a man,
with his bow, lance, and .other arms, lying on a filver table.
On touching the body, it fell to duft. The value or the
table and arms was very confiderable. For the manners and
cuftoms of thefe Tartars, fee Kalmucks.
Great quantities of a kind of ivory, called by the natives
Mammons-horr, are found in this country and in Siberia, on
the banks of the Oby. They are commonly found on the
^banks of rivers that have been wafhed by floods. Some of
them are very entire and frefh, like the bell ivory in all re-
fpedls, excepting only the colour, which is of a yellowifh
hue. In Siberia they make fnuff-boxes, combs, and divers
forts of turnery ware of them. Some have been found
weighing above too pounds Englifh.
The moil confiderable tribes in Weilern Tartary, next to
the Kalmucks, are the Kalkas and Mungls, or Mongals,
properly fo called. The country of the Kalkas extends
taflward, from mount Altay to the iource of the river Kal-
ka, whence .hey derive their name, in the borders oi Eall-
ern Taitary, and 139th degree of longitude. The territo¬
ries of the Mungls, or Mongalia, lie to the fouth of thofe
of the Kalkas, between them and the great wall of China,
to which empire both nations are fubjeft. Befides thefe
tribes, who are idolaters of the religion of the Delay Lama,
there are others, who pofiefs that part of Weftern Tartary
called Turkefian, the original country of the Turks and
Turkmans, fituated to the north of Great Bukharia and
Karazm, between thofe countries and the dominions of the
Eluths. Under Weftern Tartary alfo is comprehended
Tibet, Thibet, or Tobbnt, fubjeCl to the Delay Lama, or
great high-prieft of the Pagan Tartars and Chinel'e.
In all the vaft region of Weftern Tartary, there are
but few towns, moft of the inhabitants living under tents,
cipecially in lummer, and moving from place to place with
their flocks and herds. They generally encamp near fome
river for the convenience of water.
ft he air of this country is temperate, wholefome, and p!ea-
fant, being equally removed from the extremes of heat and
cold. A.s to the foil, though there are
many mountains.
lakes, and deferts in it, yet the banks of the rivers, and the
plains, fome of which are of great extent, are exceeding fer¬
tile- The mountains, woods, and deferts, abound with ve-
nifen, game, and wild fowl j and the rivers and lakes both
4 ] TAR
with fifn and fowl. In particular, here are wild mules, hor¬
fes, and dromedaries, wild boars, feveral kinds of deer, a fpe- 1
cies of goats with yellow hair, fquirrels, foxes ; an animal
called hautehan, refembling an elk ; another called chu/un or
chdifon, that feems to be a fort of lynx ; and a creature
called tad-pe, a» fmall as an ermine, of vvhofe fkins the Chi-
nefe make mantles to keep out the cold. Among other
birds of extraordinary beauty, bred in this country, there is
one called the Jhonkar, which is all over white except the
beak, wings, and tail, which are of a very fine red. Not--
withftanding the foil in many parts of 'Tartary is fo luxuri¬
ant, yet we are told it does not produce a fingle wood of
tall trees of any kind whatever, excepting in fome few places
towards the frontiers ; all the wood that is found in the
heart of the country confifting of llirubs, which never exceed
the height of a pike, and even thefe are rare.
It is remarkable, that in all the vaft dominions of Mon¬
galia, there is not fo much as a fingle houfe to be feen. All
the people, even the prince and high-prieft, live conftantly in
tents, and remove their cattle from place to place as conve-
niency requires. Thefe people do not trouble themfelves
with ploughing or digging the ground in any fafhion, but
are content with the produce of their fiocks, though the
foil is exceeding fine, and capable, by proper culture, of pro*
ducing grain of feveral forts.
In the country of the Mongals the grafs is very thick
and rank, and would with little labour make excellent hay.
'This grafs is often fet on fire by the Mongals in the fpring
during high winds. At fuch times it burns moft furioufly,
running like wild-fire, and fpreading its flames to the di-
ftance of perhaps 10 or 20 miles, till its progrefs is inter¬
rupted by fome river or barren hill. The rapidity of thofe
flames, their fmoke and crackling noife, cannot eafily be
conceived by thofe who have not feen them. When any
perfon finds himfelf to the leeward of them, the only me¬
thod by which he can fave himfelf from their fury, is to
kindle immediately the grafs where he (lands, and follow his
own fire. For this purpofe, every perfon is provided with
flints, fteel, and tinder. 'The reafon why the Mongais fet
fire to the grafs, is to procure early pafture to their cattle,
ft’he afhes left upon the gound fink into the earth at the
melting of the fnow, and prove an excellent manure ; fo that
the grafs in the fpring rifes on the lands which have been
prepared in this manner as thick as a field of wheat. Ca¬
ravans, travellers with merchandife, but efpecially armies,
never encamp upon this rank grafs ; and there are feveral
inftances of confiderable bodies of men being put in confu-
fion, and even defeated, by the enemy’s felting fire to the
grafs.
Eaftern Taitary, according to the limits ufually aflrgned
it by hiftorians and geographers, is bounded to the weft by
Weftern Tartary, or by that part poflefitd by the proper
Mungls and Kalkas ; on the north by Siberia ; on the eaft
by that part of the Oriental Ocean called the Tartarian
Sta ; and on the fouth by the fame fea, the kingdom of
Korea, and the Yellow Sea, which feparates it from China.
It is fituated between the 1 37th and 1 6olh degrees of lon¬
gitude, being about 900 miles long from fouth to north,,
and near as many in breadth from weft to eaft, yet but
thinly peopled. This large region is at prefent divided into
three great governments, all fubje£l to the Chinele, vix.
Shing-yang or Mugden, Kurin-ula, and Tfitfikar.
The government of Shin-yang, containing all the ancient
Lyau tong or Quan-tong, is bounded on the fouth by the
great wall of China and the Yellow Sea; on the eaft, north,
and weft, it is inclofed by a wooden palifade, feven or eight
feet high, fitter to mark its bounds aad keep out petty rob¬
bers than to oppofe an army.
2
Tarta*
The
TAR [ 3
Tartsry The lands of this province are for the general very fertile,
producing abundance of wheat, millet, roots, and cotton.
They alfo afford pafture to great numbers of ffieep and oxen,
which are rarely feen in any of the provinces of China.
They have indeed but little rice; yet, to make amends, there
is plenty of apples, pears, hazel nuts, filberds, and chefnuts,
even in the forefts. The eaftern part, which borders on the
ancient country of the Manchews and kingdom of Korea, is
full of deferts and bogs. The principal cities of this go¬
vernment are Shing-yang or Mugden, Fong-v/hang ching,
Inden, Ichevv, and Kingchew. This country was the oti-
giual feat of the 'Tartar tribe of the Manchews, who have
been maffers of China above too years.
The government of Kirin-ula-hotun is bounded weftward
by the palifade of Lyau-tong ; on the eaff, by the Eallern
Ocean ; foutlward, by the kingdom of Korea ; and on the
north by the great river Saghalian ; fo that it extends no
fewer than 12 degrees, and almoft 20 degrees in longitude,
being 750 miles in length and 600 in breadth.
This vail country abounds in millet and oats, with a fort
of grain unknown in Europe, called by the Chinefe may-
fem-mi, as being of a middle kind between wheat and rice.
It is wholefome, and much ufed in thofe cold regions.
There is but little wheat or rice here ; but whether that is
the fault of the foil or the inhabitants, we cannot affert.
The cold begins much fooner in there parts than at Paris,
whofe latitude is near 50 degrees. The forefts, which are
very thick and large the nearer you advance to the Eaftern
Ocean, contribute not a little to bring it on and keep it up.
The banks of the rivers here, in furamer, are enamelled
with a variety of flowers common in Europe, excepting the
yellow lilies, which are of a molt lively colour, in height
and fhape exadlly refembling our white lilies, but are of a
much weaker feent. But the plant which is moll efteemed,
and draws a great number of herbalifts into thefe deferts, is
See Pa- the gin-feng*, called by the Manchews orbota^ that is, the
chief or queen of plants. It is highly valued for its virtues
in curing feveral difeafes, and all decays of ftrength proceed¬
ing from exceflive labour of body or mind. For this reafon
it has always been the principal riches of Eaftern Tartary ;
what is found in the north of Korea being confumed in that
kingdom.
Formerly the Chinefe ufed to get into the gin-fegg coun¬
try among the mandarins and foldiers continually palling;
but in 1700 the emperor Kang-hi, that his Manchews might
reap this advantage, ordered 10,000 of his foldiers, encamp¬
ed without the great wall, to go and gather it, on condition
that each fhould give him two ounces of the bell, and take
an equal weight of fine filvEr for the remainder: by which
means the emperor got in that year 20,000 pounds of it for
’els than one-fourth of the price it bears at Pekin. The
root is the only part that is ufed medicinally. Its value is
enhanced by its age, for the largeft and firmeff are the bell.
I his country abounds alfo in fine fables, erey ermines, and
black foxes.
One of the tribes of Tartars inhabiting this country ate
Called the Tu-pi Tartars, whofe manner of life is fomewhat
extraordinary. All the fummer they fpend in filhing : one
part of what they catch is laid up to make oil for their
lamps; another ferves for their daily food; and the reft,
which they dry in the fun, without faking, for they have
no fait, is laid up for their winter's proviiions, whereof
both men and cattle eat when the rivers are frozen. Not-
withllanding this diet, a great deal of ftrength and vigour
appears in moft of thefe poor people. Their raiment con-
fifts of the fkins of filh, which, after dreffing and dyeing of
three or four colours, they fhape and few in fo delicate a
-Biacner, that one would imagine they made ufe of filk, till,
’5 ] TAR
on ripping a flitch or two, you perceive an exceeding fine Tartary.
thong, cut out of a very thin fkin. When the rivers are
frozen, their fledges are drawn by dogs trained up for the
purpofe, and highly valued,
Although the Manchew language is as much ufed at the
court of Pekin as the Chinefe, and all public a£ts are drawn
up in the one as well as the other ; yet it began to decline,
and would probably have been loft, had not tire Tartars ta¬
ken great pains to preferve it, by tranflating Chinefe books,
and compiling dictionaries, under the emperor’s patronage.
Their language is Angular in this refpeft, that the verb dif¬
fers as often as the fubftantive governed by it; or, which is
the fame thing, to every different fubftantivc they ufe a
different verb ; as for inftance, when they would fay, make
a 'uerfe, a piSure, a flattie ; for though the repetition of the
fame verb in difeourfe might be excufable, it is with them
unpardonable in writing, as making a monftrous grating to
their ears.
Another fingularity of their language is the copioufnefs
of it ; for inllance, befides names for each fpecies of ani¬
mals, they have words to exprefs their feveral ages and qua¬
lities. judagoti is the general name for a dog ; but tayha
fignifies a dog who has very long and thick hair both on
his ears and tail ; and yolo, a dog with a long thick muzzle
and tail, large ears, and hanging lips. The horfe, as more
ferviceable to them, has 20 times more names than the do^;
almoft; every motion of him giving occaiion to a different
name. Where they could get that aftorziftiing multitude of
names and terms, is not eafy to determine.
This country is but thinly peopled, and contains only
four cities, namely, Kirinula-hotun or Khotun, Pedne or
Petuna, Ninguta, and Putay-ula hotun, which are very ill-
built, and eucompaffed with no better than mud-walls. The
firil {lands on the river Songari, and is the refidence of the
Manchew general, who has all the privileges of a viceroy,
and commands the mandarines as well as the troops Nin¬
guta, which the family now reigning in China confiders as
its ancient patrimony, is iituated on the Hurkapira, which
runs northward into the Songari. Its name is compound¬
ed of two Tartarian words which fignify feven chiefs, to
exprefs the rife of the Manchew kingdom, which was firil
eftablifhed by feven brothers of the late emper or Kanghi's
great grandfather’s father. 4
The tribe of the Manchews, who inhabit a part of Eaft-
ern Tartary, and are lords of all the other inhabitants there¬
of, are called by the Ruffians Bogdoy, and the emperor of
China Bogdoy Khan and slmulon Bogdoy Khan.
The third government into which Eaftern Tartary is di¬
vided, is that of Tfitfikar. It is 740 miles long and 600
broad; and belongs partly to China and partly to Ruffia.
The people are great hunters, dexterous archers, and pay
their tribute in fable-fkins ; each family being affeffed two
or three, or more a-year, according to the number of able
perfons.
This province is inhabited chiefly by three forts of Tar¬
tars, the Manchews, the Selons, and Taguri, ot whom the
firfl are mailers. The Taguri are a large robull people,
but not very numerous. They live in houfes or huts, and
cultivate barley, oats, and millet. Their cattle arc princi¬
pally harfes, dromedaries, oxen, cows, and ffieep. They
make much ufe of their oxen to ride on.
The Solons alfo are a brave robull people. Their drefs
is a ftiort jacket of wolves Ikins, with a cap of the fame ;
and they have long cloaks made of fox or tigers Ikins, to de¬
fend them againft the cold, efpecially of die night. They
hang their bows at their backs. Their women ride on horfe-
back, drive the plough, hunt Hags and other game.
Befides the country towns or villages, there are three ci-
R r 3 ties
Tartary.
TAR
ties in the province of Tfitfikar, namely, Tfxtfikar, Merghen,
and Sa;rhalian-ula-hotun. The garril'on of Tfitfikar, the
capital, confifl.fi of Manchews; but the inhabitants are moft*
ly Chinefe. According to their own account, they are all
fhammams, or conjurors, and invoke the devil with irighttul
cries. They give their dead two burials, firft leaving a hole
at top of the grave, where the relations daily bring vi&uals,
which they convey to the mouth of the deceafed with a
fpoon, and leave drink in fmall tin cups (landing round the
grave. This ceremony holds for feveral weeks, after which
they bury the body deeper in the ground.
Several rivers in this country produce pearls, which,
though much cried up by the Tartars, would be little va¬
lued by Europeans, on account of their defeats in fhape and
colour.
The kingdoms or countries of Corea, Lyau-tong, and
Nyu-che, forming a part of Katay, Kitay, or Cathay, and
by fome included under Eaftern Tartary, are more properly
provinces of China, though they lie without the great wall.
UJleck Tartarx. To the north and north-eaft of Perfia
lie the countries of Karafm, and Great and Little Bukharia,
which being moftly fubjeft to and inhabited by the tribe of
UYbeck Tartars, are commonly known by the general name
of UJbech Tart ary.
The kingdom of Karafm was known to the ancient
Greeks, as appears from Herodotus, Ptolemy, and other
authors of that nation, by the name of Khorafmia. At pre-
fent it is bounded on the north by the country of Turkef-
tan, and the dominions of the great khan of the Eluths or
Kalmucks; on the eaft, by Great Bukharia, from which it
is feparated partly by the mountains of Irdar, and partly by
the deferts of Karak and Gaznah ; on the fouth, by the
provinces of Afterabad and 'Khoraflan, belonging to Iran
or Perfia at large, from which it is divided by the river
Jihun or Amu, and fundry deferts of a vaft extent; and on
the weft by the Cafpian Sea.
It may be about 440 miles in length from fouth to north,
and 300 from weft to eaft; beingfituated between the 39th
and 46th degrees of north latitude, and the 71ft and 77th
degrees of eaft longitude. The' country confifts, for the
moft part, of vaft fandy plains, fome of which are barren
deferts, but others afford excellent pafture. There is good
land in feveral of the provinces, where vines grow, and wine
■is made ; but water being fcarce, a great part of the coun¬
try turns to no account,
Karafm owes all its fertility to three rivers and a lake.
The rivers are the Amu, Khefil, and Sir. The Amu, as it
is called by the Ufhecks and Perfians, is the Jihun of the
Arabs, and Oxus of the ancient Greeks. It has its fource
in tbofe high mountains which feparate Little Bukharia
from the dominions of the Great Mogul; and, after pafling
through Great Bukharia and Karafm, divides into two
branches, one of which falls into the Khefil, and the other
into the Cafpian Sea, towards the borders of the province
of Aftarahad. The Amu abounds with all forts of excel¬
lent fifti, and its banks are the moft charming in the world.
Along them grows thofe excellent melons and other fruits
fo much efteemed in Perfia, the Indies, and Ruffia.
> 1 he river Khefil rifes in the mountains to the north-eaft
of the province of Samarkant, and falls into the lake of Aral
or Eagles, 50 or 60 miles below its junftion with a branch
of the Amu. Its banks are exceeding fertile wherever they
are cultivated.
I he Sir or Daria rifes in the mountains to the eaft of
Little Bukharia, ana after a long courle weftward, along
the borders of the Bukharias and Karalra, falls at laft into
the lake Aral.
TAR
Karafm is at prefent inhabited by three forts of people, Tarfary.
the Sarts, Turkmans, and Ufbeck Tartars. With regard
to the firft of thefe, we are told, that they are the ancient
inhabitants of the country, or thole who were fettled there
before tire Uftrecks became mailers of it; and that they
fupport themfelves like the Turkmans by their cattle and
hufbandry. The Turkmans or Turkomans came originally
from Turkeftan or the parts of Tartary to the north of Ka¬
rafm and Great Bukharia, towards the 11th century. They
divided into two parties; one of which went round the north
fide of the Cafpian Sea, and fettled in the weftern parts of
the Greater Armenia, from thence called Turkomama, or
the country of the Turkomans. The fecond party turned fouth,
and refted about the banks of the river Amu and the ftiores
of the Cafpian Sea, where they ftill poffefs a great many
towns and villages, in the countries of Karafm and Ailara-
bad.
The name of UJbechs, which the ruling tribe of the Tar¬
tars of Karafm and Great Bukhaiia bear at prefent, is de¬
rived from one of their khans. The Ufbecks of Karafm
are divided into feveral hords, and live for the moft part by
rapine; refembling in all refpeCts thofe of Great Bukharia,
excepting that they are much more rude and uncivilized.
Like the Turkmans, they dwell in winter in the towns and
villages which are towards the middle of Karafm ; and in
fummer the greater part of them encamp in the neighbour¬
hood of the Amu, or in other places where they can meet
with pafture for their cattle, always watching for lome con¬
venient opportunity to rob and plunder. They never ceafe
making incurfions upon the adjacent territories of Perfia or
Great Bukharia, and are to be reftrained by no treaties or
engagements whatfoever. Although they have fixed habi¬
tations, yet, in travelling from one place to another, they
carry with them all their effecfts of value, conformable to
the way of living in ufe among their anceftors before they
had fettled dwellings.
Thefe Tartars, it is faid, never ride without their bows,
arrows, and fwords, although it be in hawking or taking
any other diverfion.' They have no arts or iciences among
them, neither do they till or fow. I hey are great devour-
ers of fiefh, which they cut in fmall pieces, and eat greedily
by handfuls, efpecially horfe-fiefh.
Their chief diink is four mare’s milk, like that in ufe
with the Nogays. They eat their victuals upon the ground,
fitting with their legs double under them, which is their
pofture alfo when they pray.
All thefe tribes have abundance of camels, horfes, and
fheep, both wild and tame. Their fheep aie extraordinary
large, with gteat tails weighing 60 or bo pounds. There
are many wild horfes in the country, which the Tartars fre¬
quently kill with their hawks. Thefe birds are taught to
leize upon the head or neck of the beaft ; which being tired
with toiling to get rid of this cruel enemy, the hunter, who
follows his game, comes up and kills lum. Some travellers
tell us, that the inhabitants of this country have not the ufie
of gold, filver, or any other coin, but barter theirfcattle for
neceffaries. Others tell us, that they have money, particu¬
larly a piece of filver called tangay the value near the fourth
part of a crown. It is round, and has on one fide the name
of the country, and on the other that of the khan, with the
year of the hegira. There are alfo, it is faid, fmall pieces
of copper, of different fizes, which anfwer to our pence, half¬
pence, and farthings.
As to the government of Karafm, the L fbecks being
mailers, it is commonly veiled in divers princes of that tribe
of the fame houfe; of whom, notwithftanding, only one has
the title of khan, with a kind of fuperiority over the others.
This
[ 3>6 1
TAR r 3
Tartary. This khan has no fort of dependence on him of Great Buk-
»—  haria, or any other prince.
Bukharia, Bokhana, Boharia, Bogaria, or Boharia, is the
name given to all that region or traft of land lying between
Karafm and the Great Kobi, or Sandy Defert, bordering
on China. It is divided into the Great and Little Bukha-
' ria. For an account of which, fee the article Bukharia.
The inhabitants of thefe different countries, which are
known by the name of Tartary, have a tradition among them-
felves that they are all fprung from one common flock, and
that they are of the moil remote antiquity. To this tradition
much credit is due ; for they are known to be the defeendants
of the ancient Scythians. But when M. Bailly contends that
the Tartars are the molt ancient of nations, and the civili¬
zers of mankind, he writes without authority, and advances
a paradox at which every mind mull recoil. Among the
Tartars there are no hiftorical monuments of antiquity and
credit ; for all their writings extant, even thole in the Mo¬
gul dialedl, are long fubfequent to the time of Mohammed ;
nor is it poffible, fays Sir William Jo «es, to diltinguifh their
traditions from thole of the Arabs, whofe religious opinions
they have in general adopted. M. Bailly difplays indeed
great learning and ingenuity in his attempt to derive civili¬
zation from this fource ; but the greateft learning and acute-
nefs, together with the charms of a moll engaging ftyle,
can hardly render tolerable a fyllem, which places an earth¬
ly paradife, the gardens of Hejperus, the Blands of the Ma-
cares, the groves of Elylium, if not of Eden, the heaven of
Indra, the Periflan or fairy land of the Perlian poets, with
its city of diamonds and its country of Shadcam, fo named
from Pleafure and Love, not in any climate which the com¬
mon fenfe of mankind conliders as the feat of delights, but
beyond the mouth of the Oby, in the Frozen Sea, in a re¬
gion equalled only by that where the wild imagination of
Dante led him to fix the word of criminals in a date of pu-
nifhment after death, and of which he could not, he fays,
even think without fhivering. .
Before the era of Mohammed the Tartars had no litera¬
ture. i he magnificent Chengiz, whofe empire included an
area of near 80 fquare degrees, could find none of his own
Mongals, as the bed authors inform us, able to write his
difpatches ; and Timur or Tamerlane, a favage of drong
natural parts, and paflionately fond of hearing hiilories read
to him, could himfelf neither write nor read. It is true, that
by lome Arabian writers mention is made of a fet of Tartarian
charadbers, faid to confilt of 41 letters ; but from the deferip-
tion of thefe characters, Sir William Jones, with much plau-
fibility, fuipedts them to have been thofe of Tibet.
Katie Re. “ From ancient monuments therefore (continues the learn-
irchej, et} preflcient.) we have no proof that the Tartars were them-
’ ' ' felves well indrudted, much lefs that they indrufted the
world ; nor have we any dronger reafon to conclude from
their general manners and character, that they had made an
early proficiency in arts and fciences ; even of poetry, the
moil univerlal and mod natural of the fine arts, we find no
genuine ipecimens aferibed to them, except fome horrible
war-fongs expreffed in Perfian by Ali of Yezd, and poffibly
invented by him. After the conqued of Perfia by the Mon¬
gals, their princes indeed encouraged learning, and even
made adronomical obiervations at Samarkand ; as the Turks
became polifhed by mixing with the Perfians and Arabs,
though their very nature, as one of their own writers con-
ieffes, had before been Me an incurable dijlemper, and their
tninds clouded with ignorance: thus alfo the Mancheu mo-
narchs of China have been patrons of the learned and inge¬
nious, and the emperor Tien-Long is, if he be now' living,
a fine Chinefe poet. In all thefe indances the Tartars have
relembled the Romans, who, before they had fubdued
1
17 3 T A 3
Greece, were little better than tigers in war, and Fauns or Tartary
Sylvans in fcience and art. 11
“ We may readily believe thofe who qfTure us, that fome
tribes of wandering Tartars had real fkill in applying herbs "~v
and minerals to the purpofes of medicine, and pretended to
fkill in magic : but the general character of their nation
feems to have been this; they w^ere profefled hunters or
fifhers, dwelling, on that account, in foreds or near great
rivers, under huts or rude tents, or in waggons drawn by
their cattle from dation to flation ; they were dexterous ar¬
chers, excellent horfemen, bold combatants,, appearing often
to dee in diforder "or the fake of renewing their attack with
advantage ; drinking the milk of mares, and eating the defh
of colts ; and thus in many refpefts refembling the old A-
rabs, but in nothing more than in their love of intoxicating
liquors, and in nothing lefs than in a tade for poetry and
the improvement of their language.”
Krim Tartary. See Crimea.
TASSEL, a fort of pendant ornament at the corners of
a cufhion or the like. In building, tadels denote thofe
pieces of board that lie under the ends of the mantlet trees.
TASSO (Torquato), a judly celebrated Italian poet,
was born at Sorrento in the kingdom of Naples, in 1544.
He was the fon of Bernardo TaiTo, the author of feveral in¬
genious compofitions both in verfe and profe; and of Portia
de Rofli, a lady of an illudrious family of Naples.
His father being obliged to accompany the prince of Sa¬
lerno to the emperor Charles V. upon a deputation from
Naples to remondrate againd erecting the inquifition there,
committed the care of his fon, then three years old, to An-
geluzza, a man of great learning ; who, we are told, at this
tender age began to teach him grammar : at four he was
fent to the Jduit’s college, and at fever, was well acquaint¬
ed with Latin and Greek. At 12 years of age he went
from Rome to Mantua, where his father had entered into
the fervice of the duke Guglielrrro Gonzago: he had then
completed his knowledge of the Latin and Greek langua¬
ges ; he was well acquainted with rhetoric and poetry, and
a mader of Aridotle’s ethics ; he had alfo dudied the pre¬
cepts of Mauritio Cataneo with particular attention, and
ever after reverenced him as a fecond father.
He was foon after-fent to the univerfity of Padua ; and,
in his 18th year, publidied his Rinaldo, a poem written up¬
on the plan of Homer’s Odyffey. This extended his repu¬
tation throughout all Italy ; but greatly difpleafed his fa¬
ther, who forefaw that it would feduce him from fludies of
more advantage. He went to Padua, to remondrate againd;
his apparent purpofe of giving himfelf up to philofophy and
poetry, and made ufe of many very harfh exprefiions, which
Taffo heard with a patience and tranquillity that made the
old gentleman dill more angry : “ Of what ufe is that phi¬
lofophy on which you value yourfelf fo much ?” “ It has
enabled me. (replied Taflb) to endure.the harfhnefs of your
reproofsd’
He foon after went to Bologna, by the invitation of tlte
city and college ; but in a little time returned to Padua at
the preffing indances ot Scipio Gonzaga, who had been
eleded prince of the. academy-that had been edablifhed in
that city by the name of the Aacberei. He was incorpora¬
ted into this lociety, and took upon himfelf the name of
Pentito.
In this retreat he formed the defign of his Jerufalem De¬
livered, invented the fable, dilpofed the parts, and determi¬
ned to dedicate it to the houle of Ede-4 but whether to
Alphoulo II. the lail duke ot Ferrara, or his brother the
cardinal Luigi, to whom he had already dedicated his Ri¬
naldo, he was yet in doubt. Being prefled by both the
brothers to refide with them at Ferrara, he confcnted. The
duke
T A S [ 31
TstTo, ^ulce ^ave him an apartment in his palace, where he lived
"""'Y"'-*''in peace and affluence, and profecuted his work ; which he
now determined to dedicate to the duke, and which was
publiffled by his patrons, book by book, as he Sniffled
them.
When he was about 27, he pubiiffled a paftoral comedy
called Aminta ; which was received with univerfal applaufe,
as a mafterpiece in its kind, and is the original of the Pajlor
Fldo and Fillt di Sciro.
In the 30th year of his age he finiffled his Jerufalem, and
the whole was reprinted and publiffled together: the fuc-
cefs of it was altoniffling; it was tranflated into Latin,
French, Spanifh, and even the Oriental languages, almoft as
foon as it appeared.
But it was Taffo’s fate to become wretched from the
moment that he gained the fummit of reputation: very foon
after his JerufaUm was publiffled, he loft his father, who
died at Oftia upon the Po, the government of which place
had been given him by the duke of Mantua ; his Jerufalem
was attacked by a fvvarm of ignorant but petulant critics,
who gave the preference to the rhaplodies of Pulci and Boy-
ardo ; and the perfidy of a friend drew upon him much
greater misfortunes.
This friend was a gentleman of Ferrara, to whom Tafib
had rndifcreetly communicated fome tranfadfions of a very
delicate nature concerning his patron the duke, with whom
he lived. This fecret being betrayed, TafTo reproached his
friend for his treachery ; and this reproach was retorted in
fuch a manner as provoked Taffo to (trike him. A chal¬
lenge immediately enfued, and the opponents met and enga¬
ged ; but during the rencounter, three brothers of Taflo’s
antagonift came up, and all fell upon him together : TafTo
defended hrmfelf fo well, that he wounded two of them, and
kept his ground againft the others till fome people came up
and parted them. This made a great noife at Ferrara,
where nothing was talked of hut the valour of Taffo ; and
it became a kind of proverb, “ That Taffo, with his pen
and his fword, was fuperior to all men.”
The duke being informed of the quarrel, baniffled the
brothers from his dominions, confifcated their eftates, and
Taffo himfelf he fflut up in prifon, under pretence of (ecu-
ring him from any future attacks of his enemies.
Taffo found means to efcape from this confinement, after
having fuffered it about a year ; and, being now about 34
years of age, retired to Turin, where he was foon known
and recommended to the duke of Savoy, who (bowed him
many marks of efteem and affe&ion : but Taffo, fearing
that the duke of Ferrara would require him to be delivered
up, and that the duke of Savoy would choofe rather to com¬
ply than forfeit the friendfflip of that prince, precipitately
let out for Rome alone, and without proper neceflaries for
fuch a journey..
He got fafe, however, to Rome ; where he went direftly
to his friend Mauritio Cataneo, who received him with great
kindnefs, and the whole city feemed to rejoice at the pre-
ferce of fo extraordinary a perfon. He was vifited by prin¬
ces, cardinals, prelates, and all the learned in general. But
being impatient of exile, he took meafures to make his
peace with the duke', and fucceeded.
The duke received him with great appearance of fatisfac-
tion, and gave him freffl marks of his efteem. But Taffo
having made fome attempts bn the princefs Leonora, whom
he has celebrated in feveral of his verfes, the duke her bro¬
ther, believing, or pretending to believe, that his ill conduct
proceeded from a difordered underftanding, caufed him to
be ftriftly confined in the hofpital of St Anne. Taffo ap¬
plied to the duke, by every friend he had, to releafe him
from this confinement; but the duke coldly anfwered, that
8( T A s
in Head of endeavouring to procure the enlargement of a per-
fon in his condition, they ought rather to exhort him to fub- ■
mit patiently to fuch remedies as were judged proper for him.
Taffo was certainly difordered in his mind, whether as the
effe£t or caufe of this confinement: he was confcious that
he laboured under Come diftemper, and he believed the caufe
of it to be fupernatuval, and fancied himfelf haunted by a
fpirit that continually dilordered his books and papers ; to
which, however, the tricks played him by his keepers might
contribute. He continued, notwithftanding, to folicit the
interpofition of all the powers in Italy, to whom he could
find means to apply, particularly the emperor and the pope;
but without fuccefs. At laft, after he had been a prifoner
feven years, Vincentio Gonzaga prince of Mantua came to
Ferrara among other great perfonages, during the feftivals
and rejoicings that were held there on the marriage of Ore-
far of Efte with Virginia of Medicis, procured his liberty,
and took him with him to Mantua, he being then in the
42d year of his age.
At Mantua he lived about a year in great favour with
the prince, and in ail the fplendour and affluence which the
favour of great princes confers: but he was weary of a (late
of dependence, however fplendid and luxurious; and there¬
fore refolved to go to Naples, and endeavour to recover his
mother’s jointure, which had been feized by her relations
when he went into exile with his father Bernardo. With
this view he procured letters of recommendation to the vice¬
roy ; and having taken leave of the prince of Mantua, he
wrent firll to Bergamo, where he (laid fome time, and fr%m
thence proceeded to Naples.
At Naples he immediately commenced a fuit at law for
the recovery of his right, and divided his time between a
profecution of that and his (Indies. But during the fum*
mer he retired to Bifaccio with one Giovanni Batifta Man-
fo, with whom he had contrafted an intimate friendfhip.
Taffo, who was now in his 45th year, appeared to Manfo,
while they were at Bifaccio, to be affefted with a melan¬
choly, which had very fingular effefts; he therefore very
frequently queftioned him about them ; and Taffo told him
that he had a familiar fpirit, with whom he frequently anft
freely converfed. Manfo treated this as an illufion, but
Taffo (fill affirmed it to be real ; and telling him that the
fpirit would meet and converfe with him the next day, in¬
vited him to be prefent. Manfo coming at the hour ap¬
pointed, faw Taffo fix his eyes with great earneftnefs upon
a window, and perceiving him to continue without motion,
he called him feveral times by his name. Taffo made no
reply ; but at length cried out with great vehemence,
“ There is the friendly fpirit that is come to converfe with
me ; look, and be convinced that what I have faid is true.”
Manfo looked, not without fome furprife, but faw nothing
except the fun beams which (hone through the window.
He was juft going to a(k where the pretended fpirit was,
when he was prevented by Taffo’s fpeaking with great ear¬
neftnefs to fome imaginary being, fometimes putting que-
ftions, and fometimes giving anfwers, in a manner fo plea-
fing, and with fuch elevation of expreffion, that Manfo had
no defire to interrupt him : the converfation at lail ended
by the fuppofed departure of the fpirit ; when Taflo turn¬
ing round to his friend, afked if his doubts wete removed ?
To which he made no reply, being fo much amazed that he
gladly waved all farther converfation on the fubjedt.
Finding his law-fuit not likely to be foon determined, he
wrent from Naples to Rome, where he continued about a
year in high favour with Pope Sextus Quintus; and then
went to Florence, at the preffing invitation of Ferdinando
grand duke of Tufcany, who had been cardinal at Rome
when Taffo firft refitted there.
Having
Tafio,
I'aUe.
T A S [3
Having fpent about another year at Florence, he return¬
ed a?ain to Naples; and there applied himfelt' to correft his
" Jerufahm Delivered. Soon after the publication of this
work, Hippolito Aldrobandini fucceeded Sextus Quintus to
the paoacy, by the name of Clement the Vllth; and his
two nephews, Cynthio and Pietro Aldrobandini, were crea¬
ted cardinals. Cynthio, who was a great patron of learn¬
ing and genius, and had known Taffo when he laft refided
at Rome, prevailed with him once more to leave his retreat
at Naples, and live with him in that city. Here he conti-
mied till his 50th year; and being then again weary of his
fituation, and defirous to profccute his law-luit, he obtained
permiffion to retire once more to Naples, where he took up
his abode with the Benedictine fathers in the convent of
St Severin. Cardinal Cynthio, however, found means to
rtcal him again to Rome, after a very fhort abfence, by ha¬
ving prevailed with the Pope to confer upon him the ho¬
nour of being publicly and folemnly crowned with laurel in
the Capitol.
He let out from Naples to receive this honour, with a
prefage that he fhould never return 5 and arrived at Rome
in the beginning of the year 1595, being then about 51
years old : he was met at the entrance of the city by many
prelates and perions of diftin&ion, and was introduced by
the two cardinals to the pope, who complimented him by
faying, “ That his merit would confer as much honour
on the laurel he was about to receive, as the laurel had for¬
merly conferred on others.” Orders were immediately given
to decorate not only the pope’s palace and the Capitol, but
all the principal ftreets through which the proceffion was to
pafs: but Taffo, whether from an habitual dejedtion of
mind, or a fecret fenfation of the firft approaches of a dif-
eafe which he apprehended would be fatal, declared that all
thefe pompous preparations would be in vain.
It happened, that while they were waiting for fair wea¬
ther to celebrate the folemnity, cardinal Cynthio fell lick ;
and, before he was perfe&ly recovered, Taffo himfelf was ta¬
ken ill, and died on the 15th day of his ficknefs, aged 51.
His poems have acquired him an immortal reputation. The
principal of them are, 1. Jerufalem Delivered. 2. Jerufalem
Conquered. 3. Ronaldo. 4. The Seven Days of the Crea¬
tion. 5. The Tragedy of Torimond. 6. Aminta, &c. AH
Taffo’s works were printed together at Florence in 1724,
in fix volumes folio, with the pieces for and agamft his Je¬
rufalem Delivered. A fpiendid edition of this laft poem was
printed at Venice in T745, in folio. The beft edition of
Mtrebaud’s French tranllation is that of Paris in 1735, in
two vols r 2mo. PI is AminS and Gierufalemme Liberata have
been trar.flated into Englifh-
TASTE, a certain fenfation, or clafs of fenfations, ex¬
cited in the mind by certain bodies, which are called fapid,
applied to the tongue and palate, and moiftened with the fa¬
ll va. This is the original and proper meaning of the word
tajle (fee Metaphysics, ny 46) ; but as the qualities of
bodies which produce thefe fenlations are unknown, they
have in all languages got the names of the fenfations them-
felves, by that figure of fpeech which fubftitutes the caufe
ior the efTeft. Plence w-e talk of the taftes of fugar, worm¬
wood, honey, vinegar, See. ; and fay, that the tafte of fugar
is fvveet and of vinegar lour. Taftes have been divided in¬
to limple and compound ; and philofophers have to very
little purpofe endeavoured to afeertain the number of each
Ipeciee. Attempts have likewife been made to determine
bom their taftes the cfte&s of different fubftances on the
human body, taken, into the ftomaeh as food or phylic ;
but by ftating the refults of the various inquiries, we fhould
be more likely to miflead the unlearned reader, than to
cemmunicate-ufdul information to readers of any defeription,
19 3 T A s
Whoever is defirous of information on the fnbje& may con-
fult Phi/. Tranf. N° 280, 299 ; and Abercromb. Nov. Med.
Clovis.
Taste is likewife ufed in a figurative fenfe, to denote
that faculty of the mind by which we perceive and enjoy
whatever is beautiful or iublime in the works of nature or
of art. Like the tafte of the palate, this faculty relilhes
fome things, is difgufted with others, and to many is indif¬
ferent ; and from thefe obvious analogies between it and
the external fenfe it has obtained its name. It has like¬
wife been called an internal /tn/f, and by one philofopher *
a rejlex fenfe; whilft others have confidered it, not as a dif-'
tindl faculty or fenfe, but as the joint exertion of perception
and judgment in fome cafes, and as a play of the imagina¬
tion in- others.
To decide among thefe different opinions, it will be ne-
ceffary to afeertain, if we can, what are the objedfs of this
faculty ; for we hardly think that every thing which is
beautiful, either in nature or art, can with propriety be
called an objedl of tafte. Scarlet, blue, green, and yellow,
are all beautiful colours, and a cube and a fphere are beauti¬
ful figures ; but it does not appear to us, that a man could
be faid to have either a good or a bad talle for relifhing the
perception of a fcarlet more than that of a yellow colour,
or a fpherical more than a cubical figure. A native of Afri¬
ca confiders thick lips and a flat nofe as effential to female
beauty ; whilft the inhabitant of Europe prefers to all other
forms of the nofe that which is called Grecian, and is dif¬
gufted with lips either very thick or very thin. But upon
what principles can we fay that the African has a bad, and
the European a good, tafte ?
With refpedl to the objects of the external fenfe, we are
generally fo conftituted by nature as to relifh, in the higheft
degree, thofe kinds of food which are moft wholefome;
and fuch a tafte, which we believe is always found in in¬
fants, is juftly faid to be found and uncorrupted. It is in
the higheft perfedfion too at firft ; for it depends not upon
culture of any kind, and is incapable of improvement. The
reverfe of all this is the cafe with refpeft to internal tafte ;
of which the variety is obvious to the moft carelefs obferver,
and is found, on examination, to be ftiil greater in reality
than it is in appearance. Every voice is indeed united in ap¬
plauding elegance, propriety, fimplicity, fpirit in writing ;
and in blaming fuftain, affedlation, coldnefs, and a falfe bril¬
liancy : but when critics come to particulars, this feeming
unanimity vaniihes ; and it is found that they had rrffixed
very different meanings to the fame expreffions. Perhaps
no man ever attentively beheld the rifing or the fetting fun
without feeling fome emotions of pleafure which filled his
mind ; or went for the firft time into fuch a building as the
cathedral church of York, without being ftruck with a plea-
fing, though folemn, reverence. Yet it is certain, that theemo-
tions of the clown, however acute he may be by nature, and
perfect in all his faculties, are not the fame, at leaft in de¬
gree, with thofe of the poet or philofopher when contem¬
plating the riling or fetting fun ; or of the fcientific me¬
chanic when viewing the ftrudture of the pillars and roof of
the Gothic cathedral. We are not indeed fure that the
pleafure of the clown on thefe occalions riles above that of
mere fenfation. Any bright and beautiful objedt prefent-
ed to the eye, gives a pleafing fenfation to the mind, in
confequence of that peculiar agitation which fuch objects
communicate to the optic nerves and the braiu ; and to ob¬
it appears, that the clown feels nothing more than this from
the view of the rifing fun or the magnificent church. Per¬
haps he may compare the fenfations which he feels on thefe
occafions with others which he has formerly felt in fome de¬
gree fimilar to them, and have his pleafure heightened by the.
exeicifc-
Tafte.
* Dr Hitt-
T A S
Tafte. ejtercife of that faculty of which the province is to judge
—^ uoon coniparifon ; but we have no region to i'uppofe, that
from the rifing fun he receives any emotions different in
kind from what he would receive from a blazing heath,
were it accompanied with the fame varying tints of colour ;
or that the church impreffes on his fancy more than that
wonder with which he would view any other building equal¬
ly large and equally novel, though of a form very different.
In poetry and painting the vulgar are always delighted with
the melody of the verfe and the brilliancy of the colours ;
and think of nothing elfe as beauties, either in the one or'
in the other, unlefs the painting be the picture of fome
Jcnown objeff, and the poem defcribe fcenes or aftions in
which they may be felfilhiy interefted. Hence it is that
the vulgar are mote captivated by the fplendor of the-Vene¬
tian ftyle of painting, than by the fimple grandeur of the
Roman and Bolognian Schools; for the ai't of the former,
which has been carried to the higheft degree of perfection,
is to give pleafure to the eye or the fenfe ; that of the lat¬
ter is to fill the imagination. The powers exerted in the
former fchool Sir Jolhua Reynolds calls the language of
painters, which he compares to an empty tale told by an id/ot,
full of found and fury, Jignifying nothing. The compofitions
of the latter fchools may be compared to the fublimity of
Milton’s lentiments, which would be difgraced by thofe pet¬
ty ornaments to which it leaves not the reader at leil'ure to
attend.
If this be fo, the pleafures which the vulgar derive from
what are called objefts of tafte are merely gratifications of
the fenfes ; or if any of thefe objefts ever intereft their
higher faculties, it muff be by infpiring them with confi¬
dence or dread ; confidence of their own faftty, for inftance,
if the building which they admire appear to them to be
ftable; and dread, if they have formed of it a contrary
opinion. Very different is the pleafure which the man of
cultivated tafte derives from the beauties either of nature or
of art : when he beholds the rifing or the fetting fun, he
has indeed the pleafing fenfation, which is all that the rude
man feels ; but along with this arifes in his imagination a
train of ideas, which hurries him beyond the objeCI before
him to its beneficent effe&s and its Almighty Creator :
and if he has been much converfant with the works of de¬
fer iptive poets, a number of plealing ideas treafured up in
his memory will, by the principle of affociation, pafs in re¬
view before him, though they be not connefted either with
one another, or with the rifing or fetting fun, by a relation
fo clofe as that of caufe and effeft. In like manner, when
the fcientific architect views the Gothic cathedral, he muff
admire its folemn magnificence, though with lefs wonder
than it excites in the breaft of the clown ; but he feels an
additional pleafure, derived from a fource to which the
•other has no accefs. He perceives the many contrivances
ditplayed in its ftruCture for uniting {lability with light-
nefs ; and from contemplating the building, he is inllantly
led by a natural train of thought to admire the {kill of the
builder.
The nature of any perfon’s tafle, therefore, is generally
determined from the charaCber of his imagination and the
loundnefs^of his judgment. When any objeCl either of fub-
linuty or oeauty is prefented to the mind, every man is con-
feious of a train of thought being immediately awakened in
his imagination, analogous to the charaCber or expreflion of
the original objeCfc. 1 he fimple perception of the objeCb we
frequently find is infufficient to excite thefe emotions, unlefs
it is accompanied with this operation of mind; unlefs, ac¬
cording to common expreflion, our imagination is feized,
and our fancy bulied in the purfuit of all thofe trains of
thought which are allied to this character or exprcffiqn.
T A S
Thus, when we feel either the beauty or fublimity of natu,
ral feenery, the gay luftre of a morning in fpring, or the
mild radiance of a fummer evening, the favage majefty of a
wintry ftorm, or the wild magnificence of a tempeffuous
ocean, we are confcious of a variety of images in our minds,
very different from thofe which the objefts themfelves can
prefent to the eye. Trains of pleafing or of folemn thought
arife fpontaneoufly withirfour minds ; our hearts fwell with
emotions, of which the ohjefts before us feem to afford no
adequate cauie; and we are never fo much fatiated with de¬
light, as when, in recalling our attention, we are unable to
trace either the progrefs or the conneftion of thofe thoughts
which have palled with fo much rapidity through our ima¬
gination.
If the mind is in fuch a ftate as to prevent this freedom of
imagination, the emotion, whether of fublimity or beauty, is
unperceived. In fo far as the beauties of art or nature af-
feCb the external fenfes, their effeCb is the fame upon every
man who is in poffefion of thefe fenfes. But to a man in
pain or in grief, whofe mind by thefe means is attentive only
to one objefb or confideration, the fame feene or the fame
foim will produce no feeling of admiration, which, at other
times, when his imagination was at liberty, would have pro¬
duced it in its fulleft perfection. It is upon the vacant and
the unemployed, accordingly, that the objeCbs of tafte make
the ftrongeft imprefiion. It is in fuch hours alone that we
turn to the compofitions of mufic or of poetry for amufe-
ment. The feafons of care, of grief, or of bufinefs, have
other occupations, and deftroy, for the time at leaft, our fen-
fibility to the beautiful or the fublime, in the fame propor¬
tion that they produce a ftate of mind unfavourable to the
indulgence of imagination.
There are many objefts of tafte, however, which produce
not their full effeft on the imagination, but through the me¬
dium of the judgment. We have given one inftance in ar-
chitefture, and fhall give another in fculpture. The beauty
of the Farnefe Hercules is one kind of beauty; that of
the gladiator in the palace of Chighi another ; and that of
the Apollo of Belvidere a third. Each of thefe figures is
acknowledged to be perfeft in its kind ; and yet Sir Jofhua
Reynolds affirms, that the higheft perfeftion of the human
figure is not to be found in any one of them, but in that
form which might be taken from them all, and would par¬
take equally ot the aftivity of the gladiator, of the delicacy
of the Apollo, and of the mufcular ftrength of the Hercu¬
les. If the judgment of this eminent artift be admitted,
the perfeftion of thefe ftatues cannot confift in any thing
which is the immediate objeft of fenfe, either external or
internal; but in fomething which, being perceived by the
eye, is referred by the underftanding to what we know of
the charafters of Hercules, Apollo, and the Gladiator, and
which we believe it was the intention of the ftatuaries to
exprefs. Nay, there are objefts of which tafte is fometimes
laid to judge, though they have little or no effeft whatever
on the imagination. A book of abftraft fcience, written in
a prolix and intricate ftyle, might be faid to be in a bad
tafte ; and had Swift, in his clear and fimple ftyle, written
yin Effay on the Human Underfundings his work, fuppofing
him mafter of the fubjeft, would undoubtedly have dii-
played more tafte than Locke’s, in which the terms are
iometimes vague, and the periods often incumbered. Fills
is aftually the cafe of Berkeley, whom every man ad¬
mits to have been a writer of good tafte, though neither The
Principles of Human Knowledge, The Dialogues on Matter, nor
the beautiful work intitled The Minute Phdo/opher, is capable
of affording pleafure to the fenfes or the imagination. His
beauty confifts merely in the perfpicuity ol his ftyle, of
which the .underftanding alone is the judge. The meta-
phyficai
C 320 1
Tafte.
I * T>ifcourfe
ishvcred at
'he Royal
Academy,
Dec. 14.
*770.
T A S [ 321 1 T A S
phyfical writings of Dr Reid pofTefs In an eminent degree
the fame beauty; and no man of true tafte can read them
without admiring the elegant fimplicity of the compohtion
as much as the ftrength of the reafoning, and feeling from
the whole a pleafure which the poetical ftyle of Shaftefbury
cannot communicate.
If this be a juft account of the pleafures of tafte, that fa¬
culty cannot be properly confidered as a mere internal fenfe,
fince to its enjoyments a well-ftored fancy is neceftary in
fome cafes, - and the reafoning power in all; and the poet
and the painter who wifli to excel in their refpechive uto-
feffions, muft not content themfelves, the one with filling
the ear of the reader with mellifluous founds, and the other
with dazzling or deceiving the eye of the fpeftator by the
brilliancy of his colours, but both muft ftuve for fame by.
captivating the imagination ; whilft the architedl, who a-
fpires to a fimilar celebrity, muft make the purpofe of his or¬
naments obvious to every perfon capable of judging. The
landfcapes of Claude Lorrain, the mufic of Handel, the
poetry of Milton, excite feeble emotions in our minds, when
our attention is confined to the qualities they prefent to
our fenfes, or when it is to fuch qualities of their compofi-
tion that we turn our regard. It is then only we feel the
fublimity or beauty of their productions, when our imagi¬
nations are kindled by their power, when we lofe ourfelves
amid the number of images that pafs before our minds, and
when we waken at laft from this play of fancy as from the
charm of a n mantic dream.
It is well obfetved by Sir Jofhua Reynolds*, that tafte
is fometimes praifed in fuch terms by orators and poets, who
call it infpiration, and a gift from heaven, that though a Un¬
dent by fuch praife may have his attention roofed, and a
clefire excited of obtaining this gift, he is more likely to be
deterred than encouraged in the purfuit of his objeft. “ He
examines his own mind, and perceives there nothing of that
divine infpiration with which he is told fo many others have
been favoured. He never travelled to heaven to gather new
ideas ; and he finds himfelf pofieffed of no other qualifica¬
tions than what mere common obfervation and a plain un-
derflanding are able to confer. Thus he becomes gloomy
amidft the fplendour of figurative declamation, and thinks it
hopelefs to purfue an objeft which he fuppofes out of the
reach of human induftry. But on this, as.on many other
occafions, we ought to diftinguifh how much is to be given
to enthufiafm, and how much to common fenfe; taking care
not to lofe in terms of vague admiration that folidity and
truth of principle upon which alone we can reafon.” Who¬
ever pofTefles the ordinary powers of perception, fenfibility
of heart, good fenfe, and an imagination capable of being
roufed by the ftriking objefts of nature and of art, may,
without infpiration, become, by mere experience, a man of
fine tafte in the objedts of which he afpires to be a critical
judge..
This being the cafe, we may eafily account for the variety
of taftes which prevail among men, not only as individuals
but as nations. We have already mentioned the difference
in one in fiance between the European tafte and the Afri¬
can refpedting -female beauty ; and we may now affirm, as
we hope to prove our affirmation, that the one tafte is equal¬
ly corredl with the other. The charms of female beauty
exift not in the mere external form and colour confidered
by themfelves (for then the inanimate ftatue of the Venus
de Medicis would give more delight to the European be¬
holder than the fineft woman that ever lived) ; but we affo-
ci e external beauty with fweetnefs of difpofition, and with
all the train of endearments which take place in the union
of the texes; and it is this affociation which delights the
man of tafte, as giving refinement to an appetite which in
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
itfelf is grofs and fenfual. A fimilar affociation muft be Fafl
forgied in the breaft: of the African who has any tafte ; —”*~v~
and as he never knew feminine foftnefs, or any of the en¬
dearing qualities of the fex, but as united with thick lips, a
flat nofe, a black fkin, and woolly hair—a fable beauty of
that defeription muft excite in his bre .ft the fame emotions
that are excited in the breaft of an European by the fair wo¬
man with Grecian features.
But is there not an ideal or perfeft beauty of the human
form ? I here certainly is, as of every other natural objeft ;
but it cannot be the lame in Europe as in Africa, unlefs to
a Being who is acquainted with all the peculiarities of form,
national and individual, that are to be found among the in¬
habitants of the whole earth. It has been fuppofed, and
we think completely proved, by one of the heft writers that
we have on the philofophy of tafte *, that the fubl.mity or * Mr
beauty of forms arifes altogether from the affociations we cox-/*,
red!: with them, or the qualities of which they are expreffive
to us. The qualities expreffed fey the male and female forms
are very different ; and we would by no means think the
woman beautiful who fhould have the form of the Farnefe
Hercules, or admire the finapes of the hero who fhould be
formed like the Venus de Medicis ; becaufe the proportions
of fuch a woman would indicate ftrength and intrepidity,
where wewifhto find only gentlenefs and delicacy; and the
delicate form of the hero would indicate foftnefs and effemi¬
nacy, where the oppofite qualities only can be efteemed.
As we affociate with the female form many defirable qualities,
every woman is efteemed more or lefs beautiful as her figure
and features indicate a greater or fmaller number of thefe
qualities; and the fame is the cafe with refpeft to the qua¬
lities which adorn the male character, and the form and fea¬
tures by which they are expreffed. Upon comparing a
number of human beings with one another, we find, that
with refpeef to every feature and limb, there is one central
form to which nature always tends, though flie be continu¬
ally deviating from it on the right hand and on the left:
(See Nose). This form therefore is confidered as the moft
perfect form of the fpecies, and moft expreffive of the qua¬
lities for which that fpecies is valued ; but in Africa, the
central form, with refpeft to the proportions of the human
body and the features of the human face, is very different
from what it is in Europe ; and therefore the ideal or per¬
fect beauty of the human form and features cannot be the
fame in both countries. No doubt, if a man could examine
the limbs and features of every individual of the human
race, he would difeover one central form belonging to the
whole, and be led to efteem it the ftandard of beauty ; but
as this is obvioufly impoffible, the common idea or central
form belonging to each great clafs of mankind muft be e-
fteemed the ftandard of beauty in that clafs, as indicating
moft completely the qualities for which individuals are e-
fteemed. Thus there is a common form in childhood and a
common form in age ; each of which is the more perfeft as
it is the more remote from peculiarities : but though age
and childhood have fomething in common, we fhould not
deem the child beautiful who was formed exaffly like the
moft handfome man, nor the man handfome who was form¬
ed exaftly like the moft beautiful child. This doftrine is
well dluftrated by Sir Jofhua Reynolds*, who has applied
it to every obje& efteemed beautiful in nature; and proved,
that the fuperiority of Claude Lorrain over the landfcape-
painters of the Dutch and Flemifh fchools, arifes chiefly
from his having generalized his conceptions, and formed his
pictures by compounding together the various draughts
which he had previoufiy made fiom various beautiful icenes
and profpedls. “ On the whole fays he), it feems to me
that there is but one prefiding principle which regulates and
S s gives
Tafte.
T A S [ 32
reives liability to every art. The works, whether of poets,
oainters, moralifts, or hiftorians, which are built unon gene¬
va! nature, live for ever ; while thofe which depend lor their
exifteftce on particular cufloms and habits, a particular view
of nature, or the fiuftuation of fafhion, can only be coeval
with that, which firil raifed them from obfeurity. All the
individual ohjefts which are exhibited to our view by na¬
ture, upon clofe examination, will be found to have their
blemifh.es and deft• f<. "The moft beautiful forms have fome-
thiny about them like wcaknefs, mmutenefs, or imperfection.
But it is not every eye that perceives thefe blemdhes ; It
imift be an eye long ufed to the contemplation and compa-
rifon of tbele forms ; which alone can difeern what any fet
of objects of the fame kind has in common, and what each
wants in particular.”
Brom theie reafonings the fame great art id concludes,
that the man who is ambitious of the charaCter of poffeffing
a corrcft take, ought to acquire a “habit of comparing and
diyefting his notions. He ought not to be wholly unac¬
quainted with that part of pbilofophy which gives him an
in fight into human nature, and relates to the manners, cha¬
racters, paffions, and affeCtions. He ought to know fom^
thing concerning the mird, as well as a great deal concern¬
ing the body, and the various external works of nature and
of art; for it is only the power of diflinguifhing right from
wrong that is properly denominated ta/le.
“ Genius and take, in their common acceptation, appear
to be very nearly related ; the difference lies only in this,
that genius has fuperadded to it a habit or power of execu¬
tion. Or we may fay, that take, when this power is added,
changes its name, and is called genius. They both, in the
popular opinion, pretend to an entire exemption from the
reftraint of rules. It is fuppofed that their powers are in¬
tuitive ; that under the name oh genius great works are pro¬
duced, and under the name of ieijte an exaft judgment is given,
without our knowing why, and without being under the
leaft obligation to reafon, precept, or experience.
“ One can fcarce hate thele opinions without expofing
their abfurdity ; yet they are conftantly in the months of
men, and particularly of illiterate and affefted connoiffeurs.
'fire natural aopetite, or take of the human mind, is for
truth ; whether that truth refults from the real agreement or
equality of original ideas among themfelves, from the agree¬
ment of the reprefentation of any objedt with the thing re-
prefented, or from the correfoondence of the feveral parts
of any arrangement with each other. It is the very fame
take which relifhes a demonkration in geometry, that is
pleafed with the refemblance of api&ure to an original, and
touched with the harmony of mufic.
“ But befides real, there is alfo apparent truth, or opi¬
nion, or prejudice. With regard to real truth, when it is
known, the take which conforms to it is and muff be uni¬
form. With regard to the fecond fort of truth, which may
be called truth upon Jufferante, or truth by courtefy, it is not
fixed but variable. However, whilft thefe opinions and
prejudices on which it is founded continue, they operate as
truth ; and the art, whofe office it is to pleafe the mind as
well as inftruft it, muk direfk itfelf according to opinion, or
it will not attain its end. In proportion as thefe prejudices
are known to be generally diffufed or long received, the
take which conforms to them approaches rearer to certain¬
ty, and to a fort of refemblance to real fcience, even where
opinions are found to be no better than prejudices. And
fmee they deferve, on account of their duration and extent,
to be confidered as really true, they become capable of no
fmall degree of kability and determination by their perma-
fient and uniform nature.
i 1 TAT
“ Of the judgment which we nwke on the works of art,
and the preference that we give to one clafs of art over an- Hte
other, if a reafon be demanded, the quckion is perhaps eva- v~~
ded by anfwering, I judge from my take ; but it does not
follow that a better anfwer cannot be given, though for
common gazers this may be fufficient. Every man is not
obliged to inveftigate the caufes of Ins approbation or dif-
like. The arts would lie open for ever to caprice and ca-
fualty, if thofe who are to judge of their excellencies had
no fettled principles by which they are to regulate their de-
cikons, and tfie merit or defect of performances were to ! e
determined by unguided fancy. And indeed we may ven¬
ture to aflert, that whatever fpeculative knowledge is necef-
fary to the artift, is equally and indifpenfably necefl'ary to
the critic and tire connoiffeur.
“ The hr if idea that occurs in the confideration ot what
is fixed in art or in take, is that prefiding principle which
we have already mentioned, the general idea of nature. The
beginning, the middle, and the end of every thing that is
valuable in take, is comprifed in the knowledge of what is
truly nature ; for whatever ideas are not conformable to
thofe of nature or naive rial opinion, muft be confidered as.
more or lefs capricious ; the idea of nature comprehending
not only the forms which nature produces, but alio the na¬
ture and internal fabric and organization, as I may call it,
of the human mind and imagination. General ideas, beauty,,
or nature, are but different ways of expreffing the fame
thine, whether we apply thefe terms to f'atues, poetry, or
oi&ure. Deformity is not nature, but an accidental devia¬
tion from her accukomed praflice. This general idea there¬
fore ought to be called nature; and nothing elfe, correctly
{peaking, has a right to that name. Hence it plainly ap¬
pears, that as a work is conduced under the influence of
general ideas, or partial, it is principally to be confidered as
the effedt ot a good or a bad take.”
Upon the whole, we may conclude that the real fubkance,
as it may be called, of what goes under the name of tajle,
is fixed and ekabliffied in the nature of things ; that there
are certain and regular caufes by which the imagination and
paffions of men are affe&ed ; and that the knowledge of
thefe caufes is acquired by a laborious and diligent inveki-
gation of nature, and by the fame kow prog refs as wifdom
or knowledge of every kind, however inllasitancous its ope¬
rations may appear when thus acquired. A man of real
take is always a man of judgment in other refpefts ; and
thofe inventions which either difdain or fhrkik from reafon,.
are generally more like the dreams of a diftempered brain
than the exalted enthufiafm of a found and true genius. la
the midft of the highett flights of fancy or imagination, rea¬
fon ought to prefide from firk to lak; and he who fhall de¬
cide on the beauties of any one of the fine arts by an ima¬
ginary innate fenfe or feeling, will make as ridiculous an
appearance as the connoiffieur mentioned by Dr Moor, who
praifed as a work of the divine Raphael the wretched daub¬
ing by a Swifs copyik. The reader who wifhes for further
inkrudion in the philofophy of take, may confuk Gerard’s.
Effay on Take, with the diffiertations of Voltaire, d’Alem¬
bert, and Montelquieu Dr Biair’s Dedures on the Belles
Lettres; Dr Reid’s Effays on the Intelledual Powers of
Man ; Alifon’s Effays on the Nature and Principles of
Take ; and Sir Jofhua Reynold’s Difcourfes delivered in
the Royal Academy.
TATE (Nahum), an Engliffi poet, bom about the
middle ef the reign of Charles IB in Ireland, where he re¬
ceived his education. He was made poet-laureat to King
William upon the death of Shadwell, and held that place
until the reign of George I. whofe firk birth-day ode he
lived
Taunton.
T A U [32
Tatian lived to write, and executed it with unufual foirit. He
died in the mint in 1716^ and was fucceeded in the laurel
by Mr Eufden. He was the author of nine dramatic per¬
formances, a great number of poems, and a verfion of the
Pfalms in conjunftion with Dr Nicholas Brady.
TATI AN, a writer of the primitive church in the fecond
century. He was born in Aflyria, and trained up in the
heathen religion and learning. Coming over to Chriftianity,
he became the difciple of Jullin Martyr, whom he attended
to Rome. While juftin lived, he continued ifeadily ortho¬
dox : but after JuftuTs death he made a fchifm, and became
the author of a new feef, condemning marriage, enjoinir.g
abftinence from wine and animal-food, and fuffering only
water to be ufed in the holy mylteries; whence his fol¬
lowers were called Encratila and Hydroparaftata. None
of his works are now extant but his piece againft the Gen¬
tiles ; or, as it is ufually intitled, his Oration to the Greeks.
TATIU'S (Achilles), a native of Alexandria, was the
author of a book on the fohere, which father Petau tranf-
lated into Latin. There is alio attributed to him a Greek
romance on the loves of Leucippe and Clitophon, ot which
Salmalius has given a beautiful edition in Greek and Latin,
with notes. Suidas fays, that this Achilles Tatius was a
Pagan, but that he afterwards embraced the Chriltian reli¬
gion, and became a bifhop. Photius mentions him in his
Bibliotheca.
TATONNEUR, in zoology. See Lemur.
TATTOOING, or Tattowing, an operation in ufe
among the Handers in the South Sea fs>r marking their
Bodies with figures ot various kinds which they coniider as
ornamental. It is performed by punfturing the Hein, and
rubbing a black colour into the wounds. The inftrument
ufed fomewhat refemhles a comb, the teeth of which are re¬
peatedly ftruck into the Hein by means o! a fmall mallet. It
is very painful; but the children are forced by their relations
to fubmit to it.
TAT TOU, a beat of a drum at night to advertife the
foldiers to retreat, or repair to their quarters in the garrifon,
or to their tents in a camp. '
TAVERNIER (John Baptill), a famous French tra¬
veller, was born in i6oe. In the courfe of 40 years he
travelled fix times to Turkey, Perfia, and the Fall Indies,
and vifited all the countries in Europe, travelling mofily
on foot. His travels have been frequently reprinted in fix
vols 12mo. He died on his ftventh journey to the call, at
Mofcow, in 1609.
TAVIRA, or Tavila, a confiderable town of Portugal,
and capital of the province of Algarve, with a handlome
cnlfle, and one of the bell harbours in the kingdom, defended
by a fort. It is feated in a plealant fertile country, at the
mouth of the river Gilaon, between Cape Vincent and the
Strait of Gibraltar, 00 miles well by north of Cadiz. W.
Long. 7. 46. N. Lat. 37. 1A
TAVISTOCK, a town of Devonfhire in England, fi-
tuated on the river Tavey or 'l ave, W. Long. 4. 12. N.
Lat. 5c. 37. It fends two members to parliament, and gives
the title of marquis to the noble family of Rulfel duke of
Bedford.
TAUNTON, a large, elegant, and well built town of
Somerfetlkire, 146 miles from London. It confilts princi¬
pally of four llreets paved and lighted ; the market-place
is fpacious, and has a handlome market-houfe, with a town
hall over it, which was finished in 1773. It has an exten-
five woollen manufactory; and in 1780 a filk manufactory
was introduced. Its caftle, the ruins or which remain, was
in 1641; defended for the parliament by colonel Blake a-
gainft an army of 10,t oo men under lord Goring, but was
difniantled by Charles II. In 1605 the duke of Monmouth
1
TAW
irjade this place his head-quarters. Its church, which is Taur
large and beautiful, is a fine ipecimen of the florid Gothic
ftyle of architecture. The tower, which is lofty, is erf ex- ,
cellent workmanlhip, crowned at the top with four Itately
pinnacles, 32 feet high. The whole perhaps is not equalled
in the kingdom. Taunton is pleafantly feated on the river
Tone, which is navigable to Bridgewater ; is reckoned the
belt town in the county; and fends two members to parlia¬
ment. W. Long. 3. 17. N. Lat. 50. S9-
TAURIS, or Tebris, a town of Perfia, and capital of
Aderbeitzan. It was formerly the capital of Perfia, and
is now the moft confiderable next to Ifpahan ; for it con¬
tains 15,000 houfes, befides many leparate fhops, and about
20c,coo inhabitants. It is about five miles iu circum¬
ference, and carries on a prodigious trade in cotton, cloth,
filks, gold and filver brocades, fine turbans, and lhagreea
leather. There are 300 caravanferas, and 250 motques.
Some travellers fuppoie it to be the ancient Ecbatana; but
of this there is no certainty. It is feated in a delight¬
ful plain, furrounded with mountains, from whence a flream
hTues, which runs through the city. E. Long. 47. 50.
N. Lat. 38. 18.
TAURUS, a great chain of mountains in Afia, which
begin at the eaftern part of Little Carimania, and extend
very far into the India. In different places they have dif¬
ferent names.
Taurus, in aftronomy, one of the 12 fignsof the zodiac.
TAUTOLOGY, a needlefs repeating of the fame thing
in different words.
TAWING, the art of dreffing fkins in white, fo as to be
fit for divers manufaftures, particularly gloves, &c.
All flcins may be tawed ; but thole chiefly ufed for this
purpofe are lamb, Iheep, kid, and goat Heins.
The method of tawing is this : Having cleared the fkina
of wool or hair by means of lime, they are laid in a large
vatt of wood or ifone, fet on the ground full of water,
in which quicklime has been Hacked ; wherein they are al¬
lowed to he a month or fix weeks, according as the weather
is more or lefs hot, or as the fkins are required to be more
or lefs loft and pliant.
While they .are in the vatt, the w’ater and lime is changed
twice, and the flcins are taken out and put in again every
day : and when they are taken out for the laft time, they
are laid all night to ioak in a running water, to get out the
greateft part of the lime; and in the morning are laid to¬
gether by fixes one upon another, upon a Wooden leg,
and are leraped ftoutly one after another, to get the flefh off
from the flefhy fide, with a cutting two-handled inftrument
called a knife; and then they cut off the legs (if they are
not cut off before) and other fuperfluous parts about the
extremes. Then they are laid in a vatt or pit with a little
water, wdiere they are fulled with wooden peflles for the
fpace of a quarter of an hour ; and then the vatt is filled up
with wrater, and they are rinled in it.
In the next place, they are thrown on a clean pavement
to drain, and afterwards caff into a frefh pit of water, out
of which they rinfe them well, and are laid again on the
wooden leg, fix at a time, with the hair fide outemioft: over
which they rub a kind of whetftone very brifkly, to foften
and fit them to receive four or five more preparations, given
them on the leg both on the flefh-tide and the hair-fide, with
the knife, after the manner above mentioned.
After this they are put into a pit -of water and wheaten-
bran, and ftirred about in it with wooden poles, till the bran
is perceived to flick to them, and then they are left: as they
rife of themfdves to the top of the water by a kind of fer¬
mentation, they are plunged down again to the bottom ;
and at the fame time fire is fet to the liquor, which burns as
S s 2 eafily
TAX [
Tawing, eafily as if it were brandy, but goes out the moment the
^ ax‘ fkins are all covered.
* """' They repeat this operation as orten as the flcins rife
above the water ; and when they have done fifing they
take them out, lay them on the wooden leg, the fiefhy
fide outwards, and pafs the knife over them to lerape off
the bran.
Having thus cleared them of the bran, they lay the fkins
in a large bafket, and load them with huge ftones to pro¬
mote their draining : and when they have drained fufficiently,
they give them their feeding ; which is performed after the
manner following :
For icO of large fiieep fkins, and for fmaller in propor¬
tion, they take eight pounds of alum and three of feadalt,
and melt the whole with water in a veffel over the fire, pour¬
ing the folution out, while yet lukewarm, into a kind oi
trough, in which is twenty pounds of the fineft wheat-flower,
with the yolks of eight dozen of eggs; of all which is formed
a kind of paite, a little thicker than children’s pap ; which,
when done, is put into another veffel, to be ufed in the fol¬
lowing manner.
They pour a quantity of hot water into the trough in
which the paftc was prepared, mixing two fpoonfuls of the
pafte with it; to do which they ufe a wooden fpoon, which
contains juft as much as is required for a dozen of fkins:
and when the whole is well diluted, two dozen of the
fkins are plunged into it ; but they take care that the
water be not too hot, which would fpoil the pafte and burn
the fkins.
After they have lain fome time in the trough they take
them out, one after another, with the hand, and ftretch them
out ; this they do twice : and after they have given them
all their pafte, they put them into tubs, and there full them
afrefh with wooden peftles.
Then they put them into a vatt, where they are fuffered
to lie for five or fix days, or more ; then they take them
out in fair weather, and hang them to dry on cords or racks:
and the quicker they are dried the better ; for if they be
too long a-drying, the fait and alum within them are apt to
make them rife in a grain, which is an effential fault in this
kind of drefllng.
When the fkins are dry, they are made up into bundles,
and juft dipt in fair water, and taken out and drained : they
are then thrown into an empty tub ; and after having lain
fome time are taken out and trampled under foot.
Then they draw them over a fiat iron inftrument, the top
of which is round like a battledore, and the bottom fixed
into a wooden block, to ftretch and open them ; and having
been opened, they are hung in the air upon cords to dry ;
and being dry, they are opened a fecond time, by paffing
them again over the fame inftrument.
In the laft place, they are laid on a table, pulled out, and
laid fmooth, and are then fit for fale.
TAX [Taxa, from the Greek i. e. ordo, trilutum\
a tribute or impofition laid upon the fubjedt for the fupport
of government/ See Revenue.
It is the ancient indifputable privilege and right of the
houfe of commons, that all grants of fubfidies or parliamen¬
tary aids do begin in their houfe, and are firft bellowed by
them ; although their grants are not effeftual to all intents
and purpofes until they have the affent of the other two
branches of the legiflature.
324 ] ' TAX
poffeflion of the houfe of lords; that this property is equal¬
ly taxable, and taxed, as the property' of the commons; and ~“
therefore the commons, not being the foie perfons taxed,
this cannot be the reafon of their having the foie right of
railing and modelling the fupply. The true reafon, arifing
from the fpirit of our conftitution, feems to be this. The
lords being a permanent hereditary body, created at plea-
fure by the king, are fuppofed more liable to be.influenced
by the crown, and when once influenced to continue fo, than
the commons, who are a temporary eledtive body, freely no¬
minated by the people. It would therefore be extremely
dangerous to give the lords any power of framing new taxes
for the fubjedt; it is- fufficient that they have a power of
rejedting, it they think the commons too lavifh or improvi¬
dent in their grants. But fo reafonably jealous are the
commons of this valuable privilege, that herein they will
not fuffer the other houfe to exert any power but that of
rejedfing. They will not permit the leaft alteration or
amendment to be made by the lords to the mode of taxing
the people by a money-bill: under which appellation are in¬
cluded all bills by which money is diredfed to be laifed up¬
on the fubjedt, for any purpofe or in any fhape whatfoeverj
either for the exigencies of government, and colledted froni
the kingdom in general, as the land-tax ; or ior private be¬
nefit, and colleded in any particular diftridt, as by turn¬
pikes, parifti-rates, and the like. Yet Sir Matthew Hale
mentions one cafe, founded on the pradtice of parliament in
the reign of Henry VI. wherein he thinks the lords may al¬
ter a money-bill: and that is, if the commons grant a tax,
as that of tonnage and poundage, for four years ; and the
lords alter it to a lefs time, as for two years : here, he fays,
the bill need not be fent back to the commons for their
concurrence, but may receive the royal afient without far¬
ther ceremony ; 'for the alteration ot the lords is confift-
ent with the grant ot the commons. But luch an experi¬
ment will hardly be repeated by the lords, under the pre-
fgnt improved idea of the privilege of the houfe oi com-%
mons ; and, in any cafe where a money bill is remanded to
the commons, all amendments in the mode of taxation are
lure to be rejedted.
The commons, when they have voted a fupply to his ma-
jefty, and fettled the quantum of that fupply, ufually refolve
themfelves into what is called a committee of ways and means,
to confider the ways and means of railing the iupply fo vo¬
ted. And in this committee every member (though it is
looked upon as the peculiar province of the chancellor of
the exchequer) may propole inch icheme of taxation as he
thinks will be leaft detrimental to the public. The refolu-
tions of this committee (when approved by a vote ot the
houfe) are in general efteemed to be (as it were) i-inal and
conclufive. For though the fupply cannot be adtually rai¬
led upon the iubjedl "till diredfed by an aft of the whole
parliament, yet no monied man will fcruple to advance to
the government any quantity of ready cafh, on the credit
ot a bare vote of the houfe of commons, though no law be
yet palled to eltablilh it.
The taxes which are railed upon the fubjedt are either an¬
nual or perpetual.
I The ufual annual taxes are thofe upon land and malt.
See Land and Malt.
II. The oerpetual are, 1. The cuftoms. 2. The excife-
duty. 3. The falt-duty. 4. The poll-office.^ 5. The
ftamp-duty. 6. Houfe and window duty. 7. The duty-
on hackney-coaches and chairs. 8. That on offices and
Tat.
See Commons. The general
reafon given for this exclufive privilege of the houfe of com¬
mons is, that the fupplies are raifed upon the body of the   ,
people, and therefore it is proper that they alone fhould penfions.—See the articles Customs, Lxcise, rosr,
have the right of taxing themfelves. This reafon would be Stamp, House, Hackney, and Offices and Pcnfions.
nnanfwerable, if the commons taxed none but themfelvcs: but As to the application of all thefe, fee the articles Reve-
ft is notorious, that a very large lhare of property is ia the nue, National Debt, Funds, and Chil List.
4
TAX-
TAX [3
TAXATION. See Revenue, Tax, and Fhotiai Syjletn.
TAXUS, the Yew tree, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of dicecia, and order of monodAphta ;
and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 51ft order, Co-
niCera. The male calyx is triphyllous, gemmaceous, and
imbricated : there is no corolla ; the (lamina are numerous ;
the antherae peltated and oftofid. The female calyx refem-
fcles the male ; there is no corolla nor ftyle, and only one
feed with a calycle refembling a berry very entire. There
are only two fpccies mentioned by Tinnaeus, the baccata
and nucifera. M. Somterat has added a third, called capen-
fs ; and Sir Charles Thunberg has inferted two more, the
macrophylla and verticellata, in his Flora 'Japonica.
The baccata, or common yew tree, is a native of Britain,
France, Switzerland, &c. and of North America. It is
diltinguifhed from the other fpecies by linear leaves which
grow very clofe, and by the receptacles o( the male flowers
being fubglobofe. 1 he wood is reddifh, full of veins, and
flexible, very hard and fmooth, and almoft incorruptible.
Its hardnefs renders it very proper for turners and cabinet¬
makers. It produces berries which are red, mucilaginous,
and have a fweet mawkifh tafte. They are often eaten by
birds, and are therefore not poifonous: But it is a common
opinion that the leaves are poifonous to cattle, and many
fafts are mentioned of horfes and cows having died by eat¬
ing them. Others, however, deny thefe fadls. It is found
in feveral parts of the Highlands of Scotland in a wild
ftate. At Glenlure, near Glen-Cretan, in Upper I.orn,
are the remains of an old wood ot it. The place takes its
name from the trees which grow in it; for Glenlure in the
Gaelic language is no other than a corruption of Gleaniuir,
i. e. “ The valley of yew trees.” It is of no great hei ht,
but the trunk grows to a large fize. Mr Pennant has ta¬
ken notice of a very remarkable decayed one in Fortingal
church-yard, the remains of which meafured 56 feet and an
half in circumference.
. The yew is at prefent almofl peculiar to church-yards ;
hence fome naturalifls fufpedl that it is an exotic. Several
reafons have been affigned for its frequency in church-yards.
The firfl' is, that before the invention of gunpowder the
warrior might never be at a lofs for a bow. This is an opi¬
nion for which we have found no hiftorical evidence; and till
fome be produced it is confidered merely as a conjefture.
There are feveral laws enabled by our forefathers for encou¬
raging archery, but none of them mention the cultivation of
the yew. The bows ufed in England were indeed made fre¬
quently of yew, but it was yew of foreign growth. In the
reign of Elizabeth, a bow of the bed forei gn yew fold for
6 s. 8 d. while one made of Engliflr yew fold only for 2 s.
In 12 Edw. IV. it was ordained that every foreign mer¬
chant. that ihould convey any goods from any country from
which bow (laves had formerly been brought to this coun¬
try, (hould for every ton of goods bring four bow-(laves.
A fimilar law was framed in the time of Richard III. It
appears therefore that the church-yards did not fuppiy the
nation with bows.
A fecond opinion concerning the introduftion of yew
trees into church yards is, that they were intended to de¬
fend the church againfl: (forms. But there are many other
trees that would have anfwered this purpofe much better ;
for the yew is of fo (low a growth, that it would be long
before it could be of any (ervice at all, and is fo low that it
could never be a fufflcient flicker. A third opinion is, that
being an evergreen, it is an emblem of immortality. This
is a pretty idea ; but the misfortune is, that yew is always
cop.iidered as a tree of baleful influence. This opinion is as
old as Statius, who fays, mtiuoida fucco taxus. A fourth
25 j 1 . " 1
opinion is, that when anciently it was the cuilom, as it Hill
is in Catholic countries, to carry palms on Palm-Sunday, —
the yew was fubllituted on fuch occafions for the palm.
Two or three trees, the ufual number growing in church¬
yards, were fufficient for fuch purpofes. This is the only
opinion which receives any countenance from hiftory. The
following e-xtra& from Caxton’s Direftion for keeping
Feafts all the Year, printed in 1483, will probably be confi¬
dered as decillve on this lubjerit. It is taken out of the lec¬
ture for Palm-Sunday ; where the writer, after giving the
fcriptural account of our Saviour’s triumphant entrance into
Jerufalem, proceeds thus: “Wherefore holy chirche this
day makyth folempne proceflyon, in mynd of the proceffyon
that Cryft made this day. But for enchefon that we have
non olyue that berith grene leef, algate therefore <we take
eave in Jlede of palme and olyue, and beren about in proceflyon,
and fo is thys day callyd Palme Sunday.” As a confirma¬
tion of this (aft, we may add, that the yews in the church¬
yards of Eaft Kent are at this day called palms.
TAY, called by the Romans Favus or Fans, the larged
river in Scotland. It rifes in Bnidalhane, on the frontiers of
Lorn ; and having in the pafh.ge of a few miles augmented
its dream by the accellion of feveral fmall rills, ip reads it-
felf into a lake called Loch Dochart; out of which having
run but a little fpace, it expands itfelf again. Leaving this-
fecond lake, it rolls fome miles with a confiderable body of
water, and then diffufes iticlf abroad in the fpacious Loch.
Tay ; which, reckoning from the fources of the river, is 24
miles in length, though, ftri&ly fpeaking, the lake is but
1 ^ : almoft as foon as it iflues from hence, it receives the ri¬
ver Lyon, coming out of Loch Lyon, and running throu-h
Glen Lyon ; which, having travelled in a manner parallel to
it, from its (outce, for a (pace of 25 miles, at length joins
the Tay as it enters Athol, which it next traveifes, and,
diredling its courfe in a manner due eaft, receives almoft
all the waters of that country. Bending then to the fouth,
at the diftance of fix miles, it reaches Dunkeld ; which, in
the language of our anceftors. fignifies “ the hill of hazels,”
was the very centre of the old Caledonia, and is at pre¬
fent eileemed the heart of the Highlands. The liver is
very broad here, infomuch that there is a ferry-boat over it
at each end of the town. Declining (till to the fouth-eaft,
with a winding courfe, for above 12 miles, the Tay receives-
a large fuppiy of waters from the county of Angus ; and
then running fouth-weft for eight miles more, is joined in.
that fpace by feveral rivers, the mod confiderable of which,
is the Almond. Turning then to the fouth eaft, at the di¬
ftance of about three miles, this copious river comes with a,
{welling dream to Perth, or St Johnfton’s, which is the capi¬
tal of the (hire of that name.
The Pay, continuing dill a fouth-eaft courfe, receives, a
few miles below Perth, the river Erne ; which, ifiuing from
a loch of the fame name, traverfes the county of Strathern^
and pafles by Abernethy, once the capital of the Pidlifii
kingdom ;. (welled by tire waters of this laft river, the Lay,
running next diredlly eaft, enlarges irielf till it becomes
about three miles broad ; hut contrails again before the
town of Dundee ; loon after which it opens into the Ger¬
man ocean. At the entrance o* the frith, there are funds
both on the north and on the fouth fide • the former ftyled
Goa, the latter dberlay and Drumlan ; and before thefe, in,
the very mouth of the frith, thofe which are called the Croft
Sands. At Buttonnefs, which is the northern promontory,
there are two light houfes. The (pace between the north
and the fouth fands may he near a mile, with about three
fathoms wrater ; but bein- within the frith, it grows deeper,
and in the road of Dundee is full fix fathoms. 1 he frith
of
T A Y r 32
of Tay is not indeed fo lar /e or fo commodious as that of
Forth, but from Buttonnefs to Perth it is not lets than ,40
miles ; and the whole may be, without any great impropne*
ty, Ityled a harbour, which has Fire on one lide, and the
fiiires of Perth and Angus on the other, both very fertile
and pleafant countries.
TAYLOR (Dr Jeremy % bilhop of Down and Connor
in Ireland, was the f >n of a barber at Cambridge, and there
had his education. Upon entering into orders, he became
divinity kfturer of St Paul’s in London; and was, by the
interelt of archbifhop Laud, elected fellow of All foul’s
college, Cambridge, in 1636. Two years alter he became
one of the chaplains of the archbifhop, who beftowed on
him the reftory of Uppingham in Rutlandfliire. In 1642
lie was chaplain to the king ; and a frequent preacher before
him and the court at Oxford. Fie afterward attended in
the king’s army in the condition of a chaplain. Upon the
declining of his majtfly's caufe, he retired into Wales, where
he was permitted to officiate as miniiler, and to keep a fchool,
in order to maintain himfelf and his children. In this re¬
tirement he wrote feveral of his works. Having fpent fe-
vetal years there, his family was vifited with heknefs ; and
he loft three ions of great hopes within the fpace of two or
three months. This afflidlion touched him fo feniibly, that
it made him defirous to leave the country ; and, going to
London, he for a time officiated in a private congregation
of loyalifts to his great hazard. At length meeting with
Edward lord Conway, that nobleman carried him over with
him into Ireland, and fettled him at Portmore, where he
VTOte his DuBor Dubitantium. Upon the Reftoration he
returned to England ; foon after, he was advanced to the
hiihopric of Down and Connor in Ireland ; and had the ad-
miniftration of the fee oLDromore granted to him. He
was likewife made privy-counfellor and vice-chancellor of
the univerfity of Dublin ; which place he held till his death.
He died of a fever at Lifnegarvy in 1667, and was interred
in a chapel which he himfelf had built on the ruins of the
old cathedral of Dromore.
Tavlor (Dr Brook), was horn at Edmonton, Anguft;
)8th 1685. He was the fon of John Taylor, Efq; of liif-
ron’s-houfe in Kent, by Olivia, daughter of Sir Nicholas
Tempelt, of Durham, Baronet. His grandfather, Natha¬
niel TayW, was one of thofe puritans whom “ Cromwell
thought fit to eleft by a letter, dated June 14th 1653, to
repreient the county of Bedlord in parliament.” The cha¬
racter of his father partook in no fmall degree of the aulfe-
rity that had been tranfmitted to him in the line of his an-
cefiors, and by the fpirit of the times in which they lived ;
and to this caufe may be aferibed the difaffe&ion which
iometimes fubfifted between the father and even Inch a fon
as is the fuhjeft of this article. The old gentleman’s mo-
rofe temper, however, yielded to the powers of mufic ; and
the moft eminent profefTors of the art in that period were
hofpitably welcomed in his houfe. His fon Brook was in-
duced, by his natural genius, and by the difpofition of his
lather, which he wiihed by all the means in his power to
conciliate, to diredl his particular attention to mufic ; and he
became in very early life a diltinguifhed proficient in it. 
“ a large family-piece, he is reprefented at the age of 1 3'
fitting in the centre of his brothers and fillers ; the two elder
ct whom, Olivia and Mary, crown him with laurel, bearing
the infignia of harmony.”
Po mufic he added another accomphihment, in which he
equally excelled. “ His drawings and paintings, of which
fome are ftill prelerved, require not thofe allowances for er¬
ror or imperfe&ion with which we fcan the performances of
even the fuperior dilettanti:—they will bear the tell of feru-
Smy and criticifm from artifts themfelves, and thofe of the
; ] t a y
fir ft genius and pro Yffironal abilities.” Though he was end- Taylor,
iient m the culture and practice both of mufic and drawing —-y—*
in Iris early youth, his whole attention was not occupied by
thefe fnfcmating arts. His claffical education was condudf-
ed at home under a private tutor ; and his proficiency in the
ordinary branches of the languages and the mathematics was
fo great, that lie was deemed qualified for the univerfity at
the early age of 15.
In 1701 he was entered a Fellow Commoner of St John’s
College, Cambridge. At that period mathematics enga.
ged more particularly the attention of the univerfity ; and
the examples of eminence in the learned world, derived from
that branch of fcience, attratted the notice and roufed the
emulation of every youth pofTeffed of talents and of applica¬
tion. We may ptefume, that Brook Taylor, from the very
hour of his admifuon at college, adopted the courfe of ftudy
which a Machin, a Keil, and, above all, a Newton, had
opened to the mind of man, as leading to difcoveiies of the
celeflial fyftem.—That he applied early to thefe ftudies, and
without remiffiion, is to be inferred from the early notice
and kind attention with which he was honoured by thofe
eminent perlons, and from the extraordinary progrefs wdiich
he made in their favourite fcience.”
In -708 he wrote his treatife On the Centre of Ofcilh-
tion, which was not publiffied in the Philofophical Tranf-
a&ions till fome years afterwards. In 1709, betook his
degree of Bachelor of Laws. In 1712, he was chofen a
fellow of the Royal Society. During the interval between
thefe two periods, he corrdponded with Profeffior Keil on
feveral of the moft abftrufe fubjedls of mathematical difqui-
fition. Sir William Young informs us, that he has in his
poffeflion a letter, dated in 1712, addreffied to Mr Machin,
which contains at length a folution of Kepler’s problem,
and marking the rife to be derived from that folution. In
this year he prefented to the Royal Society three different
papers: one On the Afeent of Water between two Glais
Planes ; a fecond, On the Centre of Ofcillation ; and a third,
On the Motion of a ftretched String. It appears from his
correfpondence with Keil, that in 1713 he prefented a pa¬
per on his favourite fubjedt of Mufic : but this is not prefer-
ved in the Tranfa&ions.
His diftinguifhed proficiency in thofe branches of fcience,
which engaged the particular attention of the Royal Socie¬
ty at this period, and which embroiled them in contefis
with foreign academies, recommended him to the notice of
its moft illuftrious members ; and in 1714 he was elefted to
the office of fecretary. In this year he took at Cambridge
his degree of Doctor of Laws; and at this time he tranfmit¬
ted, in a letter to Sir Hans Sloane, An Account of fome
curious Experiments relative to Magnetifm ; which, how¬
ever, was not delivered to the Society till many years after¬
ward, when it was printed in the Tranfa&ions. His appli¬
cation to thofe ftudies to which his genius inclined was in¬
defatigable : for we find that in 1715 he publiffied in Latin
his Method us Incrementorum ; alfo a curious effay preferved
in the Philofophical Franfadtions, entitled An Account of
an Experiment for the Difeovery of the Laws of Magnetic
Attraction ; likewife a treatife well known to mathemati¬
cians, and highly valued by the heft judges, On the Princi¬
ples of I.ineav Perfpeftive. In the fame year (fuch were
his admirable talents, and fo capable were they of being di¬
rected to various fubjefts), he conducted a controverftai cor¬
refpondence with the Count Raymond de Montmort, on
the Tenets rif Maltbranche ; which occafioned his being
particularly noticed in the eulogium pronounced by the
French academy on the deceafe of that eminent metaphyii-
cian.
The new philofophy of Newton (as it was then called)
en-
T A Y [ 3
I rayVir. engaged the attention of mathematicians and phllofophers
—v  both at home and abroad. At Paris it was in high efti-
inatiou ; and the men of fcience in that city were dehrous
of obtaining a perfonal acquaintance with the learned fecrc-
tary of the Royal Society, whofe reputation was fo general¬
ly acknowledged, and who had particularly diftingutihed
liimfelf in the Leihnitzian or German controverfyr, as wc
may denominate it, of that period. In confequence of ma¬
ny urgent invitations, he determined to vilit his friends at
Paris in the year 1716. Pie was received with every pof-
fible token or affection and refpedt; and had an opportuni¬
ty of difplaying many traits of character, which mark the
general fcholar and accomplifhed gentleman, as well as the
t rofound matlrematician. His company wras courted by
all “ w'ho had temper to enjoy, or talents to improve, the
charms of focial intercourfe.” Befrdes the mathematicians,
to whom he had always free accefs, he was here introduced
to Lord Bolin gb> oke,- the Count de Caylus, and Bifhop
Bofluet. “ He infpired partiality on his irrft addrefs; he
gained imperceptibly on acquaintance ; and the favourable
imjnrffions nhich he made from genius and accompli dam ents,
he fixed in further intimacy by the fundamental qualities of
benevolence and integrity."
Among the ladies who honoured Dr Brook Taylor with
a particular regard, we may mention the names of Marcilly
de Villette, and of Mifs Brunton, the beautiful and accom-
pllfiied niece of Sir Ifaac Newton.
Early in 17*7 ^ie returned to London, and compofed
three treatifes, which were prefented to the Royal Society,
and publUhed in the 30th volume of the Tranfadlons. A-
bout this time his intenfe application had impaired his health
to a comiderable degree ; and he was under the necefiity of
repaiiino-, for relaxation and relief, to Aix-la-Chapelle.
Having hkewife a defire of direfxing his attention to fubjecls
cf moral and rdf nous peculation, he refigned his office of
fecretary to the Royal Society hr 1718.
After his return to England in 1719, he applied to fub-
jeefs of a very different kind from thofe that had employed
the thoughts and labours of his more early life. Amon*^
Ids paptrs of tins date. Sir William Young has found de¬
tached parts of A Treatife on the Jewiffi Sacrifices, and a
differtation of confiderahle length On the Lawfulnefs of
eating Blood. He did not, however, wholly negledt his
former fubjefts of liudy, but employed Ins leifure hours in
combining fcience and art ; with this view he reviftd and
improved his treatiie on Linear Perfpedive. Drawing con¬
tinued to oe his favourite amulement to his latefl hour ; and
it is not improbable, that his valuable li e w'as ffiortened by
the fedentary habits which this arnufernent, fucceedimr his
feverer iludies, occafioned.
“ He drew figures wuth extraordinary precifion and beau-
H of pencil. Landfcape wras yet his favourite branch of
cieugn. His original landfcapes are moflly painted in wa-
tei colours, but v.itn all the richnefs and ilrength of oils.
I hej uave a force of colour, a freedom of touch, a varied
difpoi.rfon oi plane* of diflance, and a learned ufe o; aerial
as well as Imear pcrfpedlive, which all profeffional men who
have feen thefe paintings liave admired. Some pieces are
compofitjons ; fome are drawn from nature ; and the gene-
r.n characienflic of their effedl may be exemplified, in fup-
pofmg the bold fore-grounds of Salvator Rofa to be backed
by the fucceffion of didances, and mellowed by the fober
fiarmony, which diffinguifh the productions of Gafpar Pcuf-
fn. The final! figures interfperfed in the landfcapes would
chela’’6 <il^race<i ^ie Peric^ corrtdt and claffic Ni-
1 he work of J)r Brook Taylor in linear perfpedtive was
centred by Bernoulli, in a treatife publiffied in the Adis
27 ] T A Y
of Leipfic, as f£ abftrufe to all, and as unintelligible to ar- Tayfor.
this for whom it was more efpeciaHy written.” It mull be v
acknowledged that this excellent work, for fo it deferves to
be called, was not level to the apprehenfions of practitioners
in the art of drawing and defign : but it was much edeem-
ed by mathematicians. Three editions of it have been pub-
lifhed ; and as it is now icarce, a republication of it in its
mod improved and perfeCt date would be very acceptable.
Mr Kirby, however, has made it more plain and popular,
in his treatife entitled “ Brook Taylor’s PerfpeClive made
eafy and this book, detailing and illudrating the princi¬
ples of the original work, has been the 'vade mecum of ar-
tills. Dr Brook Taylor was incenfed by the invidious at¬
tacks of Bernoulli 3 and he publifhcd An Apology againft.
J. Bernoulli's ObjeClions, which may be feen in the 30th
volume of the Philofophical TranfaClions. Bernoulli, with
his ufual envy of Britifh mathematicians, had difputed our
author’s right to his own work. We have no reafon to doubt
Dr Taylor’s claims to the undecided difeovery of the me¬
thod which he deferibes, though he is not an original inven¬
tor. I his method was lontr before publifhed by Guido U-
baldi, in his PerfpeClive, printed at Pefaro in j6oo; where
it is delivered very clearly, and confirmed by moft elegant
demonftrations ; and where it is aClually applied to the art
of delineating the feenes of a theatre.
Toward the'end of the year 1720, Dr Brook Taylor
accepted the invitation of Lord Bolir.gbroke to fpend fome
time at La Source, a country-feat near Orleans, which he
held in right of his wife, the widow of the Marquis de Vil¬
lette, nephew of Madame de Maintenon. During his refi-
dence at this beautiful fpot, he fixed and cemented a
friendfhip with its noble owners which terminated only with
life.
In the next year he returned to England, and publifhed
the lad paper which appears with his name in the Philofo-
pnieal i ranfa.Clions, entitled, An Experiment made to af-
certain the Proportion of Expanlion of Liquor in the Ther¬
mometer, with regard to the degree of Heat.
In 1721, Dr Brook 1 aylor married Mifs Bridges of
W allington in the county of Surry, a young lady of good
family, but 01 fmall fortune ; and this marriage occafioned a
rupture with his father, whofe confent he had never obtain¬
ed. The deafli of this lady in 1725, and that of an infant
fon, whom the parents regarded as the prefage and pledge
of reconciliation with the father, and who aClually proved
fuch, deeply Heeled the fenfibility of Dr Taylor. How-
ev2>-, during the two fuccecding years he refided with his
father at Bifrons, where “ the mufical parties, fo agreeable
to his talle and early proficiency, and the P.ffe&ionate atten¬
tions of a numerous family welcoming ?.n amiable brother,
fo long eft ranged by paternal refentment, not only foothed
his forrows, but ultimately engaged turn to a feene of coun¬
try retirement, and demefticated and fixed his habits of life.
He could no more recur to the defultory refources and cold
folace of fociety, which cafual vifits, flight acquaintance, and
diftant friendfhip*, afford the man—who hath non: to make,
and cheer a conftant home.”
in 1725 he formed a new conneClion ; and with the full
approbation of- his father and family, married Sabetta,
daughter of John S&wbridge, Efq; of Olantigh, in Kent’
In 1729, on the death of his father, he fucceeded to the fa¬
mily eftate of Bifrons. In the following year he loft his-
wife in child-bed. The daughter whofe birth occafioned
this melancholy event lurvived, and became the mother of
Mr w uham \ oung, to whom we owe thefe memoirs cf his
grandfather.
In the interval that clapfed between the years 1721 and
1 73°> no production by Brock Taylor appears in the Phi-.
3 lofophicat
T E A [ 3:
Taylor, lofoublcal Tranfaftions ; nor did he publifh in the courfe of
ea* that time any work. His biograoher has found no traces
“ v—"” {u*8 le3rned labour, excepting a Treatife of Logarithms,
which was committed to his friend Lord Paifley (aTer-
ward Abercorn), in order to be prepared for the prels ; but
which probably was never printed. Plis health was now
much impaired ; relaxation became neceffary, and he was di¬
verted by new connexions from the habit of fevere ftudy,
which had diftinguilhed the early period of his life, and
which had contributed to contraX the duration of it. Hap¬
py in the focial circle of domeftic enjoyment, and devoting
his attention to bufmefs or amufement as they occurred, his
application and his literary emulation feem to have decli¬
ned. He did not long furvive the lofs of his fecond wife ;
and his remaining days were days of increaling imbecillity
and forrow.
“ The effhy entitled Contemplatw Philofophica, publifhed
by Sir William Young, 1 793, appears to have been written
about this time, and probably with a view to abltraX his
mind from painrul recolle&ions and regret. It was the ef¬
fort of a Itrong mind, and is a moft remarkable example of
the clofe logic of the mathematician applied to metaphy-
fics. But the blow was too deep at heart for ftudy to af¬
ford more than temporary relief. The very refource was
hurtful, and intenfe ftudy but accelerated the decline of his
health. His friends offered every comfort; in particular
Lord Bolingbroke preffed his confolation, and fought to
call his mind from regret of domeftic endearments to focial
frier.dfhip at Dawley.
The attention and kindnefs of his friends, however, could
not ward off the approaches of diffolution. “ Having fur-
vived his fecond wife little more than a year, Dr Brook
Taylor died of a decline in the 46th year of his age, De¬
cember the 29th 1731, and was buried in the church-yard
of St Ann’s, Soho. I am fpared (fays his defcendant) the
neceffity of clofing this biographical fketch with a prolix de¬
tail of his charaXer : in the bell acceptation of duties rela¬
tive to each fituation of life in which he was encaged, his
own writings, and the writings of thofe who bell knew him,
prove him to have been the ftnifhed Chriftian, gentleman,
and fcholar.”
Taylor (Dr John), a learned diffenting minifter, born
in Lancalhire. He fettled hr ft at Kirkftead in Lincoln-
fhire, where be preached to a fmail congregation, and taught
a grammar fchool for near 20 years. Afterward he remo¬
ved to Norwich, where he preached many years in great
repute, until he was invited to fuperintend the academy
■: formed at Warrington in Lancafhire : but a few idle diffe¬
rences on formal punXilios and uncertain doXrines kindled
into fuch a flame there, as fubjeXed him to much fcurrility
and ill treatment, and endangered the very being of the
academy. He died in 1761 ; and among feveral other ju¬
dicious performances, his Hebrew and Englifh Concordance,
2 vols folio, will remain a monument of his critical ikill and
indefatigable induftry.
Pay ion.-Bird. See Motacilla.
tea, the dried leaves of the tea plant.—A com¬
modity with which we are fo well acquainted, which af¬
fords a beverage fo generally ufed and fo generally agree¬
able, and which forms io coniiderable an article of com¬
merce, muff excite the curiofity of the public at large to
know fomething of its hiftory, and of the nature of the
(a) Thunberg fays, that three of the petals are exterior
(b) In a flower received from J. Ellis, Efq; upwards of
(c) Kempfer defcribes the antheras as.Angle.
3 ] TEA
plant from which it is obtained. We are lorry that we can Tea.
neither gratify their curiofity nor our own completely. We
have confulted all the botanical books to which we had ac-
cefs, and we believe we have had accefs to the bell, yet we
have not been able to difcever with certainty whether there
be various fpecies of the tea plant ; or whether all the dif¬
ferent kinds of tea, fo unlike to one another in their fla¬
vour, and ftrength, and colour, be derived from one Angle
fpecies. As an apology for this imperfeXion in botanical
knowledge, it is proper to obferve, that the country of
which the tea plant is a native is hidden from the exploring
eye of the philofopher ; that it is jealous of Europeans, and
feldom gives them an opportunity of Undying its produc¬
tions. While we apologize for the ignorance of Europeans
in this point, and ftncerely regret it, we fltall be careful to
feleX every important f?.X, that we may prefent our read¬
ers with as accurate and complete an account as our mate¬
rials can fupply. »
The tea plant is a native of Japan, China, and Tonquin,
and has not, as far as we can learn, been found growing
fpontaneoufly in any other parts of the world. Linnasus ar¬
ranged it under the clafs of po/yandria, and order of monogy-
nla. We are told he was led into this millake from having
no fpecimens of the flower to examine but fuch as were dri¬
ed. If Linnaeus has in this arrangement fallen into error,
it is furprifing that he has not been correXed by one who
had the* bell opportunity of examining the matter. Sir
Charles Thunberg, one of the moft diftinguifhed pupils of
that illuftrious botanift, who rehded 16 months in Batavia
and Japan, has given a full botanical defcription of the tea
plant; and having claffed it in the fame manner as his ma¬
iler, fays exprefsly that it has only one ftyle. Several of
the Britifh botanifts, on the other hand, refer it to the order
of trigynia; deriving their authority from a plant in the
Duke of Northumberland’s garden at Sion-houfe, which had
three ftyles.
Linnseus fays that there are two fpecies of the tea plant;
the bohea, the corolla of which has fix petals ; and the "vi-
ridis or green tea, which has nine petals. Thunberg makes
only one fpecies, the bohea, confiding of two varieties ; the
one with broad and the other w'th narrow leaves. This
botanift’s authority is deciiive reipeXing the Japanefe tea
plants ; but as China has not yet been explored, we cannot
determine what number of fpecies there are in that country.
Of the bohea plant we have been favoured with a beautiful
drawing, and an accurate botanical defcription, by a learned
gentleman, which we fhall here prefent to our readers.
Calyx. K, fig. 1, 2, 2, 10. a perianthium quinquepar-
tite, very fmall, flat, the fegments round, obtufe, permanent.
Fig. 1. K.
Cordla. C, fig. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8. the petals fix, round-
ifh, concave ; two exterior (fig. 4, 7-) CC ; lefs, unequal,
incloftng the flower before fully blown (fig. 3.) C ; four
interior (fig. 5, 6.) CCCC ; large, equal, before they fall
off recurvate (fig. 8.) CC ; (a).
Stamens. /, fig. 6, 9, 10, 11. the filaments numerous
(b) fig. 6, q-f a ; about 200 ; filiform, white, fhorter than
the corolla, and inferted in the receptacle; a, the antheras
cordate; and didymous (fig. 10, 11.) *, magnified (c).
PyiiUum. Fig. 1, 10, 12. * magnified; g, the germen,
three globular bodies joined in a triangular form ; s, tire
ifyles, three, conneXed at their bale (fig- I20 > fubulate.
and three inferior.
280 filaments were told.
»
1
» '•
T«.
TEA [329! TEA
recurvate, of the length of the ftamens, prefled together, and of three years growth. In feven years Jt rlfes to a man’s
r«a.
' as if united in one by the thickfet furrounding ilamens id)
fig- 9, 10. ; but after the petals and ftamens have fallen
off they part, fpread open, increafe in length, and wither
on the germen, fig. 1, 1 2. ; the ffigmas fimple, /, fig. 1, 9,
ic, 12.
Pericarpinm. P, fig. I, 13, t 4. a capfule in the form
three globular bodies united, fig. 13. triiocular, fig. 14. ga¬
ping at the top in three direftions, fig. J 3.
Seeds. S, fig. 14. fingle, globofe, angulate on the inward
fide.
Trunk. T, fig. 1. ramofe, lignous, round ; branches al¬
ternate, vague, ftiffifh, inclining to afh colour, towards the
top reddifh ; the peduncles axillary, p, fig. I. alternate,
fingle, curved, uniflorous, incraffate, fig. x, 2, 7. ftipulate,
the ffipula finale ; fubulate, eredt, d, fig. x, 2, 7, 9.
Leaves. F, fig. I, ry, 16, 17. alternate, elliptical, ob-
tuiely ferrated, with the edges between the teeth recurvate,
with the apex emarginate (e) * magnified, fig. 15. e, at the
bafe very entire, fig. 16, 17. the furface fmooth, gioffy,
bullate, venole on the under fide, of a firm texture, petio-
late ; the petiols very ihort, b, fig. 1, 16, 17. round on the
under fide, gibbous, fig. \6. by* magnified ; on the upper
file flattifh and (lightly channelled, fig. 17. 1.
The tea plant, which is an evergreen, grows to the height
of five or fix feet; Le Compte fa^s ten or twelve. The leaves,
which are the only valuable part of it, are about an inch
and a half long, narrow, indented, and tapering to a point,
like thole of the fweet briar, and of a dark green colour.
The root is like that of the peach tret', and its flowers re-
femble thofe of the white wild rofe. The ftem fpreads into
many irregular branches. The wood is hard, of a whi-
tifh green colour, and the bark is of a greenifh colour,
with a bitter, naufeous, and aftringent tafte. The fruit is
fir!all, and contains ieveral round blaekilh feeds, about the
bignefs of a bean or large pea.
This plant delights in valleys, is frequent on the Hoping
fides of mountains and the banks of rivers, where it enjoys
a fouthem expofure. It flourifhes in the northern latitudes
of Pekin as well as round Canton, but attains the greateft
perfection in the mild temperate regions of Nankin. It is
laid only to be found between the 30th and 45th degree of
mr th latitude. In Japan is planted round the borders of
fields, without regard to the foil ; but as it is an important
article of commerce with the Chinefe, whole fields are co¬
vered with it, it is by them cultivated with care. The Abbe
Rochen fays, it grows equally well in a poor as in a rich
foil ; but that there are certain places where it is of a bet¬
ter quality. The tea which grows in rocky ground is fupe-
rior to that which grows in a light foil ; and the worft kind
is that which is produced in a clay foil. It is propagated
by feeds ; from fix to twelve are put into a hole about five
inches deep, itt certain diflahces from each other. The rea-
lon why fo many feeds are fown in the fame hole is faid to
be, that only a fifth part vegetate. Being thus fown, they
grow without any other care. Some, however, manure the
land, and remove the weeds ; for the Chinefe are as fond of
good tea, and take as- much pains to procure it of an excel¬
lent quality, as the Furopeans do to procure excellent
wine.
The leaves are not fit for heing plucked till the flirub be
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
height; but as it then bears but few leaves, it is cut down to
the ftem, and this produces a new crop of frefh (hoots the
following fummer, every one of which hears nearly as many
leaves as a whole fhrub. Sometimes the plants are not cut
down till they are ten years old. We are informed by
Kcempfer, that there are three feafons in which the leaves are
colledted in the ides of Japan, from which the tea derives
different degrees of perieftion.
The firft gathering commences at the end of February or
beginning of March. The leaves are then fmall, tender,
and unfolded, and not above three or four days old : thefe
are called ficki-tfiaa, or “ tea in powder,” becaufe it is pul-
verifed ; it is alio called imperial tea, being generally refer-
ved for the court and people of rank ; and fometimes alfo it
is named bloom tea. It is (old in China for 20 d. or 2 s. per
pound. The labourers employed in colle&ing it do not
pull the leaves by handfuls, but pick them one by one, and
take every precaution that they may not break them.
However long and tedious this labour may appear, they ga¬
ther from 4 to 10 or 15 pounds a-day.
The fecond crop is gathered about the end of March or
beginning of April. At this feafon part of their leaves have
attained their full growth, and the reft are not above half
their (ize. This difference does not, however, prevent them
from being all gathered indiferiminately. They are after¬
wards picked and adorted into different parcels, according
to their age and fize. The youngeft, which are carefully
feparated from the reft, are often fold for leaves of the firft:
crop, or for imperial tea. Tea gathered at this feafon is
called too-tfiaa, or “ Chinefe tea,” becauie the people of
Japan infufe it, and drink it after the Chinefe manner.
The third crop is gathered in the end of May or in the
month of June. The leaves are then very numerous and
thick, and have acquired their full growth. This kind of
tea, which is called Ben-tjiaa^ is the coarfeft of all, and is
referved for the common people. Some of the Japanefe
colledt their tea only at two leafons of the year, which
correfpond to the fecond and third already mentioned;
others confine themfelves to one general gathering of their
crop, towards the month of June : however, they always
form a'terwards different aftortments of their leaves.
The fined and mod celebrated tea of Japan is that which
grows near Ud-fi, a fmall village fituated clofe to the fea,
and not far dillant from Meaco. In the diftrifl of this vil¬
lage is a delightful mountain, having the fame name, the
climate of which is faid to he extremely favourable to the
culture of tea ; it is therefore inclofed by a hedge, and fur-
rounded with wide ditches, which prevent all accefs to it.
The tea flrrubs that grow on this mountain are planted in
regular order, and are divided by different avenues and al¬
leys.
The care of this place is entrufted to people who are or¬
dered to guard the leaves from duft, and to defend them
from the inclemency of the weather. The labourers who
are appointed to colled the tea abftain from every kind of
grofs food for Come weeks before they begin, that their
breath and perfpiration may not in the leaft injure the '
leaves. They gather them with the moft fcrupulous nice¬
ty, and never touch them but with very fine gloves. When
this choice tea has undergone the procefs ntceffary for its
T t
pre-
(d) It was this circumftance that led Linnaeus to place it under the order monogynia.
Je) No author has hitherto remarked this obvious circumftance ; even Koempfer fays the leaves terminate in a Iharp
point.
TEA [ 33C ] T E A . . . .
k efcorted by the fuperintendant of the ftir !t with a tooth-pick until the liquor begiRS to toam; it
preoaratioti, it . .
mountain and a ftrong ‘ uard to the emperor’s court, and re-
krved for the ufe of the imperial family.
As the tea fhrub orows often on the rugged banks' of
fteep fountains, aecefs to which is dangerous, and fome-
times impraiticahle, the Chinefe, in order to come at the
leaves, make ufe of a Angular ftratagem : Thtfe tteep places
are generally frequented by (Treat numbers of monkeys, which
being irritated and provoked, to revenge themfelves tear off
the branches, and {bower them down upon thofe who have
intuited them. The Chinefe immediately collect thefe bran¬
ches, and drip them ot their leaves.
When the tea leaves have been collected, they are expo-
fed to the fleam of boiling' water ; after which they are put
noon plates ot copper, and held over the lire until they be¬
come dry and fhrivelled, and appear fuch as we have them
in Europe. According to the tefiimony of Kcempfer, tea
is prepared in the fame manner in the ifles of Japan. “ Fhere
are to be feen there (fays this traveller) public buildings
ere&ed for the purpofe of pieparing the frelh gathered tea.
Every private perfon who has not luitable conveniences, or
•who is unacquainted with the operation, may carry his
leaves thither as they dry. Thefe buildings contain a great
number of fmall {loves raffed about three feet high, each of
which has a broad plate of iron fixed over its mouth. The
workmen are feated round a large table covered with mats,
and are emoloyed in rolling the tea leaves which are fpread
out upon them. When the iron plates are heated to a cer¬
tain degree by the fire, they cover them with a few pounds
of frefh gathered leaves, which being green and full of lap
crackle as loon as they touch the plate. It is then the bu-
fintfs of the workman to ffir them with his naked hands as
quickly as poffible, until they becomd fo warm that he can¬
not eafily endure the heat. He then takes off the leaves
with a kind of (hovel, and lays them upon mats. The peo¬
ple who are employed in mixing them, take a fmall quanti¬
ty at a time, roll them in their hands always in the fame di*
redtion ; while others keep continually flirring them, in or¬
der that they may cool fooner, and preferve their fhrivelled
figure the longer. This proceis - is repeated two or three
times, and even oftener, before the tea is depofited in the
warehoufes. Thefe precautions are neceffary to extradt all
the moifture from the leaves.-”
The people of Japan and.China generally keep their tea
a year before ufino it. becaufe, when quite frefii and newly
gathered, it poffeffes a narcotic quality which hurts the brain.
Imperial tea is generally preferved in porcelain vales, or in
leaden or tin caniilers covered with fine mats made of bam¬
boo. Common tea is kept in narrow-mouthed earthen pots;
and coarfe tea, the flavour of which is not fo eafily injured,
is packed up in bafkets of ftraw.
An infnfion of tea is the common drink of the Chinefe ;
and indeed when we conlider one circumftance in their fitu-
ation, we mult acknowledge that Providence has dilplayed
much goodnefs in fcattering this plant with fo much profu¬
sion in the empire of China. The water is faid to be un-
wholefome and naufeous, and would therefore perhaps, with¬
out fome corredtive, be unfit for the purpefes of life. The
Chinele pour boiling water over their tea, and leave it to
infule, as we do in Europe ; but they drink it without any
mixture, and even without fugar. The people of Japan re¬
duce theirs to a fine powder, which they dilute with warm
water until it has acquired the confiHence of thin foup.
Their manner of ferving tea is as follows : They place be¬
fore the company the tea equipage, and the box in which
this powder is contained; they fill the cups with warm wa¬
ter, and taking from the box as much powder as the point
of a knife can contain, throw it into each of the cups, and
Tea.
is then prefented to the company, who fip it while it is
w?rm. According to F. du Halde, this method is not pe¬
culiar to the Japanefe ; it is alfo uled in fome of the provin¬
ces of China.
The firfi: European writer who mentions tea is Giovanni
Botero, an eminent Italian author, who publifhed a treatife
about the year 1590, Of the Caufes of the Magnificence
and Greatnefs of Cities. He .does not indeed mention its
name, but deferibes it in fuch a manner that it is. impoffible
to miffake it. “ The Chinefe (fays he) have an herb out
of which they prefs a delicate juice, which ferves them for
drink inftead of wine : it alio preferves their health, and
frees them from all thofe evils which the immoderate ufe of
wine produces among us*.” *Anditfn'i
Tea was introduced into Europe in the year 1610 by r^>ru,
the Dutch Eail India Company. It is generally faid, that™
it was firil imported from Holland into England, in i656,
by the lords Arlington and Offory, who brought it into fa-
fhion among people of quality. But it was ufed in coffiee-
houfes before this period, as appears from an adt of parlia¬
ment made in 1660, in which a duty ot 8 d. was laid on
every gallon of the infufion fold in thele places. In 1666
it was fold in London for 60s. per pound, though it did
not eoft more than 2 s. 6 d. or 3 s. 6 d. at Batavia. It
continued at this price till 1707. _ In 1715 green tea be¬
gan to be ufed ; and as great quantities were then imported,
the price was leffened, and the pradtice of drinking tea dc-
feended to the lower ranks f. In 1720 the trench began f flWWi
to fend it to us by a clandeftine commerce. Since that period Journal,
the demand has been increafing yearly, and it has become al-
moft a necefthry of life in feveral parts of Europe, and among
the lowefl as well as the higheft ranks.
The following table will give an idea of the quantity of
tea imported annually into Great Britain and Ireland fince
17x7
- 700,000 lbs.
- T,2CO,OCO
. 4,ooc,ooo
6,000,000
- 12,000,000
16 to 2',c00,000
quantities imported into Britain
From 1717 to 1726
1732 to 1742
1755 near
1766
1785 about
I 794 from
Befides thefe immenfe
and Ireland, much has been brought to Europe by other
nations. In 1766 the whole tea imported into Europe
from China amounted to 17 millions of pounds ; in * 7^5, ^ ^
it was computed to be about 19 millions of pounds^. vol.i and
Several refearches have been made in Europe to deter- R0!ierifmi
mine whether the tea plant grows fpontaneoufly ; but thefe
refearches have been hitherto in vain. When Captain Cook
vifited Tcneriffe in his laft voyage, Mr Anderfon hrs itrr-
geon was informed by a gentleman of acknowledged vera¬
city, that a fhrub is common near Santa Cruz which agrees
exadfly with the defenption given of the tea-plant by Lin¬
naeus. It is confidered as a weed, and large quantities are
rooted out of the vineyards every year : But the Spaniards
who inhabit the ifland fometimes make ufe of it, and aferibe
to it all the qualities of the tea imported from China. ^ ^
Many attempts have been made to introduce this valuable
plant into Europe; but from want of proper precautions molt
of thefe attempts have mifearried. The ieeds, being of an
oily nature, are apt to srow rancid durin' a long voyage.,
unlefs proper care is taken to preferve them. 1 here are
two methods of preferving thefe feeds: 1 he firft is, to m"
clofe them in wax after they have been dried in the mn ,
the fecond is, to leave them in their hulks, and mot t rem
up clofely in a box made of tin : but neither of thefe me¬
thods has been attended with general iuccefs, whatever
care
7
TEA [ 33i ] TEA
care lias been taken to obtain frdh feeds, or to preferve
The beft me thod would be, to fow frefh feeds in fine
Kg-ht earth immediately on leaving Canton, and to cover them
v’ith wire to fecure them from rats and other animals that
might attack them. The boxes ought not to be too much
expofed to the air, nor to that kind of dew which rifes from
the fea. The earth in the boxes mufl neither be hard nor
drv, and fhould from time to time be gently watered with
frefh or rain water ; and when the (hoots begin to appear,
they ought to be keot in a flight moifture, and dickered
from the fun. The tea-plants to be found in England have
been procured by thefe means only; and though fever?.! of
the young riling (hoots perifhed, the laft method propofed
is probably that which may be followed with greateft fuccefs.
The hneft tea-plant known in England was raifed in Kew
gardens ; it was carried thither by Sir J. Ellis, who brought
it rrem feed : but the firft that ever flourifhed in Europe was
one belonging to the Duke of Northumberland at Sion,
from a drawing of which our engraving is taken. The
plants which are cultivated in the gardens near London
thrive, well in the green-houfe during winter, and fome (land
that feafon in the open air. Linnfeus, who obtained this
fhrub in its growing date, contrived to preferve it in the open
air in the northen latitude of Sweden. France has alfo
procured fome plants. There can be no doubt but they
would fucceed in many countries of Europe, if proper care
were paid to their cultivation till they became inured to one
climate. It will be a great advantage if we c?.n real that
plant, which can never fuffer fo much from change of foil as
from growing mufly during the long voyage from China.
Befides, the demand lor tea is now become fo great, that
the Chinefe find it neceflary, or at leak profitable, to adul¬
terate it. Bad tea is now become an univerfal complaint,
d he Abbd Grofier tells us, that there is a kind of mofs
which grows in the neighbourhood of the little city of Mang-
ing-hien, which is fold as a delicate fpecies of tea. If this
delicious commodity is adulterated in China, can we flatter
©urielves that none comes to us but what is pure and un-
inixed ? How would our fine ladies like to be told, that in-
llead of tea they drink nothing but the infulion of mofs
from the rocks of Mang-ing-hien (f ) ?
Of the chemical qualities and effects of tea on the con-
ffitution, many various and oppoflte opinions have been
formed. About a century ago, Bontikoe, a Dutch phyfi-
clan, bellowed extravagant encomiums on the benefits of
tea. With him it was good for every thing; and any quan¬
tity might be drunk, even to the amount ofi'200 difhes in a
day. Whether Bontikce in this cafe added as 9 phyfician,
or, being a Dutchman, was eager to encoura ;e the iale of
an important article of his country’s commerce, is not eafy
to fay. ,On the .other hand, the pernicious efFcds of tea
upon the nervous fyffem have been often repeated, and very
oppofite effefts have been aicribed to it. Some affirr that
green tea is mildly aflringent; others fay it is relaxing e
Some fay it is narcotic, and procures deep ; while others
contend, that taken before bed-time it* affurediy pre¬
vents it.
^ Dr Lettfom, who has written the Natural Hiftory of the
Tea Tree, made feveral experiments to determine its chemi¬
cal qualities. Lie found an infuiion of it preferved beef
frefh; it is therefore antifeptic: and from its ftriking a
purple colour with the fait (fulphate) of iron, he jultly con¬
cludes that it is aftringent. He concludes alfo, that the ef-
fential qualities of tea refide in its fragrant and volatile
parts.
We have heard much of , the bad effe&s of tea, but we
have neither felt nor obferved it. If it were fo pernicious
as it has been reprefented by fome, its effects mufl certainly
be evident in China, where it is drunk by all ranks ; yet fo
far fi om being thought hurtful in that country, it is in high
ekimation. The prefent emperor has compofed a kind of
eloge on the virtues of tea. We are told by thole who
have written the hiftory of China, that inflammatory dif-
eaies are lefs frequent there than in many other countries,
which is aferibed folely to the liberal ufe of tea. It mufl
be obferved by all, that tea is an antidote againft intempe¬
rance, and that he who relifhes the one feldom runs into
the other. Raynal lays, that tea has contributed more to
the fobriety of this nation than the fevereft laws, the mod
eloquent harangues of Chriftian orators, or the bell trea-
tiles of morality. We have no doubt but it may be hurt¬
ful to fome conftitutions in particular circumftances; but
we fulpeCl that the nervous diforders fo often attributed
to tea, are rather owing to hereditary difeafes, to want of
exerciie, and to irregularity in food or fleep, than to tea.
“ Weak tea drunk too hot (fays Dr Leake) will enervate,
and if very ftrong, may prove equally pernicious by affect¬
ing the head or ftomach. But when it is drunk in modera¬
tion, and not too warm, with a large addition of milk, I
believe it will feldom prove hurtful, but, on the contrary,
falutary. After ftudy or fatigue it is a moft refrefhing and
grateful repaff ; it quenches thirft, and cheers the fpirits,
without heating the blood ; and the pleafing iociety, in
which we io often partake of it, is no inconfiderable
i t 2 addi-
(f) There is very good reafon to believe, that the adulteration of tea is not confined to China. It s praftifed, and
often with too much iuccefs, among ourfelves. Mr Twining, a confiderable tea-dealer in London, publifhed a pamphlet
iome years ago, in which he has expoitd this infamous traffic. The information (he fays) was obtained from a gentleman
who had made very accurate inquiries into this fubjedl.
1 he fmouch for mixing with black teas is made of the leaves of the affi.. When gathered, they are firfl dried in
the fun, then baked : they are next put upon a floor, and trod upon until the leaves are (mall, then fifted and fteeped in
copperas with (keeps dung ; after which, being dried on a floor, they are fit for ufe. There is alfo another mode : When
the leaves are gathered, they are boiled in a copper with copperas and (beeps dung ; when the liquor is drained off, they
are baked and trod upon, until the leaves are fmall, after which they are fit for ufe. The quantity manufa&ured at a
imall village, and within eight or ten miles thereof, cannot be afeertained, but is fuppofed to be about 20 tons in a year.
Une man acknowledges to have made 6co weight in every week for fix months together. The fine is fold at 41. 43*.
/>er cwt. equal to pd. per lb. The coarfe is fold at 2I. 2s. per cwt. equal to 4£d. per lb. Elder buds are manufa&ured’
m lome places to reprefent fine teas.
in 'Ta h°nOUr human nature> we hoPe fuch a traffic as this is not very common ; but if there be, thofe concerned
chafe frnere,wmp ary Puniffi^ent- The only way (Mr Twining fays) to efcape this adulterated tea, is never to pur¬
ely Iron pe f f their teaS t0 ^ at Iower priceS than Senu‘ne teas can bc affordcd i to purchafe them
TEA'
Ttt,
Teacfvers.
addition to its value; for whatever affords rational plea
r 332 1
TEE
the nriindj will always contrioute to bodily
t lure /to
In this country teas are generally divided into three
kinds of green, and five of bohea : I he former are, i. Im
perial or bloom tea, with a large loofe leal, light green co¬
lour, and a faint delicate fmell 2. Hyfon, fo called >rom
the name of the merchant who firft imported it ; the leaves
of which are clofely curled and fmall, of a green colour
verging to a blue: And, 3 Sin,do tea, Irom tne name of
the^place where it is cultivated. The boheas are,. 1. Sou¬
chong, which imparts a yellow green colour by indilion.
2. Camho, fo called from the place where it is made ; a
fragrant tea, with a violet fmell; its inuifion pale. 3- C'on*
go, which has a larger leaf than the following, and its infu-
(ion fomewhat deeper, refembling common bohea in the co¬
lour of the leaf. 4. Pekoe tea ; this is known by the appear¬
ance of fmall white flowers mixed with it. 5. Common bohea,
whofe leaves are of one colour. I here are other varieties,
particularly a kind of green tea, done up in roundifh balls,
called gunpowder tea.
qbje<fl to a man of learning; and we mull foon be fatisfled Tesrhen
with fcboolmafters that can read, wiite, and caft accounts, '■
a little better than the lov/eft of the people, or who from
fome natural deformity are unable to exercife a trade. And
what in this cafe muft become of the minds of the common
peoole ? They muft be totally uncultivated.
We have obferved a great difference between the cultiva¬
tion of the common people in one part of Scotland com¬
pared with another; and,we have found, that wherever a
fchoolmafter is looked upon as a mean profefiion, there is
fcarcely a duly qualified perfon to be found to undertake
the office ; and in thofe places the common people are la¬
mentably ignorant. In other places a rain, where the fchool¬
mafter is confidered as one of the principal perfons in the
parifh, there men of a liberal education, young divines, and
preachers, do not think themfelves difgraced by exercifing
this proteffion ; and there the common people {how a degree
of acutenefs, knowledge, and obfervation, and pofiefs fuch
polifhed manners, as raife them very high above thofe of
their own rank in other parts of the country.
Many and keen have been the debates about a reform of
Ilea gunpowder tea. . , r 1 r, , ; -tl -i
Tea-Tree of New Zealand, is a fpectes of myrtle, of government of late years; but little attention has been paid
• il l- Ku Pnntnin Conk’s -neoole in to the formation of the minds of the common people, who
which an infufion was drunk by Captain Cook’s people in
their voyages round the world. Its leaves were finely aro¬
matic, aftringent, and had a paiticular pleafant flavour at the
firft infufion ; but this went off at the next filling up of the
tea-pot, and a great degree of bitternefs was then extraffted;
for which reafon it was never fuffered to be twice intufed.
In a fine foil in thick forefts this tree grows to a conlider-
able fize ; fometimes 30 or 40 feet in height, and one foot
in diameter. On a hilly and dry expofuie it degenerates
into a ffirub of five or fix inches ; but its ufual fize is about
eight or ten feet high, and three inches in diameter. In
that cafe its Item is irregular and unequal, dividing very
foon into branches, which rife at acute angles, and only
to the formation of the minds of the common people, who
conftitute the greater part of the nation ; of courfe they
are ready to join the rtandard of every feditious demagogue
who founds the alarm of opprefiion ; and fhould they at
length be roufed, their cruelty and barbarity, like the com¬
mon people of France, would be exa£lly in proportion to
their ignorance and want of principle.
We are willing to hope, then, that the government ami
the monied men of the nation, who alone have property to
lofe and money to beftow, will at length find it to be their
intereft to patronize fchoolmafters.
TEAL, in ornithology. See Anas.
TEARS, a lymph or aqueous humour, which is lim-
bear leaves and flowers at top. The flowers are white, and _ pid, and a little ialtifh : it is feparated from the arterial
very ornamental to the whole plant
Mr White, in his Journal of a Voyage to New South
Wales, mentions a ffirub which he calls a tea-tree, merely
from its being ufcd by the convifts as a fuccedaneum for
tea ; for he had not feen the flower, nor did he know to
what genus it belonged. It is a creeping kind of a vine,
running to a great extent along the ground.; the ftalk {len¬
der ; the leaf not fo large as the common bay leaf; the tafle
fweet, exactly like the liquorice root of the ftops.
TEACHERS, perfons employed in conducing the edu¬
cation of the young.
We will venture to fay, that there is no clafs of men to
whom a nation is fo much indebted as to thofe employed in
inttrufting the young : For if it be education that forms
the only diftindlion between the civilized and the favage,
much certainly is due to thofe who devote themfelves to the
office of inftru&ion. It muft be the duty therefore of eve¬
ry ftate to take care that proper encouragement be given to
thofe who undertake this office. There ought to be fuch a
ialary as would render it an ohjeft of ambition to men of
abilities and learning, or at leaft as would keep the teacher
refpeftable. In Scotland, the office of a fchoolmafter was
formerly much more lucrative than at prefent, and moft of
that clafs had received liberal education ; and this is the rea¬
fon why the common people in Scotland have been famous,
even to a proverb, for their learning. But at prefent the
falary of a country fchoolmafter, independent of fees for
fcholars, is not greater than a ploughman can earn, being
fcldom more than L. 8 : 6 : 8, the confequence of which is,
that this, which is in fa& an honourable, becaufe an ufeful
profeffion, is now finking into contempt. It is no longer an
blood by the lachrymal glands and fmall glandulous grains on
the in fide of the eyelids.
TEASELS, a plant cultivated in the weft of England
for the ufe of clothiers. See Dipsacus.
TEBETH, the tenth month of the Jewiffi ecclefiaftical
year, and fourth of the civil. It anfwers to our month of
December.
TECKLENBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Weftphalia, capital of a county of the fame name, with a
caftle built on a hill. It was bought by the king ot Pruf-
fia in 1707. E. Long. 8. 2. N. Lat. 52. 20.
TECHNICAL, txprtffes fomewhat relating to arts or
fciences : in this fenle we fay technical terms. It is aho
particularly applied to a kind of verfes wherein are contain¬
ed the rules or precepts of any art, thus digefted to help the
memory to retain them ; an example whereof may be feen in
the article Memory.
TECTONA, in botany ; a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of pentandria, and order of monogynia. The
ftigma is dentate; the fruit a dry fpongy plum within an
inflated calyx ; and the nucleus is trilocular. There is only
one fpecles, the grandis, Indian oak, or teak wood, which is
a native of India.
TE deum, the name of a celebrated hymn, ufed in the
Chiiftian church, and fo called becaufe it begins with thefe
words, Te Deum laudamus, We praife thee, O God. It is
fung in the Romiffi church with great pomp and folemmty
upon the gaining of a viftory, or other happy event ; and is
believed'to be the compofiuon of St Ambrose biffiop oi
Milan. ,
TEES, a river which rifes on the confines of Cumber*
iand*
!
T E F [ 33.3 ] T' E F
T'e'fc tan?!, and rwnnfna: caftward, divides the county of Dur.
II ham from Yorkfhire, and falls Into the German fea below
^ ^ . Stockton.
TEE TH, the bones placed in the jaws for chewing
food, thst it may be the more eafily di relied in the flo-
mach. The anatomical It rutin re of thefe has already been
defcribed under Anatomy and Comparative Anatomy.
The difeafes to which they are liable, as well as the moll
fuccefsrul remedies for removing them, are fully detailed un¬
der Medicine and Surgery, to which we refer the
reader.
Much attention has been paid to the beauty and prefer-
vation of the teeth among moil nations. The Romans rub¬
bed and wafhed them with great care ; and when they loft
them, fupplied their place with artificial teeth made of
ivory ; and fometimes, when loofe, hound them with gold.
Li 'attires of wire have been found to hurt the natural teeth
with which the artificial are connefted: whereas filken
twill cannot affeft them to any confiderable degree for fe-
veral years.
Guilleman gives us the compofition of a pafte for making
artificial teeth, which lhall never grow yellow : the compo¬
fition is white wax granulated, and melted with a little gum
elemi, adding powder of w hite mallich, coral, and pearl.
When feveral teeth are out in the fame place, it is bell
to make a fet, or the number wanted, out of one piece, all
adhering together, which may be faftened to the two next
of the found or natural teeth. And even a whole fet of ar-
tificial teeth may be made for one or both jaws, fo well fit¬
ted to admit of the neceffary motions, and fo conveniently
retained in the proper fuuation by means of fpri.ngs, that
they will anfwef every purpofe of natural teeth, and may be
taken out, cleaned, and replaced, by the patient himfelf with
great cafe,
' -I he common trick of mountebanks and other fuch prac¬
titioners, is to itfe various vvafhes for teeth, the hidden effetfls
of which, in cleaning and whitening the teeth, iurprife and
pleafe people ; but the effefts are very pernicious. All the
ftrong acid fpirits will do this. As good a mixture as any
thing can be, on this occafion, is the following: take plan-
tane-Avater an ounce, honey of roies two drams, muriatic
acid ten drops; mix the whole together, and rub the teeth
with a piece of linen rag dipped in this every day till they
are whitened. The mouth ought to be well vvafiied with
cold water after the ufe of this or any other acid liquor;
and indeed the bell of all teethwafhes is cold water, with
or without a little fait ; the conftant ufe of this will keep
them clean and white, and prevent them from aching.
Aftei all ihe numerous cures which have been propofed
foi preventing the toothach, we will venture to recommend
the keeping the teeth clean as the moft efficacious, and
avoiding every kind of hot food, efpecially hot liquids, as
tea, &c. i hey who are conftantly ufing powders general¬
ly defttoy their teeth altogether, as the valetudinarian does
his health.
i HING in children. See Medicine.
TEFF, a kind of tirain, fown all over Abyffinia, from
wmch is made the bread commonly ufed throughout the
country. We have no defeription of this plant but from
Mr Bruce, who fays that it is herbaceous ; and that from a
fcumber 01 weak leaves furrounding the root proceeds a ftalk
of about 2b inches in length, not perfectly flraight, fmooth,
but jointed or knotted at particular diftances. This ftalk
»s not much thicker than that of a carnation or jellyflower-
About eight inches from the top, a head is formed of a
num er o finall branches, upon which it carries the fruit
an owtrs , the latter of which is fmall, of a crimfon co-
*uur, and fcarcely perceptible by the naked eye but from
the oppofition of that colour. The piftil is divided into Tiff,
two, feemingly attached to the germ of the fruit, and has
at each end fmall capillaments forming a brufh. The fla- *
mina are three in number ; two on the lower fide of the pi¬
ftil, and one on the upper. Thefe are each of them crown¬
ed with two oval flxgmata, at firft green, but after crimfon.
The fruit is formed in a capfula, confifling of two conical
hollow leaves, which, when doled, feems to compofe a fmall
conical p .pointed at the top. The fruit or" feed is ob¬
long, and is not fo large as the head of the fmalleft pin; yet
it is very prolific, and prochices ,thefe feeds in fuch quan¬
tity as to yield a very abundant crop in the quantity of
meal.
Our author, from the fimilarity of the names, conje&ures
it to be the tipha mentioned, but not defcribed, by Pliny :
but this conjecture, which he acknowledges to be unfup-
ported, is of very little importance.
There are three kinds of meal made from teff, of which
the bell (he fays) is as white as flour, exceedingly light,
and eafily digefted ; the fecond is of a browner colour ; and
the laft, which is the food of foldiers and fervants, is near¬
ly black. This variety he imagines to arife entirely from
the difference of foils in which the feeds are fown, and the
different degrees of moifture to which the plant is expofed
when gtowing. The manner of making the meal or flour
into bread is by taking a broad earthen jar, and having
made a lump of it with water, they put it into an earthen
jar at feme diilance from the fire, where it remains till it
begins to ferment or turn four ; they then bake it into cakes
of a circular form, and about two feet in diameter: it is of
a fpungy foft quality, and not a difagreeable fouriih tafte.
rl wo of thefe cakes a-day, and a coarfe cotton cloth once
a-year, are the wages of a common fervant.
At their banquets of raw meat, the flefli being cut in
fmall bits, is wrapt up in pieces of this bread, with a pro¬
portion of foffil fait and Cayenne pepper. Before the com¬
pany fits down to eat, a number of thefe cakes of different
qualities are placed one upon the other, in the fame man¬
ner as our plates, and the principal people fitting firft down,.,
eat the white tefF; the fecond or coatfer fort ferves the fe¬
cond rate people that fucceed them, and the third is for the
fervants. Every man, when he is done, dries or wipes his
fingers upon the bread which he is to leave for his fuccef-
for, for they have no towels ; and this is one of the moft;
beaflly cuftoms among them.
Ot this teff bread the natives make a liquor, by a procefs
which our author deferibes in the following words : The
bread, when well toailed, is broken into fmall pieces, which
are put into a large jar, and have warm water poured upon
them. It is then fet by the fire, and frequently ftirred ‘or
feveral days, the mouth of the jar- being clofe covered. Af¬
ter being- allowed to fettle three or four days, it acquires a
iourifh taile, and is what: they call bouza, or the- common
beer of the country. The bouza in Atbara is made in the
fame manner, only inflead of teff, cakes of barley-meal are
employed. Both are very bad liquors, but the worft is that
made of barley,
TEFFLIS, or Tifflis, a town-of Afia, in Georgia,
one of the feven nations between the Black-Sea and the
Cafpian. It is the capital of that country, the place of re-
fidence of its fovereign, and is called by the inhabitants Thi-
lis-Cabar, “ warm town,” from the warm baths in its neigh-
bouihcod. j hough its circumference-does not exceed two
Englifh miles, it contains 20,000 inhabitants,-of which more
than half are Armenians ; the remainder are principally
Georgians, with fome Tartars. According to Major Ren-,
riel, it has 20 Armenian and 15 Greek churches, and three
metlheds. But Mr Coxe,. on. the,.authority of Profeffor
®' - . - <•
1
TEL r ,w 1 TEL
Ttffiis Guldcndaedt, dates the places of word ip to he one Roman
. , Catholic, 13 Greek, and •feven Armenian churches. There
are fome magnificent caravanferas, bazars, and palaces in
^ " the city, but no mofques ; for the Georgians, though living
under a Mohammedan government, have always riltn up m
arms as often as any attempts have been made to ereft Inch
places of Mohammedan worfhip. Many ol the Romifh ndl-
iionaries live here in difguife under the denomination ot phy-
licians, furgeons, and chemifts ; and the great o*rts which
they perform procure them much elteem, though they are
fometimes expoied to the inlults of the people when they
attempt to make any profelytes to their church. All the
houies are of Hone, with flat roofs, which lerve, according
/ to the cuftom of the Rail, as walks for the women. They
are neatly built ; the rooms are wamfcotted, and the floors
jpread with carpets. The ftreets ieldom exceed fevcn Feet
in breadth ; and fome are fo narrow as fcareely to allow
room for a man on horfehack : they are coniequently very
iiitliy.
Teffiis is a place of confiderable trade, efpecially in furs,
which are conveyed hence to Conitantinople by the way of
Erzerum. As for the filks of this country, they are bought
up on the fpot by the Armenians, and conveyed to Smyrna
and other ports of the Mediterranean ; but the greateft part is
iirft fent to Erzerum to be manufactured, the Georgians
being very ignorant and unfkilful in that refpeft. brom
hence, likevvife, great quantities of a root called boy a is
fent to Erzeium and Indoitan for the ufe of the linen dy¬
ers. Here is likewife a foundery, at which are caft a few
cannon, mortars, and balls, all of which are very inferior to
thofe of the Turks. The gunpowder made here is very
good. The Armenians have likewife eflablifhed in this
town all the manufactures carried on by their countrymen in
Perlia : the molt flourifhing is that of printed linens. i'et-
flis is ieated on the river Kur, at the foot of a mountain ;
and on the fouth fide of it itands a large cable or fortrefs,
built by the Turks in 1576, when they made themfelves
rnafters of the city and country, under the command of the
famous Muftapha Pacha. It is 125 miles welt of ierki.
E. Long. 63. 3. N. Lat. 41. 59.
TEGERHY, a princip?.! town in Fezzan, in Africa,
about 80 miles iouth-welt ot the capital. It collects from
its lands little other produce than dates and Indian corn.
In this, as in every town in Fezzan, a market for but¬
cher-meat, corn, fruit, and vegetables, is regularly held.
Mutton and goats flefh are fold by the quarter without
weighing ; the ufual price is from 32 to 40 grains of gold-
duft, or four or I ve fhillings Englifh money. The flefh of
the camel, which is much more highly valued, is commonly
fold at a dearer rate, and is divided into fmaller lots. A-
griculture and paiiurage feem to be the piincipal occupa¬
tions.
TEGUMENT, any thing that futrounds or covers an¬
other.
TEIND in Scots law. See Law, N° clxx.
Comm'JJion of Teinds. See Commission.
TEINTS, and Semiteints, in painting, denote the fe-
veral colours ufed in a pitfure, confidered as more or lels
high, bright, deep, thin, or weakened and diminifhed, &c.
to give the proper relievo, foftnefs, or dillance, &c. of the
feveral objects.
TELEGRAPH (derived from TdXE and is the
name very properly given to an inftrument, by means of
which information may be almofl inftantaneoufly conveyed
to a confide) able diiiance.
I he telegraph, though it has been generally known and
ufed by the moderns only for a few years, is by no means a
modern invention. There is reatoa to believe that amongll
the Greeks there was fome fort of telegraph in ufe. ThcTe’eiytih,
burning of Troy was certainly known in Greece very foon J- v—-'
aHtr it happened, and before any perfon had returned from
thence. Now that was altogether fo tedious a piece of bu-
firefs, that conjecture never could have fupplied the place of
information. A Greek play begins with a feene, in which
a watchman defeends from the top of a lower in Greece,
and gives the information that Troy was taken. “ I have
been looking out thefe ten years (fays he) to fee when that
would happen, and this night it is done.” Of the antiqui.
ty of a mode of conveying intelligence quickly to a great
difiance, this is certainly a proof-.
The Chinefe, when they fend couriers on the great canal,
or when any great man travels there, make fignals by fire
from one day’s journey to another, to have every thing pre¬
pared ; and moil of the barbarous nations ufed formerly to
give the alarm of war by fires lighted on the hills or riling
grounds,
Polybius calls the different inftruments ufed by the an¬
cients ior communicating information pyrfia, becaufe
the fignals were always made by means of tire. At firfl
they communicated information of events merely by torches;
but this method was of little ufe, becaufe it was ueceffary
before-hand to fix the meaning of every particular fignal.
Now as events are exceedingly various, it was impoflihle to
expitfs the greater number of them by any premeditated
contrivance. It was eafy, for inllance, to ex-prefs by fignals
that a fleet had arrived at inch a place, becaufe this had
been forefeen, and fignals accordingly had been agreed upon
to denote it; but an unexpected revolt, a murder, and luck
accidents, as happen but too often, and require an immediate
remedy, could not be communicated by fuch fignals; be¬
caufe to forefee them was impoflible.
./Eneas, a contemporary of Arillotle, who wrote a trea-/VyJ/a/,
tife on the duties of a general, endeavouied to correft thofe^0^*-
imperfedlions, but by no means fucceeded. “ Thofe (fays0 iah ^
he) w'ho would give lignals to one another upon affairs of
importance, mull firft prepare two veffels of earth, exactly
equal in breadth and depth; and they need be but four teet
and a half deep, and a foot and a half wide. 1 hey then
mult take pieces of cork, proportioned to the mouth of
thele vtffels, but not quite lo wide, that they may be let
down with cafe to the bottom of thefe veffels. I hey next
fix in the middle of this coika flick, which muff be of equal
fize in both thete veffels. This flick mull be divided ex¬
actly and diffinitly, by fpaces of three inches each, in order
that fuch events as generally happen in war may be writ on
them. For examole, on one of thefe fpacts the Following
words may be writ : ‘ A body of horse are marched
into the country.’ On another, ‘ A body of infan¬
try, heavily armed, are arrived hither.’ On a third, ‘ In¬
fantry lightly armed.’ On a Fourth, 1 Horse and
foot.’ On another, ‘ Ships,’ then ‘ Provisions ; and
fo on till all the events which may probably happen in the
war that is carrying on are writ dowm in thefe intervals.
This being done, each of the two veffels muff have a little
tube or cock of equal bignefs, to let out the water in equa
prooortion. Then the two veffels muff be filled with wa-
ter; the pieces of cork, with their flicks thi uil through
them, muff be laid upon them, and the cocks mull be °Pen-
ed. Now, it is plain, that as thefe veffels are equal, the
corks will fink, and the flicks defeend lower in the vefitls,
in proportion as they empty themlelves. Lut to ce more
certain of this exa&nefs, it will be proper to make the ex¬
periment firft, and to examine whether all things correfpond
and agree together, by an uniform execution on both tides.
When they are well affured of this, the two veflels mui e
carried to the two places where the fignals are to be made
«
TEL
[ 335 ]
TEL
To!yiius,
ibid.
Tel^rarh and obfcrved : water i's poured in, and the corks and flicks
v are put ;n the veffels. When any of the events which are
written on the flicks (hall happen, a torch or other light is
railed, which mud be held aloft till filch time as another is
railed by the party to whom it is dire&ed. ( - his hr ft hgnal
is only to give notice that both parties are ready and atten¬
tive). Then the torch or other light mull be taken away,
and the cocks fet open. When the interval, that is, that
part of the Hick where the event of which notice is to be
given or written, (hall be fallen to a level with the velTels,
then the man who gives the iignal lifts up his torch ; and
on the other fide, the correipondeut fignal-maktr immediate¬
ly turns the cock of his veftel, and looks at what is writ on
that pait of the Hick which touches the mouth ot the velTel:
on which occafion, if every thing has been executed exactly
and equally on both fsdes, both will read the fame thing.”
This method was defective, becauie it could not convey
any other intelligence except what was written on the Iticks,
and even that not particularly enough. With regard to ell
unforeleen events, it was quite uieleis.
A new method was invented by Cleoxenus (others fay
by Demoelitus), and very much improved by Polybius, as
he hi inf elf informs us. He delcribes this method as follows:
Take the letters of the (Greek) alphabet, and divide them
into five parts, each of which will confift of hve letters, ex¬
cept the fall divilion, which will have only four. Let thefe
be fixed on a board in five columns. The man who is to
give the fignals is then to begin by holding up two torches,
which he is to keep aloft till the other party has alio
fhown two. This is only to fhow that both iides are ready.
Thefe firlt torches are then withdrawn. Both parties are
provided with boards, on wh:ch the letters are dupofed as
formerly deferibed. The perfon then who gives the fignal
is to hold up torches on the left to point out to the other
party from what column he (hall take the letters as they are
pointed out to him. If it is to be from the firlt column, he
holds up one torch ; if from the fecund, two; and fo on
for the others. He is then to hold up torches on the right,
to denote the particular letter of the column that is to be
taken. All this mull have been agreed on before-hand.
The man who gives the fignals mull have an inilrument
(J'lOTljav), confilling of two tubes, and fo placed as that, by
looking through one of them, he can fee only the right fide,
and through the other only the left, of him who is to an-
fwer. The board mull be fet up near this inilrument; and
the flation on the right and left mult be furrounded with a
wall ten feet broad, and about the height
of a man, that the torches raifed above it may give a clear
and ftrong light, and that when taken down they may be
completely concealed. Let us now luppoie that this in'or-
mation is to be communicated—Si number of the auxiliarys,
about a hundred^ faave gone over to the enemy. In the firlt
place, words mult be chofen that will convey the informa¬
tion in the fewelt letters poffible; as, A hundred Cretans have
deferted, ixa?™ ap nvh/u^xr.crav. plaving written
down this fentence, it is conveyed in this manner. The
full letter is a k, which is in the fecond column; two torches
are therefore to be railed on the left hand to inform the
perfon who receives the fignals to look into that particular
column. Then five torches are to be held up on the right,
to mark the letter h, which is the lall in the column. Then
four torches are to be held up ®n the left to point out the ?
f rj, which is in the fourth column, and two on the right
to fhow that it is the fecond letter of that column. The
other letters are pointed out in the fame manner.—Such*
was the p)tfa or telegraph recommended by Polybius.
But neither this nor any other method mentioned by the
ancients leems ever to have been brought into general ufe;
nor does it appear that the moderns had thought of fucK a Telegraph'.
machine as a telegraph till the year 1663, when the Marquis v
of Worcefter, in his Century of Inventions, affirmed
that he had difeovered “ a method by which, at a window,
as far as eye can difeover black from white, a man may hold
difcourle with his correipondent, without noife made or no¬
tice taken ; being according to occafion given, or means af¬
forded, ex re nata, and no need of provifion before hand;
though much better if forefeen, and courfe taken by mutual
content ol parties.” This could be done only by means of
a telegraph, which in the next fentence is declared to have
been rendered fo perfedl, that by means of it the correfpon-
dence could be carried on “ by night as well as by day,
though as dark as pitch is black.”
About 40 years afterwards M. Amontons propofed
a new telegraph. His method was this : Let there be
people placed in feveral llations, at fuch a diltance from
one another, that by the help ol a telefcope a man in one
llation may fee a fignal made in the next before him ; he
mull immediately make the fame fignal, that it may be leen
by perlons in the llation next alter him, who are t© commu¬
nicate it to thole in the following ftation, and fo on. Thefe
fignals may be as letters of the alphabet, or as a cipher,
underltood only by the two perfons who are in the dillant
places, and not by thole wrho make the lignal's. The per-
ion in the fecond flatiou making the fignal to the perfon in
the third the very moment he fees it in the firll, the news
may be carried to the greateil diftance in as little time as is
necelfary to1 make the iignals in the firlt fiation. The di-
itance ot the feveral ftations, which mull be as lew as pof-
fib.e, is meafured by the reach o* a telelcope. Amontons
tried this method in a imall tracl cl land betore leveral oer-
ions ot the highell rank at the court of France.
It was not, however, till the French revolution that the
telegraph was applied to ufeful purpoies. Whether M.
Chappe, who is laid to have invented the telegr aph firll ufed
by the French about the end of 1793, knew any thing of*
Amontons’s invention or not, it is impoffible to fay ; but
his telegraph was conftrudled on principles nearly fimilar.
The manner of uiing this telegraph was as-follows : At the
firil ftation, which was on the roof of the pala.ee ol the
I.ouvre at Paris, M. Chappe, the inventor, received in wri¬
ting, from the committee of public welfare, the words to be
fent to Lille, near which the French army at that time was.
An upright poll was eredted on the Louvre, at the top of
which were two tranfverle arms, moveable in all diredlions
by a irngle piece of mechanifm, and with inconceivable rapi¬
dity. He invented a number of politions for there arms,
which Hood as figns for the letters of the alphabet; and
thefe, for the greater celerity and fimplicity, he reduced in
number as much as poffible. The grammarian will eafily
conceive that fixteen ligns may amply fupply all the letters
of the alphabet, fince fome letters may be omitted not only
without detriment but with advantage. Thefe figns, as
they were arbitrary, could be changed every week.; fo that
the fign of B for one day might be the fign of M the next?
and it was only necelfary that the perfons at the extremi¬
ties fhould know the key. The intermediate operators
were only inftrudled generally in thefe fixteen fignals; which
were fo diftindl, fo marked, fo different the one from the
other, that they were eafily remembered. The conllruc-
tion of the machine was Inch, that each fignal was uniform¬
ly given in precildy the lame manner at all times : It did
not depend on the operator’s manual Ikill; and the pofition
of the arm could never, lor any one fignal, be a degree
higher or a degree- lower, its movement being regulated me¬
chanically.
M. Chappe having received at the Louvre the fentence
TEL [ 336 3 TEL
Telegraph, to t c conveyed, gave a known fignal to the fecond ftation,
which was Mont Martre, to prepare. At each flation there
was a watch tower, where telefcooes were fixed, and the
perfon on watch gave the fignal of preparation which he
had -received, and this communicated iuccdfively through all
the line, which brought them all into a (late of readinefs.
The perfon at Mont Martre then received, letter by letter,
the fentence from the Louvre, which he repeated with his
own machine ; and this w-as again repeated from the next
height, with inconceivable rapidity, to the final flation at
Lifle.
-Engljh Xhe firfl defcriptxon of the telegraph was brought from
hcuu-tv, parjs to Frankfort on the Maine by a former member of
the parliament of iiourdeaux, who had feen that which was
erefted on the mountain of Belville. As given by Dr
Hatton from feme of the Englifh papers, it is as follows.
AAisabeamor mail ^fwoodplaced upright on a riling ground
(fig. I. Plate D1L), which is about 15 or 16 feet high.
BB is a beam or balance moving upon the centre AA.
This balance-beam may be placed vertically or horizontally,
or any how inclined, by means of ftrong cords, which are
fixed to the wheel D, on the edge of which is a double
groove to receive the two cords. This balance is about
11 or 12 feet long, and nine inches broad, having at the
ends two pieces of wood CC, which likewife turn upon
angles by means of four other cords that pafs through the
axis of the main balance, otherwife the balance would de¬
range the cords ; the pieces C are each about three feet
long, and may be placed either to the right or left, flraight
or fquare, with the balance-beam. By means of thefe three
the combination of movement is very extenfive, remarkably
fimple, and eafy to perform. Below is a fmall wooden
gouge or hut, in which a perfon is employed to obferve the
movements of the machine. In the mountain nearell to this
another perfon is to repeat thele movements, and a third to
write them down. The time taken up for each movement
vjs 20 feconds ; of which the motion alone is four ieconds,
the other 16 the machine is ftationary. Two working mo¬
dels of this inftrument were executed at Frankfort, and lent
by Mr W. Playfair to the Duke of York ; and hence the
jplan and alphabet of the machine came to England.
Various experiments were in confequence tried upon tele¬
graphs in this country' ; and one was loon after iet up by
government in a chain of Ifations from the admiralty-office
to the fea coaft. It confrfts of fix oftagon boards, each of
which is poiled upon an axis in a fiame, in iuch a manner
that it can be either placed vertically, fo as to appear with
its full lize to the oblerver at the neareft ftation, as in fig. 2.
or it becomes invifible to him by being placed horizontally,
as in fig. 3. fo that the narrow edge alone is expofed, which
^narrow1 edge is from a diftance invifible- Fig. 2. is a repreien-
tation of this telegraph, with the parts all ftrut, and the ma-
•rchine ready to work. T, in the officer’s cabin, is the telefcope
pointed to the next ftation. Fig. 3. is a reprelentation of
the machine not at work, and with the ports all open. The
opening of the firft port (fig. 2.) exprefies a, the fecond i,
the third c, the fourth </, the fifth e, and the iixth /, &c.
Six boards make 36 changes, by the moft plain and
iimpk mode of working ; and they will make many more if
more were neceflary ; but as the real fuperiority of the tele¬
graph over all other modes of making fignals confifts in its
making letters, we do not think that more changes than the
letteis of the alphabet, and the ten arithmetical ciphers, are
neceflary; but, on the contrary, that thole who work the
telegraphs mould avoid communicating by words or figns
agieed upon to exprefs fentences ; for that is the fure n.e-
jthod never to become expert at lending unexpected intelli¬
gence accurately.
This telegraph is without doubt made up of the heftTeleg-ipi),
number of combinations poffible ; five boards would be in-
fufficient, and leven would be ufelefs. It has been objected
to it, however, that its form is too clarnfy to admit-of its
being railed to any cenfrderable height above the building
on whielr it Hands ; and that it cannot be made to change
its diredion, and confequently cannot be feen but from one
particular point.
Several other telegraphs have been propofed to remedy
thefe defe&s, and perhaps others to which the inftrument is
ftill liable. The dial plate or a clock would make an ex¬
cellent telegraph, as it might exhibit 144 figns fo as to be
vifible at a great diftance. A telegraph on this principle,
with only lix divifions inftead of twelve, would be fimple
and cheap, and might be railed 20 or 30 feet high above
the building without any difficulty : it might be fupported
on one poft, and therefore turn round, and the contrail of
colours would always be the fame. SuppUmt
A very ingenious improvement of the telegraph has been/er 1754.
propofed in the Gentleman’s Magazine. It confifts of a'*
femicircle, to be properly elevated, and-fixed perpendicular¬
ly on a ftrong Hand. i he radius 12 feet ; the iemicircle
confequently fomewhat more than 36. This to be divided
into 24 parts. Each of thele wall therefore comprife a
fpace of 18 inches, and an arch of 7° 30' on the circumfe¬
rence. I hele 24 divifions to be occupied by as many cir¬
cular apertures of fix inches diameter ; which will leave a
dear fpace of fix inches on each fide between the apertures.
'I hele apertures, beginning from the left, to denote the let¬
ters of the alphabet, omitting K, J confonant, V, X, and
as ufelefs for this purpoie. i here are then 21 letters.
T. he four other fpaces are reierved for fignals. The inftru-
ment to have an index moveable by a windlafs on the centre
of the femicircle, and having two tops, according as it is to
be uled in the day or night; one, a circular top of lacquer¬
ed iron or copper, of equal diameter with the apertures
(and which confequently will eelipie any of them againlt
which it refts) ; the other, a fpear or arrow-lhaped top,
black, and highly polifhed, which, in Handing before any of
the apertures in the day-time, will Be diftinftly vifible. In
the night, the apertures to be reduced by a diaphragm fit¬
ting clofe to each, fo as to leave an aperture of not more
than two inches diameter, ihe diaphragm to be of well-
polilhed tin ; the inner rim lacquered black half an inch,
x'-ll the apertures to be illuminated, when the inftrument 13
uied in the night-time, by Imall lamps ; to which, it neeel-
lary, according to circumftances, convex lenfes may be added,
fitted into each diaphragm, by which the light may be
powerfully concentrated and increafed. Over each aperture
one of the five prifmatic colours leaft likely to be miftaken
(the remaining two being Ids diftinguilhable, and not want¬
ed, are belt omitted) to be painted ; and, in their natural
order, on a width of eighteen inches and a depth of four,
red, orange, yellow, green, blue ; or, ftill to heighten the
contrail, and render immediately fucctffive apertures more
diftinguilhable, red, green, orange, blue, yellow. The whole
inner circle benc‘ath and between the apertures to be painted
black.
W hen the inftrument is to be ufed, the index to be fet to
the fignal apertures on the right. All the apertures to be
covered or d'-.rk when it begins to be ufed, except that
which is to give the fignal. A fignal gun to be fired to
apprife the obferver. If the index is fet to the firft aper¬
ture, it will denote that words are to be exprelfed; if to the
fecond, that figures ; il to the third, that the figures ceafe;
and that the intelligence is carried on in words. When fi¬
gures are to be exprelfed, the alternate apertures from the
leit are taken in their order, to denote from x to 10 inclu-
fively;
TEL [3
Telegraph, fively ; the fecond from the right denotes too; the fifth
xooo. This order, and thefe intervals, are taken to prevent
any confufion in fo peculiarly important an article of the in-
telligence to be conveyed.
jperhaps, however, none of the telegraphs hitherto offered
to the public exceeds the following, either in iimplicity,
cheannefs, or facility in working, and it might perhaps, with
a Few trifling additions, be made exceedingly diftinft. It isthus
Vol. I. defcribed in the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures : For a
£.38*. 'lodturnal telegraph, let there be four large patent reflectors,
lying on the fame plane, parallel to the horizon, placed on the
top of an obfervatory. Let each of thefe reflectors be capable,
by means of two winches, either of elevation or depreffion
to a certain degree. By elevating or depreffmgone or two
of the reflectors, eighteen very ditinct arrangements may
be produced, as the following fcheme will explain (a).
A
000
B
o
o 00
D
o
00 o
000
000
G
o 00
o
CO o
o
K
M
o 0
0 o
N
o o
00
O
o o
o o
R
oa
o o
00
o o
T
oo
U
o o
CO
00
I'or the fake of example, the above arrangements are
made to anfwer to the moft neceffary letters of the alpha¬
bet ; but alterations may be made at will, and a greater
number of changes produced, without any addition to the
reflectors. In the f.rft obfervatory there need only be a fet
of>.?/e reflectors; but in the others each reflector fliould be
double, fo as to face both the preceding and fubfequent ob-
fervatory ; anel each obfervatory fhculd be furnifhed with
two telefcopes. The proper diameter of the reflectors, and
their diftance from each other, will be afeertained by expe¬
rience.
To convert this machine into a diurnal telegraph, no¬
thing more is neceffary than to infert, in the-place of the
reflectors, gilt balls, or any other confpictious bodies.
_ Were telegraphs brought to fo great a degree of perfec¬
tion, that they could convey information fpeedily and di-
Ilinctly ; were they fo much Amplified, that they could be
eonftrufted and maintained at little expence—the advanta¬
ges which would refult from their ufe are almoft inconcei¬
vable. Not to fpeak of the fpeed with which information
could be communicated and orders given in time of war,
by means of which misfortunes might be prevented or in-
fiantly repaired, difficulties removed, and difputes preclu¬
ded, and by means of which the whole kingdom could be
prepared in an infiant to oppofe an invading enemy ; it
might be uled by commercial men to"convey a commiffion
cheaper and fpeedier than an exprefs can travel. The ca¬
pitals of diftant nations might be united by chains of pofts.
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
37 1 T E L
and the fettling of thofe difputes which at prefent 'take up Telegraph,
months or years might then be aecomplifhed in as many 1 cjclTU-
hours. An eftablilhment of telegraphs might then be made c lU‘*‘
like that of the poll; and inftead of being an exoence, it
would produce a revenue. Until telegraphs are employed
to convey information th^t occurs very frequently, the per-
fons who arc ftationed to work them will never becorne ex¬
pert, and confequently will neither be expeditious nor accu¬
rate, though, with pra&ice, there is no doubt but they will,
attain both in a degree of perfection of which we can as
yet have but little conception.
TELEMACHUS, the fon of Ulyffes and Penelope, was
ft ill in the cradle when his father went with the reft of the
Greeks to the Trojan war. At the end of this celebrated
war, Telemachus, anxious to fee his father, went to feek
him ; and as the place of his refidence, and the caufe of his
long abfence, were then unknown, he vifited the court of
Menelaus and Nertor to obtain information. He afterwards
returned to Ithaca, where the fuitors of his mother Penelo¬
pe had confpired to murder him, but he avoided their fnares;
and by means of Minerva he difeovered his father, who had
arrived in the ifiand two days before him, and was then in
the houfe of Eumseus. With this faithful fervant and Ulyf¬
fes Telemachus concerted how to deliver bis mother from
the importunities of her fuitors, and it was effected with
great fuccefs. After the death of his father, Telemachus
went to the ifland of Atsea, where he married Circe, or, ac¬
cording to others, Cafliphone the daughter of Circe, by
whom he had a foir called JLatinus. He fome time aftefr
had the misfortune to kill his mother-in-law Circe, and fled
to Italy, where he founded CLufium. Telemachus was ac¬
companied in his vifit to Neftor and Menelaus by the god-
defs of wildom under the form of Mentor. It is faid that,
when a child, Telemachus fell into the fea, and that a dol¬
phin brought him fafe to fhore, after he had remained fome
time under water. From this circumftance Ulyffes had the
figure of a dolphin engraved on the feal which he wore on
his ring.
From thefe {lories, colle&ed from Homer and the other
poets of antiquity, the celebrated Fenelon archbifhop of
Cambray took the idea of his well-known ^ventures of Te¬
lemachus ; which, though not compofed in verfe, is juftly in-
titled to be efteemed a poem. “ The plan of the work
(fays Dr Blair) is in general well contrived; and is deficient Leaurestn
neither in epic grandeur nor unity of objeft. The author Rhetor^ ^
has entered with much felicity into the Ipirit and ideas off' BeUes
the ancient poets, particularly into the ancient mythology,
which retains more dignity, and make* a better figure in his
hands than in thofe of any other modern poet. His de-
feriprions are rich and beautiful; efpecially of the fofter
and calmer feenes, for which the genius of Fenelon was bed
fuited; fuch as the incidents of paftoral life, the pleafures
of virtue, or a country flouriftiing in peace. There is an
inimitable fweetnefs and tendernefs in feveral of the pictures
of this kind which he has given and his meafured profe,
which is remarkably harmonious, gives the ityle nearly as
much elevation as the French language is capable of {'im¬
porting even in regular verie.
According to the fame eminent critic, “ the heft execu¬
ted part of the work is the firft fix books, in which Tele¬
machus recounts his adventures to Calypfo. The narration
throughout them is lively and interefting. Afterwards,
eipecially in tne lait twelve books, it becomes more tedious
and languid ; and in the warlike adventures which are at*
U u tempted.
(a) Each refledlor, after every arrangement, tnuft be reftpred to its place.
\
T E I-
Telep’iiim, tempted, tKere !s a gfeat defeat of vigour. ^ rlhe cliitf ob-
Telefcope. a^airift this work being clafled with epic poems,
   arifes from the minute details of virtuous policy, into which
the author in fome places enters ; and from the difcourfes
and inftr-uftions of Mentor, which recur upon us too often,
and too much in the drain of common place morality.
Though thefe were well fuited to the main defign of the
author, which was to form the mind of a young prince,
yet they feem not congruous to the nature of epic poetry ;
the objeft of which is to improve us by means of aftions,
charadters, and fentiments, rather than by delivering pro-
feffed aed formal inftru&ion.”
TI^LEPHIUM, true orpine, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs oipentandria, and order oc t'i-
gynia; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 54th or¬
der, Mifcellanee. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; there are
five petals, which are inferted into the receptacle ; the cap-
fule is unilocular and trivalvular. There are two fpecies,
the imperati and oppoftt folia.
TELESCOPE, an optical inflrumcnt for viewing di-
ftant objefts ; fo named by compounding the Greek words
tiixs far of , and s-xoruv to look at or contemplate. This name
is commonly appropriated to the larger fizes of the inftru-
ment, while the fmaller are called perspective-glasses,
spy-glasses, operA-gl a s sEs. A particular kind, which
is thought to be much brighter than the reft, is called a
NIGHT GLASS.
To what has been faid already with refpeft to the inven¬
tor of this moft noble and ufeful inftrument in the article
Optics, we may add the two following claims.
Mr Leonhard Digges, a gentleman of the laft century
of great and various knowledge, pofitively afierts in his Stra-
toticos, and in another woik, that his father, a military gen¬
tleman, had an inftrument which he ufed in the field, by
which he could bring diftant objefts near, and could know
a man at the diftance of three miles. He fays, that when
his father was at home he had ofttn looked through it, and
could diftinguifh the waving of the trees on the oppoiite fide
of the Severn. Mr Digges reftded in the neighbourhood of
Briftol.
Francis Fontana, in his Celejlial Obfervatlons, publifhed at
Naples in 1646, fays, that he was allured by a Mr Hardy,
advocate of the parliament of Paiis, a perfon of great learn¬
ing and undoubted integrity, that on the death of his fa¬
ther, there was found among his things an old tube, by
which diftant objefts were diftincftly feen; and that it was of
a date long prior to the telefcope lately invented, and had
been kept by him as a fecret.
It is not at all improbable, that curious people, handling
fpe&acle glaffes, of which there were by this time great va¬
rieties, both convex and concave, and amufing themfelves
with their magnifying power and the Angular effects which
they produced in the appearances of things, might fome-
times chance fo to place them asto produce diftinft and en¬
larged vifom We know perfe&ly, from the table and
feheme which Slrturus has given us of the tools or diihes in
which the fpeftacle-makers: fafhioned their glafles, that they
had convex lenfes formed to fpheres of 24 inches diameter,
and of 11 inferior fizes. Pie has given us a feheme of a fet
which he- got leave to meafure belonging to a fpe&acle-ma-
ker of the name of Rogstte at Corunna in Spain j and he
fays that this man had tools of the fame fizes for concave
glaffeSv It alfo appears, that it was a general practice (of
which we do not know the precife purpafe) to ufe a con¬
vex and concave glafs together* If any perfon fhould chance
to put together a 24-inch convex and a 12-inch concave
(wrought ou both fides) at the diftance of 6 inches, he
TEL
would have diftin& vifion, and the objeft would appear of Telefeepe*
double fize. N Concaves of 6 inches were not uncommon, "
and one fuch combined with the convex of 24, at the di¬
ftance of 9 inches, would have diftinft vifton, and objefts
v/ould be quadrupled in diameter. When fuch a thing oc*
ctirred, it was natural to keep it as a curioiky, although
the rationale of its operation was not in the leaft underftood.
We doubt not but that this happened much oftener than in
thefe two inftances. The chief wonder is, that it was not
frequent, and taken notice of by fome writer. It is pretty
plain that Galileo’s firft telefcope was of this kidd, made
up of fuch fpedlacle-glaftes as he could procure; for it mag¬
nified only three times in diameter: a thing eafxly procured
by fuch glafles as he could find with every fpeftacle-maker.
And he could not but obferve, in his trials of their glaffes,
that the deeper concaves and flatter convexes he employed,
he produced the greater amplification ; and then he would
find himfelf obliged to provide a tool not ufed by the fpec-
tacle makers, viz. either a much flatter tool for a convex
furface, or a much fmaller fphere for a concave : and, not-
withftanding his telling us that it was by refle&ing on the
nature ef refraftion, and without any inftruftion, we are
perfuaded that he proceeded in this very way. His next
telefcope magnified but five times. Now the flighteft ac¬
quaintance with the obvious law's of refraftion would have
direfted him at once to a.very fmall and deep concave,
which wrould have been much eafier made, and have mag¬
nified more. But he groped his way with fuch fpeftacle-
glafles as he could get, till he at laft made tools for very
flat objeft-glafles and very deep eye-glafles, and produced a
telefcope wdrich magnified about 25 times. Sirturus faw
it, and took the meafuresof it. He afterwards faw a feheme
of it which Galileo had fent to a German prince at Ih-
fpruch, who had it drawn (that is, the circles for the tools)
on a table in his gallery. The objeft-glafs was a piano-
convex, a portion of a fphere, of 24 inches diameter ;
the eye-glafs was a double concave of 2 inches diameter :
the focal diftances were therefore 24 inches and 1 inch
nearly. This muft have been a very lucky operation, for
Sirturus fays it w^as the bell telefcope he had feen ; and we
know that it requires the very heft work to produce this
magnifying power with fuch fmall fpheres. 1 elefcopes
continued'to be made in this way for many years; and Ga*
lileo, though keenly engaged in the obfervation of Jupiter’s
fatellites, being candidate for the prize held out by the Dutch '
for the difeovery of the longitude, and therefore much inte-
refted in the advantage which a convex eye-glafs would have
given him, never made them of any other form. Kepler
publifhed his Dioptrics in 1611; in which he tells us, all
that he or others had difeovered ot the law of refradfion,
viz. that in very fmall obliquiti^ of incidence, the angle of
refra&ion was nearly yd of the angle of incidence. I hi^
was indeed enough to have pointed out, with fufficient ex-
adnefs, the eonftru&ion of every optical inftmment that we
are even now pofleffed of; for this proportionality of the
angles of incidence and refra&ion is affumed in the conftruc-
tion of the optical figure for all of them.; and the deviation
from it is ftill confidered as the refinement of the art, and was
not brought to any rule till 50 years after by Huyghens,
and called him-aberration. Yet even the fagacious
Kepler Items not to have feen the advantage of any other
conitrudion of the telefcope ; he juft feems to acknow*
ledge the poffibility of it: and we are furprifed to lee wri¬
ters giving him as the author of the aftronomical telefcope,
or even as hinting at its conftrudion. It is true, in the laft
propofition he fliows how a telefcope may be made appa¬
rently with a convex eye-glafs: but this is only a frivolous
. fancy;
r 338 ]
T E L
Felcfcope, fancy 5 Tor the cye-prlafs is dire&ed to be made convex ex-
-'“V—ternally, and a very deep concave on the infide ; fo that it
is, in fad, a menifcus with the concavity prevalent. In the
S6th propoiition, he indeed (hows that it is poffible fo to
place a convex glafs behind another convex glafs, that an
eye fhall fee objefts diftinft, magnified, and inverted ; and
he fpeaks very fagaciouOy,on the fubjed. After having
faid that an eye placed behind the point of union of the
firft glafs will fee an objed inverted, he fliows that a fmall
part only will be feen ; and then he {hows that a convex
glafs, duly proportioned and properly placed, will {how-
more of it. But in fhowing this, he fpeaks in a way which
fhows evidently that he had formed no diftind notions of
the manner in which this effed would be produced, only
faying vaguely that the convergency of the fecond glafs
would counterad the divergency beyond the focus of the
firft. Had he conceived the matter with any tolerable di-
ftindnefs, after feeing the great advantage of taking in a
field greater in almoft any proportion, he would have eager¬
ly catched at the thought, and enlarged on the immenfe im¬
provement. Had he but drawn one figure of the progrefs
of the rays through two convex glaffes, fuch as fig. 12. of
Pl.CCCLXIV. the whole would have been open to his view.
This ftep, fo eafy and fo important, was referved for Fa¬
ther Scheiner, as has been already obferved in the article
Optics ; and the conftrudion of this author, together
with that of janfert, are the models on which all refrading
telefcopes are now conftruded; and in all that relates to
their magnifying power, brightnefs, and field of viiion, they
may be conftruded on Kepler’s principle, that the angles
of refradion are in a certain given proportion to the angles
of incidence.
But after Huyghens had applied his elegant geometry to
the difcovery of Snellius, viz. the proportionality, not of the
angles, but of the fines, and had afcertained the aberrations
trom the foci of infinitely {lender pencils, the reafons were
clearly pointed out why there were fuch narrow limits af¬
fixed by nature to the performance of optical inftruments,
in confequence of the indiftindnefs of vifion which refulted
from conftrudions where the magnifying power, the quan¬
tity of light, or the field of vifion, were extended beyond
certain moderate bounds. The theory of aberrations, which
that moft excellent geometer eftabliftied, has enabled us to
diminifh this indiftindnefs arifing {rom any of thefe caufes;
and this diminution is the foie aim of all the different con¬
ftrudions which have been contrived fince the days of Ga¬
lileo and Scheiner.
# The defcription which has been already given of the va¬
rious conftrudions of telefcopes in the article Optics, is
fufficient for inftruding the reader in the general principles
of their conftrudion, and with moderate attention will {how
the manner in which the lays of light proceed, in order to
enfure the different circumftances of amplification, brightnefs,
and extent of field, and even diftindnefs of vifion, in as far
as this depends on the proper intervals between the glaffes.
But it is infufficient for giving us a knowledge of the improve¬
ments which are aimed at in the different departures from
the original conftrudions of Galileo and Scheiner, the ad¬
vantage of the double eye-glafs of Huyghens, and the quin¬
tuple eye-glafs of JDollond: ftill more is it infuffieient for
blowing us why the highelt degrees of amplification and moft
cxtenfive field cannot be obtained by the mere proportion
^ n!e *°Ca^ ^^ances the glaffes, as Kepler had taught,
in lhort, without the Huyghentan dodrine of aberrations,
neither can the curious reader learn the limits of their per-
lormancc, nor the artift learn why one telefcope is better
than another, or in what manner to proceed to make a te«.
[ 339 3
TEL
lefcope differing in any particular from thofe which be fer- Telef oye.
vilely copies. ——y——0
Although all the improvements in the conffrudion of te¬
lefcopes fince the publication of Huyghens’s Dioptrics have
been the produdions of this ifland, and although Dr Smith
of Cambridge has given the moft elegant and perfpicuous
account of this fcience that has yet appeared, we do not re-
colled a performance in the Englifh language (except the
Optics of Emerfon) which will carry the reader beyond the
mere fchoolboy elements of the fcience, or enable a perfon
of mathematical {kill to underftand or improve the conftruc-
tion of optical inftruments. The laft work on this fubjed
of any extent (Dr Prieftley’s Hiftory of Vifion) is merely
a parlour book for the amufement of half-taught dilettanti,
but is totally deficient in the mathematical part, although it
is here that the fcience of optics has her chief claim to pre¬
eminence, and to the name of a disciplina accurata.
But this would have been ultra crepidam ; and the author
would in all probability have made as poor a figure here as
he has done in his attempts to degrade his fpecies in his
Commentaries on the Vibratiuncula of Hartley; motions
which neither the author nor his amplificator were able to
underftand or explain. We truft that our readers, jealous
as we are of every thing that finks us in the fcale of nature’s
works, will pardon this tranfient ejaculation offpleen, when
our thoughts are called to a fyftem which, of abfolute anduna~
voidable neceffity, makes the divine mind nothing but a qui¬
vering of that matter of which it is the author and uner¬
ring director. Sed nvjjurn faciamus.
We think therefore that we ftiall do the public fome fer-
vice, by giving fuch an account of this higher branch of op¬
tical fcience as will at leaft tend to the complete under-
ftanding of this noble inftrument, by which our conceptions
of the extent of almighty power, and wifdom, and benefi¬
cence, are fo wonderfully enlarged. In the profecution of
this we hope that many general rules will emerge, by which
artifts who are not mathematicians may be enabled to con-
ftrud optical inftruments with intelligence, and avoid the
many blunders and defedts which refult from mere fervile
imitation.
The general aim in the conftru<?cion of a telefcope is, to
form, by means of mirrors or lenfes, an image of the diftant
objedt, as large, as bright, and as extenftve as is poflitie,
confiftently with diftindtnefs ; and then to view the image
with a magnifying glafs in any convenient manner. This
gives us an arrangement of our fubjedt. We {hall firft {how
the principles ot conftrudtion of the objedt-glafs or mirror,
fo as that it {hall form an image of the diftant objedt with
thefe qualities ; and then {how how to conftrudt the magni¬
fying glafs or eye-piece, fo as to preferve them unimpaired.
This indiltindlnefs which we wifh to avoid arifes from
two caufes; the fpherica! figures of the refradring and re-
fledting furfaces, and the different refrangibility of the dif¬
ferently coloured rays of light. The firft may be called the
spherical and the fecond the chromatic indiftindtnefs ;
and the deviations from the foci, determined by the elemen¬
tary theorem (Optics, p. 289.), may be called the sphe¬
rical and the chromati-c aberrations.
The limits of a Work like this will not permit us to give
any more of the dodlrine of aberrations than is abfolutely
neceffary for the conftrudtion of achromatic telefcopes; and
we muft refer the reader for a general view of the whole to
Euler’s Dioptrics, and other works of that kind. Dr Smith
has given as much as was neceffary for the comparifon of
the merits of different glaffes of fimilar conftrudtion, and
this in a very' plain and elegant manner.
We {hall begin with the aberration of colour, becaufe it
is the moft fimple,
U u 2 Let
fekfcope.
P'.ate
Dll.
TEL [340
Let white or compounded light fall perpendicularly on
] TEL
fun, we judge it to be where the light is drawn into the Ttlcfc.y
tV>» Hat Vule PO (fiiT* !•) of a plano-convex lens PVQ, fmallell fpot. , V
1 . —c>- r . _ tt mi — *13 folilr. .. When w-e refleft that a lens of 54 inches in diameter has
a circle of difperlion t^6th of an inch in diameter, we are fur-
priied that it produces any picture of an objedt that can be
whofe axis is CV and vertex V. The white ray pF falling
on the extremity of the lens is difperfed by refraction at the
point P of the fpherical furface, and the red ray goes to the
point >■ of the axis, and the violet ray to the point v. In
like manner the white ray difperfed by refraction at
q, the red ray going to r, and the violet to v. The red
ray Pr croffes the violet ray Qjp in a point D, and Qg
erodes P v in a point E ; and the whole light refradled and
difperfed by the circumference, whofe diameter is PQ, paffes
through tlie circular area, whole diameter is DE. Sup-
pofing that the lens is of inch a form that it would colled
red rays, refraCted by its wdiole furface in the £o:nt r, and
violet in the point v ; then it is evident that the whole li dit
which occupies the furface of the lens will pals through this
little circle, whofe diameter is DE. Therefore white light
ifluing from a point fo diftant that the rays may be confi-
dered as parallel, will not be colle&ed in another point or
focus, but wall be difperfed over the furface of that little
circle ; which is therefore called the circle of chromatic dif-
perfion ; and the radiant point wall be reprefented by this
circle. The neighbouring points are in like manner repre¬
fented by circles; and thefe circles encroaching on and
mixing with each other, mull occafion hazinefs or confufion,
and render the picture indiftind. This indiltindnefs will be
diftinguilhed. We ihoukl not exped greater dillindnefa
from Inch a lens than would be produced in a camera ob-
feura without a lens, by limply admitting the light through
a hole of Tofh aa ai diameter, i his, we know, would
be very hazy and confufed. But when we remark the fu*
perior vivacity or the yellow and orange light in comparifon
with the rell, we may believe that the effed produced by
the confufion of the other colours will be much Ids fenfible.
But a ftronger reafon is, that the light is much denier in
the middle of the circle of dilpeilion, and is exceedingly
faint towards the mat gin. This, however, muft not be
taken for granted ; and we mult know diitindly the man¬
ner in which the light of different colours is diltributed over
the circle of chromatic difpetfion, before we pretend to pro-
nounce on the immenfe difference between the indillind-
nefs ariling from colour and that ariling from the fpherical
figure. We think this the more neceffary, becaufe the il-
luftrious difeoverer of the chromatic aberration has made a
great miftake in the companion, becaule he did not conftder
the diftribution of the light in the circle of fpherical dilper-
fion. It is therefore proper to inveftigate the chromatic
greater in the proportion of the number of circles which are diftribution of the light with the fame care that we beftowed
in this manner mixed together. This will be in the pro- on the fphericaldiiperfion in Optics, n 251. Sec. , andv\e
portion of the room that is for them ; that is, in proportion
to the area of the circle, or in the duplicate proportion of
its diameter. Our firft bufinels therefore is, to obtain mea-
fures of this diameter, and to mark the connexion between
it and the aperture and focal diithnee of the lens.
Let t be to r as the line of incidence in glafs to the fine
of refradtion of the red rays ; and let i be to as the line of
•incidence to the fine of refra&ion of the violet rays. Then
we fay, that when the aperture PQ__is moderate, t—r : v-\-r
■—2 i — DE : PQ^ very nearly. For let DE, which is evi¬
dently perpendicular to Vr, meet the parallel incident rays
in K and L and the radii of the fpherical furface in G and
H. It is plain that GPK is equal to the angle ol inci¬
dence on the pofterior or ipherical furface of the lens ; and
GPr and GPir are the angles of refradtion of the red and
the violet rays ; and that GK, GD, and GE, are very near¬
ly as the fines of thofe angles, becaufe the angles are lup-
pofed to be fmall. We may therefore inftitute this propor¬
tion DE : KD = —r : r—i; then, by doubling the con-
ftquents DE :-2KD :r v—r : 2r—2b Alfo DE : 2KD -\~
DErr v—ri’gr— 2i-\-v—r, — v—r : r-\-v—A But 2KD
-{-DE is equal to KL or PQ^ Therefore we have DE :
PQj= v—r : r-t-u—7t. E. D.
Lor. I. Sir Ifaac Newton, by moft accurate obfervation,
found, that in common glafs the fines of refradfion of the
red and violet rays were 77 and 78 where the fine of inci¬
dence was 50. lienee it follows, that v—r is to v-\-r—
2i as 1 to 55 .; and that the diameter of the fmalleft circle
of difperfion is TlTth part of that of the lens.
2. In like manner may be determined the circle of difper-
hon that will comprehend the rays of any particular colour
or fet ol- colours. Thus all the orange and yellow will pais
through a circle whofe diameter is T^thof that of the lens.
3. In different furfaces, or plano-convex lenfes, the angles
of aberration rP^ are as the breadth PQjdiiedfly, and as
the focal diftance VI inverfely ; becaufe any angle DPE is
as its fubtenfe DE diredfly and radius DP inverfely. N, B.
we call VE the focal diftance, becaule at this diftance,
or at the point F, the light is moft of all conftipated. If
we examine the focal diftance by holding the lens to the
fhall then fee that the fuperiority of the refledting teleicope
is incomparably lefs than Newton imagined it to be.
Therefore let EB (fig. 2.) reprefent a piano-convex lens,
of which C is the centre and Cr the axis. Let us fuppofe
it to have no fpherical aberration, but to colledt rays occu¬
pying its whole furface to fingle points in the axis. Let a
beam of white or1 compounded light fall perpendicularly on
its plane furface. The rays will be fo refradled by its cur¬
ved furface, that the extreme red rayrs will be colledftd at r,
the extreme violet rays at w, and thofe of intermediate re-
frangibility at intermediate points, o,y,y, b^ptV, of the line
r w, which is nearly Tgth of rC. The extreme red and violet
rays will crofs each ocher at A and D ; and AD will be a
fedlion or diameter of the circle of chromatic difperfion, and
will be about ^j-th of EB. We may fuppofe wr to be bi-
fedfed in b, becaufe ivb is to br very nearly" in tire ratio of
equality (for rb : rC =r b A : cE, = bA : r B, •= tub : wC).
The line rw will be a kind of prifmatic fpedfrum, red from
r to 0, orange-coloured from 0 to y, yellow from y toy,
green from g to b, blue from b to />, purple from p to and
violet from *v to <w.
The light in its compound {late muft be fuppofed uni¬
formly denle as it falls upon the lens ; and the fame muft
be faid of the rays of any particular colour. Newton iup-
pofes alfo, that when a white rayy fuch as nE, is difperfed
into its component coloured rays by refradion at E, it is
uniformly fpread over the angle DEA. This fuppofition
is indt*d gratuitous ; but we have no argument to the con¬
trary, and/may therefore confider it as juft. The conle-
quence is, that each point w, v,p, b, See. of the fpedfrum is
not only equally luminous, but alfo illuminates uniformly^ its
correfponding portion of AD : that is to fay, the coating
(fo to term it) of any particular colour, fuch as purple,
from the point p, is uniformly denfe in every part of AD
on which it falls. In like manner, the colouring of yellow,
intercepted by a part of AD in its paftage to the pointy,
is uniformly denle in all its parts. But the deniity of the
different colours in AD is extremely different : for fince
the radiation in w is equally denfe with that iny>, the den-
fity of the violet colouring, which radiates from -a/, and is
J fpread
TEL
[ 3|i ]
T E I
'ekfcope. rpwad over the ^hole of AD, mull be much lefs than the
—y—. genf;ty of the purple colouring, which radiates from p, and
occupies only a part of AD round the circle b. Thefe
denf:ties mud be very nearly in the inverfe proportion of
tub* to pb\
Hence we fee, that the central point b wilj be very in*
•tenfely illuminated by the blue radiating from p b and the
green intercepted from bg. It will be more faintly illumi¬
nated by the purple radiating from vpy and the yellow in¬
tercepted from gy ; and flill more faintly by the violet from
Tvvt and the orange and red intercepted from yr. rlhe
whole colouring will be a white, tending a little to yellow-
nefs. The accurate proportion of thefe colourmgs may be
computed from our knowledge of the portion of the points
o,y,g, &c. But this is of little moment. It is of more
confequence to be able to determine the proportion of the
total intenfity of the light in b to its intenfity in any other
point I.
For this purpofe draw rlR, IwW, meeting the lens in
R and W. The point I receives none of the light which
pafies through the fpace RW : for it is evident that b\ :
Cli — bA : CE, = 1 : 5 9, and that C R CW ; and there¬
fore, frnce all the light incident on EB paffes tHough AB,
all the light incident on RW paffes through If (bi being
made ~ bl). Draw eTO, ylY, ^IG, I/>P, IvY. It is
plain, that I receives re'd light from RO, orange from OY,
yellow from YG, green from GE, a little blue from BP,
purple from PV, and violet from VW. It therefore wants
iome of the green and of the blue.
That we may judge of the intenfity of thefe colours at I,
fuppofe the lens covered with paper pierced with a fmall
hole at G. The green light only will pafs through I; the
other colours will pafs between I and b, or between I and
A, according as they are more or lefs refrangible than the
particular green at I. This particular colour converges to
g, and therefore will illuminate a fmall fpot round I, where
it will be as much denfer than it is at G as this fpot is
fmaller than the hole at G. The natural deniity at G, there¬
fore, will be to the increafed denfity at I, as ^I2 to £ G2, or
as gbz to yC2, or as H2 to CG2. In like manner, the natu¬
ral denfity of the purple coming to I through an equal hole
at P will be to the increafed denfity at I as blz to CPa.
And thus it appears, that the intenfity of the differently co¬
loured illuminations of any point of the circle of difperiion,
is inverfely proportional to the fquare of the diflance from
the centre of the lens to the point of its furface through
which the colouring light comes to this point of the circle
of difperfion. This circumflance will give us a very eafy,
and, we think, an elegant folution of the queftion. 1
Bifedl CE in F, and draw FL perpendicular to CE, ma¬
king it equal to CF. ’i hrough the point E deferibe the
hyperbola KLN of the fecond order, that is, having the
ordinates EK, FL, RN, &c. inverfely proportional to the
fquares of the abfeiffe CE, CF, CR, &c. ; fo that EL : RN
i i
CF2 • CR2
or = CR2 : CF2, See. It is evident that
thefe ordinates are proportional to the denfities of the feveral-
ly coloured lights which go from them to any points what¬
ever of the circle of difperfion.
Now the total denfity of the-light at I depends both on
the denfity of each particular colour and on the number of
colours which- fall on it. The ordinates of this hyperbola
deter minethe fir If ; and the fpace ER meafures the number
of colours which fall on I, becaufe it receives light frooi the
whoie^ of ER, and of its equal BW. Therefore, if ordi¬
nates oe drawn from any point of ER, their fum will be as
the whole light which goes to 1 ; that is, the total denfity
of the light at I will be proportional to the area NR£I£.
Now it is known thatCExEKis equal to the infinitely Telefrofe.
extended area lying beyond EK ; and CRxRN is equal to 'v—*
the infinitely extended area lying beyond RN. Therefore
the area NREK is equal to CRxRN-CEXEK. But
CF3
R N and EK are refpedtively equal to
CR:
CF3
and
There-
(OR OP
—- _
OK Cili
CE).
i\    CE—CR
= CPX lck-gy, = CFx3
ER __ CF
CExCR’ ~
CF3 . CF; CF2
CE 13 =: aCF’ := ~z—’ a cor:^ant quantity.
_ ER
CE XCR-
CExCR’
But becaufe CF is
ER
= CFhX
l of CE,
Therefore
Al
the denfity of the light at I is proportion?.! to or to -jy-,
becaufe the points R and I are fimilarly lituated in EC
an-d A b.
Farther, if the femi-aperture CE of the lens be called
CF2 . , AI
i> is = -jj arid the denfity at I is =
Here it is proper to obferve, that fince the point R has
the fame fituation in the diameter EB that the point I has
in the diameter AD of the circle of difperfion, the circle
oefenbed on EB may be conceived as the magnified repre-
fentation of the circle of difperiion. The point F, for in-
ilance, reprefents the point / in the circle of difperfion,
which bifedls the radius bA ; and f receives no light from
any part of the lens which is nearer the centre than F, being
illuminated only by the light which comes through EF
and its oppofice BE'. The fame may be faid of every other
point.
In like manner, the denfity of the light in /, the middle
EF EF
between b and A, is meafured by yry, which is = yry, or i.
This makes the denfity at this point a proper ftandard of
companion. The deniity there is to the denfity at I as I
AI
t° , or as H to Al; and this is the fimplell mode of
comparifon. 1 he denfity half way from the centre of the
circle of Rifperfion is to the denfity at any point I as H
Lafily, through L deferibe the common reftar.gular hy¬
perbola tLn, meeting the ordinates of the former in kt L,
and n : and draw ih parallel to EC, cutting the ordinates
-CR = EZ-
: I 1 = EZ
t hen CR : CE = EZ : Rn, and CR : CE
R« EZ, or CR : RE cr EZ : rn, and b i
r n. And thus we have a very fimple expref-
hon of the denfity in any point of the circle of difperfion.
Let the point be anywhere, as at I. Divide the lens in R
as AD is divided in I, and then rnk as the denfity in T.
. * liek two uieaiures were given by Newton ; the fir ft iu
his 7 reatife de Mundi Syjhnnate, and the laft in his Optics ;
but both without demonftration.
It the hyperbola ZLr be made to revolve round the axis
CQAt will generate a fi ll'd fpindle, which wall meafure the
whole quantity of light which pafies through different por¬
tions of the circle of difperfion. Thus the folid produced
by the revolution of LZ/ will meafure all the light which
occupies the outer part of the circle of difperfion lying
without the middle o; the radius. 1 his fpace is J ths of the
whole circle; but the quantity of light is but |th of the
whole..
_ A ftill more fimple exprefiion of the whole' quantity of
light palling through different portions of the circle of chro¬
matic difperfion may now be obtained as follows :
It has been demonftrated, that the denfity of the light at
T
ER
EL t
Suppofe the figure to turn round
TEL
AT
** Vi' or 88 CR
the axis. I or R defcribe circumferences of circles ; and the
whole light paffing through, this circumference is _as the
circumference, or as the radius, and as the denflty jointly.
ER
It is therefore as ^ XCR, that is, as ER. Draw any
ftraight line Ewz, cutting RN in s, and any other ordinate
FL in .rRj. I'lie whole light which illuminates the cn-
•cumference defcribed by I is to the whole light which il¬
luminates the centre ^ as ER to EC, or as Rr to Cm. In
like manner, the whole light which illuminates the circum¬
ference defcribed by the point / in the circle of difperhon
is to the whole light which illuminates the centre as Fx
.to Cm. The lines Cm, RS, Fx, are therefore proportional
to the whole light which illuminates the correfponding cir¬
cumferences in the circle of difperfion. Therefore the whole
light which falls" on the circle wEofe radius is £1, will be re-
prefented by the trapezium in CRS ; and the whole light
which falls on the ring defcribed by I A, will be reprefented
by the triangle E j R ; and fo o1 any other portions.^
By confidering the figure, wTe fee that the diflribution
of the light is exceedingly unequal. Round the margin it has
no fenfible denfity ; while its denflty in the very centre is
incomparably greater than in any other point, being ex-
preffed by the afymptote of a hyperbola. Alio the circle de¬
fcribed with the radius —— contains |ths of the whole light.
2
No wonder then that the confufion caufed by the mixture
of thefe circles of difperfion is lefs than one fhould expeft ;
be Tides, it is evident that the moft lively or impreflive co¬
lours occupy the middle of the fpeftrum, and are there
much denfer than the reft. The margin is covered with
an illumination of deep red and violet, neither of which co¬
lours are brilliant. The margin wull be of a dark claret co¬
lour. The centre revives all the colours, but in a propor¬
tion of intenfity greatly different from that in the common
prifmatic fpe&rum, becaufe the radiant points L, />, b, g, &c.
by which it is illuminated, are at fuch different diftances from
it. It will be white ; but we apprehend not a pure white,
..being greatly overcharged with the middle colours.
Thefe confiderations fhow that the coloured fringes,
which are obferved to border very luminous obje&s feen on
a dark ground through optical inftruments, do not proceed
from the objeft-giafs of a telefcope or microfcope, but from
an improper conftru&ion of the eye-glaffes. The chroma¬
tic difperfion would produce fringes of a different colour,
when they produce any at all, and the colours would be
differently difpofed. But this difperfion by the objett-glafs
can hardly produce any fringes: its effedl is a general and
almoft uniform mixture of circles all over the field, which
produces an uniform hazir.efs, as if the obje<ft were viewed at
an improper diftance, or out of its focus, as wo vulgarly ex-
prefs it.
We may at prefent form a good guefs at the limit which
this caufe puts to the performance of a telefcope. A point
of a very difiant objeft is reprefented, in the pifture formed
by the objeft-glafs, by a little circle, whofe diameter is at
kaft T~5- th of the aperture of the objeft-glafs, making a^very
full allowance for the fuperior brilliancy and denfity of the
central light. We look at this pifture with a magnifying
cye-glafs. This magnifies the pifture of the point. If it am¬
plify it to fuch a degree as to make it an objeft individually
diftinguifnable, the confufion is then fenfible. Now this
can be computed. An object Jubtending one minute of a
-degree is diftinguHhed by the.dulleft eye, even although it
be a dark objed on a bright ground. Let us therefore fup-
342 ]
pofe a telefeope, the objed-glafs of which is of fix feet focal Tekfeop,
diftance, and one inch aperture. The diameter of the cir-
ck of chromatic difperfion will be yssd1 of an inch, which
fubtends at the centre of the objed-glafs an angle of about
9 r feconds. This, when magnified fix times by an eye-glafs,
■would become a diftinguifhable objed ; and a telefcope of
this length would be indiftind if it magnified more than fix
>times, it a point were thus fpread out into a fpot or unitorm
intenfity. But the fpot is much lefs intenfe about its mar¬
gin. It is found experimentally that a piece of engra¬
ving, having fine crofs hatches, is not fenfibly indiftind till
brought fo far from the limits of perfedly diftind vifion,
that this indiftindnefs amounts to 6' or in breadth.—
Therefore inch a telelcope will be fenfibly diftind when it
magnifies 36 times ; and this is very agreeable to experi¬
ence.
We come, in the feeond place, to the more arduous talk
of afeertaining the error arifing from the fpherical figure of
the furfaces employed in optical inftruments.— Suffice it to
fay, before we begin, that although geometers have exhi¬
bited other forms of lenfes which are totally exempt from
this error, they cannot be executed by the artift; and we
are therefore reftrided to the employment of fpherical fur-
faces.
Of all the determinations which have been given of fpheri¬
cal aberration, that by Dr Smith, in his Optics, which is
an improvement of the fundamental theorem ol that moft
elegant geometer Huyghens, is the moft perfpicuous and
palpable. Some others are more concife, and much better
fitted for after ufe, and will therefore be employed by us
in the profecution of this article. But they do not keep in
view the optical.fads, giving the mind a pidure of the pro-
grefsof the rays, which it can contemplate and difeover amidft
many modifying circumftances. By ingenious iubftitutions
of analytical fymbols, the inveftigation is rendered expedi¬
tious, concife, and certain ; but thefe are not immediate
fymbols of things, but of operations of the mind; objeds
fufficiently fubtile of themfelves, and having no need of fub-
ftitutions to make us lole fight of the real fubjed ; and thus
our occupation degenerates into a procefs almoft without
ideas. We lhall therefore fet out with Dr Smith’s funda¬
mental Theorem.
I. In Rejitclions.
Let AVB (fig. 3.) be -a concave fpherical mirror, of
which C is the centre, V the vertex, CV the axis, and F
the focus of an infinitely {lender pencil of parallel rays paf-
fing through the centre. Let the ray <7 A, parallel to the
axis, be refleded in AG, crofting the central ray CV in /.
Let AP be the line of the femi-aperture AV, AD its tan¬
gent, and CD its fecant.
The aberration Ff from the principal focus of central
rays is equal to 4- of the excefs VD of the fecant above the
radius, or very near equal to 4 of VP, the verfed fine of the
femi-aperture. #
For becaufe AD is perpendicular to CA, the points C,
A, D, are in a circle, of which CD is (he diameter; and
becaufe A/ is equal to C/, by reafon of the equality of
the angle* / AC,/C A, and C A a, / is the centre of the
circle through C, A, D, and fd is = 4 kT). But ^ C is
— 4 CV. Therefore F/is 4- of VD.
But becaufe DV : VP = DC 4 VC, and DC is very little
greater than VC when the aperture AB is moderate, DV
is very little greater than VP, and F/ is very nearly equal
to 4 of VP.
ATV1
Cor. 1. The longitudinal aberration is —
AW 4CV
for
PV is very nearly =
Cor. 2.
'clefcopf.
TEL [ 343 ]
Cor, t. The lateral aberration FG is =: por
tel
FG : F/r: AP : P/, =r AV : ± CV nearly, and there¬
fore FG - ^ X-L, = ^
4CV CV 2CV^.
2. In Rtf rations.
Let AVB (fig-. 4. A or B) be a fpherical furface fepa-
rating two re framing fubftances, C the centre, V the vertex,
AV the femi aperture, AP its fine, PV its verfed fine, and
F the focus of parallel rays infinitely near to the axis. Let
the extreme ray a A, parallel to the axis, be refracted into
AG, croffing CF in which is therefore the focus of ex¬
treme parallel rays.
The redangle oj the fine of incidence, by the difference of the
fries of incidence and ref radian, is to the fquart of thefne of re-
frad'wn, as the verfed fine of the femi-aperture is to the longitudi¬
nal abberration of the extreme rays.
Call the fine of incidence i, the fine of refraction r, and
their difference d.
Join CA, and about the centre f defcribe the arch AD. *
ihe angle ACV is equal to the angle of incidence, and'
CAy is the angle of refraftion. Then, fince the fine of
incidence is to the fine of refraAion as VF to CF, or as
Ay to Cy, that is, as Dy to Cy, we have
cf : fv - cy:yD
CF:CV= Cy: CD
CF—C/: CV—CD = CF: CV
Fy: VD zr CF : CV, = r : d.
AP1 AP2 AP1
w rv = cr+CT, = rev "“'r’Md PD =mrv
AP1 AP1 J
— 2 fV neaity> = TIaT nearl7* Therefore PV : PD
by Converfion
altern. conver
or
In general, the longitudinal aberrations from the focus Tdefcope,
. central parallel rays are as the fquares of the apertures v "
direAly, and as the focal difiances inverfely ; and the lateral
aberrations are as the cubes of the apertures direAly, and
tne fouares of the focal diftances inverfely ; and the angular
aberrations are as the cubes of the. aperture direAlv, and
the cubes of the focal diftances inverfely.
The reader muff have obferved, that to Amplify the in-
veftigation, fame fmall errors are admitted. PV and PD are
not in the exaft proportion that we affumed them, nor is
Dy equal to FV. But in the fmall apertures which fuf-
fice for optical inftruments, thefe errors may be difre-
garded.
TRis fpherical aberration produces an mdiftin&hefs of vi-
fion, in the fame manner as the chromatic aberration does,-
viz. by fpreading out every mathematical point of the ob-
jeft into^a little fpot in its piAure ; which fpots, by mixing
Vvith eacn other, confufe the whole. We muft now deter¬
mine the diameter of the circle of diffufion, as we did in the
cafe of chromatic difperfion.
Let a ray P> * (fig. 5.) be refraAed on the other fide of
the axis, into * H cutting AfG in H, and draw the
perpendicular EH. Call AV a, «V«, Vf (or VF, or
V <r, which in this comparifon may be taken as equal) zr J\
Fy zzz b, andy E zr ? .v.
AV2: « V 2=z Fy: F t (already demonflr^ted) and F ?>
= ^i,andF/_F», (or/0 =h-~,b,=-*±=ft,-
Phtt
Din.
= — Xo2—«
a 1
1 — ' 2 X a » X u —
2 FV
= FV: CV, and DV: PV zr CF : FV nearly.
We had above F f: VD = r :d;
and now - VD : PV rz CF : FV, = r :i ;
therefore - Fy: PV = r 1: di,
and Fy = ~ X PV. E. D.
The abberration will be different according as the refrac¬
tion is made towards or from the perpendicular; that is, ac¬
cording as r is lefs or greater than i. They are in the ra-
. r * z2
t10 of J7 to ffj-’ or r 3 to * The abberration there¬
fore is always much diminifhed when the refraAion is made
fiom a rare into a denfe medium. The proportion of the
fines for air and gfafs is nearly that of 3 to 2. When the
light is refraAed into the glafs, the abberration is nearly 4
of PV ; and when the light paffes out of rJafs into air, it is.
about # of PV.
•AP1
=yE : EFI, or f: a
EH : E f, or “ : /■ zz: —
/
a x
T +
b
a x
:7’
ax ax
«. Alfo Py: PA
= EH. And P * : P ?> -■
Therefore y® ~;
= E $>.
^ __ a->r
■Xrt + a. Therefore-X a4-«
CC i
h  b
Cor. 1.
AP2
Fy = — x
d~i x 2CV nearIy’ and is alfo =z — x
AP
^FV’ FV rz nearly, and i :d
FV: CV.
Cor. 2.
BecaufeyP; PA =z Fy: FG
or FV : ‘AV — Fy: FG nearly,
we have F G, the lateral abberration, zzYfX =:
AV}
AV3
■y  
2FV2
= |-x
2 CV
a 2 X a fi- « X o — «, and a ,— --2 X a—a, and w-zr —j X «'
(a — a). ^ Therefore » is greateft when « X a — « is great-
eff ; that is, when * a. Iherefore EH is greateft when-
P t is equal to the half of AP. When this is the cafe, we
have at the fame time — x * (a — «) = 7 x 4 a 2, and *
— s b, or EH ^ FG. That is, the diameter of the circle
of aberration through which the whole of the refraAed light
muft pafs, is f of the diameter of the circle of aberration at -
the focus of parallel central rays. In the chromatic aber¬
ration it was 4 ; fo that in this refpeA the fpherical aber¬
ration does not create fo great confufion as the chromatic.
We are now able to compare-them, fihee we have now
the meafure of both the circles of aberration.
. ^ias not keen found poffible to give more than four
inches of aperture to an objeA glafs of 100 feet focal di-
fiance, fo as to preferve fufficient diftinAnefs. If we com¬
pute the diameter of the circle EH con-efponding to this ■
aperture, we lhall find it not much to exceed *  0f an
inch. A we reftnA the circle of chromatic difperfion to
FC of the aperture, which is hardly the fifth part of the
C°r‘ 3‘ Eecaufe the angle F-Ay is proportional to ^ very whole difperfion-in it, it is ~ of an inch, and is about
1900 times greater than the other.- '
The circle of fphefical aberration of a- plano convex
lens, with the plane fide next the diftant objeA, is equal to
the circle oi chromatic difperfion when the femi-aperture is
about
nearly, we have the angular abberration
_AV J __ z-1 AV3
2 FV 3 ■“ T7 X 2CV~*
FA/= ^ x
T E E [ 344
TSefwpe about .5" ! Tor we W formerly that EH is i of TO, and
X
1
A p 3 to —
thatEGis^- rAcy, and therefore EG- ,
This being made =
wh ch is nearly -p and correfponds to an aperture of 3c?
A?
55’
gives
55 r
diameter, if r be to * as 3 to 2. . c .in
Sir Ifaac Newton was therefore well entitled to fa}, that
it was quite needlefs to attempt figures winch dioula have
lefs aberration than fphencal ones, while the confuuon p
duced by the chromatic difperfion remained uncorrefte .
Since the indiftinftnefs is as the fquares of the diameters
the circles of aberration, the difproportion is qu'tj beyond
our imagination, even when Newton has made fuch abb .ra
allowance to the chromatic difpeifion. hut it mu 1 be ac¬
knowledged, that he has not attended to the diftnbuaon of
the light in the circle of fpherical aberration, and has ha-
ftily fuppofed it to be like the diftributicm of the coloured
light, indefinitely rare in the margin, and demur in the
‘>5
centre
We are indebted to Father Bofcovich for the elegant de¬
termination of this diftribution, which we have given m the
article Optics. From this it appears, that the light m the
margin of the circle of fpherical aberration, mftead ot be-
in^ Incomparably rarer than in the fpaces between it and
the centre, is incomparably *nfc». The ..Kbftmftncfs
there foie produced by the interledtion of the e unnnous
circumferences is vaftly great, and increafes the w oe m
diftintdnefs exceedingly. By a grofs calculation w uc we
made, it appears to be increafed at leait 500 times. I^he^
proportional indiftinftnefs therefore, inftead or being 19-0
to 1, is only I90°2, or nearly 7220 to i; a proportion ftill
fufficiently great to warrant Newton’s preference of the re-
fleftin^ telefcope of his invention. And we may now o
ferve, that the reflefting telefcope has even a great advan¬
tage over a refrafting one of the fame focal diftance, wit 1
reipeft to its fpherical aberration : For we have feen ( Cor.
2.) that the lateral aberration is — Trvfi. for a piano
convex glafs is nearly ~ 2
AV:
1 2 CV
And the diameter of the
AV3
circle of aberration is one-fourth of this, or X
f6 ^ 2 cy
In like manner, the lateral aberration of a concave miiror
A "XT ^
is • ■ , » and the diameter of the circle of difperfion is
2 CV
if the furfaces were portions of the
fame fphere, the diameter of the ciicle of aberration of re-
AV ’
iTcy-i’ and therefore
frafted rays would be to that of the circle of aberration or
reflefted rays as to 3, or as 9 to 4. But when the re-
frafting and reflefting furfaces, in the pofition here conli-
dered have the fame focal diftance, the radius of the refrac¬
ting furface is four times that of the refltfting furface. I he
proportion of the diameters of the circles of fpherical aber¬
ration is that of 9 X 42 to 4, or of 144 to 4., or 36 to 1.
The diftinftnefs therefore of the refleftor is 36 X 36, or
1296 times greater than that of a plano-convex lens (pla¬
ced with the plane fide next the diftant objeft) of the fame
breadth and focal diftance, and will therefore admit of a
much greater magnifying power. This comparifon is in¬
deed made in circumftances moft favourable to the refleftor,
becaufe this is the very worft poiition of a plano-convex
lens. But we have not as yet learned the aberration in any
‘ T E I.
other pofition. In another pofition the ret raft ton and
confequent aberration of both furfaces are complicated.
Before we proceed to the confideration of this very diffi¬
cult fubjeft, we may deduce from what has been already
demonftrated feveral general rules and maxims in the con-
ftruftion of telefcopes, which will explain (to fuch readers
as do not with to enter more deeply into the fubjeft), and
fuftify the proportion which long praftice ot the bell artifts
has fanftioned. , .
Indiftirrftnefs proceeds from the commixture of the cir¬
cles of aberration on the retina of the eye : For any one
fenfible point of the retina, being the centre of a circle of
aberration, will at ence be affefted by the admixture of the
rays of as many different pencils of light as there are ien-
fible points in the area of that circle, and will convey to the
mind a mixed fenfation of as many vifible points of the ob¬
jeft. This number will be as the area of the circle of aber¬
rates, whatever be the ike of a fenfible point of the reti-
na. Now in vifion with telefcopes, the diameter of the
circle of aberration on the retina is as the apparent magni¬
tude of the diameter of the correfponding circle in the fo¬
cus of the eye-ghfs; that is, as the angle Intended by this
diameter at the centre of the eye-glafs ; that is, as the dia¬
meter itfelf direftly, and as the focal diftance of the eye-
glafs inverfelv. And the area of that circle on the retina
fs as the area of the circle in the focus of the eye-glals di-
reftlv, and as the fquare of the focal diftance of the eye-
glafs inverfely. And this is the meaiure of the apparent
indiftinftnefs. , . , •
Cor. In all forts of telefcopes, and alfo in compound mi-
crofeopes, an objeft is feen equally d.ftinft when the focal
diftance of the eye-glaffes are proportional to tae diame¬
ters of the circles of aberration in the focus of the objea-
giaHere we do not confider the trifling alteration which
well conftrufted eye-glaffes may add to the indiftinftnefs of
the firft image. . ^ r . _
In refrafting telefcopes, the apparent indiftinftnefs as
the area of the obje&.glafc direaiy, and as the tquare of the
focal diftance of the eye-glafs inverfely. lor it has been
fhown, that the area of the circle of difperfion is as.the.area
of the objeft-glafs, and Chat the .fphencal aberration is m-
fisnificant when compared with this.
6Therefore, to make reflefting telefcopes equally diftinft,
the diameter of tjie objeft-glafs muff be proportional to the
focal diftance of the eye-glafs. f . .0.
But in reflefting telefcopes, the indiftinftnefs is as the
fixth power of the aperture of the objeft-glafs direftly, an
as the fourth power of the focal diftance of the objeft-g a
and fquare of the focal diftance of the eye-glafs mveitdy.
This is evident from the dimenfions of the circle of aberratio ,
_ AV3
which was found proportional to
Therefore, to have them equally diftinft, the cubes of
the apertures muft be proportional to the fquares o t ie o-
cal diftance multiplied by the focal diftance 0 t ie ey
g By thefe rules, and a ftandard telefcope of approved
goodnefs, an artift can always
inftrvment he wifhes to conftruft. lvlr ri -v ] ,
onef'of which the objeft-glafs had 30 focal
three inches diameter. The eye-ghh had 3,3 '“'.e tocal
diftance. And its perfoimance was found iupeuoi Y
which he had feen ; nor did this appear owing to any c 1
goodnefs of the objeft glafs, becaufe he found o hm equally
{rood which were conftrufted on fimilar proper ions,
has therefore been adopted as a ftandard j;ffirul-
It does not at firft appear how there can be any d.ff ^
Telefcope,
TEL [
Telefcope. ty in tliis matter, becaufe we can always dimlnifli the aper
ture of the objeft-glafs or fpeculum till the circle of aberra¬
tion is as fmall as we pleafe. But by diminiihing this aper¬
ture, we diminilh the light in the duplicate ratio of the
aperture. Whatever be the aperture, the brightnefs is di-
ininifhed by the magnifying power, which fpreads the light
over a greater fur face in the bottom of the eye. The ap¬
parent brightnefs mull be as the fquare of the aperture of
the telefcope dire<?cly, and the fquare of the amplification of
the diameter of an objeft inverieiy. Objects therefore will
be feen equally bright if the apertures of the telefcopes be
as the focal diftances of the objedt-glaffes diredtly, and the
focal diftances of the fingle eye-glafs (or eye-glafs equiva¬
lent to the eye-piece) inverfely. Therefore, to have tele¬
fcopes equally diftiridl and equally bright, we muft combine
thefe proportions with the former. It is needleis to go far¬
ther into this tubjeCf, becaufe the conftruftion of redrafting
telefcopes has been fo materially changed by the correftion
of the chromatic aberration, that there can hardly be given
any proportion between the objeft-glafs and eye-glafl'es.
Every thing now depends on the degree in which we can
correft the aberrations of the objeft-glafs. We have been
able lo far to diminifh the chromatic aberration, that we can
give very great apertures without its becoming fenfible. But
this is attended with fo great an increafe of the aberration
of figure,' that this laft becomes a fenfible quality. A lens
which has 30° for its femi aperture, has a circle of aberra¬
tion equal to its chromatic aberration. Fortunately we can
derive from the very method of contrary refraftions, which
>ye employ for removing the chromatic aberration, a correc¬
tion or the other. We are indebted for this contrivance
alfo to the illuftrious Newton.
We call this Newton’s contrivance, becaufe he was the
firft who propofed a conftru&ion of an objefl-glafs in which
the aberration was corredled by the contrary aberrations of
glafs and water.
Jluyghens had indeed fnppofed, that our all wife Creator
had employed in the eyes of animals many refractions in
place of one, in order to make the vilion more diflinft; and
the invidious detraftors from Newton’s fame have catchef
at this vague conjedture as an indication of his knowledge
of the poffibility of deftioying the aberration of figure by
contrary refractions. But this is very ill-founded.' Huy-
ghens has acquired fufficient reputation by his theory of
aberrations. The fcope of his writing in the paffage allu¬
ded to, is to fhow that, by dividing any intended refraCtion
into parts, and producing a certain convergence to or di¬
et igencc irefm the axis of an optical inftrument by means
°f two or three lenfes inftead of one, we diminifii the
aberrations four or nine times. This conjecture about the
eye was therefore in the natural train of his thoughts. But
he did not think of deftroying the aberration altogether
by oppofite refraClions. Newton, in 1669, *ays> that op¬
ticians need not trouble themfelves about giving figures to
their glafles other than fpherical. If this figure were all the
obftacle to the improvement of telefcopes, he could fhow
them a conftruCtion of an objeft-glafs having fpherical fur-
faces wheie the aberration is deltroyed; and accordingly
gives the conftruClion of one compofed of glafs and water, in
which this is done completely by means of contrary refrac¬
tions.
The general principle is this : When the radiant point
B (fig. 5. B), or focus of incident rays, and its conjugate
focus F of refratfed central rays, are on oppofite fides of
the refraCting furface or lens V, the conjugate focus /(of
marginal rays is nearer to R than F is. But when the 'fo.
345 1 T E L
Now fig. 5. C reprefents the contrivance for deftroying Te'efcoye.
the colour produced at F, the principal focus of the con-.'~^vr,™—
vex lens V, of crown glafs, by means of the contrary refrac¬
tion of the concave lens v of flint glafs. The incident pa-e
rallel rays are made to converge to F by the firft lens. This,
convergence is diminilhed, but not entirely deftroyed, by
the concave lens v, and the focus is formed in F. F and
F therefore are conjugate foci of the concave lens. If F
be the focus of V for central rays, the marginal rays will
be collefted at fome point f nearer to the lens. If F be
now confidered as the focus of light incident on the centre
of v, and F be the conjugate focus, the marginal ray p F
would he refradted to fome point f' lying beyond F'.
Therefore the marginal ray p f may be refrafted to F', if
the aberration of the concave be properly adjufted to that
of the convex.
This brings us to the moft difficult part of our fubjeft,
the compounded aberrations of different furfaces. Our li¬
mits will not give us room for treating this in the fame ele¬
mentary and perfpicuous manner that v/e employed for a
fingle furface. We muff try to do it in a compendious
way, which will admit at once the different furfaces and the
different refra<?cive powers of different fubftances. This
snuft naturally render the procefs more complicated ; but
we hope to treat the fubjedl in a way eaiily comprehended
by any perfon moderately acquainted with common algebra;
and we truft that our attempt will be favourably received
by an indulgent public, as it is (as far as v/e know) the on¬
ly differtation in our language on the conftrudlion of achro¬
matic inftruments. We cannot but exprefs our furprife at
this indifference about an invention which has done fo much
honour to our country, and which now conftitutes a very
lucrative branch of its manufadhire. Our artifts infinitely
furpafs all the performances of foreigners in this branch,
and iupply the markets of Eimope without any competition;
yet it is from the writings on the continent that they de¬
rive theii fcientific inftrudfion, and particularly from the
differtations of Clairaut, who has wonderfully fimplified the
analyfis of optical propofitions. We fhall freely borrow
from him, and from the writings of Abbe Bofcovich, who
has confiderably improved the firft views of Clairaut. We
recommend the originals to the curious reader. Clairaut’s
differtations are to be found in the Memoirs of the Acade¬
my of Paris,’ ry56, See.; thofe of Bofcovich in the Memoirs
of tne Academy of Bologna, and in his five volumes of Opuf-
cuiti, publifhed at Baffano in lySy. To thefe may be add¬
ed D’Alembert and Euler. The only thing in our lan¬
guage is the tranflation of a very imperfedt work by Scheer-
fer.
Lemma In the right-angled triangle MXS (fig. 6.),
of which one fide MX is very fmall in comparifon of
either of the others; the excefs of the hypothenufe MS,
, ' MX-3
is very neary equal to or to
above the fide XS,
MX*
2 XS' For if about the ccntre S, with the radius SM, we
deferibe the femicircle AMO, we have AX XXO = MX%
Now AX n MS — SX, and XO, is nearly equal to 2 MS
or ^ XS^ on the other hand, MS is nearly equal to
> anfi in like manner MG is nearly equal to
MX2 MX2
^XG + an<3 MH is nearly equal to + XH.'
,RjliCS ramC fide W;th *2 “"A P*0'- I- the ray m M, Incident on the'fpherical fur-
E Vol. XVIII. Parti.rayS’ Rjd 15 srcat<:r R F'- face AM> converHc G ; that Is, let G he the focus-of
4 X x inci.
TEL [ 34<5 ] TEL
Telefcopc incident rays. It is required to .md the foc-s F of refrac more (i-nply, by expanding l, and it becomes —— 
rayg ? j * <t> a
Let m exprefs the ratio of the fine of incidence and re-   —^
' fra ion ; that is, let m be to 1 as the line of incidence to ™ r , rf • , c r 1
the £ne of refra^on in the fubftance of the fphere. Now put this value of - m place of the - m the analog
MG : GS -- fin. MSH : fin. SMG, employed above. The firft term of the analogy becomes
fin. SMG : iin. SMH; r1 t ^ it* it* ,r, , . .
' — — —" —• The analogy now become*
X Tckfcops.
ma
Zd
—, or .v
zm
rr,
z m r — -
'2 m
2
m k e1 x
: a r L Hence we obtain the
mkae1
mr a   — ark*
Then
therefore m X.MG : GS >— fin. MSH : fin. SMH.
Low S, MSH : S, SMH — MH : HS, Therefore,finally,
»y. MG : CSS ~ MH : Ho. x 2m
Now let MS, the radius of the rtfraaing furface, be t;on mrx
called a. Let AG, the diiiance of the focus of incident ^ _
rays from the lurface, be called r. And let AH, the focal a r k s'1 r n , ,
dillaucc of rtf,a«cd rays, be called .v. Laitly, let the fine - — » lmm 'vh'ch we ^ ielaSe
MX of the femi-aperture be called e. Obftrve, too, that a, ^ ^ 2 ^r
r. x, are to be confidered as poiitive quantities, when AS, ^   m r a z m a ' 1 ij,
AG, AH, he from the furface in the dire£1 ion in which the x ~~ m r a , £ — 4 m l- r1
light is fuppofed to move. If therefore the refracting fur- q\re may fimplify this greatly by attending to the tie-
face be concave, that is, having the centre on that fide from v ‘x
which the light comes j or if the incident rays arc divergent, mentary theorem in fluxions, that the fraction —' differ#
or the refracted rays are divergent j then u, r, x, are nega¬
tive quantities.
It is plain that HS=x—at ; GS — r—-a ; alfo AX—.
rjx — xy
nearly. HX ~ a
2a
GX — r— —. Now add to
2CI '
from the fraction by the quantity
y y
Therefore ^ —G —
fluxion of
• ; this being the
Now
HX and to GX their differences from MH and MG,
e 2 e 2
which (by the Lemma) are— and —We get MH —
\ j ' zx 2 r 0
y ( yx~xyt
y y + y ?
the preceding formula is nearly in this fit nation. It may
/ , , a ' A
mr a ( — 4 make — ■—)
-, when
— 4- —, and MG — r — — 4-
20 1 2x 20 1 271'
In order to f.'.or-
be written thus; •———
• m r ark — m k e’1
the lafl terms of the numerator and denominator are very
imali in companion with the firff, and may be confidered as-
, , 1 1 .yn • -u 1 x rra the x and v, while m r a is the x, and m r — a r k 1$ the y-
ten our notation, make i Hus will make MG . , ., ,
, a r Treating it m this way, it may be liatee thus :
k
Now fubftitute thefe values in the final analogy at the top
of this column, via. MH : ITS inn m. MG 1 GS ; it becomes
f 2 e2 mke'i
a zzz m r — •—— : r—a (or a r k).
m r a
■ +
orient ^ \
(mra)*nike2—(mr—ark)(i^mkae2-\—~^- f
mr — ark' 7^(772—aky
mr a {mra)mk — (mr—^jrl) (mLi-j-—) ^ ^
x — — 4- — : x
2<z ' 2 x
becaufe k —
r{m ak)
+
xG
-, and ark — r — a. Now multiply
The firft term
(ni—ak y
mr a m a .
or   is evidently rr p*
ri m—ak j* ^‘ m—ak
, T . ., the focal diiiance of an infinitely flender pencil* Therefene
the extreme and mean terms of this analogy. _ It is evident the aberration is expreffed by the fecund term, which we-
that it mull give us an equation which wifi give us a value ^ endeavour to lunplify.
of x or AH, the quantity fought. If we now perform the multiplications iudiaated, by —
But this-equation is quadratic. W e may avoid the-folu- a r P\
lion by an approximation which is fufficiently accurate, by (m t — a r k)X (m & a— — ** ), it is plain that — mr
fubftituting for x in the fra£lion —- (which is veiy fmall in X m ka dellroys the firll term m r a X m k the numerator
. 2x i of our fmall £ra£tion, and there remains of this numerator
all cafes of optical inffruments), an approximate value very ea- a% ri ^ ,
idy obtained, and very near the truth. This is the focal di- (m a^r k1—a r1 k% + ) 4 e2, which is equal to m* ax
fiance of an infinitely {lender pencil of rays converging to ^ k^\ ^ ^
G. This we know by the common optical theorem to  * _l__ ) 4 e1.
a mr \ m m2 a ~ m3 / 2 ’
TTie denominator was r* {m — a f)% and' the - fra<fti°n
”1-*- /£ - ~ + -) i <v wed i*
tm — ak)2\mr 7/22a ‘ tti3 / ^
- P\e2
be
Let this be called y ; if we fubfUtute
i in place of — — this value of ^ become:
^ ^ ^ k^
This pives us, by the by, an eafily remembered expref-
aow becomes
idently = f2 ^
F
m r
-f—)-. Now recolleft that:
7«2 a 1 } 2
fion (and beautifully fimple) of the refradled focus of an 1 I . k2 (1 1 \ ^ ^
infinitely Sender pencil, correfponding to any diftanee r of ^ ~ ~a Therefore ^ r J m%a m*r
the radiant point. For fince r =   —- muft be = Therefore, inftead of — — , write , and we get
in — a h tp * m a w? •
k xxr r ■ / P P k2 P \e1 f k
Wc m,y c«n expref, lt the foftion f ;
771
m
a k
a m'
P
tn'i
T E L
Telrfcope. nh e* J—m [
    -—-4. J —which is equal to ®2-—r— i h
v vr r ' m3 r / 2 m \
, m— l / m k* \ e*
and finally tq — {k   J
)l.
Therefore the focal diflance of refra&ed rays is «: =: “P
mi \ r / 2
This confifts of two parts. The firll P is the focal di*
Sauce of an infinitely {lender pencil of central rays, and the
rr<—i / mP \ e1
other — p --j- ^ l3— “ J ^ 13 the aberration anfing
from the fpherical figure of the refracting furface.
Our formula has thus at laft put on a very fimple form,
and is vallly preferable to Dr Smith’s for practice.
This aberration is evidently proportional to the fquare of
the iemi-aperture, and to the fquare of the diftance p : but,
in order to obtain this fimplicity, feveral quantities were ne-
gledted. The affumption of the equality of AX to “ is
the firft fource of error. A much more accurate value of it
2 o s2 . e2
woula have been ——ii for it is really =   r-xT* If
4^ } 2 a-—AX
e2
for AX w'e fubftitute its approximated value *—,wefhould
have AX =
2 a-
4 a*—t
To have ufed this va¬
lue would not have much complicated the calculus ; but it
did not occur to us till we had finifhed the inveftigation,
and it would have required the whole to be changed. The
operation in page 346. col. 2. par. 2. is another fource of
error. Tut thefe errors are very inconfiderable when the
aperture is moderate. They increafs for the molt part with
an increafe of aperture, but not in the proportion of any
regular function of it; fo that we cannot improve the for¬
mula by any manageable procefs, and mull be contented
with it. i he errors are preciiely the fame with thpfe of
Dr Smith’s theorem, and indeed with thole of any that wc
have feen, which are not vaifly more complicated.
As this is to be frequently combined with fubfequent
operations, we fhorten the expreffion by putting 6 for
m— I / ^ m k2 \e2
■~r J 2* ~hen 7,23 exprefs the aberra¬
tion of the firft, refradiion from the focal diftance of an infi¬
nitely {lender pencil; and now the focal diftance of refracted
rays isy’ ? —• A 9.
if the incident rays are parallel, r becomes infinite, and
But in this cafe k becomes = —, and —
a p
ni1 a2 m—x
becomes^ r* "A——p
\m—ij m
This is the aberration of ex-
47 1 TEL
We have the angle C Mg to HM h as w to f*
Now : G < = A G ; A M,
and G i: b k —tn’\Cr\ HA*
and b k : Hj6 =. MA : AH ;
therefore Gr^ : Wh = w A G2 : A H2.
The eafieft and molt peripicuous method for obtaining
the aberration of rays twice redrafted, will be to confider
the firft refraCtion as not having any aberration, and deter¬
mine the aberration of the fecond refraCtion. Then con¬
ceive the focus of the firft refraCtion as fhitted by the aber¬
ration. This will produce a change in the focal diftance of
the fecond refraCtion, which may be determined by this
L,tmma.
Prop. II. Let AM, BN (fig. 7.) be two fphenca! fur-
faces, including a refraCting lubftance, and having their
centres C and c in the line AG. Let the ray a A pais
through the centres, which it will do without refraCtion.
Let another ray wzM, tending to G, be refraCted by the
firtt furlace into MH, cutting the fecond furface in N,
where it is farther refraCted into NX. It is required to de¬
termine the focal diftance BI ?
It is plain that the fine of incidence on the fecond fur¬
face is to the fine of refraCtion into the furrounding air as
1 tom. Alfo BI may be determined in relation to BH,
by means of BH, Nx, Be, and , in the fame way that
API was determined in relation to AG, by means of AG,
MX, AC, and m.
Let the radius of the fecond furface be l, and let e ftfll
exprefs the femi-aperture, (becaufe it hardlydiffers from Nx).
Alfo let « be the thicknefs of the lens. Then obferve, that
the focal diftance of the rays refraCted by the firft furfacc,
(negleCting the thicknefs of the lens and the aberration of
the firft furtace), is the diftance of the radiant point for the
fecond refraction, or is the focal diftance of rays incident on
the fecond furface. In place of r therefore vvemuft take p ;
6 —
. -1 ,
—r~ P —.
2
and as we made k 7=. ~ —
a
cuius, let us now make /
k
in order to abbreviate the cal*
11 11
— -; and make p — — m L
* fl>
as we made — — ——
t a m
m k
i'> ) , make
r / 2
b
- Laftly
(i—M'5-
in place of
JL
t?i *
6 =
V- -
/ 2» “■
tn —1
m
9 j
~ and 9 =
X —X
a
’y and r
2 ’ ^{m— l)m a'
treme parallel rays.
VV e muft now add the refraCtion of another furface.
Lemma 2 If the focal diftance AG be changed by a
fmall quantity G", the focal diftance AH will alfo be*
changed by a Imall quantity H/6, and we {hall have
m • A G2 : A H2 = Og : H L
Draw M/>, and the perpendiculars G i, Hi. Then,
becauie the fines of the angles of incidence are in a conltant
ratio to the fines of the angles of refraCtion, and the incre¬
ments of theie fmall angles are proportional to the increments
p! , diefe increments of the angles are in the fame
conltant ratio. Therefore,
p-^):
(m3P-
Thus we have got an expreffion.fimilar to the other; and
the focal diftance BI, after two refraCtions, becomes BI 22;
f-PL
But this is on the fuppofitiori that B H is equal to <+,
whereas it is really 9 — A6 — «• This muft occalion achanoe
in the value juft now obtained of BI. The fource of the
change is twofold, iff, Becaufe, in the value _i—*, Vve
b f
muft put ——   , and becaufe v/e muft do the
b <p — f,*
fame in the fraClion -
“A
In the fecond place, when the
value of BK is diminiftied by the quantity A « -f BI will
iufter a change in the proportion determined bv the 2d Lem¬
ma. I he hr ft difference may fafely be negleCted, becaufe
the value of 9 is very fmall, by reafoti of the coefficient — be-
2
ing very fmall, and alfo becanfe the variation bears a very
finall ratio to the quantity itfelf, when the true value of p
X x 2 differs
Te kfcope.
TEL [ 3}8 ] TEL
Te’efcope. differs but» little from that of the_ quantity for which it is But, to proceed with our inveftigation, recoiled-that we Telefcop*
2 / fa
V m
employed, d he chief change in BI is that which is deter- • t m—I (7i rnii1^ ri_, _ _ m—
mined by the Lemma. Therefore take from BI the varia- 9 — Therefore ?n 9 ~ -
tion of BH, multiplied by pfiT, which is very nearly = — ~ ^ . And b' wascm^Tll ( m*p 4. ’ll-')-
, •DJ:-L , , r / 2 m \ ‘ p/2’
fore/«9 + ^, the aberration (negle&ing the thicknefs of
m—1 /fa fa
There-
t _ jyj f''
1 he prodinT of this multiplication is my2 9 -p
This being taken from /, leaves us for the value of BI the lens) , is /
/
L-
fa\ e*
? / 2*
In this value /"is the focal diftance of an infinitely {lender
pencil of rays twice refra&ed by a lens having no thicknefs,
a T!lJ— is the fhortening occafioned by the thicknefs, and
cr> _ '
/2 (m a -f- the eifeft of the two aberrations arifing
.from the aperture.
It will be convenient, for feveral collateral purpofes,
to exterminate from thefe formulas the quantities k, /, and
If we now write for /■, /, and their values as determi¬
ned above, performing all the neceflary multiplications, and
arrange the terms in fuch a manner as to colleft in one fum
the coefficients of a, and r, we fhall find 4 terms for the
value of m 6, and 10 for the value of s'. The 4 are deftroy-
ed by as many with contrary figns in the value of 6', and
there remain 6 terms to expreis the value of m b which
we ffiall exprcfs by one fymbol 9 ; and the equation ftands
thus:
For thispurpofe make —r-
nab
We have already k
 m—1 /m3
^ m \n3
2m2+m _ m+2
1
3m2+m 4^+4 3m+2
T r2n J
I ,11 I
and—=   4-
Z' ft +n si •
and / =r
_ 1 I
~ r 17+
tna
l
rnr
I
Now for 7— -
b a
Therefore r —
/ h
write — -, and we get l —
l (by conftru&ion,
ri he focal diftance therefore of rays twice refra&ed, rec¬
koned from the laff furtace, or BI, correfted for aberration,
Page S47* Prop. II.) becomes = 7 4.-4.-
• b a ' r 1 n
m 1
- 4-~
n 1 r
m—1 1
.1 I 1 y
and for the thicknefs of the lens, is/—f ~p~ — f2 q> con-
fifting of three parts, viz.y, the focal diftance of central rays $
y1 the correftion for the thicknefs of the lens; and
y2 q, the aberration.
The formula in the 2d par. of this col. appears very com¬
plex, but is oi very eafy management, requiring only the pre-
This laft; value of - (the reciprocal of the focus of a lien- paration of the fimple numbers which form the numerators
/
der pencil twice refra&ed), viz. ™—14-1, is the fimpleft
« r
that can be imagined, and makes n as a iubftitute for
j „ 1
^ a moft ufeful fymbol, as we (hall frequently find in
the fequel. It alfo gives a very fimple expreffion of the fo¬
cal diftance of parallel rays, which we may call the princi¬
pal focal diitance of the lens, and diftinguiih it in future by
the fymbol / ; for the expreffion
m—1 , . .
= when the incident light is parallel. And this gives
11 1
*"j”“ j becomes
1 r p
us another very fimple and ufeful meafure of f; for I
/
be¬
comes .
^ ~ • Thefe equations y=. +
n r‘
m—i 1 1 r
n ,Zn^f~p ^erve therefore to be made very
familiar to the mind.
” a^° ta^e notice of another property of n. It  , — v.--0—, --  — —   
rs had the radius of an ifofceles lens, which is equivalent and CO, DP be the furfaces of the fecond, and let /3 be the
tn !np 1 #3yir. ^r ^ ^ ~ . I • I r r \ r 11 1 r . 1 • . 11  
of the fradtions included in the parenthelis. When the in¬
cident rays are parallel, the terms vanifh which have r in the
denominator, fo that only the three firft terras are ufed.
We might here point out the cafes which reduce the
aberration exprefled in the formula laft referred to, to no¬
thing ; but as they can fcarcely occur in the objedl-glafs of
a telefcopc, we omit it for the prefent, and proceed to the
combination of two or more lenfes.
Ltmma 3. If AG be changed by a fmall quantity Gg,
BI fuffers a change I i, and G^ : I i — A G2 : B I\ Fbr
it is well known that the fmall angles GMg and IN i are
equal; and therefore their fubtenfes G >e, I n are propor¬
tional to MG, NI, or to AG, AI nearly, when the aper¬
ture is moderate. Therefore we have (nearly)
Gi : I » : AG : BI
In: l i — AM : BI
Gg: Gk -=z AG : AM
Therefore :li — AG2: BI2
Prop. III. To determine the focal diftance of rays re¬
fracted by two lenfes placed near to each other on a com¬
mon axis.
Let AM, BN (fig-. 8.) be the furfaces of the firft lenfe.
to the lens whofe radii are a and $ e for fuppofe the lens thicknefs of the fecond lens, and ^ the interval between
- a _ Y T 1» / »T of- f-li o F ♦ V-, o> n 1-/-v*« ^-V P V» (S* n
to be ifofceles, that is, a-l ‘ then « = ^ . Now the
fecond a is negative if the firft, be pofitive, or pofitive if the
firft be negative. Therefore l 1 _ 1 Jrt>_a+a^2
a L— ^ —7 > ancl
I
7—7, and n =
Now the focal diftance of this lens is
——-, and fo is that of the other, and they are equiva-
n
m—i
lent.
lens be a', and the radius of its pofterior furface be b'. Let
m' be to 1 as the fine of incidence to the fine of refradtion
in the fubftance of the fecond lens. Laftly, let p' be the
principal focal diftance of the fecond lens. Let the ex¬
treme or marginal ray meet the axis in L after paffing thro*
both lenfes, fo that DL is the ultimate focal diftance, rec¬
koned from the laft furface.
It is plain that DL may be determined by means of
a', b'y m\ p'y and Cl, in the fame manner that BI. was de¬
termined by means of a, bt m, /, and AG.
The
elefeape.
TEL
The value of El is /— m J- —fxq.
C 349 ] T E X
Take from this more manageable than thofe employed by Euler or Teltfcope.
/2
the interval J, ^nd we have Cl =:/ — w «
f
Let the fmall part — m «■
-Pq.
2 —/2 q be neglefted for the
prefent, and let Cl be fuppofed = /. As we formed r,f,
and q, by means of a, b, m, «, and r, let us now form Ay7,
and y, for the iecond lens, by me^ns of a', b‘, m', ti,
^ =~i—, and r1. v' will be the focal diflance of a flen-
der pencil refrafted by the firft furface, / will be the focal
didance of this pencil after two refractions, and q' will be
the coefficient of the aberration, negledting the thicknefs
and interval of the lenfes.
Proceeding in this way, DL will be =/' — m H -Cl—
- ‘P
fxq- But becaufe Cl is really Ids than f, by the quantity
+ S +1*11 we muft (by Lemma 3.) fubtraCt the
produCt of this quantity, multiplied by ~ , (which is
nearly
.uJ'z
-), fom/-
,y "I'-f
By this procefs we ffiall have
DL =/'”/2 + —/2 (?+?')•
The fir ft term f of this value of DI is the focal diftance
of a flender pencil of central rays refraCted by both lenfes,
negleCting their thickneis and diftance ; the fecond term,
fifmx .t . m'/3\ .
J \^r ' jfi + ■pr/ 18 the corre<ftmn neceffary for thefe
circumftances ; an#the third term, — f1 (y + y), is the
correction for the\aperture 2 e. And it is evident that y' is
a formula precilely limilar to y, containing the fame number
of terms, and differing only by the m',a t n’, and r\ em¬
ployed in place of m, a, n, and r.
It is alio evident, that if there be a third lens, we fhall
obtain its focal diftance by a procefs precifely fimilar to
that by which we obtained DL ; and fo on for any number
of lenfes.
Thus have we obtained formulae by which the foci of
rays are determined in the moft general terms; and in fuch
a manner as fhall point out the conneCfion of the curva¬
tures, thicknefles, ami diftances of the lenfes, with their
fphencai abeirations, and with the final aberration of the
compound lens, and give the aberrations in feparate fym-
bols, fo that we can treat them by themielves, and fubjeCl
them to any conditions which may enable as to corred one
of them by another.
We alfo fee in general, that the corredion for the thfck-
reis and diftance of the lenfes are exhibited in terms which
involve only the focal diffances of central rays, and have
very little influence on the aberrations, and ftill lefs on the
ratio of the aberrations of the different lenfes. This is a
moft convenient circumftance ; for we may negleCl them
while we are determining q and y', and in determining the
ratio of the focal diftances of the feveral lenfes, on which
the correction of the chromatic aberration chiefly depends.
Therefore, in the conft ruCtion of a compound lens for uni¬
ting the different colours, we may negleft this correftion
tor the thicknefs and diftance till the end of the procefs.
When we apply it, we fhall find that it chiefly affefts the
mat local diftance, making it fomewhat longer, but has
ardly any influence either on the chromatic^or fpherical
berration. ^ c do not hefitate to fay, that the. final for*
mute here given are abundantly accurate, while they are
D’Alembert. We have calculated trigonometrically the
progrefs of the rays through one of the glaffes, which will
be given as an example, giving it a very extravagant aper¬
ture, that the errors of the formulae might be very remark¬
able. We found the real aberration exceed the aberration
affigned by the formula by no more than /-p-th part, a diffe¬
rence which is quite infxgnificant. The procefs here given
derives its fimplicity from the frequent occurrence of har¬
monic proportions in all optical theorems. This enabled
Mr Clairaut to employ the reciprocals of tire radii and di¬
ftances with fo much (implicity and generality.
We confider it as another advantage of Mr Clairaut’s me¬
thod, that it gives, by the way, formulae for the more ordi¬
nary quefbons in optics, which are of wonderful fimplicity,
and moft eafily remembered. The chief problems in the
elementary conftruebon of optical inftruments relate to the
focal diftances of central rays, 'i his determines the focal di¬
ftances and arrangement of the glaffes. All the reft may be
called the refinement of optics ; teaching us how to avoid
or correft the indiftintftneis, the colours, and the diftortions,
which are produced in the images formed by thefe fimple
conftru&ions. We (hall mention a few of thefe formulae
which occur in our procefs, and tend greatly to abbreviate
it when managed by an experienced analyft.
Let m be to 1 as the fine of incidence to the fine of re-
fraftion ; let a and b be the radii of the arterior and po-
fterior furfaces of a lens •> let r be the diftance of the radiant
point, or the focus of incident central rays, and / the di¬
ftance of the conjugate focus; and let p be the principal fo¬
cal diftance of the lens, or the focal diftance of parallel rays.
, 1 , 11
Make - equal to   let the fame letters af, b\ /, &e
exprefs the fame things for a fecond lens ; and a", r'y
&c. exorefs them for a third ; and fo on. Then we have
1 _ m~~t , * 1 m — 1 t 1 1 «/'—I r
f~ n ; 1 ; f* ~~ + ,~> &C*
Therefore when the incident light is parallel, and r infi-
. 1 m—1 x rri—i 1 mi—1
nite, we have - =:  -cm —-— • - —• .
’ p n ' p' n< ’ pn ~ n!' ’
And when feveral lenfes are contiguous, fo that their in¬
tervals may be negledbed, and therefore^;, belonging to the.
firft lens, becomes -, belonging to the fecond, we have
1.
1
/’
1
m"-
I
3 • T7' —
1 1
-p + r-
n ' ry
m—1 x
’ +“
_ t I 1
~ p' 1 p +
II I I
/"' n' r r t ’
Nothing can be more eafily remembered than thefe for¬
mulas, how numerous fo ever the glaffes may be.
. Having thus obtained the neceffary analyiis and formula*
it now remains to apply them to the conftrinftion of achro¬
matic lenfes; in which it fortunately happens, that the em¬
ployment of feveral furfaces, in order to produce the union
of the differently refrangible rays, enables us at the fame
time to employ them for corre&ing each other’s fpherical
aberration.
In^ the article Optics we gave a general notion of the
principle on which we may proceed m our endeavours to
unite the differently refrangible rays. A white or com¬
pounded ray is feparated by refratbon into its component
coloured rays, and they are diffufed over a fmalf angu¬
lar fpace. I hus it appears, that the glafs ufed by Sir Ifaac
Newton
... , T E- L .r 350
efcope. Newton In liis experifnents diffefed a white ray, which was
jncJrjent on its polleilor furface in an angle ot 30°, in fuch
p manner that the extreme red ray emerged into air, ma¬
king an angle of $o° 21- with the perpendicular ; the ex¬
treme violet, ray emerged in an angle o( 5 ’0 1 St' > and the
ray which was in the confines of green and blue, emerged
in an angle of 50® 48^ If the fine of the angle 30° of in¬
cidence be called 0,5, which it really is, the fine of the
emergence of the red ray will be 0,77 ; that of the violet
ray will be 0,78 ; and that of the intermediate ray will be
©,77t> an exait mean between the two extremes. This
ray may therefore be called the mean refrangible ray, and
the ratio of 774 to >0, or of 1,55 to 1, will very properly
exprefs the mean refra&ion of this tlafs; and we have for
this glafs w zzi t ,55. The fine of refraftion, being mea-
fured on a fcale, of which the fine of incidence occupies
100 parts, will be 15-4 for the red ray, 155 for the mean
ray, and 156 for the violet ray. This number, or its ratio
to unity, is commonly taken to reprefent the refraftive
power of the glafs. 1 here is fome impropriety in this, un-
ids we conlider ratios as mealured by their logarithms : for
if m be 1, the fubfiance does not refrain at all. The re¬
fractive power can be properly meafured only by the refrac¬
tion which it produces ; that is, by the change which it
makes in the direiStion of the light, or the angle contained
between the incident and refracted rays. If two fubftances
] TEL
the fame difiperrfion ; yet it has not for this foie reafon the Telefcopt,
fame difperiive power. If indeed the incidence and the '—"•“v'®"
refraction of the mean ray be alfo the fame, the difperfive
power cannot be find to differ ; but if the incidence and the
refraction of the mean ray be lei's, the dtfperfive power muff
be confidered as greater, though the aftual difperfion be
the fame ; becaufe if we iucreafe the incidence till it be¬
comes equal to that in the common glafs,‘the difperfion will
now be incrcafed. The proper way of conceiving the dif*
ptrfion therefore is, to confider it as a portion of the whole
refraCtion ; and if We find a fubftxnce making the fame dif.
perfion with half the general retraction, we muff fay that
the difperfive quality is double; becaule by making the re-
fraction equal, the difpeifion will really be double.
If therefore we take m as a fymbol of the reparation of
the extreme rays from the middle ray,
is the natural
meafure of the difperfive power. We fhall exprefs this in
the Leibnitzian notation, thus
d m
that vve may avoid
the indiftinCtnefs which the Newtonian notation would oc-
calion when m is changed for m' or m'.
It is not unufual for optical writers to take the whole
feparation of the red and violet rays for the meafure of the
cifperfive power, and to compare this with the ref rafting
produce fuch deviations always in one proportion, we fhould power with refpeft to one of the extreme rays. But it is
then fay that their refraCtive powers are in that proportion.
This is not true in any fubftances •; but the fines of the an¬
gles, contained between the refrafted ray and the perpendi¬
cular, are always rn one proportion when the angle of inci¬
dence in both fubftances is the fame. This being a cogni-
iable fiuiftton of the real refraftion, has therefore been af-
iumed as the only convenient meafure of the refractive
■powers. Although it is not ftrictly juft, it anfwers extreme¬
ly well in the moft ufual cafes in optical inilrumeuis : the
refraftions are moderate •; and the lines are very nearly as
the angles contained between the rays and the perpendicu¬
lar ; and the real angles of refraftior, or defleftions ot the
rays, are aim oft exaCtly proportional to m — 1. The molt
natural and obvious meafure of the refraftive powers would
therefore be —1. But this would embarrafs fome very
frequent calculations; arjd we therefore find it heft, on the
whole, to take m itfelf for the meafure of the refraftive
power.
The feparation of the red, violet, and intervening rays,
has been called difperfion ; and although this arifes meiely
from a difference of the refraftive power in refpeft: of the
different tays, it is convenient to diftinguifh this particular
modification of the refraftive power by a name, and we call
it the Dispersive Power of the refracting tubftance.
It is fufceptihle of degrees ; for a piece of flint-glafs will
re Aft the light, fo that when the fine of refraftion of the
red ray is 77, the fine of the refraftion of the violet ray is
nearly 78-P; or if the fine of refraftion of the red rav, mea-
iured on a particular fcale, is 1,54, the fine of refraftion
of the violet ray is 1,57, The difperfion of this fubflance,
being meafured by the difference the extreme fines of re¬
fraftion, is greater than the difperfion of the other glafs,
in the proportion of 3 to 2.
But this alone is not a fufficient meafure of the abfolute
difperfive power of a fubftance. Although the ratio of i *54
to 1,50 remains conffarit, whatever the real magnitude of
the refraftions of common glafs may be, and though we
therefore fay that its difperiive power is conftant, we know,
that by increafmg the incidence and the refraftion, the ab¬
folute difperfion is alfo increafed. Another fubftance fhows
the fame properties, and in a particular cafe may produce
furely better, to confider the mean refraftidh as the meafure
of the refrafting power ; and the deviation of either of the
extremes from this mean is a proper enough meafure of the
difperfion, being always half of it. It is attended v/ith this
convenience, that being introduced into our computations
as a quantity infinitely fmall, and treked as fuch for the
eafe of computation, while it is really a quantity of fenlible
magnitude ; the errors ariling from this fuppofition are dip
tninifhed greatly, by taking one half of the deviation and
comparing it with the mean refraftion. This method has,
however, this inconvenience, that it does not exhibit at once
the refraftive power in all fubftances refpefting any parti¬
cular colour of light ; for it is not the ray of any parti¬
cular colour that fuffers the mean refraftion. In common
glafs it is the ray which is in the confines of the yellow and
blue; in flint glafs it is nearly the middle blue ray; and
in other fubftances it is a different ray. Thefe ciicum-
ftances appear plainly in the different proportions of the co¬
lours of the prifmatic fpeftrum exhibited by different iub«
fiances. This will be confidered afterwards, being a great
bar to the perfection of achromatic inftruments.
The way in which an achromatic lens is conftrufted is,
to make ufe of a contrary refraftion of a fecund lens to de-
firoy the difperilon or fpherical aberration of the fir ft.
The fir ft nurpofe will be anfwered if — be equal to
dm * U
to  —. For, in order that the different coloured raye
ri ...
may be collefted into one point by two lenfes, it is only ne-
ceffary that the reciprocal of the focal diftance of rays
f
refrafted by both, may be the fame for the extreme a
m _L dm — r . m' + dm> —■
mean rays, that is, that
and
m -f- d
+ '
ft
. , 7/1
be of the fame value with —■
> + be
ft
n
d m
- ft
r
o, or — —
v/hich muff: happen if
This may be feenin another way, more cotnprehen-
fible by fuch ?.s are not verfant in thefe difeuffions.
3
TEL l 35
felefcopc. der that the extreme colours which are feparated by the hrlt
 y ]cns may be j-endered parallel by the fecond ; we have
fhown already that « and ri are proportional to the radii of
the equivivalent iibfceles lenles, being the halveS^of thefe
radii. They are therefore (in thefe fmall refractions) in*
verlely nroportional to the angles formed by the furfaces at
the edges of the lenfes. «' may therefore be taken for the
angle of the firll lens, and n for that of the fecond. Now
the final! refraCtion by a prilm, whofe angle (alio fmall)
is n, is m — i X n. The difperfivC power being now fub-
fh’tuted for the reiradtive oower, we have for this refradtion
of the priftti d m X tv. This muft be deftroyed by the op-
poiite refraction of the other prifm d m' X v. 'fherefore
! ^ , I v dm d ni T ri
d tn X tv — d m' X n, or ——   • In like manner,
n n , d m d ml
this effedt will be produced bv three lenfes if —'4
; r r J n
, a m .
4’     be — o, &:c.
i ] TEL
Alfo, in a double objeCt-glafs, the correction of fpherieal Telefl'
aberration requires.^ ~,v.
And a triple objecl-glafs requires q + q' + q"~ v. For
the whole error is multiplied by F2, and by i e2; and there¬
fore the equation which correCts this error may be divided
by P j e\ ' 7
This equation in the preceding column, I ith line
fiom the bottom, giving the value of q, y’, q", may be
much llmplified as follows; In the firft place, they may¬
be divided by m, m', or tri', by applying them properly to
the terms within the parenthefis, and expunging them from
the denominator of the general faftors 7d'~l, -ini. ,n.~\
tn m i m" "
This does not alter the values of y, q't and q'. In the fecond
place the whole equations may be afterwards divided by
n m!— i . This will give the values of-
•, and
I.aitiy, the errors arifing from the fpherical figure, which
we exure^ed by — R.2 (y ) will be corrected if y 4. y be
. -l vi—i' m'—I1
which will ft ill be equal to nothing n q-\-q q“ be equal
to nothing.
1
nV
— c. We are therefore to difcover the adjuIlments of the
quantities employed in the preceding formulae, which will
inlure thefe conditions. It will render the procefs more
pcrfpicuoils if we colleCt into one view the figntfi cat ions of
our various fymbols, and the principal equations which we general faCto
are to employ.
1. The ratios to unity of the fines of mean
incidence in the different media are
2. The ratio of the differences of the fines of
This divifion reduces the general factor
772-
of q' to
And in the equation for q we obtain, in place of the
the factor
m— 1
or c. This will al-
the extremes
rpi « ’’l *’ ^
z. i he ratio -7 
4. The radii of the furraces a, h\ a, Ir, a
5. 1 be principal focal diitances, or the focal
difiances o' parallel central rays,
6. I he focal diltance of the compound lens
7- ^ be dilrance of the radiant point, or of
the locus of incident rays on each lens
8. i he focal ddtance of the rays refracted
by each lens - .
9. Ihe focal difiance of rays refracted by
the compound lens
10. The half breadth of the lens
Alfo the following lubfidiary values :
A>'> /•
P.
io be the fadtor of the value of qf' when the third lens is of
the fame fubftance with the firft, as is generally the cafe.
And, in the third place, fince the rays incident on the firft
lens are parallel, all the terms vamfh from the value of q in
which " is found, and there remain only the three firft,
. tn* 2 772 1 4 772 772 4- 2
<17/Z.       .■! ! 
«’• _ an2 ’ a2 n ‘
Performing thefe operations, wTe have
 /77p 2 772 4 t 772 4 2^ e2
m>—I C Kn* an2 ^ m a2 n)~
q' __ /m'2
772 — l \ n'-5
3 ?« ’ 4 2 x e2
4“
a n“ - 77
2777'4 I 772'-
a ti12 m11
■2 t 3 772'-!-r
2 Z? ZTZ.Zi.
4/772'+!)
tti a1 rf n
i “h
r 1
7/ > 77i
1  1 1 1 1
n a 6 7 d ~ d U y n" ~~ a'7 ~ b'r ‘
772 — I /■ rni 2 vi‘ 4 772 772 + 2 3 7722 + 772
\ 723 ~ a rd + ~ a2tT “**
m
1' fm2
-7=' +
3 77/ + 2 \ C2
J+w vyT
+772 + 1 [ 772 + 2 ( 3777+I (
a' ti 2 1 7//T"V/ ‘ r“ d'2 ‘ Wd"?'ti"
4 ( 772 4 1) 3 772 + 2. \ e2 :
am t —rn J And q and q' muft be formed
rn the fame manner from 772', a', n!> r‘ j and from 722", V',
r f q is formed from m, a, ny r.
3. Alio, becaufe in the cafe of an objedt-glafs, r is infiv
aitely great, the lafl term ^ in all the values of A,. A i-,
j , J J
r * ~/7> Wl‘i vmu’fh, and we fhall alfo have F = P.
therefore in a double objedt-glafs *Tr ~  4 A.
P n 1 n
— A
Let us now apply this inveftigation to the conftrufiioh
of an. object-glah ; and we ihall begin, with a double lens.
Conjiru&icm oj a Double Achromatic Objctt-glajs.
Here we have to determine four radii a> b, a', and l’.
Make 72= i. ] his greatly fimplifies the calculus, by exter¬
minating it from- all the denominators. This gives for the
d m d m' ,1
equation —q—^7~=ao, the equation dm-\- —j- —o,or dm.
dm’
u. Alfo we have r', the
  —— ^ I dm
n' ’ d ~ d m’ ~
focal diftance of the light incident on the fecond lens, the
fame with the principal, focal difiance p of the firft lens (ne-
And in a triple objeft-glafs -- =
772  I m'  f
+ +
*7~— I
a 5
gledting the interval, if any). Now 1=~
P 7
the prefent cafe is = 772—1. Alfo A- __
t ^
and --g ezz m——j ) —
Make thefe fubfritutions in the values of
. . . * 772 
ana we obtain the following equation ;
4.
j—, which in
■u {tn — 1),,
, « g
- and-— 9
■1 m'—r.
TEL
Tekfco^e.
e m-‘
e(z m + l)
— w3 m'2 ■
[
«'*( 2Wf4-I )
152 I
TEL
tt(m' + 2) ■ 4M(w, + ») M
4• «2(3^ + 0 («— 0 +  ;■
In this cafe -
• a'
r
- — i. For becaufe - -
a n a
I T clefcnpjj
u (3 ffl-f z) (m—i Y
and n
fore ~
Arrange thefe terms in order, according as they are fac-
i 1 i r
tors of or independent quantities. It puts,
on this form:
i, we have i -f- r = -, and 7 = ~ — 1. There-
1 0 a o a
Therefore, in our final equation,
1 2 !
—+ I-
put — — T* -f-1 'in Place Tn»and- — 1 in place of-,
Cl U Cl (l ^ d
A—C B -f D—2 C
and it becomes
r(w~|-2) 1
-fE-f-D —C = o.
c> (2^ + i) X -
I tt(w-f-2)
X
Thus have we arrived at a common affefted quadratic
(^u1 (2 m'-f-i ) — -
-f-1) (— 1) — u^rri
) (m-
—)x"+^2+«,(3W2'
« (3 (?n— 1 )2
= O.
equation, where - is the unknown quantity. It has the
common form /,'x2~\-qx-^r=^o, where p is = A—C, q
is equal to 2 C-r^B—13, r is equal to E + D — C, and .v is
Let A be the coefficient of —7, B that of - , C that of
a a ’
D that of , and E the fum' of the independent quan-
c (w-f 2)
equal to -.
Divide the equation by p, and we have «2 + !-+
tity ; that is, let A be
u (m'-f-2)
, D = w1 (2 m'-|-2)
B = e ( 2 w7-{-1), C
4u(iK'-j-i) (w — 1)
= o. Make r = - and t
P
and we have x2-j-sx-{-^
This gives us finally ~ , or jc = — j
-t.
and E = c ni
u (3 m!2 ) (m-
-f-«2 (3 wi'-f-J ) —u*mi2 —
-1) 2 ’
Our final equation becomes
A B C D
a + °-
ri he coefficients of this equation and the independent quan¬
tity are all known, from our knowledge of m, m! dm, dm ;
and we are to find the values of a and a', and from them
and « = 1 to find the values, of b and b’.
But it is evidently an indeterminate equation, becaufe
there are two unknown quantities ; fo that there may be an
infinity of folutions. It rauft be rendered determinate by
means of fome ether conditions tb which it may be fub-
jedted. i hefe conditions mutt depend on feme other cir-
cumttances which may direct our choice.
One circumftance occurs to us which we think of very
great eonfequence. In the paffage of light from one fub-
This value of - is taken from a fcale of which the unit
a
is half the radius of the ifofceles lens which is equivalent to
the firft lens, or has the fame local dittance with it. We
mutt then find (on the fame fcale) the value of b, viz. - — 1,
a
which is alfo the value of </. Having obtained a', we mull
find b’ by means of the equation - = ^ and there¬
fore 7 = — 7. But 7 = u. Therefore 7, = 7 4-«, =5
b a n n 0 a!
-4- u—i-
a 1
Thus is our objeft glafs conttruCted ; and we mutt deter¬
mine its focal diftance, or its reciprocal-p-. Thisis = m—1
—u (m!— 1).
All thefe radii and diftances.are meafured on a fcale of
fiance to another, there is always a confiderable portion re- which n is the unit. But it is more convenient to meaiure
fledted hom the pofterior furface of the firft and from the every thing by the focal dittance of the compound objeft-
anterior furlace of the laft; and this refledfion is more copious glafs. This gives us the proportion which all the
in proportion to the retraCtion. rJ1his lofs of light will bear to it. Therefore, calling P unity, in order
therefore be diminifiied by making the internal furfaces of
diilances
to obtain
the lenfes to coincide ; that is, by making b = a'. This wall
be attended with another advantage. If we put between the
glades a fubttance of nearly the fame refracting power, we
fhall not only completely prevent this lofs of light, but we
fhall greatly diminifh the errors which arife from an imper¬
fect polilh of the furfaces. We have tried this, and find the
cireCt very furprifing. The lens being poliihed immediately
.after the figure has been given it, and while it was almoft
impervious to light by reafon of its toughnefs, which was
ttid fenfible to the naked eye, performed as well as when
finiihed in the fineft mam;
on this fcale, we have only to,ftate the analogy m — 1 —«
(m‘ 1) : 1= - : A,
meafured on a fcale of which P is the unit.
If, in the formula which expreffes the final equation for
the value of t fhould be pofitive, and greater than l s ,
the equation has imaginary roots ; and it is not poifible
with the glaffes employed, and the conditions afhimed, to
correct both the chromatic and fpherical aberrations.
and A is the radius of our firft furface
in Luc mien manner,   — — r— j- i 4. r
N. B. This condition, by taking away one refraaion, If' ,s neSative "T*1 “l'*’ ““ ^
value is = o, and - —
But if it be negative or
obliges us to increafe thofe which remain, and therefore in-
creafes the fpherical aberrations. And fince our formula . , , f
do not fully remove thole (by reafon of the fmall quantities pofitive, but lefs than | x *, the equation has two real roots,
negle&ed in the procefsl, it is uncertain whether this con- which wiM give two conttrudions. Pfiat is to be prefened
ditiou be the moft eligible. We have, however no direct which gives the imalleft curvature of the iurfaces; becaule,
argument to the contrary. ’ ’ fince in our formulae which determine the fpherical aberra-
Let us fee what determination this gives us. ^on ^01XiC quantities are neglected, thefe quantities arch ¬
ways
TEL [353
Te1«fcope. wavs greater when a lar^e arch (that !s, an arch of many
-v-—* degrees) is employed. No radius (hould be admitted which
is much lefs than -f of the focal diftance.
All this procefs will be made plain and eafy by an ex*
ample.
Very careful experiments have fhown, that in common
crown-glafs the fine of incidence is to the fine of refra&ion
as 1,526 is to i, and that in the generality of flint-glafs it
d
]
T E
fore m—1 = 0,526; m'—1=0,604; c =  p =
0,87086. By thefe numbers we can compute the coeffi¬
cients of our final equation.
A =
We fhall find them as follows:
B =
C =
D =
E =
2,012
3’529
1,36°
—0,426
1,8659
The general equation (p.352.1.17.), when fubjefted to the
^   Q
affumed coincidence of the internal furfaces, is j—• —
B 4- D— 2C ^
   H E -f D — C = O. A — C is = 0,652;
B+D — 2 C is = 0,283 ; and E-f-D — C is = —0,020;
• , . , ^ . . 0,652
equation with, numerical coefficients is   —
and the
0,283
—— 0,020 n: o, which correfponds to the equation
f> x2 q
0,283
-f- r rr o. We muft
make s z=. —
0,652* = 0*+l4’ an<1' = 7* = ^6jz’ = 0'o3°7- Tl«'s
gives us the fins] quadratic equation — C—^~ —0,0307
= 0. To folve this, we have — 4^ = 0217, and ^ j2
— 0,047 1 • Erom this take t, which is = — 0,0307 (that
is, to 0,0471 add 0,0307), and we obtain 0,0778, the fquare
root of which is = 0,2789. Therefore, finally, - =
0,2170 o±: 0,2789, which is either 0,4959 or — 0,0619.
It is plain that the firll mull be preferred, becaufe the fe¬
cund gives a negative radius, or makes the firll furface of
the crown-glafs concave. Now as the convergence oL the
rays is to be produced by the crown-glafs, the other fur-
face muft become very convex, and occafion great errors in
the computed aberration. We therefore retain 0,4959 for
the value of and a is = ^  — n m66
a 0,4959’—
Bo obtain ufe the equation = — — 1, which gives
r
^ — 0,5041, and therefore a convex furface. b is there¬
fore =  , r= 1,0847.
0,5041’ vua/*
d is the fame with l, and - = — 0,5041.
a
To obtain b\ ufe the equation £7 = -, 4- Now a =
0,6054, and -, = — 0,5041. The fum of thefe is o, r c 13;
and fince it is pofitive, the furface is concave, b
= 9^72.
Vol. XVIII. Pan I.
Laflly, p — w ~~ 1 — a (rd
L
0
0,1603, and P
Telefcop*.
is as 1,604 to 1. Alfo that — =0,6054 = a. There-
 ,—-, 0= 6,2383.
0,1003 0 ^
Now to obtain all the meafures in terms of the focal di¬
ftance P, we have only to divide the meafures already
found by 6,2383, and the quotients are the meafures
wanted.
- 2,0166
Therefore a ~ > , _0 _• = 0,32325
6,2383
, _ ^9837
6,2583
V =
9,872
6,2383
°,3I798
■ <0,3 r 798
- —■ 1
,5825
1.
If it be intended that the focal diftance of the objedt-
glafs lhall be any number n of inches or feet, we have only
to multiply each of the above radii by a, and vve have their
lengths in inches or feet.
Thus we have completed the inveftigation of the con-
ftruftion of a double objedl-glafs. Although this was in¬
tricate, the final refult is abundantly fimple for pra&ice,
efpecially with the affiftance of logarithms. The only
troublefcme thing is the preparation of the numerical coef¬
ficients A, B, C, D, E of the final equation. Stridl at¬
tention muft alfo be paid to the pofitive and negative figns
of the quantities employed.
We might propole other conditions. Thus it is natural
to prefer for the firil or crown-glafs lens fuch a form as lhall
give it the fm?.lleft poffible aberration. This will require a
fmall aberration of the fiint-glafs to corredl it. But a
little refle&ion will convince us that this form will not be
good. The focal diftance of the crown-glafs muft not ex¬
ceed one-third of that of the compound glafs ; thefe two
being nearly in the proportion of d ml — dm to dm'.
Therefore if this form be adopted, and a be made about £th
of b, it will not exceed |th of P. Therefore, although we
may produce a moll accurate union of the central and mar¬
ginal rays by oppofite aberrations, there will be a confider-
able aberration ot fome rays which are between the centre
and the margin.
It is abfolutely impoffible to colledl into one point the
whole rays (though the very remoteft rays are united .with
the central rays), except in a very particular cafe, which can¬
not obtain in an ©bjeA-glafs ; and the fmall quantities which
are negledted in the formula which we have given for the
fphencal aberration, produce errors which do not follow any
proportion of the aperture which can be exprelfed by an
equation of a manageable form. When the aperture is very
large, it is better not to correct the aberration for the
whole aperture, but for about -fths of it. When the rays cor-
refponding to this diftance are made to coincide with the
central rays by means of appolite aberrations, the rays which
are beyond this diftance will be united with fome of thofe
which are nearer to the centre, and the whole diffufion will
be confiderably diminilhed. Dr Smith has illuftrated this
in a very perfpicuous manner in his theory of his Catoptric
Microfcope.
But although we cannot adopt this form of an obje&-
glafs, there may be other conliderations which may lead us
to prefer fome particular form of the crown glafs, or of the
A
flint-glafs. We fhall therefore adapt our general equation —
B
,1013  
— -4- E = o to this condition.
a
There-
TEL
TEL [ 354
T^Ieffope, Therefore let h exprefs this fele&ed ratio of the two ra¬
dii of the crown-glafs, making ^ (remembering always
that a is pofitive and b negative in the cafe of a double con¬
vex, and h is a negative number).
With this condition we have ^ But when we make
n the unit of our formula of aberration, ^
I h
fore i ~
a a
and - rz
a
— b'
Now fubllitute this
and t r= r.
P
A
D
(i-
i
a'
by
Therefore s ■=. ^
— Ej). Then, finally,
J /*
and / = -^7 X
(7
B
t r
then — ~
4 ‘ 2
0,526
a'
= °* Then s — 1^36o~’= 0,3857> a«d'
= —•0,4444. Then—ix = 0,1933 j
1
are to find d> This in numbers is ~ — —^T"' — 0,6044
-0,6044,
j,36o
c»°374;
and y'iS*—r=z±= 0,6941; fo that ", = 0,1933 dt
0,6941. This gives two real roots, viz. 0,8874, and
We had ~ "
a 2
Telefcopf,
and *7 = —
7 — r. There¬
for " in the general equation, and change all the figns
(which fiill preferves it o), and we obtain
C D ^ A B
a,2+ * —-k —(!_£)*+ i °-
By this equation we are to find ", or the radius of the
anterior furface of the flint-glafs. The equation is of this
form px2-\-gx-\-rz=c, and we muft again make x = "»
It may be worth while to take a particular cafe of this
condition. Suppofe the crown glafs to be of equal convexi¬
ties on both fides. This has fome advantages : We can tell
with precifion whether the curvatures are precifely equal,
by meaturing the focal dittance of rays reflected back from
its pofterior furface. Thefe diitanccs will be precifely equal.
Now it is of the utmoft importance in the conftrudlion of
an objeft-glafs which is to corredt the fpherical aberration,
that the torms be precifely fuch as are required by our for¬
mula.
In this cafe of a lens equally convex on both fides
~ is —— 7, — ". Subftitute this value for ~ in the
a 0 2 a
, . A B C D
general equation ~r — “— ^ ~ 7* + E = °» and
_A B . B
a* 4 ’ « 2
^ t. CD
and we have -7- 4. — — E —-
/7 * • n
and -p- is the fame as in the former cafe, viz. 0,1603,
Having all thefe reciprocals, we may find rf, b, d, b\ and
P; and then dividing them by P, we obtain finally
a — 0,3206
b — — 0,3206
d — — 0,3201
b'— i,533
P - 1,
By comparing this objeft-glafs with the former, we may
remark, that diminifhing a a little increafes b, ar.d in this
refpedt improves the lens. It indeed has diminifhed b', but
this being already confiderable, no inconvenience attends this
diminution. But we learn, at the fame time, that the advan¬
tage mujl be very fmall; for we cannot diminifh a much more,
without making it as fmall as the fmalleft radius or the ob-
jed-glafs. This proportion is therefore very near the maxi¬
mum, or beft poffiblc; and we know that in fuch cafes, even
confiderable changes in the radii will make but fmall changes
in the refult : for thefe reafons we are difpofed to give a
ftrong preference to the firft conftru&ion, on account of the
other advantages which we Ihowed to attend it.
As another example, we may take a cafe which is very
nearly the general praftice of the London artifts. The ra¬
dius of curvature for the anterior furface ol the convex
crown-glafs is ^ths of the radius of the pofterior furface, fo
that h"— This being introduced into the determinate
equation, gives
a 0,2938
b =-—0,3526
As another condition, we may fuppofe that the fecond
or flint-glafs is of a determined form.
This cafe is folved much in the fame manner as the for-
1
mer. Taking h to reprefent the ratio of d and b', we have ^
a' — — 0,3443
b = 1,>474
h‘
A
This value being fubftituted in the general
becomes —. Now change all the figns,
A B
" + ~ = o, by which we
M60
equation — — — —
B * * C
— — + E
A
gives
E __ o,
D . _
 ^ = o. This gives for
B j 1
A’ and *
and " —
a
T *
{x-hy
the final equation xI + xx + f = o, x
/ C D \
X VE — i—b)
^ s'1 — t.
We might here take the particular cafe of the flint-glafe
being equally concave on both fides. T hen, becaufe
. . 2 1 _
— v, and in the cafe of equal concavities ~ „ - — "s
0,5008. If We take the firft, we fiiall have a convex x 1 . . ,
anterior furface for the flint-glafs, and confequently a very it is fufficient to put — " w for ". This being one, t ic
deep concave for the pofterior furface. We therefore take A 33 P °
the fecond or^ negative root _ 0,5008. equation bccom£s S '
We find ^7, as before, by the equation — K-frit, zz B . 1
©,1046, which will give a large value of b\
gives / = and t —
+ v + E = a
This
We
TEL l 3SS
Telefcopc. We imagine that thefe cafes are fufScIent for fhowin<T
1 sr^the management of the general equation; and the example of
the numerical folution of the firfl. cafe affords inllances of
the only niceties which occur in the procefs, viz. the proper
employment of the poiitive and negative quantities.
We have oftener than once obferved, that the formula is
not perfectly accurate, and that in very large apertures er¬
rors will remain. It is proper therefore, when we have ob¬
tained the form of a compound objett-glafs, to calculate tri¬
gonometrically the progrefs of the light through it ; and if
we find a confiderable aberration, either chromatic or iphe-
lical, reiwining, we muff make fuch changes in the curva¬
tures as will correct them. We hav£ done this for the firft
example ; and we find, that if the focal diftance of the com¬
pound objechglafs be ico inches, there remains of the fphe-
rical aberration nearly -gg-th of an inch, and the aberration
of colour is over corre&ed above -^th of an inch. The firll
aberration has been diminifhed about 6 times, and the other
about 30 times. Both of the remaining errors will be di¬
minifhed by increafing the radius of the inner fur faces.
This will diminifh the aberration of the crown-glafs, and
will diminifh the difperfion of the flint more than that of
the crown. But indeed the remaining error is hardly worth
our notice.
It is evident to any perfon converfant with optical difeuf-
fions, that we fhall improve the corrc&ion of the ipherical
aberration by diminifhing the refra&ions. If we employ
two lenfes for producing the cwnvergency of the rays to a
real focus, we fhall reduce the aberration to ^th. I here-
fore a better achromatic glafs will be formed of three lenfes,
t.\o of which are convex and of crown-glafs. The refrac¬
tion being thus divided between them, the aberrations are
lefl'entd. There is no occalion to employ two concave lenfes
•of flint-glafs; there is even an advantage in ufing one. The
aberration being confiderable, lefs of it will ferve for correc¬
ting the aberration of the crown-glafs, and therefore fuch
a form may be feledted as has little aberration. Some light
is indeed loll by thefe two additional furxaces ; but this is
much more than compenfated by the greater apertures which
we can venture to give when the ciuvature of the furface is
fo much diminifhed. We proceed therefore to
The Conjlruttion of a Triple Achromatic Qhjecl-glafs.
It is plain that there are more conditions to be affumed
before we can render this a determinate problem, and that
the inveitigation muff be more intricate. At the fame
time, it mult give us a much greater variety of conftruc-
tions, in confequence of our having more conditions necef-
iary for giving the equation this determinate form. Our
limits will not allow us to give a full account of all that
may be done in this method. We fhall therefore content
©urfelves with givisig one cafe, which will fufficiently point
out the method of proceeding. We fhall then give the
refults in fome other eligible cafes, as rules to artiifs by
which they may conflrudt luch glades.
Let the firit and fecond glafTes be of equal curvatures on
both Tides ; the firft being a double convex of crown-glais,
and the fecond a double concave of flint-glafs.
Still making n the unit of our calculus, we have in the
firft place a — — b, — — a!, = b'. Therefore ~ — v, —
-- =— 1. Therefore the e-
n
, dm dm' dm" u
quation ~ -j- -7— = o becomes u — 1 -f- ►yy =
o, or —- — 1. Let us call this value
1
We have
(m—i)}
And if we make
. t j -, = - (»■
+ "TT d—r> ~m — m'-j-u (m — 1).
p p ' '
— m — C, we fhall have "JT — — C,
Telefbepfl-
+ «'
K-
{m— 1).
Alfo
- nr, =
— e.
The equality of the two curvatures of each lens gives
a
Therefore -
a
- ; aui
1 ill
— ** b" = 2
ixi 1 ,
V7~~~ ri’ ’ ^ 7r ~ U •
Subflituting tbefe values in the equation (p. 351. col. 2.
par. 5.), we obtain the three formula;,
c 2)
I.
c rn
■ m 2 -j- ( 2 m! —h" 1)
2 (m' i ) (— I )
(2ff2-b l) -f
72 —|— 2
4 m
(3 ») («—o
4 m
(3 ^ + 2) {™— l)4
3. c « 3 w
m'
cu
' 2
(2 m-f- 1)
(3 272 -f l) -f
a
4 c c' u' (1
+ 1)
+
c u' (m 2 )
m a1
c c'2 «' ( 3 w-f- 2)
m
c c' u
— o
Now arrange thefe quantities according as they are co¬
efficients of 771 and of or independent quantities. Let
the coefficient of —- be A, that of —- be B, and the in-
a" a
4 c r'22' (m -j- 1
dependent quantity be C, we have
£ 27' (/« + 2)
A
B cn C u'- (2 272-f- 1)
, ^ » I c (^ + 2) I
and C = c 272 -u !—- -f
4 772
J   I ) £ 22'
,2 W2'-f-2
- 772   ;  
4 772 m'
- C c' U 2(3 772 -f-l}.
Our equation now becomes
(2m'+1) + (3m'-|-l)
2 , 1.1 - u' lx m 2') . r , .
m -f- -A- !—l — \;C (2
m
2 (m'-fi ) (m— I ) (3m'-f-2) (m—l)*
A
B
— “f* C — 0.
a 1
This reduced to numbers, by computing the values of the
1,3x2 1,207
- —0,3257 = 0.
coefficients, is —7“ —
This, divided by 1,312, gives j = — 0,92 ; and/=-—
0,2482 ; — x-r == 0,46 ; | 2 = o,2i 16 ; and V^ s* — t
— z±l 0,678 £.
And, finally, ^77 = 0,46 z±z 0,6781.
This has two roots, viz. 0,2181 and — 1,1381. The
laft would give a very fmall radius, and is therefore reje&ed.
Now, proceeding with this value of ^77 and the
get the other xadius b", and then, by means of W, we get
the other radius which is common to the four furraces.
Then, by 17:= ~— A, we get the value of P.
The radii being all on the fcale of which n is the unit,
they muft be divided by P to obtain their value on the
fcale which has P ibr its unit. This will give us
Y y 2
I
n"
we
a
TEL
Tc’efco;-c. a — — b, zz — zz b\ zz 0,530
 1 a" zz J,*15
£''= —0,3046
P = I.
This is not a very good form, becaufe the lafl furface has
too great curvature.
We thought it worth while to compute the curvatures
for a cafe where the internal furfaces of the lenfes coincide,
in order to obtain the advantages mentioned on a former oc-
cafion. The form is as follows :
The middle lens is a double concave of flint-glafs ; the
laft lens is of crown-glafs, and has equal curvatures on both
fides. The following table contains the dimenfrons of the
glaffes for a variety of focal diflances. The firft column
contains the focal diftances in inches ; the fecond contains
the radii of the firft furface in inches ; the third contains
the radii of the pofterior furface of the firft lens and ante¬
rior furface of the fecond ; and the fourth column has the
radii of the three remaining furfaces.
P
1 2
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
We have
conftrudlion,
9,25
*8,33
27>33
36>42
45>42
54»5
63><i
72.6
81.7
93.7
b, a'
6,17
12.25
18.25
24>33
3°>33
36,42
48,5
54>5S
60,5?
b', a", b"
12,75
25>5
50,92
63,58
76>33
89,
101,75
114,42
127,17
a —
b =
0,504
0,504
-f- 0,502
— 0,502
= + °’793
= —0,793
had an opportunity of trying glaffes of this
and found them equal to any of the fame
length, although executed by an artift by no means excel¬
lent in his profefiion as a glafs-grinder. This very circum-
ftance gave us the opportunity of feeing the good effefts of
interpofing a transparent fubftance between the glaffes. We
put feme clear turpentine varnifh between them, which com-
pletely prevented all reflection from the internal furfaces.
Accordingly thefe telefcopes were furprifingly bright; and
although the roughnefs left by the fit ft grinding was very
perceptible by the naked eye before the glavfts were put
together, yet when joined in this manner it entirely difap-
peared, even when the glaffes were viewed with a deep
magnifier.
The aperture of an objeCt glafs of this conftruftion of 30
inches focal diftance was 3-Lth inches, which is confiderably
more than any of Mr Dotlond’s that we have feen.
If we fhould think it of advantage to make all the three
lenfes ifolceles, that is, equally curved on both furfaces, the
general equation wil (five the following radii :
</=+0,639 fl' = —0,3285 ^ + 0,6413
^ = —0,639 £'=+0,5285 0,6413
This feems a good form, having large radii.
Should we choofe to have the two crown-glafs lenfes
ifofceles and equal, we muft make
a~ o/^.\2 a' — —0,5227 «''=+0,6412
b~ — 0,6412 £/=: +0,5367 b'=z — 0,6412
This form hardly differs from the laft.
Our readers will recoiled that all thefe forms proceed on
certain meafures of the refraClive and difperfive powers of
the fubftances employed, which are expreffed by m, m , d rn,
and dm': and we may be affured that the formulae are fuffi-
ciently exad, by the comparifon (which we have made in
one of the cafes) of the refult of the formula and the trigo¬
nometrical calculation of the progrefs of the rays. The er¬
ror was but +th of the whole, ten times lefs than ano¬
ther error, which unavoidably remains, and will be con-
fidered prefently. Thefe meafures of refradion and dif-
356 1 TEL
perfion were carefully taken } hut there is great diverfity, Telefcnpf>
particularly in the flint-glafs. We are well informed that
the manufadurc of this article has confiderably changed of
late years, and that it is in general lefs reftadive and Ids
difperfive than formerly. This muft evidently make a chance
in the forms of achromatic glaffes. The proportion of the
focal diftance of the crowr,-glaffes to that of the flint muft
be increafed, and this will occafion a change in the curva¬
tures, which fliall corred the fpherical aberration. We ex¬
amined with great care a parcel of flint-glafs which an ar¬
tift of this city got lately for the purpofe of making achro¬
matic objed-glaffes, and alfo fome very white crcuvn-glafs
made in Leith; and we obtained the following meafures ;
=: 1,529 d m 142
i,578 dm' 219 c,64841.
We computed fome forms for triple objed-glaffes made
of thefe glaffes, which we fhall fubjoin as a fpecimen of the
variations which this change of data will occafion.
If all the three lenfes are made ifofceles, we have
«:=: +0,796 =—0,474 a'' =
b — -—0,796 £' = +0,474 b' —
Or
= ~o,475 +
b = 0,47 5 b
If the middle lens be ifofceles, the two crown-glafs lenfe*
may be made of the fame form and focal diftance, and pla¬
ced the fame way. This will give us
« =+ 0,705 d = 0,475 4! =+0,705
£== — 0,547 £'= + 0,475 b — — 0,547
N. B. This conftrudion allows a much better form, if the
meafures of refradion and difperfion are the fame that we
uied formerly. For we {hall have
a = +0,628 a — — 0,579 += + 0,628
^= —°)749 ^ = + 0,579 b" — — 0,749
And this is pretty near the practice of the London opti¬
cians.
We may here obferve, upon the whole, that an amateur
has little chance of fucceeding in thefe attempts. The di¬
verfity or glaffes, and the uncertainty of the workman’s
producing the very curvatures which he intends, is fo great,
that the objedl-glafs turns out different from our expeda-
tion. The artift who makes great numbers acquires a pretty
certain guefs at the remaining error ; and having many len-
fes, intended to be of one form, but unavoidably differing a
little from it, he tries feveral of them with the other two,
and finding one better than the reft, he makes uie of it to
complete tlie fet.
The great difficulty in the conftrudion is to find the ex-
ad proportion of the difperhve powers of the crown and
flint glafs. The crown is pretty conftant; but there is
hardly two pots ot flint-glafs which have the fame difperfive
power. Even if conftant, it is difficult to meafure it accu¬
rately ; and an error in this greatly affeds the inftrument,
becaufe the focal diftances of the lenfes muft be nearly as
their difperfive powers. The method of examining this
circumftance, which wre found moft accurate, was as fol¬
lows :
The fun’s light, or that of a brilliant lamp, paffed through
a fmall hole in a board, and fell on another board pierced
alfo with a fmall hole. Behind this was placed a fine prifm
A (fig. 10.), which formed a fpedrum ROV on a fereen
pierced writh a fmall hole. Behind this was placed a prifm
B of the fubftance under examination. The ray which was
refraded by it fell on the w'all at 13, and the diftance of its
illumination from that point to C, on which an unrefraded
ray would have fallen, was carefully meafured. This fhow-,
ed the refradion of that colour. Then, in order that we
might be certain that we always compared the reiiadion of
the
EVlefcope.
TEL
the fame preclfe colour by the different prifms placed at B,
we marked the precife pofition ot the prifm A. when the
ray of a particular colour fell on the prifm B. This was
done by an index AG attached to A, and turning with it,
when we caufed the different colours of the fpe&rum form¬
ed by A to fall on B. Having examined one prifm B with
refpedl to all the colours in the fpeftrum formed by A, we
put another B in its place. Then bringing A to all its for¬
mer pofitions fuccefiively, by means of a graduated arch
HGK, we were certain that when the index was at the fame
divifion of the arch it was the very ray which had been
made to pafs through the firft priim B in a former experi¬
ment. We did not folicitoufly endeavour to find the very
extreme red and violet rays ; becaufe, although we did not
learn the whole difperfi'ons of the two pnfms, we learned
their proportions, which is the circumilance wanted in the
conftrudfion of achromatic glaffes. It is in vain to attempt
this by meafuring the fpedfrums themfelves ; for we cannot
be certain of fele&ing the very fame colours for the compa-
rifon, becaufe they fucceed in an infenfible gradation.
The intelligent reader will readily obferve, that we have
hitherto proceeded on the fuppofition, that when, by means
of contrary rtfradtior.s, we have united the extreme red and
violet rays, we have alfo united ail the others. But this is
quite gratuitous. Sir liaac Newton would, however, have
made the fame fuppofition ; for he imagined that the diffe¬
rent colon's divided the fpedlrum formed by all fubftances
in the proportions of a mufical canon. This is a miftake.
When a fpedlmm is formed by a prifm of crown-glafs, and
another of precifely the fame length is formed by the fide of
it by a priim ot flint-glais, the confine between the green
and blue will be found precifely in the middle of the firit
fpedtrum, but in the fecond it will be confiderably nearer to
the red extremity. In fnort, different fubftances do not
difperie the colours in the fame proportion.
The effedt ot this irrationality (loto call it) of difperfion,
will appear plainly, we hope, in the following manner : Let
A (fig. 9. A) repreient a fpot of white iolar light falling per¬
pendicularly on a wall. Suppofe a prifm of common glais
placed behind the hole througdr which the light is admitted,
with its refrafting angle facing the left hand. It will refract
the beam of light to the right, and will at the fame time
difperfe this heterogeneous light into its component rays,
carrying the extreme red ray from A to R, the extreme
orange fiom A to O, the extreme yellow from A to Y, &c.
and will form the ufual prifmatic ipectrum ROYGBPVC.
If the whole length RC be divided into 1000 parts, we
fhall have (when the whole refradtion AR is fmall) RO
very nearly 125, RY=200, RG=333, RB~500, Rl' —
667, RV=778, and RC=icoo ; this being the propor¬
tion obferved in the differences of the fines of reiradfion by
Sir Ifaac Newton.
Perhaps a refradfing medium may be found fuch, that a
prifm made of it would refradl the white light from A , in
the upper line ot this figure, in fuch a manner that a fpec-
trum R O Y G B'PV C fhall be formed at the fame di-
ftance from A', and of the fame length, but divided in a dif¬
ferent proportion. We do not know that fuch a medium
has been found ; but we know that a prifm of flint-glafs
has its refradfive and difperfive powers fo conftituted, that
it A'H' be taken about -Jd of AR, a fpot of white light,
formed by rays falling perpendicularly at H , will be fo re-
fra&ed and difperled, that the extreme red ray will be car¬
ried from H' to R', and the extreme violet from H to C',
and the intermediate colours to intermediate points, forming
a fpedtrum refembling the other, but having the colours more
conftipated towards R', and more dilated towards C ; fo
that the lay which the common glafs carried to the middle
[ 357 1
TEL
point B of the fpedlrum RC is now in a point B' of the Telefcope,,
fpedfrum R'C, confiderabiy nearer to R'. —y—..
Dr Blair has found, on the other hand, that certain fluids,
particularly fuch as contain the muriatic acid, when formed
into a prifm, will retradf the light from H" (in the lower
line) io as to form a fpedlrum R'C7 equal to RC, and as
far removed from A" as RC is from A, but having the co¬
lours more dilated toward R", and more conftipated to¬
ward C, than is obferved in RC; fo that the ray which was
carried by the prifm of common glafs to the middle point
B is carried to a point B", confiderably nearer to C7.
Let us now fuppofe that, inftead of a white fpot at A,
we have a prifinatic fpedfrum AB (fig. 9. B), and that the
prifm of common glafs is applied as before, immediately be¬
hind the prifm which forms the fpedfrum AB. We know
that this will be refradfed fidewife, and will make a fpedfrum
ROYGBPC, inclined to the plane of refradfion in an angle
of 450; fo that drawing the perpendicular RC', we have
RC^CC.
We alfo know that the prifm of flint-glafs would refradl
the fpedfrum formed by the firft prifm on EHF, in fuch a
manner that the red ray will go to R, the violet to C, and
the intermediate rays to points o, y, g, b, p, v, lo fituated
that O 0 is = R O' of the other figure ; Yy is = R Y of
that figure, G^-= R'G', &c. Thefe points muft there¬
fore lie in a curve \Lo y g b which is convex toward
the axis R'C'.
In like manner we may be affured that Dr Blair’s fluid
will form a fpedfrum R o'y g'Up , v'Q., concave toward
R'C.
Let it be obferved by the way, that this is a very good
method for dilcovering whether a medium difperfes the light,
in the fame proportion with the prifm which is employed
for forming the firft fpedtrum A13 or EF. It difperfes in
the fame or in a different proportion, according as the ob¬
lique fpedlrum is ftraight or crooked; and the exadtpropsu>
tion correlponding to each colour is had by meai'uring the.
ordinates of the curves R £ C or R V C.
Having formed the oblique fpedfrum RBC by a prifm of
common glafs, we know that an equal priim of the fame
glafs, placed in a contrary pofition, will bring back all the
rays from the fpedtrum RBC'to the fpedfrum AB, laying
each colour on its former place.
In like manner, having formed the oblique fpedfrum
R b C by a priim oi flint-glafs, we know that another prifm
of fiint-glais, placed in the opoofite diredtion, will bring all
the rays back to the fpedtrum EHF.
But having formed the oblique ipedfrum RBC by a prifm
of common glais, it we place the flint-glafs prifm in the con¬
trary pofition, it will bring the colour R back to E, and
the colour C to F ; but it will not bring the colour B to
H, hut to a point h, fuch that B^ is equal to blri, and b B
to h H. In like manner,, the oilier colours will not be
brought back to the ftraight line EHF, but to a curve
E b F, forming a crooked fpedfrum.
In like manner, the fluids difeovered by Dr Blair, when
employed to bring back the oblique Ipedfrum RBC formed
by common glafs, will bring its extremities back to E and
F, and form the crooked fpedfrum. E/i/F lying beyond
EHF.
This experiment evidently gives us another method for
examining the proportionality of the difperlion of different
fubftances.
Having, by common glafs, brought back the oblique
fpedfrum formed by common glafs to its natural place AB,
fuppofe the original fpedfrum at AB to contradf gradually
(as Newton has made it do by means of a lens), it is plain
that the oblique fpedfrum will alfo contradf; and fo will the
8 ' fecond.
T R L r- 158 ] T E l
™+*Ve> (eCtmS fpe£lrum at AB ; an:* it will at lad coalefce into a
white fpot. The effeft will be equivalent to a gradual
comprefiion of the whole figure, by which the parallel lines
AR and BC gradually approach, and at lafl unite.
In like manner, when the oblique fpeftrum formed by
flint-glafs is brought back to EHF by a flint-glals prifm,
and the figure comprefied in the fame gradual manner, all
the colours will coalefce into a white fpot.
But when flint-glafs is employed to bring back the ob¬
lique fneTrum formed by common glafs, it forms the crook¬
ed fpedtrum E h F. Now let the figure be comp re Fed.
The curve E h F will be doubled down on the line H b, and
there will be formed a compound ipedfrum H h, quite un¬
like the common fpedlrum, being purple or claret coloured
at H by the mixture of the extreme red and violet, and
green edged with blue at h by the mixture of the green
and blue. The fluid prilms would in like manner form a
fpedfrum of the fame kind on the other fide of IT.
This is precifely what is obferved in achromatic obiedl-
glafies made of crown-glafs and flint : for the refraction
from A to R correfponds to the refraftion of the convex
crown-giafs ; and the contrary refraction from R to E cor¬
refponds to the contrary refradtion of the concave flint-
glafs, which ftill leaves a part of the firfl refraction, produ¬
cing a convergence to the axis of the telefcope. It is found
to give a purple or wine coloured tocus, and within this a
green one, and between thefe an imperfect white. Dr Blair
found, that when the eye-glafs was drawn out beyond its
proper diftance, a flar was furrounded by a green fringe, by
the green end of the fpeCtrum, which croffed each other
within the focus ; and when the eye-glafs was too near the
objeCt-glafs, the ftar had a wine-coloured fringe. The green
rays were ultimately molt refraCted. N. B. We fliould ex-
peCt the fringe to be of a blue colour rather than a green.
But this is eafiiy explained : The extreme violet rays are
very faint, fo as hardly to be fenfible ; therefore when a
compound glafs is made as achromatic as pofiible to our
fenfes, in all probability (nay certainly) thefe almoft infen-
flble violet rays are left out, and perhaps the extreme co¬
lours which are united are the led and the middle violet
rays. This makes the green to be the mean ray, and there¬
fore the moft outltanding when the difperfions are not pro¬
portional.
Dr Blair very properly calls thefe fpeCtrums, HT and H/j',
Jecondary JpeSrums, and feems to think that he is the firft
who has taken notice of them. But Mr Clairault was too
accurate a mathematician, and too careful an obferver, not
to be aware of a circumftance which was ot primary confe-
quence to the whole inquiry. He could not but obferve
that the fuccefs refted on this very particular, and that the
proportionality of diiperlion was indifpenfably neceflary.
This lubject was therefore touched on by Clairault; and
fully difetrfled by Bofcovich, firft in his Differtations pub-
lifhed at Vienna in 1759; then in the Comment. Bononunjis;
and, laftly, in his Opufcula, publiflied in 1785. Dr Blair, in
his ingenious Differtation on Achromatic Glafles, read to
the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1793, feems not to
have known of the labours of thefe writers; fpeaks of it as
anew dilebvery; and exhibits fome of the confequences of
this principle in a lingular point of view, as fomething very
paradoxical an4 inconfiftent with the ufually received no¬
tions on thefe fubjefts. But they are by no means fo. We
aie, however, much indebted to his ingenious refearches,
and his fuccefs ft il endeavours to find fome remedy for this
imperfedfion of achromatic glaffes. Some of his contri¬
vances are exceedingly ingenious ; but had the Do&or con-
fulted thefe writers, he would have faved himfelf a good deal
of trouble.
Bofcovich ftiows how to unite the two extremes with the TelefUpj,
moft outftanding colour of the fecondary fpedlrum, by'
means of a third fubftance. When we have done this, the
aberration occafioned by the fecondary fpeAruma rmift be
prodigioufiy diminifhed ; for it is evidently equivalent to
the union of the points H and h of our figure. Whatever
caufe produces this muft diminifla the curvature of the arches
E h and h F : but even if thefe curvatures were not dimi*
nidled, their greateft ordinates cannot exceed 3 th of H h ;
and we may fay, without hefitation, that by uniting the
mean or moft outftanding ray with the two extremes, the
remaining difperfion will be as much lefs than the uncor*
redfed colour of Dollond’s achromatic glafs, as this is lefs
than four times the difperfion of a common objeft-glafs. It
muft therefore be altogether in fenfible.
Bofcovich afferts, that it is not pofiible to unite more
than two colouis by the oppofite refradion o^‘ two iub-
fiances, which do not difperfe the light in the fame propor¬
tions. Dr Blair makes light of this affeftion, as he finds it
made in genera.! terms in the vague and paltry extradt made
by Prieftlty from Bofcovich in his Eft ay on the Hiftory of
Optics ; but had he read this author in his own diflerta-
tions, he would have feen that he was perfedtly right. Dr
Blair, however, has hit on a very ingenious and effedlual
method of producing this union of three colours. In the
fame way as we corredf the difperfion of a concave lens of
crown-giafs by the oppofite difperfion of a concave lens of
flint-glafs, we may corredl the fecondary difperfion of an
achromatic codvex lens by the oppofite fecondary difperfion
of an achromatic concave lens. But the intelligent reader
will obferve, that this union does not contradidf the afler-
bon of Bofcovich, becaufe it is necejfat tly produced by means
of three refradting fnbftances.
The moft eflential fervice which the public has received
at the hands of Dr Blair is the difeovery of fluid mediums
ot a proper difperfive power. By compofmg the lenfes of
fuch fubftances, we are at once freed from the irregula¬
rities in the refradtion and difperfion of flint-glafs, which
the chemifts have not been able to free it from. In what¬
ever way this glafs is made, it confifts of parts which differ
both in refradtive and difperfive power ; and when taken up
from the pot, thefe parts mix in threads, which may be dii-
feminated through the mats in any degree of finenefs. But
they flill retain their properties ; and when a piece of flint-
glals has been formed into a lens, the eye, placed in its fo¬
cus, fees the wdiole furface occupied by gliftening threads or
broader veins running acrofs it. Great rewards have been of¬
fered for removing this defedt, but hitherto to no ourpofe.
We beg leave to propofe the following method : Let the
glafs be reduced to powder, and then melted with a great
proportion of alkaline fait, fo as to make a liquor filicum.
When precipitated from this by an acid, it muft be in a
ftate of very uniform compofition. If again melted into
glafs, we fhould hope that it would be free from this de-
fedt; it not, the cafe feems to be defperate.
But by ufing a fluid medium, Dr Blair was freed from
all this embarraffment; and he acquired another immenfc
advantage, that of adjufting at pleafure both the refradlive
and difperfive powers of his lenfes. In folid lenfes, we do
not know whether we have taken the curvatures fuited to
the refradh'ons till our glafs is finiflied ; and ft we have mif-
taken the proportions, all our labour is loft. But when
fluids are ufed, it is enough that we know nearly the re-
fradlions. We fuit our focal diftances to thefe, and then
feledl our curvatures, fo as to remove the aberration of fi¬
gure, preferving the focal diftances. Thus, by properly
tempering the fluid mediums, we bring the lens to agree
7 precifely
T E L
feJefeope. precifely with the theory, perfeftly achromatic,
aberration of figure as much eorrefted as is poffible.
Dr Blair examined the refraftive and difperfive powers
of a great variety of fubftances, and found great varieties in
their aftions on the different colours. This is indeed what
every well informed naturalift would expedt. There is no
doubt now among naturalifts about the mechanical connec¬
tion of the phenomena of nature ; and all are agreed that
the chemical aftions of the particles of matter are perfectly
like in kind to the adtion of gravitating bodies ; that all
thefe phenomena are the effedts of forces like thofe which
we call attradlions and repulhons, and which we obferve in
magnets and eledtrified bodies ; that light is refradted by
forces of the fame kind, but differing chiefly in the final! ex¬
tent of their fphere of adtivity. One who views things in
this way will expedt, that as the adtions of the fame acid
for the different alkalis are different in degree, and as the
different acids have alfo different adtions on the fame alkali,
in like manner different fubftances differ in their general re-
iradfive powers, and alfo in the proportion of their adtion
on the different colours. Nothing is more unlikely there¬
fore than the proportional difperfion of the different co¬
lours by different fubftances ; and it is furprifing that this
inquiry has been fo long delayed. It is hoped that Dr
Blair will oblige the public with an account of the experi¬
ments which he has made. This will enable others to co¬
operate in the improvement of achromatic glaffes. We can¬
not derive much knowledge from what lie has already pub-
liftied, becaufe it was chiefly with the intention of giving a
popular, though not an accurate, view of the fubjedi. The
conftiudtions which are there mentioned are not thofe which
lie found moft effedtual, but thofe which would be molt
eafily UF.derftood, or demonftrated by the flight theory
which is contained in the differtation ; befides, the manner
or expreffing the difference of refrangibility, perhaps cho-
fen for its paradoxical appearance, does not give us a clear
notion of the charadleriftic differences of the fubftances ex¬
amined. I hofe rays which are ultimately moft defledfed
from their diredhon, are faid to have become the moft re¬
frangible by the combination of different fubftances, al¬
though, in all the particular refradkions by which this effedt
is produced, they are lefs refradked than the violet light.
We can juft gather this much, that common glafs difperfes
the rays in fuch a manner, that the ray which is in the con¬
fine of the green and blue occupies the middle of the prif-
matic fpedkrum ; but in glaffes, and many other fubftances,
which are more difperftve, this ray is nearer to the ruddy
extremity of the fpedkrum. While therefore the ftraight
line RC' (%. 9. B) terminates the ordinates O o', YY', G g,
&c. which reprefent the difperfion of common glafs, the
crdinates which exprefs the difperfions of thefe fubftances
are terminated by a curve palling through R and C, but
lymg below the line RC\ When therefore parallel hete¬
rogeneous light is made to converge to the axis of a con¬
vex lens of common glafs, as happens at F in fig. 5. C,
the light is dilperfed, and the violet rays have a fhorter fo¬
cal diftance. If we now apply a concave lens of greater
difperfive power, the red and violet rays are brought to one
focus F ; but the green rays, not being fo much refradked
away from F, are left behind at t, and have now a fhorter
focal diilance. But Dr Blair afterwards found that this
was not the cafe with the muriatic acid, and fome folutions
in it. Fie found that the ray which common glafs caufed
to occupy the middle of the fpedkrum was much nearer to
[ 359 1 TEL
and the the blue extremity when refrafted by thefe fluids. There- TeJefcopc,.
fore a concave lens formed of fuch fluids which united the
red and violet rays in F, refradked the green rays to/.
Having obferved this, it was an obvious conjedkure, that
a mixture of fome of thefe fluids might produce a medium,
whofe adfcion on the intermediate rays fhould have the fame
proportion that is obferved on common sfafs ; or that two
of them might be found which formed fpedftra fimilarly di¬
vided, and yet differing fufficiently in difperfive power to
enable us to deftroy the difperfion by contrary refradkions,,
without deftroying the whole refradkion. Dr Blair accord-
inoly found a mixture of folutions of ammoniacal and mer¬
curial falls, and alio fome other fubftances, which produced
difperfions proportional to that of glafs, with refpedk to the
different colours.
And thus has the refult of this intricate and laborious in-
ve-ftigation correfponded to his utmoft wifhes. He has pro¬
duced achromatic telefcopes which feem as perfedk as the
thing will admit of; for he has been able to in vs them fuch
apertures,v that the incorrigible aberration ariiing from the
fpherical furfaces becomes a fenfible quantity, and precludes
farther amplification by the eye-glaffes. We have exami¬
ned one of his telefcopes : The focal diftance of the objedk-
glafs did not exceed 17 inches, and the aperture was fully
inches. We viewed fome fmgte and double ftars and
fome common objedts with this telefcope ; and found, that
in magnifying power, brightnefs, and diftinfinefs, it was ma-
nifeflly fuperior to one of Mr Dollond’s of 42 inches fo¬
cal length. It alfo gave us an opportunity of admiring the
dexterity of the London artifts, who could work the glaffes.
with fuch accuracy. We had moft diftindk vifion of a ftar
when ufmg an eredking eye piece, which made this telefcope
magnify more than a hundred times ; and we found the field
of vifion as uniformly diftindk as with Dollond’s 42 inch te¬
lefcope magnifying 46 times. The intelligent reader muff
admire the nice figuring and centering of the very deep
eye-glaffes which are neceffary for this amplification.
It is to be Hoped tbat Dr Blair will extend his views to
ghjfes of different compofitions, and thus give us objedk-
glaffes which are folid ; for thofe compofed of fluids have
inconveniences- which will hinder them from coming into
general ufe, and will confine them to the mufeums of phi-
lofophers.. We imagine that antimonial'glaffes bid fair to
anfwer this purpofe, if they could be made free of colour,
fo as to tranfmit enough of light. We recommend this dif¬
fertation to the careful perufal of our readers. Thofe who
have not made themfelves much acquainted with the delicate
and abftrufe theory of aberrations, will find it exhibited in fuch>
a popular form as will enable them to underftand its ireneral
aim ; and the well-informed reader will find many curioas
indications of inquiries and difeoveries yet to be made.
We now proceed to confider the eye-glaffes or glaffes of
telefcopes. The proper conflrudkion of an eye-piece is not
lefs effential than that of the objedt-glafs. But our limits
will not allow us to ti'eat this fubjeft in the fame detail
We have already extended this article to a great length,
bccaufe we do not know of any performance in the Enolifh.
language which will enable our readers to underftand the
conftruckion of achromatic telefcopes ; an invention which-
refk6ks honour on our country, and has completed the dif-
coveries of our illuflrious Newton. Our readers will find'
abundant information in Dr Smiths Optics concerning the
eye-glaffes, chiefly deduced from Huyghen’s fine theory of
aberration (a). At the fame time, we. muft again pay Mr
Dollond
( ) hile we thus repeatedly fpeak of the theory of fpherical aberration as coining from Mr Huyghens, we muft not
omit
TEL
Ttlefcopf. DollnrJ. tne merited compliment of faying, that he was the
fir ft who made any fcientific application of this theory to
the compound eye-piece for ere&ing the objeft. His eye¬
pieces of five and fix glades are very ingenious reduplica¬
tions of Huyghens’s eye-piece of two glades, and would pro-
bably have iuperfeded all others, had not his difcovery of
achromatic objedt-glades caufed opticians to condder the
chromatic difperfion with more attention, and pointed out
methods of correcting it in the eye-piece without any com¬
pound eye-glades. They have found that this maybe more
conveniently done with four eye-glades, without feniibly di-
minifhing the advantages which Huyghens fhowed to re-
fult from employing many fmall refradtions inftead of a lef*
fer number of great ones. As this is a very curious fubjedt,
we (hall give enough for making our readers fully acquaint¬
ed with it, and content ourfelves with merely mentioning
the principles of fhe other rules for condrudting an eye-
[ 36° 3
T E L
piece.
Such readers as are lefs familiarly acquainted with op¬
tical difcudions will do well to keep in mind the following
confequences of the general focal theorem (Optics n° 141.
Cor. 5.).
If AB (fig. 10. B) be a lens, R a radiant point or focus
of incident rays, and a the focus of parallel rays coming
from theoppofite fide ; then,
D raw the perpendicular a a' to the axis, meeting the
incident ray in a', and a' A to the centre of the lens. The
refradted ray BF is parallel to a' A : for R a' : a' A. (z=
R a : a A) = RB : BF (= RA : AF), which is the focal
theorem.
An oblique pencil BP^ proceeding from any point P
2.
which is not in the axis, is colledfed to the pointwhere
the refradted ray BF cuts the line PAf drawn from P
through the centre of the lens : for P ^ : a' A — PB : B
which is alfo the focal theorem*
The Galilean telefcope is fufceptible of fo little improve¬
ment, that we need not employ any time in illuSrating its
performance.
The fimple altroriomical telefcope is reprefented in fig. 11.
The beam of parallel rays, inclined to the axis, is made to
converge to a point G, where it forms an image of the low-
efl point of a very diftant objedt. Thefe rays decuffating
from G fall on the eye-glafs ; the ray from the loweft point
B of the objedt-glafs falls on the eye-glafs at b ; and the
ray from A falls on a ; and the ray from the centre O
falls on 0. Thefe rays are rendered parallel, or nearly fo,
by refradlion through the eye-glafs, and take the diredlion
b 0 I, a 1. If the eye be placed io that this pencil of pa¬
rallel rays may enter it, they converge to a point of the re¬
tina, and give difiindl vifion of the loweft point of the ob¬
jedt. It appears inverted, becaufe the rays by which we fee
its loweft point come in the direction which in fimple vifion
is connedted with the upper point of an objedt. They
come from above, and therefore are thought to proceed
from above. We fee the point as if fituated in the direc¬
tion I 0. In like manner the eye placed at I, fees the upper
point of the objedt in the direction IP, and its middle in
the diredtion IE. The proper place for the eye is I: if
brought much nearer the glafs, or removed much farther
from it, feme, or the whole, of this extreme pencil of rays Tdefcope,
will not enter the pupil. It is therefore of importance
to determine this point. Becaufe the eye requires parallel
rays for diftindt vifion, it is plain that F muft be the prin¬
cipal focus of the eye-glafs. Therefore, by the common
focal theorem (Optics, n0 141. Cor. 5.), OF i OE =
OE : OI, or OF : FE = OE : EL
The magnifying power being meafured by the magnitude
of the vifual angle, compared with the magnitude of the vi.
fual angle with the naked eye, we have T'fT, or —^ for
b ; oOp oOF
the meafure of the magnifying power. This is very nearly
OE OF
~ El ’ °r FT
As the line OE, joining the centres of the lenfes, and
perpendicular to their fut faces, is called the axis of the tele¬
fcope, fo the ray OG is called the axis of the oblique pen¬
cil, being really the axis of the cone of light which has the
objedbglafs for its bafe. This ray is through its whole
courfe the axis of the oblique pencil ; and when its courfe
is determined, the amplification, the field of. vifion, the aper¬
tures of the glades, are all determined. For this purpofe
we have only to confider the centre of the objedl-glafs as a
radical point, and trace the procefs of a ray from this point
through the other glaffes : this will be the axis of fome o-
O # O
blique pencil.
It is evident, therefore, that the field of vifion depends
on the breadth of the eye-glafs. Should we increafe this,
the extreme pencil will oafs through 1, becaufe O and I are
ftill the conjugate foci of the eye-glafs. On the other
hand, the angle refolved on for the extent or field of vifion
gives the breadth of the eye-glafs.
We may here obferve, by the way, that for all optical
inftruments there muft be two optical figures confidered.
The firft fhows the progrefs of a pencil of rays coming from
one point of the object. The various focufes of this pencil
fhow the places of the different images, real or virtual.
Such a figure is formed by the three rays AG a i, OG 0 I,
BG b i
The fecond fhows the progrefs of the axes of the different
pencils proceeding through the centre of the objeft-glafs
The focufes of this pencil of axes fhow the places where an
image of the objedl glafs is formed; and this pencil deter¬
mines the field of vifion, the apertures of the lenfes, and the
amplification or magnifying power. The three rays OG 0 I,
OFEI, OHPI, form this figure.
See alfo fig. 17. where the progrefs of both fets of pencils
is more diverftfied.
The perfedlion of a telefcope is to reprefent an objeft
in its proper fliape, diftinctly magnified, with a great held
of vifion, and fufficiently bright. But there are limits to
all thefe qualities; and an increaie of one of them, for the
moft part, diminiihes the reft. I he brightneis depends on
the aperture of the objedl glafs, and will increafe in the fame
proportion (becaule i t will always be to AB in the pro¬
portion of EF to FO), till the diameter-of the emergent
pencil is equal to that of the pupil of the eye. Increahng
the objedl glafs any more, can tend no more light into the
eye. But we cannot make the emergent pencil nearly fo
large
omit giving a due fhare of the honour of it to Dr Barrow and Mr James Gregory'. The firft of thefe authors, in Ins
Optical Ledlures delivered at Cambridge, has given every propofition which is employed by Huyghens, and has even
profecuted the matter much further. In particular, his theory ol oblique Header pencils is of immenfe confequence to
the pcrfedlion of telefcopes, by (bowing the methods for making the image of an extended furface as flat as poffible.
Gregory, too, has given all the fundamental propofitions in his Optica Promota. But Huyghens, by taking the fubjec
together, and treating it in a fyftem, has greatly fimplified it : and his manner of viewing the principal paits of it is
incomparably more perfpicuous than the performances of Barrow and Gregory.
TEL [
Tel, fcope. large as this when the telefcope magnifies much ; for the
^ ^ great aperture of the objeft-glafs produces an indiftindl
image at GF, and its indiitindlnels is magnified by the eye-
gkfs.
A great field of vifion is incompatible with the true fhape
of the objedt; for it is not ftridtly true that all rays flow¬
ing from O are refrafted to I. 1 hole rays which go to the
margin of the eye-glafs crofs the axis between E and I ;
and therefore they crois it at a greater angle than if they
pafied through I, Now had they really palled through I,
the objedl would have been reprefented in its due propor¬
tions. ! herefore iince the angles of the marginal parts are
enlarged by the aberration of the eye-glafs, the marginal
parts themfelves will appear enlarged, or the objedt appear
dillorted. Thus a chels-board viewed through a reading
glafs appears drawn out at the corners, and the llraight lines
are all changed into curves, as is reprefented in fig. 13.
The circumftance which molt peremptorily limits the ex¬
tent of field is the necefiary^dillindtnefs. If the vifion be
indiftindt, it is ufelefs, and no other quality can compenfate
this defedt. The diflortion is very inconfiderable in much
larger angles of vifion than we can admit, and is unworthy
of the attention paid to it by optical writers. They have
been induced to take notice of it, becaufe the means of cor-
redting it in a confiderable degree are attainable, and afford
an opportunity of exhibiting their knowledge ; whereas the
indiftindtnefs which accompanies a large field is a fubjedt of
moft difficult difeuffion, and has hitherto baffled all their
efforts to exprefs by any intelligible or manageable formulae.
Quaique tra&ata nitefeere pojje
Defperat relinquit.
This fubjedt muft, however, be confidered. The image
at GF of a very remote objeft is not a plain furface per¬
pendicular to the axis of the telefcope, but is nearly fpheri-
cal, having O for its centre. If a number of pencils of pa¬
rallel jays crofling each other in I fall on the eye-glafs, they
will form a pidture on the oppofite fide, in the focus F.
Tut this pidlure will by no means be flat, nor nearly fo, but
very concave towards E. Its exadt form is of moft difficult
inveftigation. The elements of it are given by Dr Barrow ;
and we have given the chief of them in the article Optics’
when confidering the foci of infinitely flender pencils of
oblique rays. I herefore it is impoffible that the pidlure
formed by the objea-glafs can be feen diftinftly in all its
partsby the eye-glafs. Even if it were flat,, the points G
and H (fig. 11.) are too far from the eye-glafs when the
middle F is at the proper diftance for diftindf vifion. When,
therefore, the telefcope is fo adjufted that we have diftindl
middle of the field, in order to fee the margin
dittin&ly we muft pufli in the eye-glafs: and having fo
dene, the middle of the field becomes indiftindfc. When the
held of vifion exceeds 12 or 15 degrees, it is not pofftble by
any contrivance to make it tolerably diftind all over; and
we mm., turn the telefcope fucceffively to the different paits
01 the field that we may fee them agreeably.
I he caufe of this indiftindknefs is, as we have already faid,
the fhoitnefs of the lateral foci of lateral and oblique pencils
refradted by the eye-glals. We have fliown (in Optics,
n 252) how to determine thefe in all the cafes which occur.
But the detei m ination is not complete, and relates only to
t role lays which are in a.plane palling through the axis of
the lens. But the oblique pencil b G a, by which an eye
placed at I lees the point G of the image, is a cone of light,
. ng a circular bafe on the eye-glafs ; of which circle 17 b
361 ] TEL
placed in the axis of the telefcope, with the objeft-glafs as Telefcope.
appearing behind it. The point b is formed by a ray which ’ ~v 
comes from the loweft point B of the objed-plafs, and the
point a is illuminated by a ray from A. The point c at
the right-hand of the circular bafe of this cone of light came
from the point C on the left fide of the objea-glafs ; and.
the light comes to d from D. Now the laws of optics de-
monftrate, that the rays which come through the points c
and d are more convergent after refradtion than the rays
which come through a and b. The analogies, therefore,
which afeertain the foci of rays lying in planes palling thro’
the axis do not determine the foci of the others. Of this
we may be fenlibleby looking through a lens to a figure on
which are drawn concentric circles crofled by radii. When
the telefcope is fo adjufted that we fee diftinftly the extre¬
mity of one of the radii, we fhall not fee diliindlly the cir-i
cilmference which crofles the extremity with equal diftindl.
nels, and vice verfa. This difference, however, between the
foci or the rays which come through a and b, and thofe
which come through c and d, is not confiderable in the fields
of vifion, which are otherwife admiffible. But the fame dif¬
ference of foci obtains alfo with refpedt to the difperfion of
light, and is more remarkable. Both d’Alembert and Euler
have attempted to introduce it into their formulae ; but they,
have made them ufelefs for any pradlical purpofe by their
inextricable complication.
I his muft ferve as a general indication of the difficulties
which occur in the conftrudlion of telefcopes, even although
the objedl-glals were perfedl, forming an image without the
fmalleit confufion or diftoition.
There is yet another difficulty or imperfedlion. The
rays of the pencil a Gb, when refradted through the. eye-
glals, are alfo feparated into their component colours. The
edge of the lens muft evidently perform the office of a prifm,
and the white ray G£ will be lo dilperfed that if hi be the
path of its redray, the violet ray, which makes another
part of it, will take fuch a courfe b n that the angle il b n
will be nearly Arth of G' b i'. The ray Ga paffing through
a part of the lens whofe furfaces are lefs inclined to each
other, will be lefs refradled, and will be lefs dilperfed in the
fame proportion very nearly. Therefore the two violet rays
will be very nearly parallel when the two red rays are ren¬
dered parallel.
Hence it muft happen, that the objeft will appear bor¬
dered with coloured fringes. A black line feen "near the
margin on a white ground, will have a 'ruddy and orange
border on the outfide and a blue border within^ and this
confufion is altogether independent on the obje£l-glafs, and,
is fo much the greater as the vifual angle b IE is greater.
Such are the difficulties : I hey would be unfurmountable
were it not that fome of them are lo connedled that, to a
certain extent, the diminution of one is accompanied by a
diminution of the other. Our readers will recollea, that in
the aiticle Optics we gave fome account of what are called
the CauJIic curves (Optics n° 252), and fhowed that thefe
curves are the geometrical loci of the foci of infinitely flen¬
der pencils. Confequently the point G is very nearly in
the cauftic formed by a beamof light confifting of rays pa¬
rallel to I 0, and occupying the whole furface of the eye-
glafs, becaufe tire pencil of rays which are collefted at G is
very fmall. Any thing therefore that ditninifhes the mutual
inclination of the adjoining rays, puts their concourfe farther
off. i\ow this is precilely what we want : for the point G
of the image formed by the objebl glafs is already beyond
the locus of the oblique flender pencil of parallel rays / uand,
to this, which ^ ner.e 13 a diameter perpendicular / o ; and, therefore, if we could make this focus go a little
FiV. 12. renrefenr, th k 7^ m [ePrefented by the Polnt farther from 0 and b, we fhall bring it nearer to G, and ob-
Vol. XVIII Part*! a ° ^ e cone ao feen by an eye tain more diftindt vilion of this point of the object. Now
’ ar ’ ^ Z z let
TEL [ 362 ] TEL
Telef.ope. let it be recollefted, that in moderate vcfra&ions through
nrifms, two rays which are inclined to each other in a imah
angle are, after refraction, inclined to each other in the fame
an, le. 't herefore, if we can diminith the aberration of the
ray ai, ox 0 l, or li', we diminifh their mutual inclination ;
and confequently the mutual inclination of the rays On,
Oo, Ol', and therefore lengthen the focus, and get more
diflinft vffion of the point G. Therefore vve at once cor.
reft the diftortion and the indiftinftnefs : and this is the aim
of Mr Huyghens’s great principle of dividing the refrac¬
tions, See Optics, n° 100.
The general method is as follows : Let 0 be the objeff-
glafs (fig. 14. A) and E the eye-glafs of a telefcope, and F
their common focus, and FG the image formed by the ob-
jeft-fflafs. The proportion of their focal diilances is fup-
pofed to be fuch as gives as great a magnifying power as
the perfeftion of the objfft-plafs will admit. Let BI be
the axis of the emergent pencil. It is known by the focal
theorem that GE is parallel to BI : therefore BGE is the
whole refraftion or defk&ion of the ray OKB from its for¬
mer direction. Let it be propofed to diminifh the aberra¬
tions by dividing this into two parts by means of two glafies
L and e, fo as to make the ultimate angle of viiion b i e
equal to BIE, and thus retain the fame magnifying power
and vifible field. Let it be propsfed to divide it into the
parts BGC and CGE.
From G draw any line GD to the axis towards O ; and
draw the perpendicular DH, cutting OG in H ; draw Hr
parallel to GC, cutting GD in y ; draw gf perpendicular
to the axis, and ge parallel to GE ; draw eb perpendicular
to the axis ; draw D parallel to GC, and d perpendicular
to the axis.
Then if there be placed at D a lens whofe focal diflance
is D d, and anotherat e whofe focal diflancc is ef, the thing
is done. The ray O H will be refiafted into H b, and this
into hi parallel to BI.
The demonftration of this conftru6lion is fo evident by
means of the common focal theorem, that we need not re¬
peat it, nor the reafons for its advantages (fee Optics i co).
We have the fame magnifying power, and the fame field of
vifion ; we have lefs aberration, and therefore lefs diftortion
and indiftindlnefs ; and this is brought about by a lens HD
of a fmalier aperture and a greater focal diftance than BE.
Gonfequently, if wre are contented writh the diftinffnefs of
the margin of the field with a fingle eye-glafs, we may greatly
increafe the field of vifion : for it we increafe DH to the
fizte of EB we fhall have a greater field, and much greater
diftinftnefs in the margin ; becaufe HD is of a longer focal
diftance, and will bear a greater aperture, preferving the
fame diftinftnefs at the edge. On this account the glafs
HD is commonly called the Fteld-glafi.
It mull be obferved here, however, that although the dif¬
tortion of the objeft is leftened, there is a real diftortion
produced in the the imagey^. But this, when magnified
by the glafs e, is fmaller than the di’fortion produced by the
glafs E, of greater aoertute and fhorter focus, on the tin-
diftovted image GF. But becaufe there is a diftortion in
the fecond image fg, this conftruftion cannot be ufed for
the tdefcopes of aftionomical quadrants, and other gradua¬
ted inilrnmcnts; becaufe then equal divifions of the micro¬
meter would not correfpond to equal angles.
But the fame eonftruftion will anfwer in this cafe, by
taking the point D on that fide of 'F which is remote from O
(fig. 14. B). ibis is the form now employed lathe tele-
icopes of all graduated inftruments.
The exadl proportion in, which the diftortidn and the in-
fiiftin&nefs at the edges of the field are diminifhed by this
eonftruHion, depends on the proportion in which, the angle
BGE is divided by GC; and is of pretty difficult inveftiga-
tion. But it never deviates far (never-^th in optical inftru¬
ments) from the proportion of the fquares ol the angles.
We may, without any fenfible error, feppofe it in this pro¬
portion. This gives us a pra&ieal rule of eafy recolledfion,
and of moft extenfive ute. When we would diminifh an
aberration by dividing the whole refra&ion into two parts,
we fhall do it moft effeftually by making them equal. In
like manner, if we divide it into three parts by means of two
additional glaftes, we mull make each = |d of the whole ;
and fo on for a greater number.
This ufeful problem, even when limited, as we have done,
to equal refractions, U as yet indeterminate ; that is, fuf-
ceptible of an infinity of folutions: for the point D, where
the field-glafs is placed, was taken at pleafure : yet there
muft. be fituations more proper than others. The aberra¬
tions which produce diftortion, and thofe which produce in-
diftin&nefs, do not follow the lame proportions. Tocorre&
the indiltindlnefs, we fhould not feledt fuch pofitions of the
lens HD as will give a fmall focal diflance b e \ that is,
we fhould not remove it very far from F. Huygens recom¬
mends the proportion of 3 to l for that of the focal dif-
tances of the lens HD and eb, and fays that the diftance
D<? fhould be = 2 Ye. This will make ei — f F, and will
divide the whole refia£lion into two equal parts, as any one
will readily fee by conftrufting the common optical figure.
Mr Short, the celebrated improver of reffefting teltfeopes,
generally employed this proportion ; and we fliall prefeutly
fee that it is a very good one.
It has been already obferved that the great refraftions
which take place on the eye-giafies occafion very confider-
able difpeifions, and difturb the vifion by fringing every’’
thing with colours. To remedy this, achromatic eye-glaftes
may’ be employed, conftrudled by the rules already delivered.
This conftr action, however, is incomparably more intricate
than that of objedl-glaftes : for the equations muft involve
the diftance of the radiant point, and be more complicated:
and this complication is immenfely increafed on account of
the great obliquity of the pencils.
Moll fortunately the Huyghenian conftnnEtion of an eye¬
piece enables us to correft this difperfion to a great degree
of exattnefs. A heterogeneous ray is difperfed at H, and
the red ray belonging to it falls on the lens b e at a greater
diftance from the centre than the violet rayr coming from H.
It will therefore be lefs refrafted (cseteris paribus) by the
lens b e; and it is poffible that the difference may be fuch
that the red and violet rayrs difperfed at H may be render¬
ed parallel at b, or even a little divergent, fo as to unite ac¬
curately with the red ray at the bottom of the eye. How
this may be affedled, byr a proper feleclion of the places and
figures of the lenles, wall appear by the following.propofi-
tion, which we imagine is new, and not inelegant.
Let the compound ray OP (fig. 15. A) be difperfed by
the lens PC ; and let PV, PR be its violet and red rays,
cutting the axis in G and g. It is required to place an¬
other lens RD in their way, fo that the emergent rays R f'9
Yu, ihall be parallel.
Produce the incident ray OP to Z. The angles ZPR,
ZPR\ , .
ZPY, are given, (and RPV is nearly *= "2’~j an“
interfeiflions G and o' with the axis. Let Fbe the focus of
parallel red light coming through the lens RD in the op-
pofite diredlion. Then (by the common optical’theorem),
the perpendicular F will cut PR in fuch a' point p, that
F F will * be parallel to the emergent ray R (fee Optics,
n° 252 — 256), and to Vv. Therefore if PD cut PV in u,
and w/ be drawn perpendicular to the. axis, we fhall have
(alfo by the common theorem) the point/for the focus of
violet
[ 3
a 7 nearly, or
T E I,
Ttkfc'pe vfulet rays, and DF : D/ss* D/= : Dy =3;
* in a given ratio.
'1 he problem is therefore reduced to this, “ To draw from
a point L) in the line CG a line Dp, which fhall be cut by
the lines PR and PV in the given ratio.
The following conftruClion naturally offers itfelf: Make
GM M in the given ratio, and draw MK parallel to Pg.
Through any point D of CG draw the flraight line PDK,
cutting MK in K. Join GK, and draw Dp parallel to KG.
I his will h Ive the problem ; and, drawing p F perpendicular
to the axisr we fhah have F for the iocus of the lens RD
for parallel red rays.
The demonftration is evident : for MK being parallel to
Fg, we have GM :^M = GK : KK, = pD : uD, — FD
/D, in the ratio required.
This problem admits of an infinity of folutions ; becaufe
the point D may be taken anywhere in the line CG. It
may therefore be iubjedted to luch conditions as may pro¬
duce other advantages.
1. It may be reftri&ed by the magnifying power, or by
the divifion which we choofe to make of the whole refiac¬
tion which produces this magnifying powder. Thus, if we
have refolved to diroinifh the aberrations by making the two
refractions equal, we have determined the angle RrD.
Therefore diaw GK, making the angle MGK equal to
that which the emergent pencil mull make with the axis,
in order to produce this magni ying power. Then draw
MK parallel to Pg. meeting GK in K. 1 hen draw PK,
cutting the axis in D, and Dp parallel to GK, and pF per¬
pendicular to the axis. D is the place, and DF the focal
ddlance of the eye-gl?.fs.
2. Particular circumllances may caufe us to fix on a par¬
ticular place D, and we only want the focal diltance. In
this cafe the firlt con If ru Cl ion fufficts.
3' ^ e may have determined on a certain focal dillance
Dl*, and the place mull be determined. In this cafe let
then
then GF-
GF; F.p
Fp : fu
fv •* fg
'.fg
-fg : GF
=? 1
tan. G
w, in being 3=
= tan.g : 1
= tan.g : m tan. G
= tan. 2—m tan. G
and
G^ -j- I* /: GF — tan. g—m tan. G
GF = U, + F/ ,a"
tan. g
tan. g;
;=j,andisthere-
tan. g—m. tan. G’
fore given, and the place of F is determined ; and fince FD
is given by fuppofition, D is determined.
I he application of this problem to our purpofe is diffi¬
cult, if w'e take it in the moll general terms ; but the na¬
ture of the thing makes fuch limitations that it becomes
very eafy. In the cafe of the dilperfion of light, the angle
GP^ is io Imall that MK may be drawn parallel to PG
with ut any fenfible error. If the ray OP were parallel to
CG, then G would be the focus o* the lens PC, and the point
M would fall on C ; becaufe the focal diftance of red rays is to
that of violet rays in the lame proportion for every lens, and
therefore CG : C^- = DF : DJ. Now, in a telefcope which
magnifies confiderably, the angle at the objeCl-glafs is very
fmali, and CG hardly exceeds the focal dillance ; and CG
is to C^ very nearly in the fame proportion of 28 to 27.
We may therefore draw through C (fig. 15. B) a line CK
parallel to PG : then draw GK perpendicular to the axis
of the lenfes, and join i*K' ; draw K'BE parallel to CG,
cutting PK in B ; draw BHI parallel to GK, cutting GK'
in H : Join FID and PK. It is evident that CG is bi-
fedled m F, and that K B = 2 F'D : alfo K'H : HG =
K B : BE, 3= CD : DG. Therefore DH is parallel to
CK', or to PG. But becaufe PF =3 F K , PD is — DB,
and IH = HB. Therefore pD =* H13, and FD K B?
63 ] T E t
— 2 F'D; and FD is buecled In Y.
CG-f-FD
T herefore CD T
T’hat is, in order that the eye-glafs RD may correfl the
difperlion of the field-glafs PC, the difiance betnveen them mujl
be equal io the half fum oj theirfocaldijlances very nearly. More
exafily, the dfiance between them mujl be equal to the half fum
of the focal dijlance oj the eye-glafs, and the ciifiance at which
the feld-glafs would form an image of the objed-glafs. For
the point G is the focus to which a ray coming from the
centre of the objedl-glafs is refradled by the field-glafs.
This is a very fimple folution of this important problem.
Huvghens’s eye-piece correfponds with it exadily. If in¬
deed the difperfion at P is not entirely produced by the re-
fradlion, but perhaps combined with fome previous difoer-
fion, the point M (fig. 15. A) will not coincide w th C,
(fig. 15. B), and we {hall have GC to GM, as the natural
difperfion at P to the difperfion which really obtains there-
This may deflroy the equation CD — —_
2
Thus, in a manner rather unexpedled, have we freed the
eye-glafles from the greatefl part of the effedl of drfperfion,
We may do it entirely by pufhing the eye-glafs a little
nearer to the field-glafs. This will render the violet rays a
little divergent from the red, fo as to produce a perftdl pic¬
ture at the bottom of the eye. But by doing fo we have
hurt the diftindlnefs of the whole pidlure, becaufe F is not
in the focus of RD. We remedy this by drawing both
glaffes out a little, and the telefcope is made perfedl.
This improvement cannot be applied to the condrudlion
of quadrant telefcopes, fuch as fig. 14. B. Mr Ramfden
has attempted it, however, in a very ingenious way, which
merits a place here, and is alfo inftru£tive in another way.
Tire field-glafs HD (fig. 14. B) is a plane.convex, with its
plane fide next the image GF. It is placed very near this
image. The confequence of this diipoiition is, that the
image GF produces a vertical image g f which is much Ids
convex towards the glais. He then places a lens on the
point C, where the red ray would crofs the axis. The vio¬
let ray will pafs on the other fide of it. If the focal di¬
ftance of this glafs be f c, the vifion will be diftimft and free
from colour. It has, however, the inconveniency of obli¬
ging the eye to be clofe to the glafs, which is very troubie-
fome.
T bis would be a good conftrudlion for a magic-lanthorn,
or for the objedl-glafs of a folar microlcope, or indeed of
any compound microfeope.
We may prefume that the reader is now pretty familiar
with the different circumftances which mull be confidered in
the conftruftion of an eye-piece, and proceed to conitder
thole which muft be employed to eredl the obj;“dl.
I his may be done by placing the lens which receives the
lijht from the objeft glafs in fueh a manner, thfrt a fecond
image (inverted with refpecT to the firft) may be formed
beyond it, and this may be viewed by an eye-glafs. Such
a conllrudlion is reprdented in fig. 16. But, beirdeg many PI
other defe&s, it tinges the objedt prodigioufiy with colour T'1
The ray 0 d k difperfed at d into the red ray dr, and the
violet d v, v being farther from the centre than r, the re-
frafted ray =v v1 croffes r r both by reafon of fpherical aber¬
ration and its greater refrangibility.
But the common day telefcope, invented by F. Rheita,
has, in this relpedT, greatly the advantage of the one now
deferibed. See Optics, n° 266. The rays of compound
light are difperfed at f and/. (Plate CCCLXIV. fig. 13).
1 he violet ray proceeding from fy falls without the red ray
at g, but is accurately colletled with it at the focus E, as
we ihali dem-inflrate by and by. Since they evois each
7. z 2 other
DI\
TEL L 364 ] ' TEL
Telefcope. ©tlier in E, the violet ray muft fall within the red ray at i, itance from the centres of the lenfes. The greateft bend- Telefcope,
—-y  anci be lefs refrafted than it it had fallen on the faipe point ing is made at the field-glafs D ; and we imagine that the
with the red ray. Had it fallen there it would have fepa- telefcope would be improved, and made more diftindl at the
rated from it; but by a proper diminution of its refraction, edoes of the field, by employing another glafs oi great focal
it is keot parallel to it, or nearly fo. And this is one ex- diftance between C and D.
cellence of this telefcope : when conftrudied with three eye- There is an image formed at H of the objedt-glaffes, and
piaffes perfectly equal, the colour is fenfibly dimiuifhed, and the whole light paffes through a fmall circle in this place.'
by ufiug an eye-glafs fomewhat imaller, it may be removed It is ufual to put a plate here pierced with a hole which has
entirely. —We fay no more of it at prefent, becaufe we (hall the diameter of this image. A fecond image of the objecft-
find its conftrudtion included in another, which is ftill more glafs is formed at I, and indeed wherever the pencils crofs
perfect. the axis. A lens placed at H makes no change in any of
It is evident at firff fight that this telefcope may be im- the angles, nor in the magnifying power, and affe&s only
proved, by fubftitutiug for the eye-glafs 1 k (fig. 13.) the the place where the images are formed. And, on the other
Huyghenian double eye-glafs, or field-glafs and eye-glafs re- hand, a lens placed at/, or. F", where a real image is form-
prefented in fig. 14 A, and fig. 14. B ; and that the firfi ed, makes 110 change in the places of'the images, but affe&s
of thefe may be improved and rendered achromatic. This the mutual inclination ol the pencils. This affords a re¬
will require the two glaffes ef and ^ Z’ to be increafed from fource to the artift, by which he may combine properties
their orefent dimenlions to the fize of a field-glafs, fuited which feem incompatible.
to the magnifying power of the telefcope, fuppofm.g it ?.n
affronomical telefcope. Thus we fhall have a telefcope of
four eye-glaffes. The three firff will be of a confiderable
focal diitance, and two of them will have a common focus
at b. But this is confiderably different from the eye-piece
of four glaffes which are now ufed, and are far better. We
are indebted for them to Mr Dollond, who was a mathema¬
tician as well as an artift, and in tdie courfe of his vefearch
difeovered refources which had not been thought of. Tie
had not then difeovered the achromatic objefi-glafs, and
was bufy in improving the eye-glaffes by diminiftiing their
fpherical aberration. His firft thought was to make the
Huyghenian addition at both the images of the day tele-
- fcope. This fuggefted to him the following eye-piece of
five glaffes.
Plate Fig- 17- reprefents this eye-piece, but there is not room
for the objedt-glafs at its proper diftance. A pencil of
rays coming from the upper point of the objedt is made
to converge (by the objedl-glafs) to G, where it would
form a pidinre of that part of the objedt. But it is inter¬
cepted by the lens A a, and its axis is bent towards the
axis of the telefcope in the dirediion a b. At the fame
time, the rays which converged to G converge to g, and
there is formed an inverted pidture of the objedt at gf. The
axis of the pencil is again refradted at b, croffes the axis of
the telefcope in H, is refradted again at e, at d, and at e,
and at laft croffes the axis in I. The rays of this pencil,
diverging from £, are made lefs diverging, and proceed as
if they came from g', in the line bg g'. The lens e C
caufes them to converge to g’, in the line G' Cj/ The
lens d D makes them converge ftill more to G", and there
they form an eredi pidture G" F' ; diverging from G", they
are rendered parallel by the refradtion at e.
At H tire rays are nearly parallel. Had the glafs B b
been a little farther from A, they would have been accu¬
rately fo, and the objedt-glafs, witli the glaffes A and B,
•would have formed an aftronomical telefcope with the Huy¬
ghenian eye-piece. The glaffcs C, D, and E, are intended
merely for bending the rays back again till they again crofs
the axis in I. The glafs C tends chiefly to diminifh the
great angle BH b ; and then the two glaffes D and E are
another Kuyghcnian eye-piece.
The art in this conftrudtion lies in the proper adjuftment
of the glaffes, fo as to divide the whole bending of the pen¬
cil pretty equally among them, and to form the iaft image
in the focus of the eye-glafs, and at a proper diftance irorn
the other glafs. Bringing B nearer to A would bend the
pencil more to the axis. Placing C farther, from B would
do che fame thing ; but this would be accompanied with
more aberration, becaufe the rays would fall at a greater di-
The aperture of A determines the vifible field and all the
other apertures.
We muft avoid forming a real image, fuch as f g, or F' G/
on or very near any glafs. For we cannot fee this image
without feeing along with it every particle of daft and every
fcratch on the glafs. We fee them as making part of the
objeft when the image is exadlly on the glafs, and we fee
them confufedly, and fo as to confufe the objedt, when the
image is near it; For when the image is on or very near
any glals, the pencil of light occupies a very fmall part of
its furface, and a particle of dull intercepts a great proportion
of it.
It is plain that this conftrudtion will not do for the tele¬
fcope of graduated inftruments, becaufe the micrometer can¬
not be applied to the fecond image fg, on account of its
being a little diftorted, as has been obferved of the Huyghe¬
nian eye-piece. k
Alfo the interpofition of the glafs C makes it difficult to
correft the difperlion.
By proper reafoning from the corredlion in the Huyghe¬
nian eye-piece, we are led to the beft conftruftion of one
with three glaffes; which we fhall now confidcr, taking it in
a particular form, which fhall make the difeuffion eafy, and
make us fully mafters of the principles which lead to a bet¬
ter form. Therefore let PA (fig. 18.) be the glafs which
firft receives the light proceeding from the image formed by
the objedt-glals, and let OP be the axis of the extreme pen¬
cil. This is reiradled into PR, which is again retrafted
into R r by the next lens B r. Let b be the focus or paral¬
lel rays of the fecond lens. Draw PB r. We know that
A Z : Z B PB : B r, and that rays of one kind diverging
from P will be colledled at r. But if PR, PV be a red
and a violet ray, the violet ray will be more refradled at V,
and will crofs the red ray in force intermediate point g of
the line R r. If therefore the fxrft image had been formed
precisely on the lens PA, we ffiould have a fecond image at
fg free from all coloured fringes.
If the refraflions at P and R are equal (as in the common
day telefcope), the difperfion at V muft be equal to that at
P, or the angle vV r — VPR. But we have ultimately
RPV : R r V = BC : AB, (=: B Z : A Z by the focal theo¬
rem). Therefore gVrigrV (or g r :g V, or Cf:J B)
~J5b:A.b, and AB : A Z = R r ; Rjr.
This fhows by the way the ad ’.ntage of the common day
telefcope. In this AB — zAb, and therefore/is the place
of the laft image which is free from coloured fringes. But
this image will not be feen free from coloured fringes through
the eye-glafs C r, if / be its focus: For had g r, g v been
both red rays, they would have been parallel after refrac¬
tion; bst.j'o being a violet ray, will be more refradted It
/
TEL [
Tekfcope. will not indeed be fo much defie&ed from parallelifm as the
violet ray, which naturally accompanies the red ray to r, be-
caufe it falls nearer the centre. By computation its difper-
iion is diminifhed about ^-th.
- In order that ^ d may be made parallel to after re-
fraftion, the retradlion at r mutt be fuch that the difperfion
correfponding to it may be of a proper magnitude. How to
determine this is the queftion. Let the difperlion at o- be
to the difperfion produced by the refraftion at r (which is
required for producing the intended magnifying power) as
i to 9. Make 9:1=:/y7 if'C, =/C : CD, and draw
the perpendicular D r meeting the refradied ray r ri in r!.
Then we know by the common focal theorem, that if/' be
the focus of the lens C r, red rays diverging from g will be
united in r'. But the violet ray ^ d will be refrafted into
•v v' parallel to rr'. For the angle vr'rivgr— (ulti¬
mately) fC r CD, rr 9 : i- Therefore the angle v r1 r is
equal to the difperfion produced at r, and therefore equal to
r' v v', and v v' is parallel to r rf.
But by this we have deftroyed the diftindl vifion of the
image formed at f g, becaufe it is no longer at the focus of
the eye-glafs. But diliinft vafion will be reftored by pufh-
ing the glaffes nearer to the objedl-glafs. This makes the
rays of each particular pencil more divergent after refraftion
through A, but fcarcely makes any change in the direc¬
tions of the pencils themfelves. Thus the image comes to
the focus/, and makes no fenfible change in the difper-
frons.
In the common day telefcope, the firft image is formed in
the anterior focus, of the lirft eye-glafs, and the fecond image
is at the anterior focus of the lafi eye-glafs. If we change
this laft for one of half the focal diftance, and pufh in the
eye-piece till the image formed by the objef: glafs is half
way between the firft eye-glafs and its focus, the laft image
will be formed at the focu^ of the new eye-glafs, and the
eye-piece will be achromatic. This is ealily feen by ma¬
king the ufual computations by the focal theorem. But
, the vifible field is diminifhed, becaufe we cannot give the
fame aperture as be'ore to the new eye-glafs ; but we can
fubftitute for it two eye-glaffes like the former, placed clofe
together. This will have the fame focal dittance with the
new one, and will allow the fame aperture that we had be¬
fore.
On thefe principles may be demonftrated the corre&ion
of colour in eye-pieces with three glafles of the following
conftruftion.
Let the glaffes A and B be placed fo that the pofterior
focus of the firft nearjy coincides with the anterior focus of
the fecond, or rather io that the anterior focus of B may be
at the place where the image of the objedt-glafs is formed,
by which fituation the aperture neceffary for tranfmitting
the whole light will be the fmalleft pofiible. Place the
third C at a diftance from the fecond, which exceeds tihe
fum of their focal diftances by a fpace which is a third pro¬
portional to the diftance of the firft and fecond, and the fo¬
cal diftance of the fecond. The diftance of the firft eye-
glafs from the objedf-glais muft be equal to the produft of
the focal diftance of the firft and fecond divided by their
fum.
Let O o, A a, B 3, C r, the focal diftances of the glafies,
be O, a, b, c. Then make AB = a-\-b nearly ; BC =
* + ' + 7^ ; OA= A-.
« -f- r 0 c
nifying power will be = ^
a c
3% 1 TEL
Thefe eye-pieces will admit the ufe of a micrometer at Telefcope.
the place of the firft image, becaufe it has no diftortion.
Mr Dollond was anxious to combine this achromatifm
of the eye pieces with the advantages which he had found
in the eye pieces with five glaffes. This eye-piece of three
glaffes neceffarily has a very great refraftion at the glafs B,
where the pencil which has come from the other fide of the
axis muft be rendered again convergent, or at leaft parallel
to it. 'I his occafions confiderable aberrations. This may
be avoided by giving part of this refra&ion to a glafs put
between the firft and iecond, in the fame way as he has done
by the glafs B put between A and C in his fiv«-glafs eye¬
piece. But this deranges the whole procefs. His inge¬
nuity, however, furmounted this difficulty, and he made eye¬
pieces of four glaffes, which feem as perfeft as can be de-
lired. He has not publiflied his ingenious inveftigation ;
and we obferve the London artifts work very much at ran¬
dom, probably copying the proportions of feme of his heft
glafies, without underltanding the principle, and therefore
frequently miftaking. We fee many eye-pieces which are
far from being achromatic. We imagine therefore that it
will be an acceptable thing to the artifts to have precife
inftriKiUons how to proceed, nothing of this kind having
appeared in our language, and the inveftigations of Euler,
D’Alembert, and even Bofcovich, being fo abftrufe as to
be inacceffible to all but experienced analyfts. We hope
render it extremely Ample.
It is evident, that if we make the rays of different colours
unite on the furface of the laft eye-glafs but one, commonly
called the jicld-glafs, the thing will be done, becaufe ths
difperfion from this point of union will then unite with the
difperfion produced by this glafs alone ; and this increafed
dhperfion may be corredled by the laft eye-glafs in the way
already fhown.
Therefore let A, B (fig. 19.) be the ftations which we
have fixed on for the firft and fecond eye-glaffes, in order to
give a proper portion of the whole refraction to the fecond
glafs. Let b be the anterior focus of B. Draw PB r
through the centre of B. Make A £ : £ B — AB : BEv
Draw the perpendicular K.r, meeting the refradted ray in
r. We know by the focal theorem, that red rays diver¬
ging from P will converge to r; but the violet ray PV, be¬
ing more refradted, will crofs R r in fome point g. Draw¬
ing the perpendicular fgy we get./ for the proper place of
the field-glals. Let the refradfted ray R r, produced back¬
wards, meet the ray OP coming from the centre of the ob*
jea-glafs. in O. Let the angle,of difperfion RPV be called
/>, and the angle of difperfion at V, that is, r V v, be v, and
the angle V r R be r.
It is evident that OR : OP = />: <y, becaufe the difper-
fions are proportional to the lines of the refractions, which,
in this cafe, are very nearly as the rerraCtions themfelves*
and the field of vifion = 3438' X
The amplification or mag-
; the equivalent eye-glafs
Aperture of A
Lct §r(or orfi)be m?di = ”• Th'n
pB bRs
mp ; alfo p • r — BK : AB, = £ B : A and r =p.
or, making r — n p \ therefore v :r = m: n, =
^ A4,=/b;a«.
£B F
The angle R ^ V = £ V r ~^-g r V = /. m -p n ; and
R^ V : R r u = R-r : R^, or m-\-n :n — Rr : R^, and
R^ = Rr
foe. dift. ob. gl.
m -jg n
But Rr is ultimately = BK
AB
bR,
‘Tetefcof e. o B
Xi
AB
T E
Therefore
L
Aft
C 366 1
T E L
x
and B f—
AB
m-f- a m -f- a
m -j-' h'
This value of B/ is evidently
£ B X
AB
y> 13 -f- A. £
Now £ B being a conftant quantity while the glafs B is the
AB
fame, the place of union varies with -— . If we re-
p B -(- A £
move B a little farther from A, we incrcafe AB, and p B,
and A b, each by the fame quantity. This evidently di-
mimfhes B /. On the other hand, bringing B nearer to A
increafes B f If we keep the diftance between the glafTes
the lame, but increafe the focal diftance i B, wre augment
13 f, becaufe this change augments the numerator and dimi-
niihes the denominator of the fra&ion
/B +A^*
In this manner we can unite the colours at what diilfmce
we pleafe, and confequentiy can unite them in the place of
the intended field-glafs, from which they will diverge with
an increafed difperfton, viz. with the difperfion competent
to the refradlion produced there, and the difperiiun p X
m -\-n conjoined.
It only remains to determine the proper focal diftances
of the field-glafs and eye-glafs, and the place of the eye-
glafs, fo that this difperfion may be finally correffed.
This is an indeterminate problem, admitting of an infini¬
ty. of folutiens. We fhail limit it by an equal divifion of
the two remaining refraftions, which are necefiary in order
to produce the intended magnifying power, t his conittuc-
tion has the advantage of diminiftiing the aberration. Thus
we know the two refractions, and the difperfion competent
to each ; it being nearly TTth of the refraction. Call this
y. The whole difperfion at the field-glafs confifts of y, and
of the angle K^V of fig. 19. which we alfo know to be
~ py. m -j-H. Call their fum s.
Let fig. 2c. nv 1. reprefent this addition to the eye-piece,
is the field-glafs coming in the place of fg of fig. 19.
and Rgw is the red ray coming from the glafs BR. Draw
j s parallel to the intended emergent pencil from the eye-
glafs ; that is, making the angle C sg with the axis corre-
fpond to the intended magnifying power. BifeCl this angle
by the line g K. Make s g : g q ~ s : q, and draw q K,
cutting Cgint. Draw f J D, cutting ^ ^ in r, and the
axis in D. Draw t d and D r perpendicular to the axis.
Then a lens placed in D, having the focal diftance D d,
will deftroy the difperfion at the lens g c, which refradfs the
ray g <w into^ r.
Let gv be the violet ray, making the angle vg r — s. It
is plain, by the common optical theorem, that g r will be
refradted intorr7 parallel to J D. Draw £ D r'meeting
r r', and join v r. By the focal theorem two red rays g r,
g v, will be united in r. But the violet ray gv will be
more refraCted, and will take the path v vr, makino the
angle of difperfion r1 vv' ~ y, very nearly, becaufe the dif-
petfion at v does not fenfibly differ from that at r. Now,
in the Imall angles of reiraCtion which obtain in optical in-
ftruments, the angles r r v, r g v are very nearly as g r and
r d, or as £D and D/, or as CD and DT; which, by the
focal theorem, are as Cd and r/D ; that is, T) d: d c
~rgv:r r'v. But D r/: </ C = D ^ = s g : g q,
= j : y. ^ But r g v = s ; therefore r r' v = q, — r1 v v',
and v v' is parallel to r r't and the whole difoerfion at g is
•correfted by the lens D r. rJ 'he focal diftance Cr of C^ is
had by drawing C» parallel to K^, meeting R”’ in x, and
drawing x c perpendicular to the axis.
It is eafy to fee that this (not inelegant) conflruClion is
not limited to the equality of the refraCt’ons Krr1. Telefco
In whatever proportion the whole refradion tugs is di-  r*
vided, we always can tell the proportion of the dil’perfiong
which the two refraCtions occaiion at g and r, and can there¬
fore find the values of s and y Indeed this folution in¬
cludes the problem in p. 365. col. 1. par. 2. ; but it had not
occurred to us till the prefent occafion. Our readers will not
be difpleafed with this variety of refource.
The intelligent reader will fee, that in this folution fome
-quantities and ratios are affumed as equal which are not
ftriCliy fo, in the fame manner as in all the elementary op¬
tical theorems. The parallelifm, however, of v v' and r r'
may be made accurate, by puihing the lens D r nearer to
C^, or retiring it from it. We may alfo, by pufhing it
{till nearer, induce a fmall divergency of the violet ray, fo
as to produce accurate vifion in the eye, and may thus make
the vifion through a telcfcope more perfect than with the
naked eye, where difperfion is by n® means avoided. It
would therefore be an improvement to have the eye-glafs in
a Aiding tube for adjuftment. Bring the telefcope to di-
ftintl vifion ; and if any colour be vifible about the edges
of the field, fhift the eye-glafs till this colour is removed,
T he vifion may now become indiftinft : but this is correct¬
ed by fhifting the place of the whole eye-piece.
We have examined trigonometrically the progrefs of a
red and a violet ray through many eye-pieces of Dollond’s
and Ramfden’s beft telelcopes ; and we have found in all of
them that the colours are united on or very near the field-
glafs ; fo chat vve prefume that a theory fomewhat analogous
to ours has diieted the ingenious inventors. We meet with
many made by-other artifts, and even iome of theirs, where
a conliderable degree of colour remains, fometimes in the na¬
tural order and often in the contrary c rder. T his mull
happen in the hands of mere imitators, ignorant of principle.
We prefume that we have now made this principle fufficient-
ly plain.
Big. 20. N° 2. reprefents the eye-piece of a very fine fpy-
glafs by Mr Ramlden; the focal length of its objebt-glafs is
84- inches, with of aperture, 2°C5' of vifible field,
and 1 5,4 magnifying power. The diftances and focal lengths
are of their proper dimenfions, but the apertures are 4 lar¬
ger, that the progrefs of a lateral pencil might be more di-
ftindlly drawn. The dimenfions are as follow :
Foe. lengths A«==o,775 B/3==r,025 Cr—1,01 Y)d—c,"]g
Diftances AB—1,18 BC=i,83 €0=1,105.
It is perfedHy achromatic, and the colours are united, not
precifely, at the lens C^, but about Toth of an inch nearer
the eye-glafs.
It is obvious that this combination of glaffes may be
ufed as a microfcope ; for if, inftead of the image formed
by the objecl-ghfs at FG, we lubftitute a fmall object, illu¬
minated from behind, as in compound microfcopes ; and it
we draw the eye-piece a very fmall way from this objett,
the pencils of parallel rays emergent from the eye-glafs D
will become convergent to very diftant points, and will there
form an inverted and enlarged picture of the object, which
may be viewed by a Huyghenian eye-piece ; and we may
thus get high magnifying powers without ufing very deep
glaffes. We tried the eye piece of which we have given the
dimenfions in this way, and found that it might be made to
magnify 180 times with very great diftinCtneis. When ufed
as the magnifier of a folar microfcope, it infinitely furpaftts
every thing we have ever feen. The picture formed by a
folar microfcope is generally fo indiftindt, that it is fit only
for amufing ladies; but with this magnifier it feemed perfect¬
ly fharp. We therefore rec@mmend this to the artifts as a
valuable article of their trade.
The only thing which remains to be confidered in tire
2 theory
TEL £3
rdefcope. tkeory of refra&ing telefcopes is the furms of the different
-—*r~ ]enies. Hitherto we have had no occafion to confider any
thing but their focal diltarxes; but their aberrations depend
greatly on the adjuftraent of their forms to their fituations.
When the conjugate focufes of a lens are determined by
the fervice which it is to perform, there is a certain form or
proportion between the curvatures of their anterior and po-
ifcrior furfaces, which will make their aberrations the fmal-
left poflible.
It is evident that this proportion is to be obtained by ma-,
king the fluxion of the quantity within the parenthefis in the
formula of par. 2. col. 2. p. 34%. equal to nothing. When this
is done, we obtain this formula for o, the radius of curvature
for the anterior furface of a lens. -= f“-r77 T-
a 2wz-j“4 ‘
where m is the ratio of the fine of incidence to the line of re¬
fraction, and r is the dilfance of the focus of incident rays,
pofitive or negative, according as they converge or diverge,
all meafured on a fcale of which the unit is n, = half of
the radius of the equivalent ifofceles lens.
It will be fuffioiently exaCt lor our purpofe to fuppofe
m — though it is more nearly —. In this cafe ~=-4-
2 6 } 20 ay'
10 qzr-f-yo ^ ^ 49r , , 1 1
— . 1 here fore a —  —. And r —“ —
yr* qyr 42r-j-70 0 a
As an example, let it be required to give the radii of cur¬
vature ki inchea for the eye-glafs be oi page 362. col. 1.
par. 2. which we {hall fuppofe of inches focal diflance,
and that e c (=r) is 3-|th inches.
ilie radius of curvature for the esuivalent ifofceles lens
is 1,5, and its half is 0,75. Therefore r
49X5
31
°>75
0 »
and our formula is a
1 — a
<3,125
o^ys*
42X34-70’
and b
2J1
2X0'
= 7-
0,875; and
b a ' 0,^75' 0,125
Thefe values are parts of a fcale, of which the unit is
0,75 inches. Therefore
a, in inches,. == 0,875X0,75, = 0,65525
b, in inches, = 7X0,75, = 5>25*
And here we mull obferve that the poflerior furface is con¬
cave : for b is a. poiitive quantity, becaufe 1 — a is a poli-
tive quantity as well as a ; theretore the centre of fphericity
of both furfaces lies beyond the lens.
And this determination is not very different from the
ufual praclice, which commonly makes this lens a plane con¬
vex with its flat fide next the eye : and there will not be
much difference in the performance of thefe two leules ; for
in all cafes of maxima and minima, even a pietty conflder-
able change of the heft damenfiona does not make a fenfible
change in the refult.
I he fame coniideration leads to a rule which is very
fianple, and fufficiently exaft for ordinary fituations. I bis
is to make the curvatures fuch, that the incident and emer¬
gent pencils may be neatly equally inclined to the furfaces
of the lens. Thus in the eye-piece with five glaffes, A and
B fhould be moil convex on their anterior fldes ; C fhould be.
moll convex on the poflerior fide ; DThould be nearly ifof-
celts ; and E nearly plano-convex.
But this is not fo eafy a matter as appears at firft fight. ■
The lenfes of an eye-piece have not only to bend the feveral
pencils of light to and from the axis of the telefcope ; they
have alio to form images on the axes of thefe pencils. Thefe
ofSces frequently require opj^fite forms, as mentioned in par.
67 ] T E L
3. col. 2 p. 360. Thus the glafs A of fig. 20. n6 2. fhould be Telefcope.
iriofl convex on the fide next the objefd, that it may produce 
little diflortion of the pencils. But it fhould be mofl convex
next the eye, that it may produce diflinA vifion of the image
FG, which is very near it. This image fhould have its con¬
cavity turned towards A, whereas it is towards the objefl-
glals. We muft therefore endeavour to make the vertical
image fg flatter, or even convex. This requires a glaf*
very flat before ar.d convex behind. For fimilar reafons
the objefl-glafs of a microfcope and the fimple eye-glais of
an aflronomical telefcope fhould be formed the fame way.
This is a fubjeft of mofl difficult difeuffion, and requires
a theory which few of our readers would relifh ; nor does
our limits afford room for it. The artills are obliged to
grope their way. The proper method of experiment would
be, to make eye-pieces of large dimenfions, with extrava¬
gant apertures to increafe the aberrations, and to provide
for each flation A, B, C, and D, a number of lenfes of the
fame focal diitance, but of different forms: and we would
advife making the trial in the way of a folar microfcope,
and to have two eye pieces on trial at once. Their pictures
can be formed on the fame fereen, and accurately compared;
whereas it is difficult to keep in remembrance the perfor¬
mance of one eye-piece, and compare it with another.
We have now treated the theory of refra&ing telefcopes
with confiderable minutenefs, and have perhaps exceeded
the limits which fome readers may think reafonable. But
we have long regretted that there is not any theory on this
fubjett from which a curious perfon can learn the improve¬
ments which have been made fince the time of Dr Smith,
or an artifl learn how to proceed with intelligence in his
profeffion. If we have accomplifhed either of thefe ends,
we trufl that the public will receive our labours with fatis-
fadlion.
We cannot add any thing to what Dr Smith has deliver¬
ed on the theory of refledting telefcopes. There appears
to be the fame poffibility of corredling the aberration of the
great fpeculum by the contrary aberration of a convex fmall
fpeculum, that we have pradlifed in the compound objedt-
glafs of an achromatic retradling telefcope. But this can¬
not be, unkfs we make the radius-of the «onvex fpeculum
exceedingly large, which deftroys the magnifying power
and the brightnefs. 1 his therefore muft be given up. In¬
deed their performance, when well executed, does already
furpafs all imagination. Dr Herfchel has found great ad¬
vantages in what he calls the front view, not ufing a plant;
mirror to throw the pencils to one fide. But this cannot
be pradlifed in any but telefcopes fo large, that the io£s of
ITht, occafioned by the interpofition of the obferver’s head,
may be difregaided.
Nothin g remains but to deferibe the mechanifm of fota*
of the moft convenient forms.
To deferibe all the varieties of fhape and accommodation
which may be given to a telefcope,- would be a tafk as tri¬
fling as prolix. The artifts of London and of Paris have
racked their inventions to pleafe every fancy, and to fuit
every pur pore. We fhall content ourlelves with a few ge¬
neral maxims, deduced from the fcicntific conlideratisn of
a telefcope, as an inflrument by which the vifual angle' fub-
tended by a dillindl objedlis greatly magnified. .
The chief confideration is to have a Heady view of the
defiant objedl. This is unattainable, unlefa the axis of the
inftrument be kept conftantly diredled to the fame point of '
it '.’ for when the telefcope is gently fhifted from Its pofi-
tion, the cbjedl feemj to move in the fame or in the oppofite
direction, according as the telefcope inverts the objeft or
fhows
TEL
Telefcope. fhows it ere<3:. This is owing to the magnifying power,
l“—becaufe the apparent angular motion is greater than what
we naturally’-connect with the motion of the telefcope.
This does not happen when we look through a tube with¬
out glafTes.
All {baking of the inflrument therefore makes the objcfl
dance before the eye ; and this is difagreeable, and hinders
us from feeing it diilindlly. But a tremulous motion, how¬
ever fmall, is infinitely more prejudicial to the performance
of a telefcope, by making the objedf quiver before us, A
perfon walking in the room prevents us from feeing diftinfl-
ly ; nay, the very puliation in the body of the cbferver, agi-
-tates the floor enough to produce this effedf, when the te¬
lefcope has a great magnifying power: For the vifible mo¬
tion of the dbje<9t is then an imperceptible tremor, like that
of an harpfichord wire, which produces an effect precifely
fimilar to optical indiftinftnefs ; and every point of the ob¬
ject is diffufed over the whole fpace of the angular tremor,
and appears coexiftent in every part of this fpace, juft as a
harpfichord wire does while it is founding. The more rapid
this motion is, the indiftindtnefs is the more complete. There¬
fore the more firm and elaftic and well bound together the
frame-work and apertures of our telefcope is, the more hurt¬
ful will this confequence be. A mounting of lead, were it
pradticable, would be preferable to wood, iron, or brafs.
This is one great caufe of the indiflinftnefs of the very fineft
reflecting tekfeopes of the ufual conftruCtions, and can ne¬
ver be totally removed. In the Gregorian form, it is hard¬
ly poffible to damp the elaftic tremor of the fmall fpeculum,
carried by an arm fupported at one end only, even though
the tube were motionlefs. We were witnefies of a great im¬
provement made on a four-feet, reflecting telefcope, by fup-
porting the fmall fpeculum by a ftrong plate of lead placed
acrofs the tube, and led by an adjufling ferew at each end.
But even the great mirror may vibrate enough to produce
indiftinCtaefs. RefraCting telefcopes are free from this in-
conveniency, becaufe a fmall angular motion of the objeCt-
glafs round one of its own diameters has no fenfible effeCt
on the image in its focus. They are affeCted only by an
angular motion of the axis of the telefcope or of the eye-
glafles.
This {ingle confideration gives us great help towards
judging of the merits of any particular apparatus. We
fhould fludy it in this particular, and fee whether its form
makes the tube readily fufceptible of 1'uch tremulous mo*
tions. If it does, the firmer it is and the more elaftic it is,
the worfe. All forms therefore where the tube is fupported
[ 363 ]
TEL
may be almofl annihilated by having a flendef rod coming Tdefcope."
from a hook’s joint in the fide of the window, and pafling
through fuch^another joint clofe by the pin F. We have
feen an inftrument of this form, having AB parallel to the
earth s axis. . The whole apparatus did not colt jo {hillings,
and we find it not in the leaf! fenfible manner affefled by a
ftorm of wind. It was by obfervations with this inftrument
that the tables of the motions of the Georgnim Sidus, pub-
lifhed in the Edinburgh TranfaCtions, were conftruCled,
they are as acciltate as any that have yet appeared.
1 his is an excellent equatorial.
But this apparatus is not portable, and it is fadly defici¬
ent in elegance. 1 he following is the beft method wc have
feen of combining thefe circumftances with the indifpenfable
requifites of a good telefcope.
The pillar VX (fig. 22.) rifes from a firm Hand, and has>
a horizontal motion round a cone which completely fills it.
This motion is regulated by a rack-work in the box at V.
I he ferew of this rack-work is turned by means of the,
handle P, of a convenient length, and the ferew may be dif-
engaged by the click or detent V, when we would turn the
inftrument a great way at once. The telefcope has a ver¬
tical motion round the joint Q^placed near the middle of
the tube. The lower end of the tube is fupported by the
flay OT. . This confifts of a tube RT, faftened to the pil¬
lar by a joint I, which allows the ftay to move in a vertical
plane. Within this tube Aides another, with a ftiff motion,
i his tube is connedled with the telefcope by another joint
O, alfo admitting motion in a vertical plane. The fide M
of this inner tube is foimed into a rack, in which works a
pinion fixed to the top of the tube RT, and turned by the
flat finger-piece R. The reader will readily fee the advan¬
tages and the remaining defedfs of this apparatus. It is
very portable, becaufe the telefcope is ealily dii'engaged
from it, and the legs and ftay fold up. If the joint Q^were
immediately under A, it would be much freer from all tre¬
mor in the vertical plane. But nothing can hinder other
tremors arifing from the long pillar and the three fpringy
legs. Thefe communicate all external agitations with great
vigour. The inftrument fhould be fet on a ftone pedeftal,*
or, what is better, a cafk filled with wet fand. This pedef-
tal, which neceflity perhaps fuggefted to our fcienxific navi¬
gators, is the beft that can be imagined.
big. 23 is the ftand ufually given to refledting telefcopes.
I he vertical tube FBG is faftened to the tube by finger
ferews, which pals through the flits at F and G. This1
arch turns round a-joint in the head of the divided pillar,'
         — * vymiw. a ill LUC ucau UL LUC U1V1UCU piildT,
only near the middle, or where the whole immediately or and has its edge cut into an oblique rack, which is afted on
remotely denend on one narrow ioinr. are defective hv the hm-i'/rmtnl   a
remotely depend on one narrow joint, are defedtive
Reafoning in this way, we fay with confidence, that of
all the forms of a teleicope apparatus, the old fafhioned
Ample ftand reprefented in fig. 21. is by far the beft, and
that others are fuperior according as the difpofition of the
points of fupport of the tube approaches to this. Let the
pivots A, B, be fixed in the lintel and foie of a window.
Let the four braces terminate very near to thefe pivots.
Let the telefcope lie on the pin F/, refting on the fhoulder
round the eye-piece, while the far end of it refts on one of
the pins 1, 2, 3, &c~; and let the diftance of thefe pins from
■t very little exceed the length of the telefcope. The trem-
fbling. of the axis, even when confiderable, cannot affedf the
pofttion of the tube, becaufe-the braces terminate almoft at
the pivots. t he tremor of the brace CD does as little
harm,-becaufe it is nearly perpendicular to the tube And
if the objedl glafs were clofe at the upper fupporting pin,
and the focus at the lower pm F, even the bending and
trembling of the tube will have no effedl on its optical axis.
A’te inftrument is only fubjedt to horizontal tremors. Thefe
by the horizontal ferew, furnifhed with the finger-piece A.
ihis ferew turns in a horizontal fquare frame. This frame
turns round a horizontal joint in the off-fide, which cannot
be feen in this view. In the fide of this frame next the eye
there is a finger-ferevv ft, which pafies through the frame,
and preffes on the round horizontal plate D. By ferewing'
down this finger-ferew, the frame is brought up, and prefles
the horizontal ferew to the rack. Thus the elevation of the
telefcope is fixed, and may be nicely changed by the finger
applied to A and turning this ferew. The horizontal round
plate D moves ftiffly round on another plate of nearly equal
diameter. This under plate has a deep conical hollow focket,
which is nicely fitted by grinding to a folid cone formed
on the top of the great upright pillar, and they may be
firmly fixed in any pofition by the finger ferew E. To the'
under plate is faftened a box c, containing a horizontal ferew
C, which always works in a rack cut in the edge of the up¬
per plate, and cannot be difengaged from it. When a great
vertical or horizontal motion is wanted, the ferews a and E
are flacked, and by tightening them the telelcope may be
fixed
/
V.
V
f late U II •
/
TELESCOPE.
date Dll/.
{' l./rte// tfrirt.ftalUcufytfci'/eat.
I
TEL
[ 3^9 ]
T E li
Tekfcopc, j^xfd in any pofition, and then any fmall movements maybe
given it by the finger plates A and C.
This Hand is very fubjedt to brife tremor, either from ex¬
ternal agitation of the pedeftal, or from the immediate ac¬
tion of the wind; and we have feldom fecn diftindtly throiigh
telefcopes mounted in this manner, till one end of the tube
was prelfed againft fomething that was very Heady and une-
kftic. It is quite'aftonifhina what a change this produces.
We took a very fine telefcope made by Jamed Short, and
laid the tube on a great lump of loft clay, preffing it firmly
down into it. Several perfons, ignorant of our purpofe,
looked through it, and read a table of logarithms at the di-
Hance of 310 yards. We then put the telefcope on its
Hand, and pointed it to the fame obje£! ; none of the com'
pany could read at a greater dilfance than 235 yards, al¬
though they could perceive no tremor. They thought the
vifion as fharp as before; but the incontrovertible proof
of the contrary was, that they could not read at fuch a di-
fiance.
If the round plates were of much greater dimenfions; and
if the lower one, inlfead of being fixed to the pillar, were
fupported on four ftout pillars Handing on another plate ;
and if the vertical arch had a horizontal axis turning on
two upright frames firmly fixed to the upper plat<*-the in-
ftruir.ent would be much freer from tremor. Such Hands
were made formerly; but being much more bulky-and incon-
venfert for package, they have gone into difufe.
i he high magnifying powers of Dr Herfchel’s telefcopes
made all the ufual apparatus for their fupport extremely im-
perfeft. But his judgment, and his ingenuity and fertility
in refource, are as eminent as h’S, philofophical ardour. Ke
Iras contrived for his refledling teleicopes Hands which have
every property that can be defired. The tubes are all fup-
pqrted at the two ends. The motions, both vertical and ho-
• rizontal, are contrived with the utmoH fimplicity and firm-
neb. W e cannot more properly conclude this article than
with a defcription of his 40 feet telefcope, the nobleH mo¬
nument of philofophical zeal and of princely munificence
that the world can boaft of.
Plat DV. reprefents a view of this inftrument in a meri¬
dional iituation, as it appears when feen from a convenient
difiance by a perfon placed to the fouth-wefi of it. The
foundation in the ground conlifis of two concentric circular
brick walls, the outermoft of which is 42 feet in diameter,
and the infide one 21 feet. They are two feet fix inches
deep under ground ; two feet three inches broad at the bot¬
tom, and one foot two inches at the top ; and are capped
with paving Hones about three inches thick, and twelve
and three quarters broad. The bottom frame of the whole
apparatus refis upon thefe two walls by twenty concentric
rollers III, and is moveable upon a pivot, which gives a ho- '
rizontal motion to the whole apparatus, as well as to the te¬
lefcope.
1 he tube of the telefcope A, though very fimple in its
form, which is cylindrical, was attended with great difficul¬
ties in the conftruftion. This is not to be wondered at,
when its fize, and the materials of which it is made, are
confidered. Its length is 39 feet four inches ; it meafures
four reet ten inches in diameter ; and every part of it is of
iron. Upon a moderate computation, the weight of a
wooden tube mufi have exceeded an iron one at leafi 3000
pounds ; and its durability would have been far inferior to
that of iron. It is made of rolled or fheet iron, which has
been joined together without rivets, by a kind of feaming
well known to thofe who make iron-funnels for ftoves.
Very great mechanical Ikill is ufed in the contrivance of
the apparatus by which the telefcope is fupported and di-
•refted. In order to command every altitude, the point of
Von. XVIII. Part I. k
fupport is moveable ; and its motion is effefted by fneeha- Tekfcrpe,
niim, fo that the telefcope may be moved from its mofl, * fclL ,
backward point of fupport to the mofi forward, and, by
means of the pulleys GG fufpended from the great beam
H, be fet to any altitude, tip to the very zenith. The
tube is alfo made to refi with the point of fupport in a pi¬
vot, which permits it to be turned fidewife.
The concave face of the great mirror is 48 inches of po-
lifhed furface in diameter. The thicknels, which is equal
in every part of it, remains now about three inches and a
half; and its weight, when it came from the cafi was 21 iS
pounds, of which it muft have lofi a imall quantity in po«
lifhing. To put this fpeculum into the tube, it is fufpend¬
ed vertically by a crane in the laboratory, and placed on a
fmall narrow carriage, which is drawn out, rolling upon
planks, till it comes near the back of’the tube ; here it
is again fufpended and placed in the tube by a peculiar ap*
paratus.
The method of obferving by this telefcope is by what
Dr Herfchel calls the front •vie-w; the obfervtr being placed
in a feat C, fufpended at the end of it, with his back to¬
wards the dbjeft he views. There is no fmall fpeculum, but
the magnifiers are applied immediately to the firft focal
image.
From the opening of the telefcope, near the place of the
eye-glafs, a fpeaking pipe runs down to the bottom of the
tube, where it goes into a turning joint; and after ieveral
other inflexions, it at length divides into twp branches, one
going into the obfervatory D, and the other into the work¬
room E. By means of the fpeaking pipe the communica¬
tions of the obferver are conveyed to the affifiant in the ob¬
fervatory, and the,workman is direfted to perform the re¬
quired motions.
In the obfervatory is placed a valuable fidereal time piece,
made by Mr Shelton. Clofe to it, and of the fame height,
is a polar difiance piece, which has a dial-plate of the fame
dimenfions with the time-piece : this piece may be made to
fhow polar difiance, zenith difiance, declination or altitude,
by fetting it differently. The time and polar diftance pie¬
ces are placed fo that the affiitant fits before them at a
table, with the fpeaking-pipe rifing between them ; and in
this manner obfervations may be written down very conve¬
niently.
I his noble inftrument, with proper eye-glaffes, magnifies
above 6coo times, and is the largeft that has ever been
made. Such of our readers as wifh for a fuller account of
the machinery attached to it, viz. the flairs,- ladders, and
platform B, may have recourfe to the fecond part of the
Tranfadions of the Royal Society for 1795 '•> *n which, by
means of 18 plates and 63 pages of letter-prefs, an
'ample detail is given of every cireumftance relating to join¬
er’s work, carpenter’s work, and fmith’s work, which at¬
tended the formation and eredion of this telefcope. It was
completed on Auguft the 28th 1789, and on the fame day
was the fixth fatellite of Saturn difcovered.
I ELD (William), an illuflrious Swifs patriot, chief in-
ftrument of the revolution which delivered the Swifs can¬
tons from the German yoke in 1307. Grifler, the gover¬
nor of thefe provinces for the emperor Albert, having or¬
dered him, under pain of death, to fiioot at an apple placed
on the head of one of his children ; he had the dexterity,
though the diftance was very confiderable, to ftrike it off
without hitting the child. Bhe tyrant, perceiving he had
another arrow concealed under his cloak, alked him for
what purpofe ? To which he boldly replied, “ To have {hot
you thro’ the heart, if I had had the misfortune to kill my
Ion.” The enraged governor now ordered him to be hang¬
ed ; but his fellow-citizens, animated by his fortitude and
3 A pa-
T E M [ 370 ] T E M
T<>11 patilotiftn, flew to arms; attacked and vanqulfhed Grlflcr,
»►. ^ who was fhot to deatK b>v 1 *nd the afTociation tor the
J iudcpendency took place tuai. i.nkant.
7fi.l-Tale, a name 1'ometimes given to the PerpetualLoG.
See that article.
TELLER, an officer of the exchequer, in ancient re-
cords called ta'lk'. There are four of theft officers, w-hofe
duty is to receive all fums due to the king, and to give the
clerk of the pells a bill to charge him therewith. They
hkewife pay all money due from the king, by warrant from
the auditor of the receipt ; and make weekly and yearly
hooks both of their receipts and payments, which they deli¬
ver to the lord trcafurer.
TELLINA, in natural hi dory, a genus of animals be¬
longing to the elate of vermes, and Order of teflbcea. . The
animal is a tcthys ; the (hell is bivalve, generally floping to
one fide, with three teeth at the hinge. Gmelin reckons
about 90 fpecies.
The tellinje bury themftlves in the mud or fand at the
bottom of the fea, keeping a communication with the water
above by means of ffiort tubes or pipes'.
TEMISSA, a large town in Africa, about 120 miles
north-eaif of Moumnik, the capital of Fem/an. Here the
caravan o'- pilgrims from llornou and Nigntia, which takes
its departure from Mourzouk, and travels by. the way of
Cairo to MeccA, ufually provides the {lores of corn and
dates, and dried meat, that are requifite lor its dreary pate
f?,ge.
TEMPE ( anc. geog.), a moft pleafant place or valley of
Thefialy. That it was there, appears from the epithets
Thjjal'rca (Livy), Thejfala (Ovid)*; but in what particular
dill rift is the que.^ion. From the Phthiotica of Catullus,
it ffiould feem to be of Phthiotis: but the Peneus, which
ran through d empe, was at too great a diftance, berng fe-
parated iroin it by Mount Othrys and others. Fn'ft, how'-
ever, w'e {hall define Tempe, previous to the determining
the particular diftrift in which it lay. The Peneus, accord¬
ing to Pliny, running down between Offa to the {truth and
Olympus to the north Hr 500 ftadia, is for hah that fpace
navigable : in the direftion of this courfe lies what is called
Tempe, extending in length for five miles, in breadth lor
almoft *n acre and an half, with gentle convexities rifing on
the right and left beyond ken of human fight. Within
glides the Peneus in its verdant light, green in its pebbles,
charming in the grate on its banks, harmonioufiy vocil with
the mutie of birds. In this defcription Strabo and zE-
lian agree ; the laft adding, that it has an agreeable variety
of places of retreat ; and that it is not the work of man’s
hand, but the fpontaneous produftion of nature; and Strabo
fays, that formerly the Peneus formed a lake in this fpot, be¬
ing checked in its courfe by the higher grounds about the
fea ; but that an opening being made by an earthquake, and
Mount Offa torn from Olympus, the Peneus gained a free
courfe between them. But Livy, who calls Tempe a grove,
remarks a degree of horror rather than amenity, with w hich
the Roman army v/as ftruck on marching over the narrow
pate ; for, betides the defile, difficult to go over, which runs
on for five miles, there are fteep rocks on each hand, down
which the profpeft is apt to caufe a dizzinels, heightened
by the noife and depth of the interfluent Peneus. Hence
it appears that Tempe was in the Pelafgiotis, whofe extre¬
mity was formerly the Peneas, but afterwards, as is pro¬
bable, allotted to Magnefia ; and thus Pliny places the
mouth of the Penevrs not in Theffaly itfeif, but in the Mag¬
nefia of Thefialy.
TEMPER, in a mechanical fenfe. See Tempering.
Temper., ia a moral fenfe, the difpofition of mind whe¬
ther natural or acquired. The word is feldom ufed by good Temper,
writers without an epithet, as a good o * bad temper ; though Hfriiwa-
one of the mod beautiful poems in the language is entitled , rn^"t' ^
The ‘7 mvmphs of Temper.
It is well obferved by an elegant effayift,-that more con-
{lant uneafinefs avifes from ill temper than from ill fortune }
as a bad temper embitters every fvveet, and converts a pa-ra-
dife into ?. place ol tonnem. For fubduing the heart to
fotenefs, and preferving a due balance of the paifions, a pro*
per culture of the underflandng and of the take is the belt
method. He who employs his time, in the {Indies of ele¬
gant literature, or the fine arts, has almoff always a o-ood
temper; whillt the man who is abforbed in the purfuits of
profound fcieuce is apt to acquire a feverity of difpofition,
little Ids di{agreeable, thought generally much lei’s pernici¬
ous, than the canricioufnete of the idler. Mu lie, painting,
and poetry, teach the muid to {cleft the agreeable parts of
thofe objects which furround us, and by habituating it to a
pure and permanent delight, gradually iuperinduce an habi¬
tual good humour. It is of infinite impottance to happi-
nefs to aceu{tom the mind, from infancy, to turn from de-
fount d and oainhd feenes, and to contemplate whatever can
be found of moral and natural beauty.
So much of the happintte of private life depends on the
government of the temper, that the temper oil ht to be a
principal objeft of regard in a well-condufted education.
The fuffering of children to tyrannize without controut
over fei vants and inferiors, is the ruin many an amiable
difpofition The virtues of humanity, benevolence, humili¬
ty, cannot be too early enforced ; at the fame time, care
fhould be taken that an infant of two or three years old
fhould never be beaten or fpoken to harfhly for any offence
which it can ooffibly commit.
TEMPERAMENT, among phyiicians, the fame with,
confiitution, or a certain difpofition of the folids and fluids
of the human body, by which it may be properly denomina¬
ted flrong, wreak, lax, &c.
In every perion there are ?.ppearances of a temperament
peculiar to himfelf, though the ancients only took notice
of four, and fome have imagined thefe were deduced from
the theories of the four humours or four cardinal qualities ^
but it is more probable that they were firfi founded on ob-
fervation, and afterwards adapted to thofe theories, lince we
find that they have a real exiftence, and a*e capable of re¬
ceiving an explanation. 1 he two thtt are moll difiinftly
marked are the fanguineous and melancholic, viz. the tem- |
peraments of youth and age.
1. Sanguineous. Here there is laxity of folids, difeover-
able by the foftnefs of hair and fucculency ; large lyftein of
arteries, redundancy of fluids, florid complexion ; feniibihty
of the nervous power, efpeeially to plealmg qbiefts ; irrita¬
bility from the plethora ; mobility and levity Irom lax fo¬
lids. Thefe charafters are diilinftly marked, and are pro¬
ved by the drfeales incident to this age, as hjeinorrhagies, fe-
• vers, &c. but thefe, as they proceed from a lax fyllem, are
more ealily cured. ... rrrj
2. Melancholic Habit. Here greater rigidity of fonds oc¬
curs, difcoverable by the hardnels and crifpatuie of the
hair ; fmall proportion of the fluids, hence drynefs and lean-
nefs; fmall arteries, hence pale colour; venous plethora,.,
hence turgefcency of thefe, and hvidity ; fenlibilite, lie-
quently exquifite ; moderate irritability, with remarkable te¬
nacity of impreffions; fteadintBls in aftion and flowr.efs of mo¬
tion, with great llrefigth.; for excels of this conliitution in
maniacs gives the moft extraordinary inftance of human
ftrenr^th we know. This temperament is moft diftinftly
marked ia old age, and i» malts. Thfe fanguiceeus tempera-
0 meat
T E M r 37* 1 T E M
Vmffra- mcnt ftf yflutli makes us not diftingutfh the melanchclic till the
ment, ^ecli,ie of life, wlien it is very evidentj from difeafes of the
^ auc^' veins» hemorrhoids, apoplexy, cachexy, obftruftionsof the vil-
■ t^ cera, particularly of the liver, dropfies, affedlions oi the ali¬
mentary canal, chiefly from weaker influence of the nervous
power. So much for the fanguineous and melancholic tem¬
peraments ; the other two are not fo eaiily explained. T. he
choleric temperament takes place between youth and man-
h*od. In the
3, Choleric, the diftribution of the fluids is more exadlly
balanced ; there is lets fenlibility, and lefs obeiity, with more
irritability, p roceeding from greater tenlion, lefs mobility
and levity, and more ileadinefs in the ftrength of the nervous
power. As to the
4. Phlegmatic. This temperament cannot be diftinguifh-
ed by any chara&ers of age or fex. It agrees with the ian-
guineous in laxity and fucculency. It differs from that
temperament, and the melancholic, by the more exaft diftri.
bution of the fluids. Again, it differs from the fanguine¬
ous, by having Ids fenfibility, irritability, mobility, and per¬
haps llrength, though fometimes indeed this lali is found to
be great.
Thefe are the ancient temperaments. The temperaments,
indeed, are much more various ; and very far from being
eaiily marked and reduced to their genera and fpecies, from
the great variety which is obfervable in the conilitutions ot
different men.
Temperament, in mufic, is defined by Rouffeau to be
an operation which, by means of a flight alteration in the
intervals, caufes the difference between two contiguous
founds to difappear, makes each of thefe founds feem iden¬
tical with the other, which, without offending the ear, may
ftill preferve their refpedlive intervals or diftances one from
the other, liy this operation the fcale is rendered more
fnnple, and the number of founds which wrould otherwife
be neceffary retrenched. Had not the fcale been thus mo¬
dified, inftead of twelve founds alone, which are contained
in the odlave, more than fixty would be indifpenfably re¬
quired to form what we properly call modulation in every
tone.
It is proved by computation, that upon the organ, the
harpfichord and every other inftrument with keys, there is
not, and there fcarcely can be, any chords properly in tune,
lave the oftave alone. The caule is this, that though
three thirds major, or four thirds minor, ought to form a
juit txftave, thole are found to furpafs, and thefe not to
reach it.
TEMPERANCE, that virtue which a man is faid to
' poffefs who moderates and rellrains his fenfual appetites. It
is often, however, tried' in a much more general fenfe, as
iynonymous with moderation, and is then applied indiferi-
miiiately to all the pa (irons.
Temperance .(lays Mr Nelfon) is the virtue that bridles
our irregular ddrrcs j it is nearly allied to prudence, and lias
a dole coHnetuon with jultrce; it calms revenge, and
quenches the fire of unjuft re lent ment ; it checks the Epi¬
cure, and Hops the viotous hand of the Bacchanalian ; it
extinguifhes or abates the flames of lull, and banifhes every
lawk is a Aron ; it- fiknees the flippant de trading tongue,
and gives iu its Head a pleafmg moderation of fpeech ; it
hurts the door againft avarice, and proves experimentally,
that happinels does not confifl in the eager purfuit or ac-
quifitron of riches, but in a contented mind ; it curbs the
itrorrgeif of all other paffions, gaming, and diftinguilhes just¬
ly the abiurdity aud ^oily of making, that a dangerous trade,
which was only .defigmed as a relaxation and an amiilement:
temperance, in a word, is the parent of many virtues ; the
parent oi peace, profperity, health, and joya
Nothing can be more ftrange to all obfervation tkan the Tcnvpr*/
practice of forfaking temperance ; fince every day’s experi- ra*cc
ence proves to us, that intemperance produces the oppofite 'rempiarff
to what wfc feek. Suppoie, when a child is born, we afk
the parents what it is they wifh in that child.; they will an-
fwer, life.^ But as life alone, that is, mere exiftence, may,
by infirmity or other accidents, be very wretched, they will
naturally wilh for health and happinefs. Well then, life-,
health, and happinefs, are the general wilhes of parents for
therr children. Now let us fee how their wifhes are likely
to iucceed. Their firft ftep is ufually a lhameful neglect
of the food of nature, the breaft ; the next, a blindgratilo¬
cation of their will; the third, an almoft total negleft of
their manners ; and a .fourth, the cherifhing them in every
irregular affe&ian. Where then is the wonder that patents
are difappointed ? Life and health depend on proper food
nnd other judicious management on one part ; and if fick,
an obedience to remedies on the other part; and happinefs
effentially depends in the fit ft place on health : in the next,
on the due government of our fenfes, affe&ions, and pal-
fions. See here how much mankind deviate from them-
felves; how far they depart from their own principles.
But what is the remedy ? Nothing more obvious. Let
parents exetcife their reafon in all the fteps they take for
their children’s welfare ; let them examine right and wrong;
let them not only avoid paflion, but labour to corredt their
own errors of judgment, that they maybe the better enabled
to prevent them in their children ; but, particularly, let
them fix in them the knowledge, love, and habit, of tem¬
perance.
TEMPERING, in the mechanic arts, the preparing of
fteel and iron, fo as to render them more compact, hard, and
firm; or even more foft and pliant, according to their re-
fpedtive occafions. See Iron and Steel.
TEMPEST A. See Molyn.
TEMPLARS, Tempeers, or Knights of the Temple,
a religious order inftituted at Jerufalem in the beginning of
the 12th century, for the defence of the holy lepulchre and
the protection ot Chriltian pilgrims. They were firft called
The poor of the Holy City, and afterwards affumed the appel¬
lation ot Temp/ers, becaufe their haute was near the temple.
rrhe order was founded by Baldwin II. then king of Jeru-
lalem, with the concurrence of the pope ; and the principal
at ticks of their rule were: That they fhould hear the holy
office throughout every day; or that, when their military
duties ftiould prevent this, they Ihould fupply it by a certain
number of pater nofters: that they Ihould abftain from flefli
four days in the week, and on Eridays from eggs and milk-
meats: that each knight might have three horfes, and one
eiquire: and that they Ihould neither hunt nor fowl.
Alter the ruin of the kingdom of Jerufalem about 1186,
they Ipread themfelves through Germany and other countries
of Europe, to which they were invited by the liberality of
the Chriftians. In the year 1228, this order acquired lia¬
bility, by being confirmed in the council of Troyes, and
fubjedted to a rule of diloipliee drawn up by St Bernard.
In every, natipn they had a particular governor, called rmjler
of the Temple, or of the militia of the Temple. Their grand-
malter had his reiidence at Paris.
The order ot Templars flouriffied for fome time, and ac¬
quired, by the valour of its knights, immenfe riches and an
eminent degree of military renown : ..ut’as their profperity
increafed, their vices were multiplied, and their arrogance,
luxury, end cruelty rofe at laft to fnch a monftrous height,
that their privileges were revoked, and their order fuppreffed
with the moft terrible circumltances of infamy and leverity.
Their accufers were two of their own body, and their chief
profecutor Philip the Fair of France, -who addreffed his com-
3 A Z plaints
T E M [ 372 ] T E M
Temp'ars. plaintfi to Clement V. The pope, though p.t firit unwilling a view to gratify his avarice, and glut his refentment aglttnft
V ' to proceed again it them, was under a necefilty of comply- the Templars, and efpecially againft their grand-matler,
ing with the king’s defire ; fo that, in the year 1307, upon who had highly offended him. The principal caufe of his
’ appointed day, and for fome time afterwards, all the invincible hatred againft them was, that in his quarrel with
Temple.
knights, who were difpetfed throughout Europe, were
felzed and imprifoned, and many of them, after trials for
capital crimes, were convidted and put to death. In 1312
the whole order was fuppreffed by the council of Vienne.
A part of the rich revenues they poffeffed was bellowed upon
Boniface VIII. the knights efpoufed the caufe of the pope,
and furniihed him with money to carry on the war. ■ They
originally wore a white habit, with red croffes fewed upon
their cloaks as a mark of dillindlion.
TEMPLE (Sir William), was born in London in the
other orders, efpecially on the knights of St John, now of year 1628. The family from which he fprung was. ancient,
Malta, and the reil confifcated to the refpe&ive treafuries and is faid to have aflumed the furname of Temple from the
ot the fovereirn princes in whofe dominions their poffefiiors manor of iemple, in^the hundred of Sparked-Hall, in Lei-
lay. The knights Templars, in order to juftify-the feverity cefterlhire. He was firit lent to fchool at Penfehurft, in
with which they were treated, were charged with apoftaly Kent, under the care of his uncle, the celebrated P)t 1 la.m-
to the Saracens, and'*'holding correfpondence with them, mond, then minifter of that pavilh ; but at the age of ten
with infulting the majefty of God, turning into derifion the
gofpel of Chrift, and trampling upon the obligation of all
laws human and divine. Candidates, it is laid, upon ad-
miffion to this order, were commanded to fpit, in token of
contempt, upon an image of Chrilt, and alter admiffion to
v/orlhip either a cat or a wooden head crowned with gold.
It is farther affirmed, that, among them, the odious and an-
natural aft of fodomy was a matter of obligation ; and
they are charged with other crimes too horrible to be men¬
tioned, or even imagined. However, though there be rea-
fon to believe, that in this order, as well as others of the
fame period, there were {hocking examples of impiety and
profligacy; yet that the whole order was thus enormoufly
corrupt, there is no reafon to believe. The pope indeed,
though he afted with feverity, afted with jutlice. He fent
two cardinals to Paris, who, publilhing his bull againft the
order, condemned thole Templars who had made the volun¬
tary confeffion to be burnt by a flow Are. The criminals
recanted their former confeffions, but acknowleged them-
felves worthy of death, becaufe they had unjullly accuied
the order oi crimes of which they were innocent. Several
authors of thofe times wrote in defence of the order ; and
Bo'ccace alleges, that its extirpation was owing to the avarice „ . _ _
of the king of France, who coveted the rich pofleflions the through Holland, Flanders, and Germany, during which
he was removed thence to a fchool at Bilhop-Stortford, in
Hertfordlhire. When he had acquired a fuficient know¬
ledge of the Greek and Latin, he returned home at the age
of fifteen ; and, two years after, he went to Cambridge,
where he was placed under the tuition of the learned Dr
Cudworth, then fellow ot Emanuel College. His lather.
Sir John Temple, being a ftatefman, feems to have ddigned
him for the fame way o4 life ; and on this account, after
refiding at Cambridge two years, which were principally
fpent in acquiring a competency of french and Spanifh,
both languages exceedingly uleful for his intended purtuits,
he was fent abroad to finifh his education.
Mr Temple began his travels by vifiting France in 1648.
As he chofe to pafs through the Me of Wight, where hia
majefty was detained a prifoner, he there accidentally met
with the fecond daughter of Sir Peter Olborn of Chickfand,
in Bedrordlhire, then governor of Gtiernfey for the king;
and this lady being 011 a journey with her brother to St
Maloes, where their father then was, our young traveller
joined their paity. This gave rife to an honourable amour,
which, at the end offeven years, concluded in a happy mar¬
riage. Hav,ing refided two years in France, and learned
the French language perfeftly, Mr Temple made a tour
Templars then enjoyed in France
The king of Arragon was much pre'fled to treat the
Templars in his kingdom as they had been treated in France;
but his conftant anfwer was, “ We mull be firlt convinced
of their guilt, and it will be then time enough to talk of
their punilhment.” The people, howeve*-, were in general
fo provoked againft them, that they were compelled to Unit
themfelves up in the fortrefles belonging to their order, to
prevent their being torn in pieevs; which precaution was re-
prefented to the king of Arragon as an aft of rebellion.
lie marched, therefore, with a corps of troops againft one
,of thefe fortrefl’es. The knight who commanded fur-
rendered immediately, and told the king 'the truth, alluring
him that they defired nothing but a fair trial-; with which
declaratiqn the king w'as extremely moved, took the whole
order into his proteftion, and forbade any to abufe or inlult
them under the heavieft penalties. At the fame time he
declared, he was ready to receive any'informations againft
them that were fupported by proofs; but if the informers
failed therein, he would punilh them as they defended.
Thefe fafts plead ftrongly for the innocence of the Tem¬
plars, or at leaft they prove that their guilt mall have been
exaggerated ; and if we. add, that many of the accufations
advanced againft them flatly contradift each other, and that
many members of this unfortunate order folemnly avowred
their innocence while languilhing under the fevereft tor¬
tures, and even with their dying breath—it would feem pro¬
be became completely mafter of the Spanifli. In 1654 he
returned from the continent, and, marrying Mils Oiborn,
palled his time in retirement with his father, his two
brothers, and a After, then in Ireland, happy in that per-
feft harmony which has been fo often remarked in their fa¬
mily.
As he rejefted all offers made him of employment under
Cromwell, the five years which he lived in Ireland were
fpent chiefly in improving himfelf in hiftory and philofophy;
but at the Rettoration, in 1660, being cholen a member of
the convention there, while others were trying to make
their court to the king, Mr Temple oppofed the poll-bill
with fo much fpirit, that his conduft loon attrafted the at¬
tention of the public, and brought him into notice. In the
fucceeding parliament, in 1661, he wras elefted with his fa¬
ther for the county of Carlow; and, in the year following,
he was chofen one of the commiffioners to be fent from that
parliament to the king, which gave him an opportunity of
v/aiting on the duke of Ormond, the new lord-lieutenant,
then at London. Soon after he went back to Ireland, but
with a refolution of quitting that kingdom, and of removing
with his family to England.
On his return he met with a very favourable reception
from the duke of Ormond ; and foon acquired luch a con-
fiderable fhare in his efteem, that the duke complained of
him as the only man in Ireland that had never alked any¬
thing from him. When he mentioned his defign of carrying
bable, that king Philip fet on foot this bloody tragedy, with his family to England, his grace faid, that he hoped he
would
. * | , . . T E M [3:
TempV. would at leaft give him leave to write in his favour to the
great miniiters, Clarendon then lord chancellor, and
the earl of Arlington, who was fecretary of date. This
the duke did in fuch ftrong terms, as procured him the
friend/hip of thefe two noblemen, as well as the good opi¬
nion of the king. Mr Temple, however, made no-other
ufe of this advantage than to tell lord Arlington, that if his
majefty had any employment abroad, which he was fit for,
he Ihould be happy to undertake it; but, at the fame time, he
requefted that he might not be fent into any of the northern
climates, to which he had a very great averfion. Lord Ar¬
lington replied, he was very forry he had made fuch an ob-
jeftion, as there was no other employment then undifpofed
of except that of going envoy to Sweden. However, in
166^, about the beginning of the firft Dutch war, lord Ar¬
lington fent a meffenger to acquaint him that he mud im¬
mediately come to his houfe; which he did, and found-that
his lordlhip’s bufinds was to tell him, that the king had oc-
cafion to lend fome perfon abroad upon an affair ot the ut-
mod importance, and that he had refolved to make him the
fird offer ; but that he mud know, without delay, and with¬
out telling him what it was, whether he would accept of it,
and that he mud be ready to let out in two or three days, with¬
out mentioning it to any of his friends. After a little confider-
atioh, Mr Temple told his lordlhip, that, as he took him to
be his friend, and as he had advifed him not to refufe, as it
would be an entrance into his majedy’s fervice, he Ihould coji-
fult no farther. This bufinefs was to carry a fecret commifiion
to the bilhop of Munder; which he fet out with on the fecond
of Augud, and executed fo much to the fatisfa&ion of
Charles II. that, on his return to Bruffels, his majedy ap¬
pointed him refident there, and created him a baronet. As
Bruffels was a place which he had long widred to refide at,
in April 1666 he fent for his family ; but, before their ar¬
rival, he had been again obliged to depart upon bufinefs to
the prelate's court: for the bilhop having liitened to terms
of accommodation with France, Sir William wrote two let¬
ters to diffuade him from that alliance; and thefe not having
the defired effedt, he went in dilguife to Munder, where,
though he arrived too late to fecure the prince in his fird
engagement, yet he prevailed on him to permit five or fix
thoufand of his bed troops to enter into the Spanilh fervice.
In {his journey he paffed for a Spanifh envoy, having twenty
iSpanilh guards to attend him. In this manner he iirll went
to Duffeldorp, where the duke of Newburgh, though in
the French intered, gave him a guard to Dortmund ; but
when he reached that place, finding the gates fhut, he was
forced to proceed to a village, at the didance of a league,
which, beinsr full of Brandenburg troops, he was uncfor the
neceffity of lodging in a barn, upon a draw bed, with his
page for a pillow. Next day he was entertained at a cadle
belonging to the bifhop ot Munder, by one Gorges a
Scotch lieutenant-general in that prelate’s fervice, with what
he calls a very epifcopal way of drinking. The general
coming to the large hall, in which dood a great many fiag-
gons ready charged, he called for wine to drink the king’s
health. A filver bell, that might hold about two quarts,
was upon this brought him ; and, as foon as he received it,
he pulled out the clapper, and giving it to Sir William, to
whom he intended to drink, ordered the bell to be filled.
When this was done, he drank off the contents to his ma-
' jelly’s health ; and afking Sir William for the clapper, put
it on, and turning down the bell, rang it, to drew that
he had drank fair, and left nothing in it. He then took
out the clapper, delired Sir William to give it to whomfo-
ever he pleaied ; and, ordering the bell to be filled again, pre-
fcnted it to Sir William: but as the latter feldom ufed to
•3 ] t E m
drink, he had generally fome gentleman with him to fupply ^en't |e'
his place in this refpedt whenever- it might be neceflary. Ha¬
ving finifired his budnefs at Munfter, be returned to Bruff.ls,
where he paffed a year with great plealure and fatisfadtion..
Two months , after the conclufion of the peace with the
Dutch at Breda, Sir William’s filler, who redded with him
at Bruffels, being very defirous of feeing Holland, he went
thither incognito to gratify her delire : but while he was
at the Hague, he paid a private vifit to Mr De Witt, in
which he laid the foundation ot that clofe intimacy which
afterwards fubfifted between them.
In the fpring of 1667, a new war breaking out between
France and Spain, which expofed Bruffels to the danger ot
falling into the hands of the formyr, Sir William fent his
lady and family to England ; but he himfelf remained there
with his fitter till the Chriftmas following, when he was^or¬
dered by the king to come over privately to London. Ta¬
king the Hague in his way, he paid another vifit to De
Witt, and, purfuant to his inltruftions, propofed thofe over¬
tures to him which produced the triple alliance. Soon aitei
his arrival at the Bntiih court, he returned, on the 16th
of January 1668, with the character of envoy extraordi¬
nary and plenipotentiary to Holland ; where a conference
being opened, he brought that treaty to a perleft conclulion
in the Ihort Ipace of five days. I ire ratifications of tins al¬
liance being exchanged on the 15th ot I ebruary, he re¬
paired to Bruffels; and a treaty being fet on toot between
France and Spain at Aix-la-Chapelle, he let out for that
place on the 24th of April in. quality of his majefty s am-
baffador extraordinary and mediator. Here he arrived on
the 27th : and it was chiefly owing to his affiftance that the
Spaniards were brought to fign the articles of that peace on
the fecond of May. This fervice being completed, he re¬
turned to Bruffels, with a view of remaining there in his
former ftation of refident ; but he received letters from the
earl of Arlington, with the king’s order to continue as am-
baffador, and to ferve his country in that qualify in Hol¬
land, as, on account of the late alliances, his majefty was re-~
folved to renew a charafter which the crown of England
had difcontinued there lince the time of king James. S:r
William being now left at liberty to return to England, em¬
braced the opportunity ; and, upon his arrival at London,
he was received with every poffible demonftration of favour
both by the king and the court.
Setting out again for Holland, with his new chara£ler
of the king’s ambaffador, he arrived at the Hague in the
end of Auguft 1668. Here he enjoyed the confidence of
that great minifter.De Witt, and lived in great intimacy with,
the prince of Orange, who was then only eighteen years of
age ; but; in September 1669, he was hurried back to Eng¬
land by lord Arlington, who ordered him to put his fotrt in
the ftirrup as foon as he Ihould receive his letter. When Sir
William waited on the earl, he found that he had not one
word to fay to him ; for, after making him attend a long
time, he only afleed him a few indifferent queftions refpefting
his journey. Next day he was received as coolly by the
king; but the fecret foon came out, and he was preffed t©
return to the Hague, and pave the way for a war with Hol¬
land. This, however, he excufcd himfolf -from having any
hand in ; which fo much provoked the lord treafurer Clif¬
ford, that he refufed to pay him an arrear of two thoufand
pounds due from his embaffy. Difgufted with Arlington’s
behaviour, which was fo unlike the friendfhip he had former¬
ly proreffed, Sir William now retired to his houfe at Sheen
near Richmond, in Surry ; and in this retreat, when free
from the hurry of bufinefs, he wrote his Obfervations on the
United Provinces, and one part of bis Milcellanies, in the
time
4
T E M [ 374 ] T E M
Tcinp’e. time of the feconci Dutch war. About the end of fummer. Tower. After this his majefty ftill prefTtd Sir William is Temple,
however, 1673, the king wifhing to put an end to the war, be fecretary of date ; ukng as an argument for his compli- -—
fent for Sir William, and defired him to go to Holland to ance, that he had nobody to confult with at a time when
negotiate a peace ; but powers having been fent f rom thence he had the greateft need of the beft advice. Notwithftand-.
at this time to the Marquis de Frefno, the Spanifh ambaf- iug all this. Sir William declined the king's offer, advrlinr
fador at London, Sir William w^as ordered to confer wuth him to choofe a council in whom ke could confide, and
him ; and a treaty was accordingly concluded in three days, upon whole abilities he could depend. This advice the
and the point carried refpe&lng ttte fuperiority of the Bri* king followed ; and the choice of the perfons being concerted
tifh flag, which had been fo long contefted. In June 1674 between his majeffy and Sir William, the old council was
he Was again fent ambaffador to Holland to offer the king 5 diffolved four days after, and the hew one eitablifhed of
mediation between France and the confederates, then at which the latter was a member.
war, which was accepted not long after; Lord Berkeley, Sir
Will iam Temple, and Sir Leoline Jenkins, being declared
ambaffadors and mediators ; and Nimeguen, which Sir Wil¬
liam had propoled, was at length agreed upon by ail parties
to be the place of treaty During his flay at the Hague,
the prince of Orange, who was fond of the Englifh lan-
gua e, and of the plain Englifh way of eating, conftantly
dined and flipped once or twice a week at his houfe ; and
by this familiarity he fo much gained the prince’s confi¬
dence and efteem, that he had a confiderable hand in his
marriage with the Princefs Mary, daughter of James II.
In July 1676 he removed kis family to Nimeguen,
where he ipent the remainder of that year without making
any progrefs in the treaty ; and the year following his Ion
was fent over with letters from the lord treafurer, ordering
him to return, and fucceed Mr Coventry as fecretary of
flate. In cdnfequence of this order, Sir W illiam came over
to England in the fpring of 1677 ; and though the affair
of the fecretary’s place was dropped at his defire, he did not
return to Nimeguen that year. About this time, the prince
having the king’s leave to come over, he foon after married
the Princefs Mary ; and this gave occafion for a new coolnefs
between lord Arlington and Sir William, as he and the lord
treafurer Ofborn, who was related to Sir William’s lady,
were only privy to that affair. After the prince and prin-
cels were gone to Holland, as the court always feemed in¬
clined to favour France, the king wiflied to engage Sir
William in fome negotiations with that crown : but he was
fo ill fatisfied with this propofal, that he offered to give up all
pretenfions to the office of fecretary ; ahd defiring the lord
treafurer to acquaint his majefty with his intentions, retired
to Sheen, in hopes of being taken at his word. Upon a
diicovery, however, of the French defigns not to evacuate
the Spanifh towns agreed by the treaty to be delivered up,
the king commanded him to go upon a third embaffy to the
ftates; with whom he concluded a treaty: by which England
engaged, in cafe France refufed to evacuate the towms in
forty days, to declare war immediately againft that nation 5
but before half that time was elapfed, one Du Crofs u’as
fent from the Englifti court to Holland upon a bufmefs
which damped all the good humour excited by the treaty
there, and which produced fuch fudden and aftonifhing
changes in this country, as gave Sir William a diftafte for
all public employments.
In 1679 went back to Nimeguen, where the French
delayed to fign the treaty till the laft hour; but having con¬
cluded it, he returned to the Hague, whence he was foon
after fent for to enter upon the fecretary’s office, which
Mr Coventry at length refolved to relign. He according-
ty came over, and w^ent to court, as all his friends hooed,
with a full intention of affuming his office ; but he ttarted
fome difficulty, becaufe he had not a feat in the houfe of
commons, thinking that, by his not being a member, the
public bufmefs would fuffer at fuch a critical time, when the
contefts between the two parties ran fo high that the kintr
thought fit to fend the duke of York into Flanders, and
the parliament to put the lord treafurer Dznby into the
In 168' the councils began again to be changed, on the
king’s illnefs, at the end of fummer, and the duke of York's
return privately to court. In this juncture Sir William, en¬
deavouring to biing to the king’s favour and bufinefs iomc
-perfons to whom his majefty had taken adiflike, if not an aver-
lion, he met with fuch treatment from them as gave hirn a
frefh diftafte to the court, at winch he feldom made his ap¬
pearance ; fo that he refided principally at Sheen Soon
after this the king fent for him again ; and having propofed
that he fhould go as aiubaffador into Spain, Sir William
confcnted: but when his equipage was almoft ready, and
part of the money paid down for it, the king changed his
mind, and told him that he would have him defer nis jour¬
ney till the end of the feffion of parliament, in which he was
chofen a member for the univeriity of Cambridge. In this
felfion the fpirit of party ran fo high that it was impoffible
to bring the houfe to any kind ot temper. The duke was
ftnt into Scotland ; but this would not fatisfy them, nor
any thing but a bill of exclufion ; which Sir William dre-
nuoufiy oppofed, faying, that “ His endeavour ever ftiould
be to unite the royal family, and that he would never enter
into any councils to divide them.” Not long after this
period, the parliament being diffolved by his majefty, with¬
out the advice ot his privy council, and contrary to what he
had promiied, Sir William made a bold ipeech againft it ;
for which he was very ill uied by fome of thofe friends who
had been moft earneft in promoting the laft change in the
miniitry. Upon this he grew quite tired of public buiineis,
declined the offer he had of again lerving tor the univeriity
in the next parliament, that was loon after called, and met
at Oxford ; and feeing his majefty refolved to govern with¬
out his parliament, andto lupply his treafury through another
channel, he retired to Sheen a tew days after, whence he
tent word by his Ion, that “ he would pahs the reft of his
days like a good fubjett, but would never more meddle
with public affairs.” from that time Sir William lived at
this place till, the end ot that reign.and tor tome time in
the next; when having purchaftd a fmall teat, called Moor
Park, near Farnham in Surry, which he conceived a great
fondnets tor on account ot its lolitude and retirement, an^
its healthy and pleafant fituation, and being much affinfted
with the gout, and broken with age and infirmities • he re¬
folved to fpend the remainder of his life in this agreeable
retreat. In his way thither, therefore, he waited on king
James, who was then at Wind for, and begged his favour amj
protection to one <s that would always live as a good fub-
jeft, but, whate’ver might happen, never again enter upon
any public employment deiiring his majdty to give no
credit to any thing he might hear to the contrary. The
king, who uied to fay that Sir William Temple’s character
was always to be believed, promifed him whatever he dehred,
gently reproached him for not entering into his fervice,
which, he laid, was his own fault; and kept his woid as
faithfully to Sir William as Sir William did to his majefty,
during the furprifing turn of affairs that foon after followed
by the arrival of the prince of Orange. At the time of
this happy revolution, in 1088, Moor-Park becoming un-
3 fafe,
T E M r 375 j T E M
Temple. f3fe, as it I»y in the way of both armies, he went back to
■—v the hoofe at Sheen, which he had given np to his fon ; to
whom he refilled leave, though importunately begged, to
go and meet the prince of Orange at his landing : but a'ter
king James's abdication, when the Prince reached Windfor,
he went thither to wait upon his highnefs, and carried his
foil along with him. The prince preffed him to enter into
his fervifce, and to be fecretary of flate ; but his age and in¬
firmities confirming him in the refolution he had made not
to meddle anymore with public affairs, he wasfatisfied that
his fon alone fhoukl enjoy his majefty’s favour. Mr John
Temple was upon this appointed fecretary at war ; but he
had hardly been a week in that office, when he refolved to
put an end to his own eniilpnce ; which he did on the 14th
of April 1689, by throwing himfclf out of a boat, hired
for that purpofe, in {hooting London-bridge ; having hrft
put 11 ones into his pocket to make him link fpeedily.
In 1694 Sir William had the misfortune to lole his lady,
who was a very extraordinary woman, as well as an affec¬
tionate wife. Pie was then conliderably turned of lixty ; at
which age he pradlifed what he had fo often declared to be
his opinion, that “ an old man ought then to conhder him-
felf of no farther r.fe in the world except to himfelf and his
friends.” After this he lived four years, very' much afflict¬
ed with the gout ; and his ftrength and fpirits being worn
out by the infirmities of age, he expired in the month of
January 1698. Pie died at Moor-Park, where his heart
was buried in a lilvef box under the fun dial in his garden,
oppoilte to a window from which he ufed to contemplate
and admire the works of nature, with his fifter, the ingeni¬
ous !adyr Gifford. This was according to his will ; in pur-
fuance of which his body was privately interred in Weft-
minfier Abbey, and a marble monument eredled in 1722,
alter the death of lady. Gifford, who reiembled him in
genius as well as in perlon. and left behind her the cha¬
racter of one of the heft and mofl conftant friends in the
world.
Sir William Temple’s principal works are, r. Memoirs
from 1672 to 1692 : They are very ufeful for thofe who
wiffi to be acquainted with the affairs of that period. 2. Re¬
marks upon the vState of the United Provinces. An
Introduction to the Hiftory of England : This is a Sketch
of a GeneVal Hiftory. 4 Tetters written during his latl
embaffies. And, 5. Mifcellanies, which contain a great
many curious pieces that difp’ay confiderable depth of
thought. He was an accomoliffied gentleman, a found
politician, a patriot, and a great fcholar. And if this great
idea fnould perchance be fhaded by fome touches of vanity
and fp/een, the reader will be fo candid as to confider, that
the greateft, wifeft, and the heft of men, have Hill fome
fadings arid imperfections which are infcparable from human
nature.
ThMVhi, templum, a public building, eredted in honour
of fome deity, either true or falie ; and wherein the people
meet to pay religious worfhip to the fame. The word is
formed from the Tatin iemp/um^ which fome derive from the
Greek r»/“fV,r, fignifymg the fame thing; and others from
iip.vu, c-lfcindo^£ I cutoff, 1 ieparate,” in regard a temole is
a place feparated from common utes ; others with more
probability derive it from the old Latin word templare, “ to
contemplate.” It is certain the ancient augurs- gave the
Eame ten,pJa to thofe parts of the heavens which were marked
•ut for the obfeivation of the flight of birds. Their formula
was this: Tcmpla tffquaJunta. Temple* were originally all
©pen, and hence received their name. See Phil. Tranf. n°
47 i -LA. 5. where we have an account of an ancient tem¬
ple m Ireland of the fame fort as our famous Stonehenge.
The word Umpium, in its primary feu ft among the eld Ro¬
mans, fignified nothing more than a place fet apart and
confecrated by the augurs, whether incloicd or open, in the k
city or in the fields.
Clemens Alexandrinus and Eufebius refer the origin of
temples to the fepulchres built for the dead. This notion
has been lately- ilhiftrated and confirmed by a variety of tef-
timonies by Mr Farmer in his Treatife on the Worfhip of
Human Spirits, p.,373, &c. Herodotus and Strabo will
have the Egyptians to have been the firft who built temples
to the gods. The firft erebted in Greece is aferibed to
Deucalion, by Apollonius, Argonaut. lib. iii. In anti¬
quity we meet with many people who would not build any
temples to their gods for fear of confining them to too
narrow- bounds. They performed their facrifices in all
places indifferently, from a perfuafion that the whole world
is the temple of God, and that he required no other. This
was the doGrine of the magi, followed by the Perfians, the
Scythians, the Numidtans, and many other nations mention¬
ed by Herodotus, lib. i. Strabo, lib. xv. aud Cicero in his
fecond oration againft Verves.
The Perfians, who worfnipped the fun, believed it would
wrong his power to inclofe him in the walls of a temple,
who had the whole world for his habitation ; and hence,
when Xerxes ravaged Greece, the magi exhorted him to
deftroy all the temples he met with.
The Sicyonians would build no temple to their godefs
Coronls ; nor the Athenians, for the like reafon, erebl any
flattie to Clemency-, who, they faid, was to live in the hearts
of men, not within ftone walls.
The Bithynians had no temples but the mountains to
vvorfhip on ; nor had the ancient Germans any other but
the woods.
Even fome philbfophers have blamed the ufe and building
of temples, particularly Diogenes, Zeno, and his followers
the Stoics. But it may be laid, that if God hath no need
of temples, men have need of places to meet in for the pu¬
blic offices of religion : accordingly temples may be traced
back even into the remoteil antiquity-. See Hojpinian Je
Oriyine cTemplorum.
The Romans had feveral kinds of temples; whereof thofe
built by the kings, See, con ft crated by the augurs, and
wherein the cxercife of religion-was regularly performed,
were called, by way of eminence, temp/a, “ temples.” Thofe
that were not confecrated, were called ttdes. The little
temples, that were covered or roofed, they called adicu/a.
1 hofe open, facella. Some other edifices, confecrated to
particular myfteries of religion, they called Jana and de-
luhra.
All thefe kinds of temples, Vitruvius tells us, had other
particular denominations, according to the form and man¬
ner of their conftrii&ioa, as will be hereafter fpecified.
Indeed the Romans outdid all nations with regard to
temples : they not only built temples to their gods, to their
virtues, to their difeales, &c. but alfo to their emoerors,
and that in their life time; inftancos whereof wc meetwith-
in medals, inferiptions, and other monuments. Horace
compliments Auguftus hereupon, and lets him above Hercu¬
les and all the heroes of fable ; becaufe thofe were admit¬
ted into temples only after their- death, whereas Augulluj
had his temples and altars- while living.
Priffenli tibi matures largimur honores ;
juratulafqve tuum per nomen ponimus eras.
Epift. ad Aug,
Suetonius, on this oesafion, gives an inftar.ee of the mo-
defty of that emperor, who would allow of no temples being
erefted to him in the city ; and even in the provinces, where
he knew it was ufual to raifr temples to the very proconfulsv
refilled
Tempfc,
■1 ■Rp'fcjnMpNV
T E M r 37« 1 T E M
Temple, reefed any but thofe erefted in the name of Rome as well
"'■“'v ''' 1 as his own.
The mold celebrated temples among the Romans were
the Capitol and Pantheon. They had alfo the temple
ef Saturn, which ferved for the public trtaiury; and the
temple of Janus.
d'he temple at Jerufalem was fimilar in its plan to the
Tabernacle. The hrft temple was begun by Solomon
about the year of the world 2992, and before Chrilt 1012
according to fome chronologers, and finifhed in eight years.
Great miftakes have been committed refpefting the dimen-
fions of this temple, by confounding the emblematical defcrip-
tion of Ezekiel with the plain account of it in the books of
Kings and Chronicles. It confifted of the holy of holies, the
fandluary, and a portico. The holy of holies was a fquare
room of 20 cubits ; the fandtuary, or holy place, was 40
Cubits long and 20 broad, confequently the length of both
thefe together was 60 cubits. i he portico, which flood
before the fandtuary, was 20 cubits long and to cubits broad.
Whether the portico was feparated by a wall from the retl
of the temple or not, is not mentioned in fcripture. If it
was, the whole length of the temple, computing the cubit at
22 inches, did not exceed no feet in length and 36 feet
■8 inches in breadth. In the portico flood the two brazen
pillars called 'Jachin and Boaz, which, upon comparing and
reconciling the feemingly different account in different places,
appear to have been 40 cubits high and about 4 cubits
diameter. The court probably at firfl extended all round
the temple. Now we are told, that the court about the
tabernacle was 100 cubits long and 50 broad ; and as Solo¬
mon made every part of the temple about twice as large as
the correfponding part in the tabernacle, we have reafon to
conclude, that the court around the temple was 2oo cubits
long and 100 broad. According to this defeription, which
is taken from the fcripture hiflory, the temple of Solomon
was by no meanl fo large as it is commonly reprefented.
Still, however, it was very magnificent in fize and fplendid
in ornament. It was plundered of its treafures in the reign
of Rehoboam, and repaired by Joafh ; it was again fpoiled
1 ' in the time of Ahaz and of Hezekiah ; and after being re-
ilored by Jofiah, was demolifhed by Nebuchadnezzar in the
year of the world 3416, after it had flood. 476 years ac¬
cording to Jofephus, and according to Ufher 428 years.
Thefecond temple was built by the Jews, after their re¬
turn from the Babylonifh captivity, under the direftion and
influence of Zerubbabel their governor, and of Jofliua the
high-priell, with the leave and encouragement of Cyrus the
Pet fian emperor, to whom Judea was now become a tribu¬
tary kingdom. According to the Jews, this temple was
deflitute of five remarkable appendages, which were the chief
glory of the firfl temple ; viz. the ark and mercy-feat, the
Shechinah, the holy fire on the altar, which had been firft
kindled from heaven, the urim and thummim, and the
fpirit of prophecy. This temple was plundered and oro-
faned by Antipchus Eplphanes, who alfo caufed the public
•worfhip in it to ceafe ; and afterwards purified by Judas
Maccabseus, who reflored the divine worfhip ; and after
having flood five hundred years, rebuilt by Herod, with a
6iagnificence approaching to that of Solomon’s. Tacitus
calls it ImmenftB opulently templvm ; and Jofephus lays, it was
the moil aftonifhing flruflure he had ever feen, as well on
account of its archrte&ure as its magnitude, and likewife the
richnefs and magnificence of its various parts and the re¬
putation of its iacred appurtenances. This temple, which
Herod began to build about fxxteen years before the birth
of Chrift, and fo far completed in nine years and a half
as to be fit for divine fervice, was at length deftroyed by
the Romans on the fame month and day of the morfth
on which Solomon’s temple was
nians.
deftroyed by the Babylo- Temple,
The Indian temples, or pagodas, are fometimes of a pro- M.mricf,
digious fize. T hey are commonly erefted near the banks
of the Ganges, Kiilna, or other facred rivers, tor the benefit
of ablution in the purifying ftream. Where no river flows p0^'”’
near the foot of the pagoda, there is invariably in the front
of it a large tank or refervoir of water. Thefe are, for
the moft part, of a quadrangular form, are lined with free-
flone or marble, have fteps regularly-defeending from the
margin to the bottom, and Mr Ctauford oblerved many be- Cravfori't
tween three and four hundred feet in breadth. At the Sketches,
entrance of all the more confrderable pagodas there is a por-vo*‘ ’•
tico, fupported by rows of lofty columns, and afeended by a ^ I0°'
handfome flight of flone fteps ; fometimes, as in the in-
ftance of Tripetti*, to the number of more than a hundred. * Foyagt
Under this portico, and in the courts that generally inclofe^ Ind‘<i
the whole building, an innumerable multitude afiemble attom,1“*
the rifing of the fun ; and, having bathed in the ftream be-
low, and, in conformity to an immemorial cuflom over all
the Eaft, having left their fandals on the border of the tank,
impatiently await the unfolding of the gates by the mini-
firing brahmin. The gate of the pagoda univerfally fronts
the eaft, to admit the ray of the folar orb ; and, opening,
prefents to the view an edifice partitioned out, according to
M. Thevenot in his account of Chitanagar, in the manner
of the ancient cave-temples of Elora, having a central nave
or body ; a gallery ranging on each fide ; and, at the
farther end, a fandluary, or chapel of the deity adored, fur-
rounded by a ftone balluftrade to keep off the populace.
Thofe who wifu to penile a more particular account of the
Indian temples may confult Maurice’s Indian Antiquities.
See alfo Pagoda and Seringham.
Temple, in archite&ure. The ancient temples were
diftinguifhed, with regard to their conftrir&ion, into various
kinds ; as, 'Temple in anta, JF.des in antis. Thefe, accord¬
ing to Vitruvius, were the moft fimple of all temples, having
only angular pilafters, called anta or parajlat/e, at the cor¬
ners, and two Tujcan columns on each fide of the doors.
1 'em’le, tetrajlyle, or fimple tetrajlyle, was a temple that had
four columns in front and as many behind. Such was
the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. Templei projlyle,
that which had only columns in its front or fore fide ; as
that of Ceres at Eletifis in Greece. Temple, amphiprojlyle,
or double projlyle, that which had columns both before and
behind, and which was alfo tetraftyle. Temple, periptere,
that which had four rows of infulated columns around, and
was exhaftyle, /. e. had fix columns in front; as the temple of
Honour at Rome. Temple, diptere, that which had two wings
and two rows of columns around, and was alfo odioftyle, or
had eight columns in front; as that of Diana at Ephefus.
Temples, among us, denote two inns of court in Lon¬
don, thus called, becaufe anciently the dwelling-hotife of
the knights-ternphrs. At the fupprefften of that order,
they were purchafed by the profeflbrs of the common law,
and converted into hofpitia or inns. They are called the
inner and middle temple, in relation to Eftex-houfe ; which was
alfo a part of the houfe of the temnlars, and called the outer
temple, becaufe fituated without Temple-Bar. In the mid¬
dle temple, during the time of the templars, the king’s trea-
fure was kept; as was alfo that of the kings of France in
the houfe templars at Paris. The chief officer was the
mailer of the temple, who was fummoned to parliament in
47 Hen. III. and from him the chief minifter of the tem¬
ple-church is flill called majler of the temple. >
Temples, in anatomy, a double part of the head, reach¬
ing from the forehead and eyes to the two ears. The tem‘
pies are chiefly formed of two bones called ojfa temporit.
Thefe
TEN [ ] T E
'Tem-ora! Thefe parts, - according to pliyficians, wcrC called tmpora, of any kind without breaking
li from their lowing the age or time of a man by the colour J'“ ‘ ^ ‘ 1 ' - b
N
Tenacitv.
or
TSlaciJt.
Comment.
voi. i.
p a    vj cuv c-oiuui
-- the hair, which turns white in this part before any
jcther; which Homer feems to have been aware of, by his
calling men poliocrolaphi, q, d. “ grey-templed.”
TEMPORAL, a term generally ufed for fecular, "as a
diifinftion from eCclefiaftical. Thus we fay temporal lords,
•and fpiritual or ecclefiaftical lords.
TEMPORALTIES of l>/sn-ors, are the revenues, lands,
tenements, and lay-fees, belonging to bifhops, as they are
barons and lords of parliament.
The euftody of the temporalties of bifhops forms a branch
of the king’s ordinary revenues (fee Revenue.). Thefe,
upon the vacancy of the bifhopric, are immediately the
ri jht of the King, as a confequence of his prerogative in
church matters $ whereby he is confidered as the founder of
all archbifhoprics and bifhoprics, to whom, during the va¬
cancy, they revert. And for the fame reafon, before the
diffolution of abbeys, the king had the cuftody of the tem¬
poralties of all fuch abbeys and priories as were of royal
foundation (but not of thole founded by fubjedts), on the
death of the abbot or prior. Another reafon may alfo be
given why the policy of the law hath veiled this cuftody in
the king ; becaufe, as the fucceffor is not known, the lands
and poffeffions of the fee would be liable to fpoil and devaf-
tation if no one had a property therein. Therefore the
law has given the king, not the temporalties themfelves,
but the cuftody of the temporalties, till fuch time as a fuc-
ceffor is appointed ; with power of taking to himfelf all the
intermediate profits, without giving any account to the fuccef¬
for; and with the right of prefenting (which the crown very
frequently exercifes) to fuch benefices and other preferments
as fall within the time of vacation. This revenue is of fo
, 1 f "ature» t^iat ^ could not be granted out to a fub-
ject, before or even after it accrued : but now, by the fta-
tute 15 Edw. III. ft. 4. c. 4 & j. the king may, after the
vacancy, leafe the temporalties to the dean and chapter:
aving to himfelf all advowfons, efeheats, and the like. Our
atiacnt kings and particularly William Rufus, were not
only remarkable for keeping the bifhoprics a long time va¬
cant, tor the fake of enjoying the temporalties, but alfo
committed horrible wafte on the wool and other narts f the ^ ^ I3ochart ™uld derive
.hecftate, and c,ow„ a.I, M ^
the eftate ; and to crown all, would never, when *the fee
was fil ed up reftore to the bifhop his temporalties again,
unlefs he purchafed them at an exorbitant price. To re-
tne_y which, king Hen. I. granted a charter at the begin-
ning of h.s reign, promifing neither to fell, nor let to farm,
or taKe any thing from, the domains of the church, till the
iucctfor was inflalled. And it was made one of the arti-
oies m the great charter, that no wafte fhould be committed
the temporalties of bifhopncs, neither fhould the cuflo-
J £ them be fold. The fame is ordained by the ftatute
of Wcftmmfter the firft ; and the ftatute 14 Edw. HI.
terf .tft-il4* (wh,ch P!rmits a leafe to the dean and chap-
It w « 1 m7e eXpllClt 10 Prohibi*ng the other exaftions.
t was alio a frequent abufe, that the king would, for trif-
I ng or no caufes^ feize^ the temporalties of bifhops, even
'"ft f ,C'n 1VeS’ hls own hands ; hut this is guarded
agamft by ftatute 1 Edw. HI. ft. 2. c. 2 g
1 his revenue of the king, which was formerly very con-
:odenrnaS5 1Sfnow br 'cufiomary indulgence almoft reduced
U> noting fGrj at prcfo t) ag foon as th£ n£w is con_
hi eland,-°nfirrnedj he V{vally receIves tbe reftitution of
^d thT T qUltr ent,re and unt™ch^ from the king ;
froprk andm .fo0ner’ he has 3 ^e-fimple in his b^
TFNArT?^reaintain an aaion for the Profits-
dies by which t7’mrn?'t-llraIphiIof°ph7’ th2t ^uaiity of bo-
vouxvm grtf,fa,na con'idc,able “ f°'«
v -  — —It is the quality oppo-Tena
fite to fragility or brittlenefs. See Strength of Materials.
1 ENACULUM, in forgery, an inftrument ufed in am- ^1!!
putation, for pulling out bleeding veflek that are to be tied
by lie-atures. See Surgery.
TENAILLES and 7 c
TENAILLIONS. J bee Fortification, Seft. I.
§ 3 ar|d 5*
TENANT, one that holds lands or tenements of fomc
lord or landlord, by rent, fealty, &c. See Tenure.
1 ENAWWII. See Loxia, fpecies 13.
l^ENCH. in ichthyology. See Cyprinus, fpecies 2.
JFNDER, a fmall fhip in the fervice of men of war,
for carrying men, provifions, or any thing elfe that is riecef-
fary.
EENDONb, in anatomy, are white, firm, and tenacious
parts, contiguous to the mutcles, and ufually forming their
extremities. See Anatomy, n° 85.
1ENEBRIO, in natural hiftory, a genus of infeffs be-
longing to the order of Cole opt era. The antenna are monili-
iorm, the laft joint being roundifh ; the thorax is plano-con¬
vex and marginated; the head projefting, and the elytra are
iomewhat ftiff.. Gmelin enumerates about 63 fpecies. The
larvae of fome live in damp places under ground among rub-
bifh ; of others in flour and different kinds of food, where
they undergo their metamorphofis. The perfeft infoas are
very troublelome in houfes ; eating bread, meat, &c. They
precipitately avoid the light ; reforting in troops to dark
camp cehars, where putrefa&ion allures and nourifhes them.
. are aP °f a very ^ark gloomy appearance, from which
circtimftance they take their name.
TENEDOS (anc. geog.), an ifland on the coaft of
I roas, at the diftance of 40 ftadia from the continent, and
bo in compafs; with a cognominal FEolian town, and a
temple of Apollo Smintheus. Its origin is derived fromTennes
or i enes, who being expofod in a coffer or bog by his father
t-ygnus the Ihracian, at the inftigation of the mother-in-law,
was by fate carried to this ifland, made king of it, and at
lengtn worfhipped as a god on account of his virtues. The
ifland was famous for its earthen ware, for which purpofe it
had an excellent red clay ; and hence Bochart would derive
• *7 v*. *\^jL.uy * 2 C/icuZU 'CCUT'lS
is a proverbial faying to denote foverity ; from a law there
palled, that perfons found in the z£t of adultery fhould be
put to death; a feverity executed on the king’s fon ; and
therefore, m the coins of Tenedos, on one are two heads iu
aT'i i th™-H^and h,j* f°n’ and on the reverfe an axe,
(A ‘ftotle). I his ifland ftill retains its ancient name ; and
1. one of the fmallefl iflands of the Archipelago, fituated
near the coa.t of Leffer Afia, weft of the ruins of Troy.
• 13 1 bUt fertiIc’ beInS remarkable for produ¬
cing the beft Mufcodine wine in the Levant; and its pefi.
turn, thus near the mouth of the Hellefpont, has given it
importance in all ages; veffels bound toward Conftantinople
• r terr 10 llS port’ or anchorage in the road, du¬
ring the Etefian or contrary winds, and in foul weather.
Ihe emperor Juftmian ere&ed a magazine to receive the
cargos of the corn-fhips from Alexandria, when detained
AM* 1 hlSiWa* 3 °fty bllllduig’ two hundred and eighty
feet fong and ninety broad. The voyage from EgyptVal
could1^ tkfspreca,!OUS» and th<-‘ gtahi preforvtef mitil it
the r, kl 3 ?0ked^0 tbc capita!- Afterwards, during
the troubles of the Greek empire, Tenedos experienced
variety of fortune. The pirates, who infefied thefe
eas, made it for many years their place of rendezvous;
and 0thman forzed it m .302, procured veffels, and
itnce iubdued^ the other iflands of the Archipelago. It
has continued in the poffeffion of the Turks ever ftnee :
-3 and
<anary
JJlands.
TEN [378
TeneriiF, on the eaftern fide is a pretty large town, feated at
t}je foot 0f a mountain, with a fine harbour commanded by
a caftle. E. Long. 27. o. N. Lat. 29. 30.
TENERIFE, an ifland of Africa, and one of the Canaries,
being the mod confiderable for riches, trade, and extent.
It lies to the fouth of the ifland of Salvages, to the weft of
the Grand Canary, to the north of the ifland of Gomera,
and to the eaft of that of Palma. It is of a triangular form,
being about 45 miles in length and 20 in breadth ; and in
the centre is the famous peak, called by the natives El Pico tie
Teyde, which in clear weather may be feen at the diftance
of 1 20 miles, like a thin blue vapour very little darker than
the Iky.
The moft frequented harbour is called Sarta Cru'x,, which
is on the fouth fide of the ifland, and where (hips with good
anchors and cables may be fafe in all weathers. At this
port is the principal commercial town in the ifland, called
alfo Santa Cruz^ in the middle of which is a mole, built at
a vaft expence for the convenience of landing; between the
mole and the town is a fort called St Philips,, and near it is
a fteep rocky den or valley, beginning at the fea fhore, and
running far in land, which would render the attack of an
enemy very difficult; there are alfo other forts for its. de¬
fence, all joined together by a thick ftone wall, and mount¬
ed with cannon.
Crlas's Hi- Santa Cruz is a large town, containing feveral churches
ftorical Ac- an(j convents, an hofpital, and the beft conftrudled private
Tnt °ftlje buildings of any in the Canary iflanas. It contains about
7000 inhabitants ; it is not fortified on the land fide, and
all the country near it is dry, ftony, and barren.
About four leagues to the fouth of Santa Cruz, clofe to
the fea, there is a cave, with a chapel called the chapel of
our Lady of Candelarie, in which is an image of the Virgin
Mary, that is held in as much reverence here as that of
Diana was at Ephefus. This chapel is endowed with fo
many ornaments that it is the richeft place in all the leven
iflands. At a certain feafon of the year almoft all the in¬
habitants go thither on pilgrimage, and innumerable and
incredible ftories are related and univerfally believed con¬
cerning this image.
About four miles in land from Santa Cruz Hands the city
of St Chryftobal de la Laguna, which is the metropolis of
the ifland, and contains two pariflr churches and five con¬
vents, but has no trade, being inhabited principally by the
gentry of the ifland ; the inhabitants are numerous, yet no¬
body is feen in the ftreets, which are folitary and defolate,
fo that grafs grows in thole that are moft frequented. There
are many other towns in the ifland which contain a great
number of people, but none are more than three leagues
from the fea.
All the fertile ground within a league of the fea is co¬
vered with vines ; that of the next league is fown with corn,
the third is adorned with woods, and above the woods are
the clouds, for the ifland gradually afeends fom the fea,
rifmg on all fides till it terminates in the peak, which is the
centre.
On the fouth-eaft of the ifland inland from Candelaria
is a town called Guimar, where there are fome families which
know themfelves to be the genuine unmixed offspring of
tire original natives; but they know nothing of the man¬
ners of their anceftors, nor have they preferved any remains
of their language. They are fairer than the Spaniards of
Andalufia.
Teneriff contains about 96,000 perfons, fuppofed to be
equal to the number of inhabitants of all the reft of the feven
iflands put together. The peafants in general are wretch¬
edly clothed; when they do appear better, they are habited
in the Spanifh fafhion. The men, in a genteeler line, drefs
6
] TEN
very gayly, and are feldom feen without long fwords. It Teneriff,'
is remarked, that few of them walk with dignity and eafe ; J
which may be attributed to the long cloaks they ufually ^
The women wear veils : thofe wrorn by the lower
wear.
' ' STU uGUl
ranks are of black fluff, thofe oc the higher of black filk tVaks, p.
and fuch among the latter as have any claim to beauty are‘8.
far from being over careful in concealing their faces by them.
The young ladies w'ear their fine long black hair plaited, and
faftened with a comb or a riband on the top of the head.
The common people, and in this they refemble the inha¬
bitants of moft of the iflands in the Pacific Ocean lately dif-
covered, have in them a ftrong tendency to thieving ; they
are befides lazy, and the moft importunate beggars in the
world. “ I obferved likevvife (fays Mr White) that the itch
was fo common among them, and had attained fuch a de¬
gree of virulence, that one would almoft be led to believe
it was epidemic there. Some of the women are fo aban¬
doned and fhamelefs, that it would be doing an injuftice to
the proftitutes met with in the ftreets of London to fay
they are like them. The females of every degree are faid
to be oi- an amorous conftitution, and addufted to intrigue;
for which no houfes could be better adapted than thofe in
Teneriff.
“ The manufaftures carried on here are very few, and the
produft of them little more than fufficient for their own
confumption. They confift of taffeties, gauze, coarfe linens,
blankets, a little filk, and curious garters. _ The principal
dependence of the inhabitants is on their wine (their ftaple
commodity), oil, corn, and every kind of ftock for Shipping.
With thefe the ifiand abounds : and, in their feafon, pro¬
duces not only the tropical fruits, but the vegetable pro-
du&ions of the European gardens, in the greateft plenty-
Teneriff enjoys an agreeable and healthful mediocrity of
climate. Indeed none feems better adapted for the refto-
ration of a valetudinarian ; as, by going into the mountams,
he may graduate the air, and choofe that ftate of it which
beft fuits his complaint. But although the inhabitants are
thus healthy, and have fo little occafion for medical aid, they
loudly complain of the want of knowledge in the profeffional
gentlemen of the ifland.”
The height of the peak of Teneriff has been fo varioufly
eftimated and calculated by different travellers and geogra¬
phers, that we can only take the mean between the two Rye'sixMi
extremes of their decifions. Dr Halley allows but twoplon to tte
miles and a quarter from the level of the fea to the fum- Peak ofTh-
mit of the fugar-loaf, whilft the Spanilh account of the Ca-’!eriJ-
nary iflands, tranflated by Mr Glas in 1763, makes it no
lefs than five miles; and others have affigned a height dif¬
ferent from both thefe. That it is an extinguifhed vol¬
cano is univerfally known ; and we are perfuaded that the
following account of the crater, and of fome experiments
made on its brink by M. Mongez on the 24th of Auguft
1783, will prove not unacceptable to our chemical readers.
“The crater of the peak of Teneriff (fays he) is a true
fulphur-pit, fimilar to thole of Italy. It is about 50 fa¬
thoms long and 40 broad, rifmg abruptly from eaft to weft.
At the edges of the crater, particularly on the under fine,
are many {piracies, or natural chimneys, from which there ^
exhale aqueous vapours and fulphureous acids, which are
hot as to make the. thermometer rife from 90 to 340 ot Reau¬
mur. The infide of the crater is covered with yellow, red, or
white, argillaceous earth, and blocks of lava Par% decom-
pofed. Under thefe blocks are found fuperb cry ft a is 01 fut-
phur; thefe are eight-fided rhomboidal cryftals, lometirnes an
inch in length, and, I iuppofe, they are the fine ft cryftals ot
volcanic fulphur that have ever been found, i he water that
exhales from the {piracies is perieftly pure, and not in the
lead acid, as I was convinced by feveral experiments.
4< Ine
TEN [ 379 3 TEN
Tensri/F. “ The elevation of the peak above the level of the fea is
-—V"" near 1900 toifes ; which induced me to make feveral chemi-
* cal experiments in order to compare the phenomena with
thofe that occur in our laboratories. I fhall here coniine
myfelf merely to the refuits.
“ The volatilization and cooling of liquors were here very
confrderable. Half a minute was fufficient for the diffipa-
tion of a pretty ftrong dole of aether. The action of acids
on metals, earths, and alkalis, was flow; and the bubbles
which efcaped during the eftervefcence were much larger
than ordinary. The produ&ion of vitriols was attended with
very lingular phenomena. That of iron affumed all at once
a very beautiful violet colour, and that of copper was fud-
denly precipitated of a very bright blue colour. I examined
the moillure of the air by means of the hygrometer, of pure
alkali, and of vitriolic acid ; and I thence concluded, as well
as from the direction of the aqueous vapours, that the air
was very dry; for at the end of three hours the vitriolic
acid had fuffered hardly any change either in colour or
weight; the fixed alkali remained dry, except near the edges
of the velfel that contained it, where it was a little moilt;
and SaufTure’s hygrometer pointed to 64°, as nearly as the
impetuous wind which then blew would permit us to judge.
“Liquors appeared to us to have loft nothing of their fmell
or ftrength at this height; a circumftance which contradidls
all the tales that have hitherto been related on this head :
volatile alkali, ether, fpirit of wine, retained all their ftrength;
the imoking fpirit of Boyle was the only one that feemed
to have loft any fenfible pottion of its energy. Its evapora¬
tion, however, was not the lefs quick ; in 30 feconds, a
tquantity which I had poured into a cup was entirely vola¬
tilized ; and nothing remained but the fulphur which tinged
the rims and the bottom. When I poured the vitriolic
acid on this liquor, there happened a violent detonation, and
the vapours that arofe had a very fenfible degree of heat.
.1 tried to form volatile alkali by decompofing dal ammo¬
niac with the fixed alkali; but the produ6lion was flow and
liardly fcnlible, while at the level of the fea this procefs,
made with the fame fubftances, in the fame proportions,
fucceeded very readily and in abundance.
“As I was curious to inveftigate the nature of the vapours
that exhale from the crater, and to know whether they
contained inflammable air, fixed air, and marine acid, I made
the following experiments: I expofed on the edge of one
of the fpiracles a nitrous folution of filver in a cup ; it re¬
mained more than an hour in the midft of the vapours which
were continually exhaling, but without any fenfible altera¬
tion ; which fufficiently fhews that no vapours of marine
acid exhale from the crater. I then poured into it feme
drops of marine acid, when a precipitation of luna cornea
immediately enfued : but inftead of being white, as that
precipitate generally is, it was of a fine dark violet colour,
which quickly became grey, and it affumed the form of fmall
fcal} cryllals. Thefe were very diftimft when looked at
with a glafs, and they were even vifible to. the naked eye.
I tnink myfelf juftifiable in attributing this alteration of
colour to the vapours of inflammable air, according to iome
experiments that 1 have made on the precipitation of lunea
cornea in tuch air. Lime-water, expofed for three hours
on the margin of the crater, and in the neighbourhood of
a fpiracle, was not covered with any calcareous pellicle, nor
even hardly with any filmy appearance; which proves, in
my opinion, not only that no vapours of fixed air exhale from
the crater, but that the atmoipheric air, which lefts upon it,
contains very little of that air, and that the inflammable va¬
pours and ftdphureous acids alone are fenfible and confiderable.
I he eiettricity of the atmofphere was pretty coniiderable,
for Sauflure’s eleftrometer, when held in the hand at the
height of about five feet, indicated three degrees, while on Tenefmus
the ground it pointed only to one and a half. The eledsi- _ N.
city was oofitive ” W. Long. 16. 18. N. Lat. 28. 29. . n‘ ,
TENjlSMUS, in medicine, a name given by medical
writers to a complaint which is a continual defire of going
to flool, but without any ftool being ready to be voided.
1 his is properly no primary difeafe, but merely a fympto-
matic one, and differs in degree according to the difeafe on
which it is an attendant. See Medicine, n° ii i.
TENIERS (David), the Elder, a Flemifh painter, born
at Antwerp in 1382. He received the firft rudiments of
his art from the famous Rubens, who highly efteemed him
for his promifing genius, and with great fatisfa&ion exami¬
ned and commended his defigns. From the fchool of that
celebrated painter Teniers went to finifli his ftudies at Rome.
He attached himfelf to Adam El/heimer for fix years ; and
from the inftruftions of two fuch incomparable mailers, he
formed to himfelf a peculiar ilyle, which his fon cultivated
lo happily aftetward as to bring it to the utmoft perfection.
His pictures were fmall; and his fubjeds ufually (hops, ela-
boratories, humorous converlations, and rural feftivities.
1 he demand for his pieces was univerfal; and even his ma¬
iler Rubens thought them an ornament to his cabinet. Fie
died at Antwerp in 1649.
Teniers (David) the Younger, alfo an admirable pain¬
ter, was the fon of the former, and was born at Antwerp
in 1610. He obtained the name of s/fie of Painting, from
Ins imitating the manner of different painters with fuch ex-
adlnefs as to deceive even the niceft judges. He improved
greatly under his father, and obtained fuch reputation as in¬
troduced him to the favour of the great. The archduke
Leopold William made him gentleman of his bed-chamber;
and all the pictures of his gallery were copied by Teniers,
and engraved by his direClion. The king of Spain and
Don Juan of Auftria fet fo high a value on his pictures,
that they built a ^aftery on purpofe for them. William
prince of Orange honoured him with his friendfhip ; and
Rubens not only efleemed his works, but affilled him with
his advice. Flis principal talent lay in landfcapes adorned
with fmall figures. He alfo painted men drinking and
fmoking. chemifts elaboratories, country tairs, and the like.
His fmall figures are fuperior to his large ones. He died
in 1694.
- he works of the father and fon are thus diflinguifhed :
T he latter difeover a finer touch and frefher pencil, greater
variety of attitudes, and a better difpofition of the figures.
The father retained fomething of the tone of Italy in his
colouring, which was ftronger than the fon’s ; befides, the
fon ufed to put at the bottom of his pictures, David Te¬
niers, junior.
/Ibrabam, another fon of David the Elder, was equal, if
not fuperi* r, to his father and brother in the expreffion of
his characters, and his underftanding the clarv obfeuro ;
though he was inferior in the fprightlinefs of his touch,
and the lightnefs of his pencil.
1 ENISON (Dr Thomas), archbifhop of Canterbury,
was born at Cottenham in Cambridgefhire in 1636 : and
ftudied at Corpus Chrifti college in Cambridge. In his
youth, while the fanatical government lailed, he applied him-
lelf to phyfic; but afterward w^ent into Orders, and was
fome time minifter of St Andrew’s church, Cambridge ;
where he attended the fick during the plague in 1665,
which his panfhloners acknowledged by the prefent of a
piece,of plate. He fhowed hirnfelf very aCtive againft the
growth of Popery by his writings both in king Charles and
^■>ng James’s reigns: in 1680 he was prefented to the vi¬
carage of St Martin’s in the Fields, London, to which pa-
rifn he made feveral donations; and among others, endowed
3 B 2 a
TEN r 380 ] TEN
Tennis. a free fcbool, and built a handfome library, which he fur-
riifhed with ufefuT "Sooks. King William and queen Maty,
in 1689, prefented him to the archdeaconry of London; in
1691, he was nominated'to the fee of Lincoln, and in 1694
he fucceeded Dr Tiliotfon as archbifhop of Canterbury.
He performed all the duties of a good primate for 20 years,
and died in 17iS*
TENNIS, a play at which a ball is driven by a racket.
As many perfons would become players at tennis, provided
they could eaiily underftand the rudiments of the game, fo
Boyle's as t0 form fome judgment of the players, or at leaft to know
^amcsd 1™~ who wins and who lofes, wTe have here attempted to give fo
'ShauforL pla*n a defcription of it, that no one can be at a lofs, it ever
he fhould bett or play. As to the executive part, it requires
great practice to make a good player, fo that nothing can
be done without it; all we prefume to do is to give an in-
iight into the game, whereby a perfon may not feem a total
ftranger to it when he happens to be in a tennis court.
The game of tennis is played in moft capital cities in
Europe, particularly in France, from whence we may ven¬
ture to derive its origin. It is efteemed with many to be
one of the moft ancient games in Chrittendom, and long be¬
fore king Charles Ids time it was played in England.
This game is as intricate as any game whatever; a per¬
fon who is totally ignorant of it may look on for a month
together, without Being able to make out how the game is
decided. Therefore we {hall begin by defcribing the court
in which it is played.
The fixe of a tennis court is generally about 96 or 97
feet by 3 3 or 34, there being no exaft dimerlion afcribed to
its proportion, a foot more or lefs in length or width being
of no confequence. A line or net hangs exaftly acrols the
middle, over which the ball muft be ftruck, either with a
racket or board to make the ftroke good. Upon the en¬
trance of a tennis-court, there is a long gallery which goes
to the dedans, that is, a kind of front gallery, where fpefta-
tors ufually ftand, into which, whenever a ball is ftruck, it
tells for a certain ftroke. This long gallery is divided into
different compartiments or galleries, each ot which has its
particular name, as follows; from the line towards the de¬
dans are the jirjl gallery, door, Jecond gallery, and the l ift gal¬
lery, which is called the fervice fide. From the dedans to
the laft gallery are the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, at a yard
diftance each, by which the chaces are marked, and is one
, of the moft eflential parts of the game, as wall appear in the
following defcription.
On the other fide of the line are alfo thz firjl gallery, door,
fecondgallery, and Injl gallery ; which is called the hazard-
ftde. Every ball ftruck into the laft; gallery on this fide
reckons for a certain ftroke the fame as the dedans Be¬
tween the fecond and this laft gallery are the figures 1,2,
to mark the chaces on the hazard-fide. Over this long gal¬
lery, or thefe compartiments, is a covering, called the pent-
houfe, on which they play the ball from the ferviee-fide, in
order to begin a fet of tennis, from which it is called a Jer-
vice. When they mifs putting the hall (fo as to rebound
from the pent-houfe) over a certain line on the fervice-fide,
it is deemed a fault, two of which are reckoned for a ftroke.
If the ball rolls round the pent-houfe, on the oppofite fide ot
the court, fo as to fall beyond a certain line deferibed for
that purpofe, it is called/)^, reckons for nothing on either
fide, and the player muft. ierve again.
On the right-hand fide of the court from the dedans is
what they call the tambour, a part of the wall which pro-
jedfs, and is lo contrived in order to make a variety in the
ficroke, and render it more difficult to be returned by the
adverfaiy ; for when a ball ftrikts the tambour, it varies its
diiedtion, and requires fome extraordinary judgment to ie-
5
turn it over the line. The laft thing on the right hand fide Tennis,
is called the ^r/V/, wherein if the ball is Itruck, it is alfo 15, 'T""'
or a certain ftroke.
The game of tennis is played by what they call Jets; a fet
of tennis confifts of fix games : but if they play what is
called an ad vantage-fet, two above five games muft be won
on one fide or the other fucceffively, in order to decide; or,
if it comes to fix games all, two games muft; ftill be won on
one fide to conclude the fet ; fo that an advantage-fet may
laft a confiderable time ; for which kind of fets the court is
paid more than for any other.
We muft; now deferibe the ufe of the chaces, and by what
means thefe chaces decide or interfere fo much in the game.
When the player gives his fervice at the beginning of a fet,
his adverfary is fuppofed to return the ball; and wherever it
falls after the firft rebound untouched, the chace is called
accordingly ; for example, if the ball falls at the figure 1,
the chace is called at a yard, that is to fay, at a yard from
the dedans : this chace remains till a fecond fervice is given ;
and if the player on thelervice fide lets the ball go after his
adverfary returns it, and if the ball falls on or between any
of thefe figures or chaces, they muft change fides, there be¬
ing two chaces ; and he who then will be on the hazard
fide, muft play to win the firft chace ; which if he wins by
ftriking the ball fo as to fall, after its firft rebound, nearer
to the dedans than the figure 1, without his adveriary’s be¬
ing able to return it from its firft hop, he wins a ftroke, and
then proceeds in like manner to win the fecond chace,
wherever it ffiould happen to be. If a ball falls on the line
with the firft gallery door, fecond gallery, or laft gallery,
the chace is likewife called at fuch or fuch a place, naming
the gallery, door, &c. When it is juft put over the line, it
is called a chace at the line. If the player on the fervice-
fide returns a ball with fuch force as to ftrike the wall on
the hazard-fide io as to rebound, after the firft; hop over the
line, it is alfo called a chace at the line.
The chaces on the hazard-fide proceed from the ball be¬
ing returned either too hard or not quite hard enough ; fo
that the ball after its fifft rebound falls on. this fide of the blue
line, or line which deferibes the hazard-fide chaces ; in which
cafe it is a chace at 1, 2, &c. provided there is no chace de¬
pending. When they .change Tides, the player, in order to
win this chace, muft; put the ball over the line anywhere,-fo
that his adverfary does not return it. When there is no
chace on the hazard-fide, all balls put over the line from the -
fervice fide, without being returned, reckon for a ftroke.
As the game depends chiefly upon the marking, it will
be neceffary to explain it, and to recommend thofe who play
at tennis to have a good and unbiased marker, for on him
the whole fet may depend : he can mark in favour of the
one and againft trie other in fuch a manner, as will render
it two to one at flatting, though even players. Inflead oi
which the marker fhould be very attentive to the chaces,
and not be anyway partial to either of the players.
This game is marked in a very fingular manner, which
makes k at firft fomewhat difficult to underftand. I he firft:
ilroke is called 15, the fecond 30, the third 40, and the
fourth game, unlefs the players get four ftrokes each ; m
that cafe, inftead of calling it 40 all, it is called r/m'e; after
which, as foon as any ftroke is got, it is called advantage^;
and in cafe the ftrokes become equal again, deuce again, till
one or the other gets two ftrokes following, which win the
game ; and as the games are won, fo they are maiked and
called ; as one game love, two games to one, &c. towards
the let, of which fo many of thefe games it confifts.
Although but one ball at a time is played with, a number
of balls are made ufe of at this game to avoid trouble, and
are handed to the players in bs&ets for that purpofe: by
which
TEN
r 381 ]
TEN
which means they can play as Iona- as they pleafe, without
ever having occafion to ftoop for a ball.
As to the odds at tennis, they are by no means fixed,
but are generally laid as follow :
Upon the firil ilroke being won between even players,
that is, fifteen love, the odds are of the fingle
game _ - - 7 to 4
Thirty love - -41
Forty love - -81
Thirty fifteen - 21
Forty fifteen - - 51
Forty thirty - - 3 I
The odds of a four game fet when the
firft game is won, are - 74
When two games love 4 1
Three games love - 8 to 1
When two games to one • 2 I
Three games to one - 51
The odds ot a fix game fet when the
firft game is won, are - 3 2
When two games love -21
'Three games love - 41
Four games love - 10 I
Five games love - 21 1
When two games to one - 85
T hree games to one - 52
Four games to one - 51
Five games to one - 1 y 1
When three games to two - 7 ' 4
Four games to two - 41
Five games to two - 10 1
When four games to three -21
Five games to three - 51
The odds of an advantage fet when
the lirft game is won, are 5 4
When two games love - 7*4
Three games love - 31
Four games love . . 5 t
Five games love . - 15 1
When two games to one - 4 3
Three games to one - 2 1
Four games to one - 72
Five games to one - » 10 1
When three games to two - 3 2
Four games to two - 31
Five games to two - 8 1
When four games to three - 8 5
Five games to three - 31
When five games to four - 21
When fix games to five - 52
The foregoing odds, as beforefaid, are generally laid, but
the chaces interfering makes the odds very precarious ; for
example, when there is a chace at half a yard, and a fet is
five games all, and in every other refpeft equal, the odds
are a good five to four; and if it were fix games to five,
and forty thirty with the fame chace, the odds then would
be a guinea to a (hilling ; fo that it is plain that the odds
at this game differ from thofe of any other : for one flroke
will reduce a fet, fuppofing the players to be five games all,
from an even wager to three to two, and fo on in propor¬
tion to the ifage of the let.
There are various methods of giving odds at tennis, in
oruer to make a match equal; and that they may be under-
--oo'-b we fhall give the following lifl of them, with their
meanings, fo that any perfon may form a judgment of the
advantage received or given.
i he lowed odds that can be given, excepting the choice
of the tides, is what they call a bij'qu.et that is, a flroke to
be taken or fcored whenever the player, who receives the ad¬
vantage, thinks proper : for inftance, fuppofe a critical game
of the fet to be forty thirty, by taking the b/que, he who is
forty becomes game, and fo in refpect of two bifques, See.
The next greater odds are fifteen, that is, a certain ftroke
given at the beginning of each game.
After theie, half thirty, that is, fifteen one game, and
thirty the next. Then follow the whole thirty, forty, See,
There are alfo the following kind of odds which are given,
Tennis
II
Ten tv
viz.
Round fiervices ; thofe are fervices given round the pent-
houfe, fo as to render it eafy tor thefiriher-out (the player
who is on the hazard fide) to return the ball.
Half court, that is, being obliged or confined to play ini
to the adverfary’s half-court ; fometimes it is played ftraight-
wife, and at other times acrofs; both which are great adi .
vantages given by him fo confined, but the ftrait half-court
is the greateft.
¥ ouch-no-wall, that is, being obliged to play within the
compafs of the wails, or tides of the court. This is a conti*
derable advantage to him who receives it; as all the balls
mull be played gently, and confequently they are much ea-
fier to take than thofe which are played hard, or according
to the ufual method of play.
Barring the hazards, that isr barring the dedans, tambour9
grill, or the laft gallery on the hazard-lide, or any particular
one or more of them.
Thefe are the common kind of odds or advantages given;
but there are many others, which are according to what is
agreed by the players : fuch as playing with board againfh
racket, cricket-bat againfl racket, &c.
The game of tennis is alfo played by four perfons, two
partners on each fide. In this cafe, they are generally con¬
fined to their particular quarters, and one of each fide ap¬
pointed to ferve and ftrike out; in every other refpect, the
game is played in the fame manner as when two only play.
Any thing more to be laid upon this fubjeft would be
needlefs, as nothing can be recommended, after reading this
fhort account of tennis, but praftice and attention, without
which no one can become a proficient at the name.
_ TENOR, or Tendur, the purport-or content of a wri¬
ting or inftrument in law, &c.
Tenor, in mufic, the firft mean, or middle part, or that
which is the ordinary pitch of the voice, when neither raifed
to a treble nor lowered to a bafs. *
TENSE, in grammar, an infleftion of verbs, whereby
they arc made to -figniry or diftinguifh the circumftance of
time in what they affirm. See Grammar.
TENT, in war, a pavilion or portable houfe. Tents are
made o^ canvafs, for officers and foldiers to lie under when
in the field. The iize of the officers tents is not fixed ;
fome regiments have them of one fize and fome of another ;
a captain’s tent and marquee is generally icf feet broad,
14 deep, and 8 high : the fubalterns are a foot Ids ; the
major’s and lieutenant-colonel’s a foot larger ; and the colo¬
nel’s two feet larger. The fubalterns of foot lie two in a tent,
and thofe of horfe but one. The tents of private men are
6T feet iquare, and 5 feet high, and hold five ioldiers each.
'The tents for horfe are 7 feet broad and 9 feet deep : they
hold likwife five men and their horfe accoutrements. The
word is formed from the Latin tentorium, ottendo “I ftretch,’51'
becaufe tents are ufually made of canvafs fketched out,
and fuftained by poles, with cords and pe^s.
T ent, in furgery, a roll of lint made into the ffiape of a
nail with a broad flat head, chiefly ufed in deep wounds and
ulcers. I hey are of fervice, not only in conveying medi¬
cines to the moft intimate receffes and finufes of the wound,
but to prevent the lips of the. wound from uniting before it
Terser
' li
Tenths.
JUaclfl.
Comment.
srol. i.
E N T 3S2 ] T E
and by their affiflance grumous in the compafa of 50 years 80
N
13 healed from the bottom
blood, fordes, &c. are readily cvacnated.
TENTER, Trier, or Prover, a machine ufed in the
cloth manufaftory, to ftretch out the pieces of cloth, fluff,
&c. or only to make them even and fet them fquare.
It is ufually about 4f feet high, and for length exceeds
that of the longed piece oY cloth. It con hits of ieveral
long fquare pieces of wood, placed like thofe which form
the barriers of a manege ; fo, however, as that the lower
crofs pieces of wood may be railed or lowered as is found
requifite, to be fixed at any height by means of pins. A-
long the crofs pieces, both the upper and under one, are
hooked nails, called tenter-hooks y driven in from fpace to
fpace.
To put a piece of Cloth on the Tentfu. While the piece
is yet quite wet, one end is fattened to one of the ends of
the tenter ; then it is pulled by force of arms towards the
other end, to bring it to the length required : that other
end being fattened, the upper lift is hooked on to the upper
crofs-piece, and the lowed lift to the loweft crofs-piece,
which is afterwards lowered by force, till the piece have its
deftred breadth. Being thus well ftretched, both as to
length and breadth, they brtifh it with a ft iff hair brufh,
and thus let it dry. Then they take it off; and, till they
wet it again, it will retain the length and breadth the tenter
gave it.
TENTHREDO, the saw-fly ; a genus of infects be¬
longing to the order of hymenoptera. The mouth is furnijfh-
<ed with jaws, which are horny, arched, dentated within ;
the right jaw being obtufe at the apex : the lip cylindrical,
trifid: there are four feelers, unequal and filiform: the
wings are plain and turned : the ding confifts of two ferra-
-ted laminae, and the fcutellum of two grains placed at a di-
itance. Gmelin mentions 143 fpecies. Thefe infedts are
not very ftiy. Some, by means of their faw, depofit in the
buds of flowers, others on the twigs of trees or ftirubs, eggs
from which are produced caterpillars. The implement
with which they are armed is nowife formidable ; as it ap¬
pears only deftined to the purpofe of.depofiting their eggs.
TEN THS, and first fruits of Spiritual Preferments^ a
branch of the king’s revenue. See Revenue.
Thefe were originally a part of the Papal ufurpations
over the clergy of this kingdom ; firft introduced by Pan-
dulph the pope’s legate, during the reigns of king John and
Henry III. in the fee of Norwich ; and afterwards attempt¬
ed to be made univerfal by the popes Clement V. and John
XXII. about the beginning of the 14th century. The firft
fruits, prfin/TiZ’ or annatesy were the full year’s whole profits
of the fpiritual preferment, according to a rate or valor
made under the -diredtion of pope Innocent IV. by Walter
bifhop of Norwich in 38 Hen. III. and afterwards advanced
in value by commifilon from pope Nicholas III. A. D.
1292ft 20 Edw. I. ; which valuation of pope Nicholas is
ftill preferved in the exchequer. The tenths, ox decinuE, were
the tenth part of the annual profit of each living by the
fame valuation ; which was alfo claimed by the holy fee,
under no better pretence than a ftrange mifapplication of
that precept of the Levitical law, which diredts, that the
Levites “ (hould offer the tenth part of their tithes as a
heave-offering to the Lord, and give it to A.aron the high-
prieft. But this claim of the pope met with vigorous re-
fiftance fr m the Englifh parliament ; and a variety of adts
were palled to prevent and reftrain it, particularly the fta-
tute 6 Hen. IV. c. 1. which calls it a horrible mfchief and
damnable eujlom. But the Popifh clergy, blindly devoted
to the will of a foreign mailer, ftiil kept it on foot ; fome-
•times more fecretly, fometimes more openly and avowedly:
Jo that in the reign of Henry VIII. it was computed, that
Tenths,
Tenure..
(ooo ducats had been fent
to Rome for firft fiuits only. And as the clergy expreffed
this willingnefs to contribute fo much of their income to the
head of the church, it was thought proper (when in the
fame reign the papal power was aboh’ihed, and the king was
declared the head of the church of England) to annex this
revenue to the crown which was done by ftatute 26 Hen.
VIII. c. 3. ( confirmed by ftatute 1 Eliz. c. 4.); and a new
valor benefeiorum was then made, by which the clergy are
at prefent rated.
By thefe laft mentioned ftatutes all vicarages under ten
pounds a year, and all re&ories under ten marks, are dif-
charged from the payment of firft fruits : and if, in fuch li¬
vings as continue chargeable with this payment, the incum¬
bent lives but half a year, he fhall pay only one quarter of
his firft fruits ; if but one whole year, then half of them ;
if a ye*r and ti halt, three quaiters ; and if two years, then
the whole, and not otherwife. Likewife by the ftatute 27
Hen. VIIL c. 8. no tenths are to be paid for the firft year,
for then the firft fruits are due : and by other ftatutes of
queen Anne, in the fifth and fixth years of her reign, if a
benefice be under L. 50 per annum clear yearly value, it fhall
be difeharged of the payment of firft fruits and tenths.
Thus the richer clergy being, by the criminal bigotry of
their Popifh predeceffors, fubjedted at firft to a foreign exac¬
tion, were afterwards, when that yoke was fhaken off, liable
to a like mifapplication of their revenues through the rapa¬
cious difpofition of the then reigning monarch; till at length
the piety of queen Anne reftored to the church what had
been thus indiredtly taken from it. This fhe did, not by
remitting the tenths and firfl fruits entirely ; but, in a ipirit
of the trueft equity, by applying thefe fuperfluities of-the
larger benefices to make up the deficiencies of the fmaller.
And to this end fhe granted her royal charter, which was
confirmed by the ftatute 2 Ann. c. 11. whereby all the re¬
venue of firft fruits and tenths is vefted in trufiees for ever,
to form a perpetual fund for the augmentation of poor li¬
vings. This is ufually called Queen Anne’s bounty ; which
has been ftill farther regulated by fubfequent ftatutes.
TENURE, in law, fignifies the manner whereby lands
or tenements are held, or the fervice that the tenant owes
to his lord.
Of this kingdom almoft all the real property is by the
policy of our laws fuppofed to be granted by, dependent
upon, and holden of, fome fuperior lord, by and in confider-
ation of certain fervices to be rendered to the lord by the
tenant or poffeffor of this property. The thing holden is
therefore ftyled a tenement, the poffeffors thereof tenants, and
the manner of their poffeflion a tenure. Thus all the lands
in the kingdom is fuppoied to be holden, mediately or im¬
mediately, of the king ;■ who is ftyled the lord paramount, or
above all. Such tenants as held under the king imme¬
diately, when they granted out portions of the lands to
ferior perfons, became alfo lords with refpeJt to thofe in-
ferior perfons, as they were ftill tenants with refpeft to the
king ; and, thus partaking of a middle nature, were called
mefne or middle lords. So that if the king granted a manor
to A, and he granted a portion of the land to B, now B
was faid to hold of A, and A of the king; or, in other
words, B held his lands immediately of A, but mediately of
the king. The king therefore was ftyled lo>dparamount :
A was both tenant and lord, or was a mefne lord ; and B
was called tenant par avail, or the towef tenant, being he who
was fuppofed to make avail, or profit of the land. In this
manner are all the lands of the kingdom holden which are
in the hands of fubje&s : for, according to Sir Edward
Coke, in the law of England we have not properly ailod.um,
which is the name by which the feudifts abroad diftinguifh
fuch
TEN [ 381 ] TEN
Tenure, fucli eftates of the fubjeft as are not holden of any fuperior.
So that at the firft g-lance we may obferve, that bur lands
are either plainly feuds, or partake very ftrongly of the feu¬
dal nature.
All tenures beinn- thus derived, or fuppofed to be derived,
from the king, thofe that , held immediately under him, in
right of his crown and dignity, were called his tenants in ca-
pite, or in chief} which was the moft honourable fpecies of
tenure,* but at the fame time fubjefted the tenants to greater
and more burdenfome fervices than inferior tenures did.
And this diftindtion ran through all the different forts of
tenure.
There feem to have fubfifted amonar our anceftors four-
principal fpecies of lay-tenures, to which all other may be
reduced : the grand criteria of which were the natures of the
feveral fervices or renders that were due to the lords from
their tenants. The fervices, in refpeft of their quality,
were either free or lafe fervices : in refpeft of their quantity
and the time of exafting them were either certain or uncer¬
tain. Free fervices were fuch as were not unbecoming the
chara&er of a foldier or a freeman to perform ; as to ferve
under his lord in the wars, to pay a fum of money, and the
like. Bafe fervices were fuch as were fit only for peafants
or perfons of a fervile rank ; as to plough the lord’s land, to
make his hedges, to carry out his dung, or other mean em¬
ployments. The certain fervices, whether free or bafe, were
fuch as were Hinted in quantity, and could not be exceeded
on any pretence; as, to pay a ftated annual-rent, or to
plough fuch a field for three days. The uncertain depend¬
ed upon unknown contingencies ; as, to do military fervice
in perfon, or pay an afieffment in lieu of it when called up¬
on ; or to wind a horn upon the appearance of invaders ;
which are free fervices ; or to do whatever the lord fiiould
command ; which is a bafe or villein fervice.
From the various combinations of thefe fervices have ari-
fen the four kinds of lay-tenure which fubfilted in England
till the middle of the laft century ; and three of which fub-
fill to this day. Of thefe Brabfon (who wrote under Hen¬
ry the Third) feems to give the cleareft and moil compen¬
dious account of any author ancient or modern ; of which
the following is the outline or abilrad: “ Tenements are
of two kinds, frank-tenement, and villetiage. And of frank*
tenements, fome are held freely in confideration of homage
and knight-fervice ; others in free-focage, with the fervice of.
fealty only. And again, of villenages, fome are pure, and
others pr'rvi/egecl. He that holds in pure villenage ihall do
whatfoever is commanded him, and always be bound to an
uncertain fervice. The other kind of villenage is called vil¬
lein foe age ; and thefe viliein-focmen do villein fervices, but
fuch as are certain and determined.” Of which the fenfe
feems to be as follows ; firft, where the fervice was tree, but
uncertain, as military fervice with homage, that tenure was
called the tenure in chivalry, per fervitium miLtare, or by
knight fervice. Secondly, where the fervice was not only
free, but alio certain, as by fealty only, by rent and fealty,
&c. that tenure was called liberum focagium, or free fucage.
I hefe were the only free holdings or tenements ; the others
were villenous or fervile : as, thirdly, where the fervice was
bafe in its nature, and uncertain as to time and quantity,
the tenure was purum villenagium, ablolnte or pure villenage.
Eaftlp, where the fervice was bafe in its nature, but reduced
to a certainty, this was ftill villenage, but diftinguifhed
from the other by the name of privileged villenage, villena-
gium priviiegiatum ; or it might be ftill called fucage (from
the certainty of its fervices), but degraded by their bafe-
nets into the inferior title of villanum focagium, villein-foe-
i. The military tenure, or that by knight-fervice, was
done away by flat. 12 Car. II. For an account of this
fpecies of tenure fee Feoujl Syflem, and Knigh-r-Service ;
and for its incidents, fee Relief, Primer-seisin, Ward¬
ship, Marriage, Fines, and Escheat.
2. The fecond fpecies of tenure or free-focage, not only
fubfifts to this day, but has in a manner abforbed and fwal-
lowed up (fince the ftatute of Charles the Second) alrnofl
every other fpecies of tenure.- See Socage.
1 he other grand divifion of tenure, mentioned by Brae-
ton, is that of villenage, as contradiftinguifhed from liberum
tenementum, or frank-tenure. And this (we may remember)
he fubdivides into two claffes, pure and privileged villenage;
from whence have arifen two other fpecies of our modern
tenures.
3. from the tenure of pure villenage have fprung our
prefent copyhold-tenures, or tenure by copy of court-roll
at the will of the lord ; in order to obtain a clear idea of
which, it will be previoufly neceflary to confult the articles
Manor and Villenage.
As a farther conlequence of what has been there explain¬
ed, we may colledl thefe two main principles, which are
held to be the fupporters of a copyhold-tenure, and with¬
out which it cannot exift ; 1. That the lands be parcel of
and fituate within that manor under which it is held. 2.
That they have been demifed, or demilable, by copy of
court-roll immemorially. For immemorial cuftom is the life
of all tenures by copy ; fo that no sew copyhold can, ftrkt-
ly fpeaking, be granted at this day.
In fome manors, where the cuftom hath been to permit
the heir to fucceed the anceftor in his tenure, the eftates are
ftyled copyholds of inheritance; in others, where the lords
have been more vigilant to maintain their rights, they re¬
main copyholds for life only ; for the cuftom of the manor
has in both cafes fo far fuperfeded the will of the lord, that,
provided the fervices be performed or ftipulated for by feal¬
ty, he cannot in the firft inftance re-Fufe to admit the heir of
his tenant upon his death ; nor, in the fecond, can he re¬
move his prefent tenant fo'Iong as he lives, though he holds
nominally by the precarious tenure of his lord’s will.
The fruits and appendages of a copyhold-tenure, that it
hath in common with free tenures, are fealty, fervices (as
well in rents as otherwife), relief, and e{cheat3. The two
latter belong only to' copyholds of inheritance ; the former
to thofe for life alio. But, befides .thefe, copyholds have
alfo heriots, wardfhip, asd fines. Heriots, which are agreed
to be a Banifh cuftom, are a render of the bell beaft or
other good (as the cuftom may be) to the lord on the death
of the tenant. 1 his is plainly a relic of villein tenure ; there
being originally lefs hardfhip in it, when all the goods and
chattels belonged to the lord, and he miTat have feized
them even in the villein’s Retime. Thefe are incident to
both fpecies of copyhold ; but wardfhip and fines to thofe
of inheritance only. Wardfhip, in copyhold-eftates, par¬
takes both of that in chivalry and that in focage. Like
that in chivalry, the lord is the legal guardian, who ufually
aftigns fome relation of the infant tenant to aft in his Head ;
and he, like guardian in iocage, is accountable to his ward
for the profits. Of fines, fome are in the nature of primer-
feifms, due on the death of each tenant, others are mere
fines for alienations of the lands ; in fome manors, only one
Of thofe forts can be demanded, in fome both, and in others
neither. They are fometimes arbitrary and at the will of
the lord, fo^metimes fixed by cuftom ; but, even whan arbi-
tiaiy, tne courts of law, in favour of the liberty of copy-
holders, have tied them down to be reasonable in their ex¬
tent ; otherwife they might amount to difherifon of the
eflate. No fine therefore is allowed to be taken noon de-
feents and alienations (unlefs in particular circumftances) of
mote
Tenure,
Y E N [ 384 1 TER
: more than two years improved value of the ellate. From
this inilar.ce we may judge of the favourable difpofition that
-the law of England (which is a law of liberty) hath always
fliown to this fpecies of tenants, by removing, as far as pof-
'fible, every real badge of flavery from them, however fome
nominal ones may continue. It fuffered cuilom very early
.to get the better of the esprefs terms upon which they held
their lands ; by declaring, that the.will of the lord wras to
-be interpreted by the cuilom of the manor; and, where no
*cuitom has been fullered to grow up to the prejudice of
the lord, as in this cafe of arbitrary fines, the lawr itfelf
: interpofes in an equitable method, and will not fuffer the
.lord to extend his power fo far as to difinherit the tenant.
4. There is yet a fourth fpecies of tenure, defcribed by
• Eradion, under the name fometimes of privileged villenags,
and lometimes or villein-focage. See Privileged Villenagr.
Having in the prefent article and thofe referred to, taken
.a compendious view ot the principal and fundamental points
of the doftrine of tenures, both ancient and modern, we
cannot but remark the mutual connetfion and dependence
- that all of them have upon each ether. And upon the
whole it appears, that, whatever changes and alterations
thefe tenures have in procefs of time undergone, from the
Saxon era to the 12 Car. II. all lay-tenures are now in ef-
fe£l reduced to two fpecies ; free tenure in common focage,
;and bafe tenure by copy of court-roll. But there is ftill
behind one other fpeciee of tenure, referved by the ftatute
of Charles II. which is of a fpiritual nature, and called the
tenure in FuANK-Almoign ; fee that article.
A particular account of the ancient tenures would to
many perfons be highly amufmg. We can only feleft a
few of the moft fingular, referring the curious reader for
■more information to Anderfon’s Origin of Commerce, Hen¬
ry’s Hiltory of Britain, and Blount’s Fragmtnta Antiqui-
tates.
In the 19th of Henry III. Walter Gately held the
manor of Weftcourt, in Bedington in Surry, yielding
yearly to the king one crofs-bow, lalijlamy value twelve
pence.
Anno tertio Edwr. I. Ofbert de Loijchamp, knight, held
his lands of Ovenhelle in Kent, for perfonally guarding
the king forty days into Wales at his own expence,
with one horfe of five {hillings value, one fack worth fix-
pence, and one broch for that fack. N. B. All perfonal
fervices, or attendances on our kings in thofe times, were lb
mited to forty days, at their own expence.
The like the fame year of Laurence de Broke, wh© for
his hamlet of Renham in Middlefex, found the king one
foldier, a horfe worth live fhillings, a fack worth fivepence,
and a hroch worth twopence (this broch was a kind of cup,
jug, pot, or bafon), for forty days, at his own expence,
wherever his army {hall bv within the four feas. This was
fettled (fays Mr Blount) at the Stone C^ofs, which ftood
near the May pele in the Strand, London, where the judges-
itinerant uied in old times to fit.
Robert Maunfel’s tenure of lands in Peverel paid the
fame fervice, and the .horie, fack, and broch, of the fame
prices.
13wo iadwv I, Henry de Averoing’s tenure of the manor
or Morton in Lflex, was to find a man, a horfe worth
ten fhdlings, tour horie-fhoes, a leather fack, and an iron
fcroeh.
1 he year following, three perfons held thirty acres of
land in Carleton in Norfolk, by the fervice of bringing the
.king, whenever he mall be in England, twenty-four pailies
of hefh herrings, at their firil coming in.
Anoiher held Iris manor in Norfolk of that king, by an¬
nually lupplying him at Hj exchequer with two veffels,. call¬
ed mueSfOt wine made of pearmains. “ Here (fays our Tenure
author) it is worth obferving, that in King Edward the , 11
Firfl’s time pearmain cyder was called wine.” This there- Mercery,
fore feems to account for the mention of vineyards in old 'r^J'
times in Kent, Sulfex, and other parts of England, which
has lo often puzzled many people to elucidate.
Another perfon, in the 2lit ot the faid king, held thirty
acres of land, valued at ten {hillings yearly in the exche¬
quer, or fourpence per acre, in Cambridgelhire, for furnifh-
ing a trufs of hay for the king’s necefl'ary-houfe or privy,
whenever he {hall come into that county.
Another, in the 34th of that king, held a manor in Kent,
for providing^ a man to lead three greyhounds when the
king {hall go into Gafcony, fo long as a pair of {hoes of
fourpence {hould lalt.
And that we may not again recur to thefe old tenures,
we {hall further add, from the fame author, that in the firft
year of king Edward II. Peter Spileman made fine to the
king for his lands by ferjeanty, to find one to ferve as a fol¬
dier for forty days in England, with a coat of mail; alfo to
find ft raw for the king’s bed, and hay for his horfe.
T- his article of ftraw for the king’s bed we did not fo
much wonder at, when we found it in an article in William
the Conqueror’s time ; but it is fomewhat more remarkable
fo late as the days of king Edward the Second.
Several others, we find, held their lands of the crown in
thofe times by very different tenures. One, by paying two
white capons annually ; another, by carrying "the king’s
ffandard whenever he happens to be in the county of Suf-
fex ; another, by carrying a tod or batoon before the king
on certain occafions ; another, by ferving the office of cham¬
berlain of the exchequer, a very gdod place at prelent; ano¬
ther, by building and upholding a bridge ; another, by being
marechal (meretricum), i, e. as Mr Blount tranflates it, of the
laundreffes in the king’s army ; another, by adding as a fer-
jeant at arms for the king’s army whilft in England ; one
fupplies a fervant for the king’s larder ; another, for his
wardrobe ; others, to find fervants for this or that foreft ;
another, a hawk ; one prefents the- king a pair of fcarlet
hole annually ; others are bound to fupply foldiers with ar¬
mour for certain-days, for the keeping this or that caftle ;
one, viz. for the .manor of Elfton in Nottinghamfhire, pays
yearly rent of one pound weight of - cummin feed, two pair
of gloves, and a iteel needle ; another, is to repair the iron¬
work of the king’s ploughs ; Ela Countefs of Warwick, in
the 13th year of king Edwar-d I. held the manor of Hoke-
norton in Oxfordlhire, in the barony of D’Oyly, by the
ferjeanty of carving at the king’s table on his birth-day,
.and {he to have the knife the king then ufes at table.
TEOS, one of the twelve Ionian cities, was lituated on
the fouth fide of the Ionian peninfula, and diftinguifhed by
being the place where the poet Anacreon and the hiftorian
•Hecatseus were born.
TERAPHIM, or Theraph im, a word in the Hebrew
language, which has exeicifed much the ingenuity of the
critics. It occurs 13 or 14 times in the Old Teftament,
and is commonly interpreted idols. We will not trouble our
readers with the numerous conjedfures which have been
formed refpeding the meaning of this word. The only way
to determine it, if it be at all poffible, would be to examine
and compare all the paffages in which it cc-curs, and to con-
fult the-ancient trunflations. Conjectures are ufelefs ; every
man may make a new one, which will have juft as good a
title to belief as thafe which have been already propofed.
TERCERY, one of the largeft iflands or the Azores,
or Weftern Iflands, lying in the Atlantic Ocean. It is
about 40 miles in circumference ; and furrounded with crag¬
gy rocks, which render it almoft iuacccffible. The f-: is
fertile,
TER, [ 385 ] T E
Terebella fertile, abounding in corn, wine, and fruits} and they have der, and grow to the greatefl fize.
fuch plenty of cattle, that they fupply the Ihips therewith " "
that call there. However, their principal trade is wood.
R
Teredo.
_ rever.
lire inhabitants are lively andwxll made; and they pretend
to a great deal of religion and gallantry at the fame time.
I hey pique themfelves upon points of honour, and are ex¬
tremely revengeful. It is their cuftom to rove about in the
night-time in queft of intrigues, and feldom fail in finding
women for their purpofe. It is fubjedd to Portugal; and
Angra is the capital tow n. W. Long. 27. 1. N. Lat. 28. 45.
TEREBELLA, the Pi ercer, in natural hiftory, a ge¬
nus or infefts belonging to the clafs of vermes, and order of
mollufca. The body is filiform, the mouth placed before ;
the preputium puts forth a pedunculated tubulous gland.
There are feveral capillary tentacula about the mouth. There
are ten fpecies.
Terebinthink Ehfiuary. See Pharmacy, n0 599.
TEREBINTHUS, in botany. See Pi STACIA.
TEREDO, in natural hiftory, a genus of vermes belong¬
ing to the order of tejlacea. The animal is a terebella ;
there are two valves, calcareous, hemifpherical, and cut off
before, and two lanceolated. The ftiell is tapering, bending,
and capable of penetrating wood. There are only three
fpecies ; the navalis, utrkulus, and clava.
The navalis, or fhip-worm, which has a very flender
fmooth cylindrical ftiell, inhabits the Indian feas, whence it
was imported into Europe. It penetrates eafrly into the
itouteft oak-planks, and produces dreadful deftru&ion to
the {hips by the holes it makes in their fides ; and it is to
avoid the effedfs of this infedh that veflels require fheathing.
The head of this creature is well prepared by nature for the
hard offices which it has to undergo, being coated with aftrong
armour, and furnifhed with a mouth like that of the leech ;
by which it pierces wood, as that animal does the flcin ; a
little above this it has two horns which feem a kind of con¬
tinuation of the fhell; the neck is as ftrongly provided for
the fervice of the creature as the head, being furnifhed with
ieveral ftrong mufcles ; the reft of the body is only covered
by a very thin and tranfparent flcin, throug'h which the mo¬
tion of the inteftines is plainly feen by the naked eye ; and
by means of the microfcope feveral other very remarkable
particulars become vifible there. This creature is wonder¬
fully minute when newly excluded from the egg, but it
grows to the length of four or fix inches, and fometimes
•more.
When the bottom of a veffel, or any piece of wood which
is conftantly under water, is inhabited by thefe worms, it is
full of fmall holes ; but no damage appears till the outer
parts are cut away : I hen their fhelly habitations come into
view ; in which there Is a large fpace for inclofing the ani¬
mal, and furrounding it with water. There is an evident
care in thefe creatures never to injure one another’s habita¬
tions; by this means each cafe or fhell is preferved entire ;
and in fuch pieces of wood as have been found eaten by
In the oak they make Terence,
final! progrefs, and appear fmall and feeble, and their fnells term’ ,
much difcoloured. ——y—
Since each of thefe animals is lodged in a folitary cell,
and has no accefs to thofe of its own fpecies, it has been
matter of furprife how they fhould increafe to fo vaft a
multitude. Upon diffedhng them, it apoears that every in¬
dividual has the parts of both fexes, and is therefore fup-
pofed to propagate by itfelf.
1 he lea-worms, which are pernicious to our fhipping, ap¬
pear to have the fame office allotted them in the waters which
the termites have on the land (fee Termes). They will ap¬
pear, on a very little confideration, to be moft important beings
in the great chain of creation, and pleafing demonftrations of
that infinitely wif and gracious Power which formed, and
flill preferves, the whole in fuch wonderful order and beauty; BJ/l'.
for if it was not for the rapacity of thefe and fuch animals, fof
tropical rivers, and indeed the ocean itfelf, would be choked1781"
with the bodies of trees which are annually carried down.
by the rapid torrents, as many of them would laft for ages,
and probably be produAive of evils, of which, happily, we
cannot in the prefent harmonious ftatc of things form any
idea (a) ; whereas now being confumed by thefe animals, they
are more eafily broken in pieces by the waves ; and the
fragments which are not devoured become fpecifically lighter,
and are confequently more readily and more effediually
thrown on fhore, where the fun, wind, infe&s, and various
other inftruments, fpeedily promote their entire diffolution,
TERENCE, or Publius Terentius Afer, a cele¬
brated comic poet of ancient Rome, was born at Carthage
m Africa. He was Have to Terentius Lucanus the fenator;
who gave him his liberty on account of hiswit, his good mien,
and great abilities. Terence, on his becoming a freed man,
applied himfelf to the writing of comedies;"in the execu¬
tion of which he imitated Menander and the other celebrated
comic poets of Greece. Cicero gives him the moft pom¬
pous eulogiums, both for the purity of his language and the
perfpicuity and beauty of his compofitions, which he con-
fideis as the rule and ftandard of the Latin tongue; and
observes, that they were efteemed fo fine and elegant, that
they were thought to have been written by Scipio and Le-
lius, who were then the greateft perfonages and the moft
eloquent of the Roman people. Terence died while on a
voyage into Greece, about the 15th year before the Chri-
ftian era. There are fix of his comedies extant, of which
the bell editions are the Elzevir one 1635, izmo; that cum
integns notis Donati, et fektlis variorum, 1686, 8vo ; Wefter-
hovius’s, in two vols qto 1726; and that of Bentley the
fame year qto. Madam Dacier has given a beautiful French
verfion of this author ; and a very good Englifh tranflation
was publifhed in 410, 1 768, by Mr Colman.
1 ERM, in law, is generally taken for a limitation of time
or eftate ; as, a leafe for term of life or years.
Term, however, is more particularly ufed for that time
them into a Urt ~r u u .u  • r / , . ’ 1,uwtvcl» particularly uled tor that time
them into a tort of honeycomb, there never is feen a paf- wherein our courts of juftice are open - in ouDofition tn
fage or communication between any two of the fhells, tho’ which, the reft of the year is called vacation. Ft
the woody matter between them often is not thicker than a Term, in prammar> ^  n- •
•the woody matter between them often is not thicker than a
piece of writing-paper.
They penetrate fome kinds of wood much more eafily than
others. They make their way moft quickly into fir and al-
V(?l. XVIII. Part I.
in grammar, denotes fome word or expreflion in
a language.
T he word term, terminus, is borrowed metaphorically, by
the grammarians and philofophers, from the meafurers or fur-
3 G veyors
■into “tUbed r?i W-nl 'tU ■" "atfr for raniy centurits, is apparent from the oak Hakes which were driven
Afhtnn T P >° th, r Thames on the mvafion of this iftand by Julius Csefar, one of which is to be feen in Sir
■Britain andTreknd^v’ |a"f 'kew,lfe fr.om U' bodl'es "f tre™ are daily found in the bogs and moraffes of Great
- tk ^ °f « of twothoufand yeae“
T E il [ 3S6 ] TER
TVrm*. veyors oflands : as a field Is defined and dnlmgmfr.ed by its
—v—~ termini, or limits, fo is a thing or matter i'poken of by the
v, ord or term it is denoted by.
Term in the Arts, or Tek:a of Art, is a word which, be-
fides the literal and popular meaning whieli it has or may
have in common language, bears a further and peculiar
meaning in feme art or fcience.
Terms, the fcveral times or feafons of the year, wherein
the tribunals, or courts of judicature, are open to all who
think fit to complain of wrong, or to feck their rights by
due courfe of law, or adtion ; and during which the courts
in Weitminfter-hall fit and give judgment. But the high
court of parliament, the chancery, and inferior courts, do
not obferve the terms; only the courts of king’s-bench,
common-pleas, and exchequer, which are the highelt couits
at common law. In contradiftin£Iion to thefe, the red or
the year is called vacation*
Of thefe terms there are four in every year, during which
time matters of juftice are difpatched. Hilary-term, which,
at London, begins the 23d day of January, or if that be
Sunday, the next day after ; and ends the 12th of February
following. Eajler-term, which begins the Wednefday fort¬
night after Eafter-day, and ends the Monday next after
Afcenfion day. Trinity4erm, beginning the Friday next
after Trinity-Sunday, and ending the Wednefday fortnight
after. Michaelmas-term, which begins the lixth-day of No¬
vember, and ends the 28th of November following. Each
of thefe terms have alfo their returns. Thefe terms are fup-
pofed by Mr Selden to have been inftituted by William the
Conqueror; but Sir H. Spelman hath {hewn, that they
were gradually formed from the canonical conftitutions of
the church ; being no other than thofe leifuve feafons of the
year which were not occupied by the great fedivals or fads,
or which were not liable to the general avocations of rural
bufinefs. Throughout all Chtiftendom, in very early times,
the whole year was one continual term for hearing and de¬
ciding caufes. For the Chriftian magidrates, in order to
dittinguifh themfelves from the heathens, who were very
fuperftitious in the obfervation of their dies fajli and ne-
fajli, adminidered jnftice upon all -days alike ; till at length
the church interpoied, and exempted certain holy feafons
from being profaned by the tumult of forenfic litigations ;
as, particularly, the time of Advent and Chriftmas, which
gave rife to the winter vacation; the time of Lent and
Eafter, which created that in the fpring ; the time of Pente-
cod, which produced the third ; and the long vacation, be¬
tween midtummer and Michaelmas, which was allowed for
the hay-time and harveft. ’All Sundays alio, and fome pe¬
culiar fedivals, as the days of the purification, afcenlion, &c.
were included in the fame prohibition, which was eftablifhed
by a canon of the church, A. D. 517, and fortified by an
imperial conftitution of the younger Fheodofius, comprized
in the Theodofian code. Afterwards, when our own legal
eonditution was edablifhed, the commencement and dura¬
tion of our law terms were appointed, with a view to thele
can inical prohibitions ; and it was ordered by the laws of
king Edward the Confeffor, that from Advent to the ofiave
of the Epiphany, from Septuagefima to the oftave of Eafter,
from the Alcenfion to the oftave of Pentecoft, and from
three in the afternoon of all Saturdays till Monday morn¬
ing, the peace of God and holy church {hall be kept through¬
out the whole' kingdom.
And lo extravagant was afterwards the regard paid to
thefeholy times, that though the .author of the Mirror men¬
tions only one vacation of conliderable length, containing
the months of Auguil and September, yet Britton fays, that
in the reign of king Edward I. no fecular plea could be held,
nor any man fworn on the Evangelilts, in the time of
Advent, Lent, Pentecoft, harveft, and vintage, the days Term,,
of the great litanies, and all folemn feftivals. He add1, Te.-nies.,
that the bifhops and prelates granted difpenfations for tn-
king affixes, and. juries in fome of thefe holy feafons, upon
reafonable occafions ; and foon after a general dilpeniation
was eftablifhed in parliament by flat. Weftm, 1. 3 Edw. I.
cap. 51. that affixes of novel diffeifm, mart d’aneejlor, and
darrein preferment, ftiould be taken in Advent, Septuage¬
fima, and Lent, as well as iuquefts ; at the fpecial requeft
of the king to the bifhops. d he portions of time that were
not included within thefe prohibited feafons fell naturally
into a fourfold divilion ; and from fome feftival, or faint’s
day, that immediately preceded their commencement, were
denominated the terms of St Hilary, of Eajler, of the Holy
Trinity, and of St Michael: •which terms have been fince re¬
gulated and abbreviated by feveral adts of parliament; par¬
ticularly Trinity-term by flat. 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 2. and
Michaelmas-term by flat. 16 Car. I. cap. 6. and again by
flat. 24 Geo. II. cap. 48.
Terms, Ox/orr/. Hilary or Lent-term begins January
14th, and ends the Saturday before Palm-Sunday. Eafter-
term begins the tenth day after Eafter, and ends the Thurs¬
day before Whitfunday. Trinity-term begins the Wednef¬
day after Trinity-Sunday, and end? after the adl, or 6th of
July, fooner or later, as the vice-chancellor and convocation
pleafe. Michaelmas-term begins Odtober the icth, and
ends December the 17th.
Terms, Cambridge. Lent-term begins January the 14th,
and ends Friday before Palm-Sunday. Eafter-term begins
the Wednefday after Eafter-week, and ends the week bef ore
Whitfunday. Trinity-term begins the Wednefday after
Trinity-Sunday, and ends the Friday after the commence*
ment, or 2d of July. Michaelmas-teim begins October the
10th, and ends December the 16th.
Terms, Scotti/h. The court of fefiion has two terms,
the winter and fummer. The winter begins on 12th No¬
vember, and ends nth March, only there is a recefs of three
weeks at Chriftmas. The fummer term commences 1 2th
May, and ends nth July. The court of exchequer has
four terms: 1. Candlemas term begins 15th January, and
ends 3d February ; 2. Whitfuntide term begins 12th May,
and ends 2d June; 3. Lammas term begins 17th June,
and ends 5th July ; 4. Martinmas term begins 24th No¬
vember, and ends 20th December.
Terms, /ri/Z>. In Ireland the terms are the fame as at
London, except Michaelmas-term, which begins October
the 13th, and adjourns to November the 3d, and thence
to the 6th.
TERMES, in entomology ; a genus of infedts belonging
to the order of aptera, according to Linnaeus, but by others
it is arranged more properly under the nmroptera. i he
mouth has two horny jaws ; the lip is horny and quadrifid,
the laciniae being linear and acute : there are four feelers,
which are equal and filiform. The antennae are moniliform
in moll fpecies, and the eyes two. There are eight fpecies,
according to Gmelin ; the fatale, dejbuiior, arda, mordax,
capenfe, fatidicum, pufatorhm, and divinatorium. But as
Gmelin has followed the claffification of Linnaeus in ar¬
ranging the termes under the order of aptera, it is not im¬
probable that feveral of thefe which are mentioned as fpecies
of the termes may belong to a different genus. It will be
fufficient, in the prefent article, to delcribe the fatale, which
we are enabled to do from very accurate informatron.
The termes fatale, lellicofus, or white ant, is of a yellow
colour above ; the wings alfo yellowifh; the eofta is fer¬
ruginous ; the ftemmata are near the eyes, the central point
being fomewhat prominent. Of the white ant we have
a very curious and interefting defeription, in the Philo-
, ' . fophical
TER [ 3S7 ] TER
Trrmes. fophlcal TYanfaftions for 1781, by Mr Henry Smeathman
of Clemenf ’s Inn. According to this account, the works
of thefe infefts furpafs thofe of the bees, wafps, beavers, and
other animals, as much at leaft as thofe of the moft polifhed
European nations excel thofe of the leaft cultivated favages.
And even with regard to man, his greateft works, the
boafted pyramids, hill comparatively far fhort, even in fize
alone, of the ftru&ures raifed by theie infecfts. The labour¬
ers among them employed in this fervice are not a quarter
of an inch in length ; but the ftru&ures which they eredl
rife to 10 or 12 feet and upwards above the furface of the
earth. Suppofing the height of a man to be fix feet, the
author calculates, that the buildings of thefe infers may
be confidered, relatively to their fize and that of a man, as
being raifed to near five times the height of the greateft of
the Egyptian pyramids; that is, correfponding with con-
fiderably more than half a mile. We may add, that, v/ith
refpetl to the interior conftruftion, and the various mem¬
bers and difpofitions of the parts of the building, they ap¬
pear greatly to exceed that or any other work of human
conftruftion.
The moft ftriking parts of thefe ftruflures are, the royal
apartments, the nurferies, magazines of provifions, arched
chambers and galleries, with their various communications;
the ranges of Gothic-fhaped arches, proje&ed, and not form¬
ed by mere excavation, fome of which are two or three
feet high, but which diminifh rapidly, like the arches *rf
ailes in perfpedtives ; the various roads, floping ftaircafes,
and bridges, confifting of one vaft arch, and conftru&ed to
fhorten the diftnnce between the feveral parts of the build¬
ing, which would otherwife communicate only by winding
paflages. In fome parts near Senegal, their number, mag¬
nitude, and clofenefs of fituation, make them appear like
the villages of the natives. But thefe and many other
curious inftances of the great fagacity and powers -of thefe
infefts cannot be underftood, without viewing the plates in
which their feeble frames, and comparatively ftupendous
works, are delineated. See Phil. Tranf. above referred to.
The economy of thefe induftrious inledls appears to have
been very attentively obferved by the ingenious author, as
well as their buildings. There are three diftintft ranks or
orders among them, conftituting a well-regulated commu¬
nity. Thefe are, firft, the labourers, or working infefts;
next foldiers, or fighting order, who do no kind of la-
bou'-, and are about twice as long as the former, and equal
m bulk to about 15 of them ; and laftly, the winged or
perfed infefts, which may be called the nobility or gentry of
the ftate ; for they neither labour nor fight, being fcarcely
capable even of felf-derence. “ Thefe only are capable of
being ele&ed kings or queens ; and nature has fo ordered it,
that they emigrate within a few weeks after they are eleva¬
ted to this ftate, and either eftablifh new kingdoms, or pe-
rifh within a day or two.”
The firft order, the working infers, are moft numerous,
being i» the proportion of 100 to 1 of the foldiers. In
this ftate they are about ^ of an inch long, and 2 j of them
■weigh about a grain, fo that they are not fo large as fome
©f our ants. See Plate DI. fig. 1. and 2.
The fecond order, or foldiers, have a very different form
from the labourers, and have been by fome authors fuppofed
to be the males, and the former neuters; but they are, in
fatt, the fame infedbs as the foregoing, only they have under¬
gone a change of form, and approached one degree nearer
to the perfect ftate. They are now much larger, being half
an inch long, and equal in bulk to fifteen of the labourers,
(fig. 3. and 4.)
The third order, or the infeft in its perfeft ftate, varies
its form ftill more than ever. The head, thorax, and ab¬
domen, differ a!moft entirely from the fame parts in the
labourers and foldiers ; and, befides this, the animal is now
furnifiied with four fine large browniih, tranfparent, wings,
with which ic is at the time of emigration to wing its way
in fearch of a new fettlement. It differs fo much from the
other two, that they have not hitherto been fuppofed to be¬
long to the fame community. In fadt, they are not to be
difeovered itr the neft till juft before the commencement of
the rainy feafon ; when they undergo the laft change,
which is preparative to the formation of new colonies.
They are equal in bulk to two foldiers and about 30 la¬
bourers (fee fig. 5.), and by means of the wings with which
they arc furnifhed they roam about for a few hours ; at the
end of which time they lofe their wings, and become the
prey of innumerable birds, reptiles, and infedls : while pro¬
bably not a pair out of many millions of this unhapoy race
get into a place of fafety, fulfil the firft law of nature, and
lay the foundation of a new community. In this ftate
many fall into the neighbouring waters, and are eaten with
avidity by the Africans. The author found them delicate,
nourifhing, and wholelome, without fauce or other help
from cookery than merely roafting them in the manner of
coffee.
The few fortunate pairs who happen to furvive this an¬
nual maffacre and deftruftion, are reprefented by the an¬
ther as being cafually found by fome of the labourers, that
are continually running about on the furface of the ground,
and are eledled kings and queens of new ftates. Thofe
who are not lo eledled and preferved certainly periih, and
moft probably in the courfe of the following day. By
thefe induftrious creatures the king and queen ele£t are im¬
mediately prote&ed from their innumerable enemies, by in-
clofing them in a chamber of clay ; where the bufinefs of
propagation foon commences. Their “ voluntary fubjefts’*
then bufy themfelves in conftru&ing wooden nurferics, or
apartments entirely compofed of wooden materials, ieeming-
ly joined together with gums. Into thefe they afterwards
carry the eggs produced from the queen, lodging them there
as faft as they can obtain them from her. The author even
furnifhes us with plaulible reafons t<5 believe, that they here
form a kind of garden for the cultivation of a fpecies of mi-
crofcopical mufhroom ; which Mr Konig (in an Effay on
the Eaft Indian Termites, read before the Society of Na-
turalifts of Berlin) conje&ures to be the food of the young
inlefts. But perhaps the moft wonderful, and at the fame
time beft authenticated, part of the hiftory of thefe fingular
iniefts, is that which relates to the queen or mother of the
community in her pregnant ftate.
After impregnation, a very extraordinary change begins
to take place in her perfon, or rather in her abdomen only.
■ It gradually increafes in bulk, and at length becomes of
fuch an enormous fize as to*exceed the bulk of the reft of
her body 1500 or 2000 times. She becomes iood times
heavier than her confort, and exceeds 20,000 or 30,00®
times the bulk of one of the labourers. In this ftate, the
matrix has a conftant periftaltic or undulating motion ; the
confequence of which is (as the author has counted them)
(fig. 8.) the protrufion of 80,000 eggs in 24 hours.
Thefe eggs, fays the author, “ are inftantly taken from
her body by her attendants (of whom there always are, in
the royal chamber and the galleries adjacent, a fufficient
number in waiting) and carried to the nurferies, which
are fometimes four or five feet diftant in a ftraight line.—•
Here, after they are hatched, the young are attended and
provided with every thing neceffary, until they aie able to
fhift for themfelves, and take their {hare ot the labouts of,
the community.”
Many curious and ftriking particulars are related of the
3 C a great
Tertnet.
TER C 388 3 TER
T«™». devalhtloM committca by this powerful community s 10 or 12 feet, they are ufed by the Europeaul a. plaeea to
—M "hich conftruft roads, or rather covered ways, diverging in look out from over the top of the grafs, which here grows
all direftions from the neft, and leading to every objea of to the height of 13 feet upon an average. The author has
plunder within their reach. Though the mifchiefs they rtood with four men on the topof one of thefe buildings,
very greatj fuch 19 the economy o! naturej that
Tcrmei.
commit are , &    .
it is probably counterbalanced by the good produced by
them ; in quickly deftroying dead trees and other fubftances,
which, as the author obferves, would, by a tedious decay,
ferve only to encumber the face of the earth. Such is their
alacrity and diipatch in this office, that the total dellrutlion
of deferted towns is fo effeaually accbmplifhed, that in two
or three years a thick wood fills the fpace ; and not the
leaft veftige of a houfe is to be difeovered.
From the many lingular accounts here given of the police
of thefe infeths, we lhall mention one relpedting the different
fun&ions of the labourers and foldiers, or the civil and mi¬
litary effablifhments in this community, on an attempt to
examine their nett or city.
On making a breach in any part of the ftrudture vwth a
hoe or pick axe, a foldier immediately appears, and wanes
about the breach, as if to fee whether the enemy is gone,
or to examine whence the attack proceeds. In a fhoit
time he is followed by two or three others, and foon after¬
wards by a numerous body, who rufh out as fait as the
breach will permit them ; their numbers increafing as long
as any one continues to batter the building. During this
time they are in the moft violent buftle and agitation ; while
feme of them are employed in beating with their forceps
noon the building, fo as to make a noife that may be heard
at three or four feet diftance. On ceafing to dilturb them,
the foldiers retire, and are fucceeded by the labourers, who
haften in various direftions towards the breach, each with a
burden of mortar in his mouth ready tempered. I hough
there are millions of them, they never itop or embarrafs
each other ; and a wall gradually arifes that fills up the
chafm. A foldier attends every 600 or 1000 of the la¬
bourers, fsemingly as a director of the works ; for he never
touches the mortar, either to lift or carry it. One in par¬
ticular places himfelf clofe to the wall which they are re¬
pairing, and frequently makes the noife above mentioned ;
which is conftantly anfwered by a loud Infs from all the
labourers within the dome: and at every fuch fignal, they
evidently redouble their pace, and work as fall again.
The ’work being completed, a renewal of the attack con¬
ftantly producea the fame effetts-. I he foldiers again rulh
out, and then retreat, and are followed by the labourers
loaded with mortar, and as active and diligent as before.
“ Thus, fays the author, the pkafure of feeing them come
out to fight or to work alternately may be obtained as
often aa curiofity excites or time permits : and it will cer¬
tainly be found, that the one order never attempts to fight,
or the other to work, let the emergency be ever fo great.”
The obftinacy of the foldiers is remarkable. “ They fight
to the very laft, difputing every inch of ground fo well as
often to drive away the negroes, who are without fhoes,
and make white people bleed plentilully through, their
ftockings.”
Such is the ftrength of the buildings eredted. by thei.e
puny infefts, that when they have been raifed to little more
than half their height, it is always the pradlice of the wild
bulls to Hand as centiuels upon them, while the reft of the
herd is ruminating below. When at their full height of
in order to get a view of any veil'd that might come in
fight.
It may appear furprifing how a Being perfe&ly good
fhould have created animals which feem to ferve no other
end but to fpread deftruftion and defolatiou wherever they
go. But let us be cautious in fulpe&ing any imperfeftion
in the Father of the Univerfe. What at firft fight may
feem only produdlive of mifehief, will, upon mature deli¬
beration, be found worthy of that wifdom which planned
the mofl beautiful parts of the world. Many poifons are
valuable medicines ; the ftorms are beneficial; and difeafes
often promote life. Thefe termites, indeed, are frequently
pernicious to mankind, but they are alfo very ufeful and
even neceffary ; one valuable purpofe which they ferve is, to
ddlroy decayed trees and other iubftances, which, if left om
the furface of the ground in hot climates, would in a ffiort
time pollute the air. In this refped they refemble very
much the common flies, which are regarded by mankind iit
general as noxious, and at bell as ufelefs beings in the crea¬
tion ; but this is certainly for want of conlideration. There
are not probably in all nature animals of more importance ;
and it would not be difficult to prove, that we Ihould feel
the want of one or two fpecies of large quadrupeds much
lei's than of one or two fpecies of thefe defpicable-looking
infe&s. Mankind in general are fenfible that nothing is.
more difagreeable, or more peftiferous, than putrid fub-
ftances ; and it is apparent to all who have made obferva-
tion, that thofe little infefts contribute more to the quick
diffolution and difperfion of putrefeent matter than any
other. They are lo neceflary in all hot climates, that even
in the open fields a dead animal or fmall putrid fubftance
cannot be laid upon the ground two minutes before it will
be covered with flies and their maggots, which inllantly
entering quickly devour one part, and perforating the reft,
in various direAions, expofe the whole to be much fooner
diflipated by the elements. Thus it is with the termites
the rapid vegetation in hot climates, of which no idea can
be formed by any thing to be feen in this, is equalled by as
great a degree of deftrudtion from natural as well as acci¬
dental caufes (a). It feems apparent, that when any thing,
whatever is arrived at its laft degree of perfe&ion, the Cre¬
ator has decreed it fhall be totally deftroyed as foon
poffible, that the face of nature may be fpeedily adorned
with frefh produdlions in the bloom of fpring or the pride
of fummer : fo when trees,. and even woods, are in part
deftroyed by torn?.does or fire, it is wonderful to obierye.
how many agents are employed in haftening the total difi*
folution of the. reft5 but in the hot climates there are none
fo expert, or who do their bufinefs fo expeditioufly and
effectually, as thefe infeCts, who-in a few weeks deftroy and
carry away the bodies of large trees, without leaving a par-*
tide behind, thus clearing, the place for other vegetables^
which foon fill up every vacancy; and in places where
two or three years before there has been-a populous town,
if the inhabitants, as is frequently the cafe, have chofen to
abandon it, there ffrall* bg a very thick wood, and not the
veftige of a poft to be feen, unlefs the wood has been ot
a Ipecies which, from its hardnefs, is called iron 'wood.
Fig,
f a! The Guinea grafs, which is fo well known and fo much efteemed by our planters m the. We ft Indies, *n
Africa, have already nrentioned, thirteen feet high upon an average, which:togit tt atta.na m about five or fix
months.y and the growth of many other plants is as quick.
TER [ ,389 ] TER
rtrmlns- Fi’^, 1. rcpr^fents a labourer. Fi^. 2. a labourer mag-
J'a nified. Fig. 3. a foldier. Fig. 4. a foldier, forceps, and.
Tenlftro- Part ^IS head magnified. Fig. 5. a perfe6f ter me 3 belli-
mia. cofus. Fig. 6. the head of a perfect infeif magnified.
Fig. 7. a head with /lemmata magnified. Fig. 8. a queen.
Fig. 9. a king. Fig. 10, is a feftion of the building raifed
by thefe infefts, as it would appear on being cut down
through the middle from the top a foot lower than the fur-
face of the ground. A A, an horizontal line from A on
the left, and a perpendicular line irom A at the bottom,
will interfetl each other at the royal chamber. The darker
(hades near it are the empty apartments and paffages, which
it feems are left fo for the attendants on the king and queen,
who, when old, may require near too,coo to w^ait on them
every day. The parts which are the lead (haded and dot¬
ted are the nurferies/furrounded, like the royal chamber, by
empty paffages, on all (ides, for the more eafy accefs to
them with the eggs from the queen, the provifion for the
young, &c. N. B. The magazines of previfions arc fitua-
ted without any feeming order among the vacant pafiages
which furround the nurferies. B, the top of the interior
building, which often feems, from the arches carrying
upward, to be adorned on the fides with pinnacles. C, the
floor of the area or nave. DDD, the large galleries which
alcend from under all the buildings fpirally to the top. EE,
the bridges.
TERMINALIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by the
Romans in honour of the god Terminus.
Terminalia, in botany ; a genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of polygamia, and order of monecia. The male ca¬
lyx is quinquepartite ; there is no corolla ; the {lamina are
ten in number. The hermaphrodite flower is the lame with
that of the male ; there is one (lyle; the fruit, which is a
drupe or plum, is below, and fliaped like a boat. There
are two fpecies; the catappa, and anguftifolia or benzoin.
This fpecies does not,, however, yield benzoin. See Sty-
RAX.
TERMINI, in architeclure, denotes a kind of ftatues or
columns, adorned on the top with the figure of a man’s, wo¬
man’s, or fatyr’s head, as a capital; and the lower part end¬
ing in a kind of (heath or fcabbard.
TERMINUS, in Pagan worlhip, an ancient deity among
the Romans, who prefided over the (lones or land marks,
called termini, which were held fo facred, that it was ac.
counted facrilege to move them ; and as the criminal be¬
came devoted to the gods, it was lawful for any man to kill
him. The worfhip of this deity was inftituted by Numa
.Pompilius, who, to render land marks, and conit quently the
property of the people, facred, eredied a temple on the Tar-
peian mount to Terminus.
TERN, in ornithology. See Sterna.
TERNATE, the mod northerly of the Molucca or
Clove Iflanda in the Eall Indies. It abounds in cocoa-nuts,
bananas, citrons, oranges, almonds, and other fruit p'-oper
to the torrid zone ; but cloves are the mod valuable produce.
It is in the poflefiion of the Dutch. Malaya is the capital
town. E. Long. 129.. o. N. Lat. 1. c..
IERNI, a town of Italy in the Pope’s territories, and
in the duchy of Spoletto, with a bifhop’s fee. It is but a
fmall place ; though there are very beautiful ruins of anti¬
quity, it having been a very confidcrable Roman colony. It
is fituated on the top of a high mountain, and to the wed
of it are fields which are extremely fertile. E. Long. 12.
40. N. Lat. 42- 34..
TERNSTROMLA, in botany; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clals of polyandria, and order of monogynti.
lire calyx is monophyllous and quinquepartite : the corolla
is monopetalous, quinquepartite or fexpaitite, globular, and
bell-fhaped : the berry is dry, bilocular, and valvelefs. There I'crP3‘U«*,
is only one fpecies, the meridionalis. Terra.
I ERPANDER, a celebrated Greek poet and mufician, ' - ' '
The Oxford marbles tell us that he was the fon of Derde-
neus of Leibos, and that he flourifhed in the 38 id year of
thefe records ; which nearly anfwers to the 27th Olympiad,
and 671ft year B. C. The marbles inform us likewife,
that he taught the names, or airs, of the lyre and flute,
which he performed himfelf upon this lad inftrument, in
concert with other players on the flute. Several writers
tell us that he added three ftrings to the lyre, which before
his time had but four ; and in confirmation of this, Euclid
and Strabo quote two verfes, which they attribute to To
pander himfelf.
The tetrachord’s reftraint we now defpife,
The feven-ftring’d lyre a nobler drain fupplies.
Among the many fignal fervices which Terpander is faM
to have done to mufic, none was of more importance than
the notation that is alcnbed to him for afeertaining and
preferving melody, which before was traditional, and whol-
ly dependent on memory. The invention, indeed, of mufi.
cal characters has been attributed by Alypius and Gauden-
tius, two Greek writers on mufic, and upon their authority
by Boethius, to Pythagoras, who flourifhed full two centu¬
ries after Terpander. But Plutarch, from Heraclides of
Pontus, aflures us that Terpander, the inventor of nomes
for the cithara, in hexameter verfe, fet them to mufic, as.
well as the verles of Homer, in order to fing them at the
public games : And Clemens Alexandrinus, in telling ua
that this mufician wrote the laws of Lycurgus in verfe, and
fet them to mufic, makes ufe of the fame exprefiion as Plu¬
tarch ; which feems clearly to imply a written melody.
After enumerating the airs which Terpander had compo--
fed, and to which he had given names, Plutarch continues t>
fpeak of his other compofitions ; among which he deferibes
the proems, or hymns for the cithara, in heroic verfe. Thefe
were ufed in after-times by the Rhapfodiils, as prologues or
introductions to the poems of Homer and other ancient
writers. But Terpander rendered his name illuftrious, no
lefs by his performances both upon the flute and cithara,
than by his compofitions. This appears by the marbles al¬
ready mentioned ; by a paflage in Athenaeus, from the hi-
ftorian Hellanicus, which informs us that1 he obtained the
firft prize in the mufical contefls at the Carnean games ;
and by the teilimony of Plutarch, who fays, that “ no
other proof need be urged of the excellence of l erpander
in the art of playing upon the cithara, than what is gi¬
ven by the regifter of the Pythic games, from which it ap¬
pears that he gained four prizes fuccefiively at thole folem-
nities.
Of the works of this poet only a few fragments - are now
remaining.
TERRA australis incognita, a name for a large-
unknown continent, fuppofed to lie towards the South
Pole, and which for a long time was fought after by navi¬
gators. The late voyages of Captain Cook have afeertair.--
ed this matter as much as it probably ever will be. (See
Soum-Sea, Cook’s Difcoveries, n° 4.7, 48, 68, 69. and A-
merica, n 4). Oh this fubjed Captain Cook exorefles
himfelf as follows: “ I had now made the circuit of the
Southern Ocean in a high latitude, and traverfed it in fuch-
a manner as to leave not the lead room for the poffibility of
there being a .continent,, unlefs near the pole, and out of the
reach of navigation. By twice vifiting the tropical lea, I
bad not only fettled the fituation of'fome old difcoveries,-but
made there many new ones, and left, I conceive, very little
more to be done even in that part. Thus I flatter myfelf*.
I a " that -
TER
t 390 ]
T E R
Terra. tjie intention of the voyage has in every iefpe<St been
fully anfwered ; the fouthem hemifphere fufHciently explo¬
red ; and a final end put to the fearching after a fouth-
ern continent, which has at times engroffed the attention of
fbme of the maritime powers for near two centuries palt,
and been a favourite theory amongft the geographers of all
ages. That there may be a continent, or large traft of
land near the pole, I will not deny : on the contrary,
I am of opinion there is ; and it is probable that we have
feen a part of it. The exceffive cold, the many iilands, and
vaft floats of ice, all tend to prove that there mu ft be land
to the fouth ; and for my perfuafton that this fouthern land
muft lie or extend fartheft to the north, oppofite to the
Southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans, I have already af-
figned fome reafons ; to which I may add, the greater de¬
gree of cold experienced by us in tliefe feas than in thg
Southern Pacific Ocean under the fame parallels of lati-
tude.”
'Terra Firma, in geography, is fometimes ufed for a con¬
tinent, in contradiftin&ion to iflands.
Terra Firma, otherwife called Nev> Caflile, or Cafie!-
la del Oro, a country of America, bounded on the north
by the North Sea and part of the Atlantic Ocean, by the
fame fea and Guiana on the eaft, by the country of the A-
mazons and Peru on the fouth, and by the Pacific Ocean
and Veragua on the weft. It lies between 62 and 83 de¬
grees of weft longitude, and between the equator and 12
degrees of north latitude ; being upwards of 1200 miles in
length from caft to weft, and 800 in breadth from north to
fouth. It had the name of Cujlella del Oro from the quan¬
tities of gold found in the diftriffs of Uraba and other parts;
and was firft difeovered by the celebrated Columbus in his
third voyage.
The climate is neither pleafant nor healthy ; the inhabi¬
tants one part of the year beinq fcorched by the moft intenfe
. and burning heat, and the other almoft drowned with per¬
petual floods of rain, pouring from the fky with fuch violence
as if a general deluge was to enfue.
In fo large a traft of country the foil muft neceffarily va¬
ry. Accordingly, in fome parts it is a barren fand, or
drowned mangrove land, that will icarce produce any kind
of grain ; in others it yields Indian corn, balms, gums, aud
druqs, almoft all manner of fruits as well of Old as of New
Spain, fugar, tobacco, Brafil wood, and ieveral other kinds
of dyeing woods ; a variety of precious ftones, particularly
emeralds and lapphires ; venifon and other game. The plan¬
tations of cacao, or chocolate nuts, in the diftrift of the Ca-
raccas, are efteemed the bell in America. The mountains
abound with tygers, and, according to fome, with lions, and
great numbers of other wild beafts. The rivers, feas, and
lakes, teem with fifh, and alfo with alligators ; and the
bowels of the earth were once furnifhed with the richeft
treafures, now almoft exhaufted. The fame may be faid of
the pearl fifheries on the coaft, which are far from being fo
profitable now as formerly.
Terra Firma is a very mountainous country. Terra Fir¬
ma Proper, in particular, confifts of prodigious high moun-
Terra,
tains, and deep valleys flooded more than half the year. The
mountains in the provinces of Carthagena and St Martha,
according to Dampier, are the higheft in the world ; being
feen at fea 200 miles off: from theie run a chain of hills of
almoft equal height, quite through South America, as far
as the Straits of Magellan, called the Cordilleras des Andes.
The province of Venezuela alfo, and diftrift of the Carac-
cas, the moft northerly parts of South America, are almoft
a continued chain of hills, feparated by fmall valleys, point¬
ing upon the coaft of the North Sea. A chain of barren
mountains, almoft impaffable, runs through the province of
Popayan from north to fouth, fome whereof are volcanoes ;
but towards the ihores of the Pacific Ocean it is a low coun¬
try, flooded great part of the year.
The principal rivers of Terra Firma are, the Darien, Chag-
tre, Santa Maria, Conception, Rio Grande or Magdalena,
Maricaibo, and Oroonoko.
Terra Firma contains the provinces of Terra Firma Pro¬
per or Darien, of Carthagena, St Martha, Rio de la Ha-
cha, Venezuela, Comana, New Andalufia or Paria, New
Granada, and Popayan.
Tena Firma Proper lies in the form of a crefcent, about
the Ipacions bay of Panama, being the ifthmus which joins-
South and North America ; and extending in length be¬
tween the two feas 300 miles, but in breadth, where the
ifthmus is narroweft, only 6o. Here are found gold mines,
gold lands, and fine pearls ; and though the land is general¬
ly rough, there are fome fruitful valleys, watered by rivers,
brooks, and fprings. The chief places are Panama and Por¬
to Bello.
The inhabitants of Terra Firma have never been tho¬
roughly fubdued, and in all p’.*obability never will; as they
are a brave and warlike people, have retreats iftacceffible to
Europeans, and bear an inveterate enmity to the Spani¬
ards. See Darien.
Terra Japonica, more commonly called catechu, a drug for¬
merly fuppofed to be an extraft from the feeds of the areca
catechu, but lately difeovered by Mr Kerr, afiiilant furgeon
to the civil hofpital at Bengal, to be obtained from the mi-
mofa catechu. Mr Kerr gives the following account of the
manner in which the extraft is made : “ After felling the
trees, the manufafturer carefully cuts off all the exterior
white part of the wood. The interior coloured wood is cut
into chips, with which he fills a narrow-mouthed unglazed Med. Olf\
earthen pot, pouting water upon them until he fees itan(l lnV‘'
among the upper chips ; when this is half evaporated by ’
boiling, the decoftion, without {training, is poured into a
flat earthen pot, and boiled to one third part ; this is fet in
a cool place for one day, and afterwards evaporated by the
heat of the, fun, flirting it fever?! times in the day. When
it is reduced to a confiderable tliicknefs, it is fpread upon a
mat or cloth, which has previoufly been covered with the
afties of cow-dung ; this mafs is divided into fquare or
quadrangular pieces by a firing, and completely dried by
turning them frequently in the fun until they are fit for.
fale(A).”
This extraft is called cutt by the natives, by the Eng-
lifh
vol.'i
(a) “ In making the extraft, the pale brown wood is preferred, as it produces the fine whitifli extraft ; the darker the
wood is, the blacker the extraft, and of lefs value. They are very careful in drying their pots upon the fire betore they
are r.fed ; but very negligent in cutting their chips upon the ground, and not flraining the decoftion ; by which, and the
dirty allies they ufe, there muff be a confiderable quantity of earth in the extraft, befides what avarice may prompt them
to put into it.
“ fhe antifeptic quality of catechu appears from the experiments made by Sir John Pringle. Huxham employed it
fuccefs'ully in cafes where a putrid diffolved flate of the blood prevailed. This extraft is the principal ingredient in an
ointment of great repute in India, compoied of catechu four ounces, alum nine drains, white refm four ounces; thefe are
reduced
T EH r 391 3 TER
Terra li(h cutcb, and by different authors terra japontcet, catechu,
II khaaih, cate, cachou, &c. “ In its pureft ftp.te it is a dry
Terraflor. pulvera^Je fubftance, outwardly of a reddifh colour, inter-
Woodvillsi nally of a {billing dark brown, tinged with a reddifh hue ;
Midi cal in the mouth it difcovers confiderable aflringency, iucceeded
Y<itany, by a fweetiftMnucilagir.ous tafte.” According to Lewis, “ it
i rol. u. diffolves ahnoft totally in water, excepting the impurities ;
which are ufually of the fandy kind, and amounting in the
fpecimens I examined to about one eighth of the mafs. Of
the pure matter, redliHed fpirit diiTolves about feven eiphths
into a deep red liquor : the part which it leaves undiffolved
is an almofl infipid mucilaginous fubftance.”
Ufes. Catechu may be ufefuliy employed for moll pur-
pofes where an aftringent is indicated, provided the moll
powerful be not required. But it is particularly ufeful in
alvine fluxes ; and where thefe require the ufe of aflringents,
we are acquainted with no one equally beneficial. Befides
this, it is employed alfo in uterine profluvia, in laxity and
debility of the vifcera in general, in catarrhal affe&ions, and
various other difeafes where aftriagents are necefiary. It is
often fullered to diflblve leilurely in the mouth, as a topical
aftringent for laxities and exulcerations of the gums, for
apthous ulcers in the mouth, and fimilar affedions. This
extrad is the balls of feveral fixed formula; in our pharma¬
copoeias, particularly of a tindure and an eleduaty: but
one of the befl forms under which it can be exhibited, is
that of a fimple infufion in warm water, with a proportion of
cinnamon or caftla ; for by this means it is at once freed from
its impurities, and improved by the addition of the aro¬
matic.
cr^RRA Puzzo/ana. See Puzzolana.
'Thrrje Films, Sen of the Earth, a ftudent of the univer-
fity of Oxford, 1 ormerly appointed in public ads to make
latirical and jetting fpeeches againfl the members thereof, to
tax them with any growing corruptionsj &c.
Terra Sigillaia Lemnia. See Adansonia.
1 ERRACE, a walk or bank of earth, raifed in a gar¬
den or court to a due elevation for a profped. The name
is alfo given to the roofs of houfes that are flat, and where¬
on we may walk.
d ERRAQUEOUS, in geography, a name given to our
globe, becaule confifting of land and water.
1 ERRAS, or I raas, in mineralogy, a fpecies of argil¬
laceous earth. It differs but little in its princioles from
puzzolana,-but is much more compad and hard, porous
liman's and fpungy. It is generally of a whitilh yellow colour, and
'linerakgy.contains more heterogeneous particles, as fpar, quartz,
fhoerl, &c. and fomething more of calcareous earth; it ef-
fervefees with acids, is magnetic, and fufible per fe. When
pulverized, it ferves as a cement, like puzzolana. It is
found in Germany and Sweden.
A. fpecies of red earth has been found in the parifh of St
Elizabeth in Jamaica, which turns out to be an excellent
ychty for fubftitute for terras or puzzolana earth, and may there-
&c. fore be of great value to the inhabitants of the Weft; In-
Plv- dies.
One meafure of this earth, mixed with two of well flack¬
ed lime and one of fand, form a cement that anfwers ex¬
tremely well for building any dam or bridge, or any flruc-
ture in water, for it will foon harden and become like a
flone.
IERRASSON (Abbe John), a French writer born at
Lyons in 1669. He diflinguiihed himfelf in the difpute Terr«
concerning’ Homer, between La Motte and Madam Dacier, ycrt^p;an
by writing a Dijfertation centre l’Made. He wrote a political - ^ - ,1
and moral romance called Sethos, full of learning and philo-
iophy ; and another capital work of his is a French tranfia*.
tion of Diodorus Siculus. He died in 1750.
TERRE Verte, in the colour-trade, the name of a green
earth much ufed by painters, both fingly for a good {landing '
green, and in mixture with other colours. The name is
French, and fignifies “ green earth.”
It is an indurated clay, of a deep bluifh green colour, and
is found in the earth, not in continued ftrata or beds, as
mofl of the other earths are, but in large flat maffes of diffe¬
rent lizes, imbedded in other ftrata ; thefe break irregularly
in the cutting, and the earth is generally brought out of the
pit in lumps of different fizes. It is of a fine, regular, and
even ftrudture, and not very hard. It is of an even and glof-
fy furface*, very fmooth to the touch, and in fome degree re-
fembling the morochthus or French chalk, but adhering firm¬
ly to the tongue. It does not ftain the hands in touching
it ; but being drawn along a rough furface, it leaves an even
white line, with a greenifti caft.
It does not ferment with acids, and it burns to a dufky
brown colour. It is dug in the ifland of Cyprus, and in
many parts of France and Italy. That from the neighbour¬
hood of Verona has been efteemed the bell in the world ;
but of late there has been fome dug in France that equals it.
There is alfo an earth dug on Mendip Hills, in the finking
for coal, which, though wholly unobferved, is nearly, if not
wholly, of equal value. When feraped, and the finer parts
feparated, it is ready to be made up with oil for the ule
of the painters, and makes the moil true and killing green
of any iitnple body they ufe.
TERRESTRIAL, fomething partaking of the nature
of earth, or belonging to the globe of earth ; thus we fay,
the terreftrial globe, &c.
TERRIER, a fmall hound to hunt the fax or badger;
fo called becaufe he creeps into the ground, as ferrets do into
the coney-burrows, after the fox, &c.
TERRITORY, in geography, denotes an extent or
compafs of land, within the bounds or belonging, to the
jurifdiaion of any ftate, city, or other fubdivifion of a '
country.
TERROR. See Fear and Fright.
TERTIAN fever. See Medicine, n° 126.
TERTULLIAN, or Quintus Septimus Florens
Tertullianus, a celebrated prieft of Carthage, was the
fon of a centurion in the militia, who ferved as proconful of
Africa. Fie was educated in the Pagan religion ; but be¬
ing convinced of its errors, embraced Chriftianity, and be¬
came a zealous defender of the faith. He married, it is
thought, after his baptifm. Afterwards he took orders,
and went to Rome ; where, during the perfecution under
the emperor Severus, he publifhed his Apology for the Chri-
ftians, which is, in its kind, a mafterpicce of eloquence and
learning ; and at the beginning of the third century he em¬
braced the feel of the Montanifts. He lived to a very great
age, and died under the reign of Antoninus Caracalla, about
the year 216. Many of his works are ftill extant, in all of
which he difcovers a great knowledge of the Ploly Scrip¬
tures, a lively imagination, a ftrong, elevated, and impetu¬
ous ftyle, great eloquence and ftrength of reafoning ; but is
fome-
redneed to a fine powder, and mixed with the hand, adoing olive oil ten ounces, and a fufficient quantity of water, to -
i ing the mafs to the confiftence of an ointment.. To all fores and ulcers in warm climates aftringent applications of this
kind are found to be peculiarly ufefuL,,
’TYffura.
T E S
Terunciu* fometimes cb'cure. His Apology
moft efteemed. The beft editions of his works are thofe of
_ Ri.>ault ; efpecially that of Venice in 1746, folio. Fame'
lius and Alix, Mr Thomas, and the Sieur du Foffe, have
written his life ; and Rigault, M. de 1’ Aube Epine, Father
Petau, and other learned men, have publifhed notes on his
works.
TE RUNG I US, in antiquity, a very fmall brafs coin in
life among the Romans.
The inconvenience of Rich very fmall pieces being foon
found, the tevuncius became difufed, but its'name is Rill re¬
tained in reckoning, and thus it became a money of account.
The teruncius at firfl. was a quarter of the as, or libra;
hence, as the as contained twelve ounces, the teruncius con¬
tained three, whence the name, which is formed of the La¬
tin tres vncia. Teruncius was alfo ufed for the quarter of
the denarius ; fo that when the denarius was at ten afes, the
teruncius was worth two and a half; and when the fknarius
was rifen to fixteen, the teruncius was worth four. See De¬
narius.
TESSELATED pavements, thofe of rich Mofaic
work made of curious fquare marbles, bricks, or tiles, call¬
ed iejjsltr, from them refembling dice.
TESSERA, in Roman antiquity, denoted in its prima¬
ry fenfe a cube or dye ; fo called ftom the Greek word
i to-irapx. or Tia-artpa^ four - refpe£t being had to its number of
Rdes, diftindt from the two horizontal planes above and
below. And it was thus diftinguilhed from the talus, which
being round at each end, contained only four planes or
faces on which it could ftand ; and therefore when thrown
had no more than two fide faces in view. Hence ludere ta¬
ils ft ludere teffens are fpoken of by Roman writers as
two different games. The fyllable tes. occurs often in Ro¬
man inferiptions. 71he word tffera was applied to many
»>ther things, not fo much from a fimilitude in the figure,
as from the relation they bore to fome other thing of
which they were the fign or token ; as the points on the
tipper plane of the dye denoted the good or ill fuccefs of
the caff.
The tejfera hofpitalis was either public or private. As
-to the former, we find among the inferiptions publifhed by
Gruter inftances ©f two municipal towns which put them-
felves under the patronage of the Roman governor; and the
reciprocal engagement between them, engraved on two cop¬
per plates, in the form of an oblong fquare, with a pediment
at the top, is called in both tejfera hofpitalis. The defign of
it was to cultivate or maintain a lafling friendfhip between
private perfons and their families; and gave a mutual claim
to the contrafting parties and their defendants of a recep¬
tion and kind treatment at each other’s houfes, as occaiion
offered. For which end thefe tefferse were fo contrived as
beft to preferve the memory of that tranfadfion to pofterity.
And one method of.doing this was by dividing one of them
lengthwife into two equal parts; upon each of which one of
the parties wrote his name, and interchanged it with the
/other. From this cuftom came the prevailing expreffion
iejferam hofpitalem confringere, applied to perfons who violated
their engagements.
1 he tejfere frumentar'ue were fmall tallies given by the em¬
perors to the populace at Rome, entitling them to the re-
.ception of a quantity of corn from the public at ftated
ieafons. The perfon who had the infpedfion of thefe was
.called tefferarius. They were made of wood and of ftone.
There was another kind of teffera which intitled perfons
to a fight of the public games and other diverfioi\s, ufually
prade in the form of an oblong fquare.
The tejfera mi/itaris was a fignal given by the general, or
chief commander of an army, as a direction to the foldiers
[ 392 ] TES
and Prefcriptions are for executing any duty or fervice required of them. This,
upon urgent occafions, was only vocal; but, in ordinary
cafes, it was written on a tablet, commonly made oft
wood, Befide thefe civil and military tefferse, there are
otheis which relate to religious affairs, and may be called
facred.
TESSON, or Teston. See Tester.
i EbSOUWA, a confiderable town in Africa, lituated
eaft of Mourzouk, the capital of the kingdom of Fezzan.
Near this town a deep and rapid ftream is faid to have ex-
ilted, but was overwhelmed by the moving fands fo frequent
in Africa. ^
, TEST, a veffel ufed in metallurgy for abforbin<T the fco-
rite of metallic bodies when melted. See Cupel.^
Some of the German writers recommend, both for lefts
and cupels, a fort of friable opake ftone, called white fpath,
which appears to be a Jpecies of gypfum, or of the ftones from
which plafter of Paris is prepared. The fpath is dire&ed
to be calcined with a gentle fire, in a covered veffel, till the
flight crackling, which happens at firft, has ceafed, and the
ftone has fallen in part into powder : the whole is then re¬
duced into fubtle powder, which is paffed through a fine
fieve, and moiftened with fo much of a weak folution of
green vitriol as is fufficient for making it hold together.
Gellert, however, finds, that if the ftonc is of the proper
kind, which can be known only by trials, calcination is not
neceffsry. Scheffer obferves, that thefe kinds of tefts are
liable to foften or fall afunder in the fire, and that this in¬
convenience may be remedied by mixing with the uncalcin¬
ed ftone fomewhat lefs than equal its weiglit, as eight-ninths
of fuch as has been already uied and is penetrated by the
fcoria of the lead, taking only that part of the old tell
which appears of a green-grey colour, and reje&ing the red
cruft on the top. Tefts or cupels made of the fpath are
faid not to requre fo much caution in nealing and heating
them as the common ones ; it appears, however, from Schef¬
fer’s account, that they are lefs durable than thofe made of
the afhes of bones, though greatly fuperior to thofe of
wood-afhes. Vegetable afhes, which ftand pretty well the
telling of filver, can fcarcely bear any great quantity of
gold, this metal requiring a confideraMy ftronger fire than
the other ; but bone-afhes anfwer fo effe&ually, and are
among us fo eafrly procurable, that it is not needful for the
refiner to fearch for any other materials; though thofe who
Teflbi>
A
work off large quantities of lead, in order to gain a little fil¬
ver or gold contained in it, may poflibly, in places remote
from populous cities, avail themfelves of fubftances fimilar
to the fpath above-mentioned.
The teft, for its greater fecurity, is fixed in the mould in
which it was formed; which is fometimes a fhallow veffel
made of crucible earth or caft-iron, more commonly an
iron hoop, with three bars arched downwards acrofs the
bottom, about two inches deep, and of different widths,
from three or four inches to fifteen or more, according to
the quantity of metal to be tefled at once. The afhes or
earthy powder, moiftened as for making cupels, are preffed
down in the mould fo as to completely fill it or rife a little
above the fides ; with care to make the mafs equally folid,
and to put in at once, or at leaft after the bottom has been
preffed clofe, as much of the matter as will be fufficient for
the whole; for any additional quantity will not unite tho¬
roughly with the reft, but be apt to part from it in the
fire. The edges are pared fmooth, and a portion cut- out
from the middle with a bent knife, fo as to leave a proper
cavity, which is fmoothed by ftrewing fome dry powder on
the lurface, and rolling on it a wooden, or rather a glafs
ball.
The procefs of telling is often performed in the fame
manner
T E S
Teft.
manner as that of cupellation : but where great quantities
" of bafe metal are to be worked off from a little gold, re-
courfe Is had to a more expeditious method, that of telling
before the bellows.
An oval tell is placed in a cavity, made in a hearth of
a convenient height, and fome moiltened fand or aihes prelf-
ed round it to keep it Heady : the nofe of a bellows is direc¬
ted along its furface, in fuch a manner, that if aihes are
fpnnkled in the cavity of the tell, the bellows may blow
them completely out: fome have an iron plate fixed before
the bellows, to diredl the blall downwards. To keep the
furface of the tell from being injured in putting in the me-
tal, fome cloths or pieces of paper are interpofed. The fuel
cqnfitls ot billets of barked oak laid on the fides of the tell,
with others laid crofswife on thefe : the bellows impel the
flame oruthe metal, clear the lurface of aihes or fparks of
coal, haften the fcorification of the lead, and blow off the
fcoria, as fall it forms, to one end of the tell, where it runs
out thro’ a notch made for that purpofe. About two thirds
of the fcoiified lead may thus be colle&ed ; the reft being
partly abforbed by the tell, and partly diffipated by the ac¬
tum of the bellows. Care mull be taken not to urge the
blail too ftrongly, left fome portion of the gold fhould be
carried away by the fumes impetuoufly forced off from the
lead, and fome minute particles of it entangled and blown
off with the fcorise.
r in law, is the ftatute 25 Car. II. cap. 2. which
dtre&s all officers, civil and military, to take the oaths, and
make the declaration againft tranfubftantiation, in the court
of King’s Bench or Chancery, the next term, or at the
next qxarter-kffions, or (by fublequent flatutes) within fix
months aiter their admiffion ; and alfo within the fame time
to receive the facrament of the Lord’s Supper, according
to the ufage of the church of England, in fome public
church, immediately after divine fervice or fermon, and to
deliver into court a certificate thereof, figned by the mini-
iler and church warden, and alio to prove the fame by two
credible wftneffes, upon forfeiture of 500I. and difabilitv to
hold the faid office.
1 he avowed objeft of this aft was to exclude from
places of trull all members of the church of Rome ; and
hence tne diffenters of that age, if they did not fupport the
bill when paffing through the two houfes of parliament,
gave it no oppofition. For this part of their conduft they
have been often cenfured with feverity, as having betrayed
their rights from refentment to their enemies. But is this
a lair ftate of the cafe ? Were any rights in reality betray¬
er, : I hat the dread of a popiffi fucceffor and of popiffi in¬
fluence was the immediate and urgent caufe of paffing
the teft-aa, is indeed true ; but that the legiflature, when
guarding againft an impending evil, had not likewife a re-
trmpeft to another from which they had io recently been
.Mnered, is not fo evident. If it be proper to fupport an
fitabliflred church as a branch of the conllitution, and if the
tel,-act he calculated to afford that fupport to the church
o. England, it is probable that the deliberations of parlia¬
ment were as much influenced by the dread of puritanic
C 393 1
T E S
with anarchy on the one hand, or with defpotifm on tire
other. l.
Many people, when they talk or write of the teftaa,
feem to think that it was framed in oppofition te the religious
opinions o: the church of Rome ; and finding the Proteftant
diffenters, who abhor thefe opinions, deprived by it of their
civil rights, they fpeak with indignation of a law which
confounds the innocent with the guilty. But all this pro¬
ceeds from a palpable miitake of the purpofe of the tell. As
the legiflature had no authority to make laws againft any
opinions 'whatever, on account of their being falfe in theolo-
g% , <0 it is not to be fuppofed that, in their deliberations
on the test-act, the members of that auguft body took
into their confidcration the comparative orthodoxy of the
diftinguifhing tenets of the Catholics and Puritans. As a re¬
ligions left they might efteem the latter much more than
the former ; but if they found that both had combined with
their theological doftrines opinions refpefting civil and ec-
clefiaftical government, inconfiftent with the fundamental
principles of the Engliffi conftitution, they had an undoubt¬
ed right to enaft a law, by which none ffiould be admitted
to offices, in the execution of which they could injure the
conftitution, without previoufly giving fecurity that their
adminiftration ffiould fupport it in all its branches. It had
not then been doubted, nor is there reafon to doubt yet, but
that an eflabliffied religion is neceffary, in conjunftipn with
civil government, to preferve the peace of fociety ; and
therefore in every well regulated ftate an eftabliffied religion
muft he fupported, not becaufe it is the duty of the civil
magiftrate to conduft his fubjefts to foture happinefs, but
becaufe he cannot without fuch an eftabliffiment preferve
among them prefent tranquillity. The eftabliffiment which
mull bell anfwer this purpofe, is that which, teaching the
great and unchangeable duties of morality, is moil accept¬
able in its government and forms of vvorffiip to the majority
of the people ; and therefore in giving a legal eftabliffiment
to one conftitution of the church in preference to all others,
it is only this circumftance, and not the comparative purity
of the rival churches, viewed merely as ecclefiaftical corpo¬
rations, to which it is the bufinefs of the legiflature to pay
attention. At the time when the tejl-aa paffed the two
houfes of parliament, the eftabliffied church of England was
certainly more acceptable to the great body of the people
and to all ranks in the ftate, than any one of the fefts, whe¬
ther Catholic or Proteftant, which diffented from her; and
thereiore it was the duty of the legiflature to preferve to
that church all her privileges and immunities, and to pre¬
vent thofe hoftile feftaries from doing her injury in the dif-
chargt of any civil office with which they might be entruft-
< d. It was with this view that the tejl-aa was formed ; and
it is with the fame view that the legiflature has hitherto re¬
jected every petition for its repeal.' In doing fo, it deprives
no man. ol his rights, far lefs of rights which confcience calls
upon, him to maintain at every hazard ; for the rights of
individuals to hold civil offices are not inherent, but derived
from the legiflature, which of courfe muft be the judge upon
what terms they are to be held. The legiflature of Eng-
a perfection a popiffi king and pooiffi councils. That rv man «,bn win iL , y’ CVe;
a perfection fi^sm a popiffi king and popiffi councils. That
the members of the church eftabliffied by law in England
had as much reafon to dread the effefts of power in the
ands of Puritans as in the hands of Papifts, no impartial
ry man who will not give fecurity, that in the difeharge of
his public duty he will fupport the church eftabliffied by
law ; and as the tell of his intention, it requires him, before
, , ~i > -*v* -‘--j-'—i he enters upon his office, to renounce the dnftrme nf i"ran—
ouinlidUforv’-td ih TP "TT t0 "f febftantiation, and receive the facratnen, of the Lord's Sop.
tu” b °"e TmThnTiih "T 'P 'FT* in W P'lblic recording to the liturgy of the
by every method them oower to orov.d, f„. rh. r- church of England. Whether this be the molt proper left
curitv of the rnnn;, r • V V ™ r.ngiana. Whether this be the molt proper teft
its enemies will h! i wn ^ m7ch"iatlons ?f \oth that C0UW have been exafted, may weft be queftioned ; but
us enemies, will be admitted by all but fuch as are in love ^ -   — ^k,.,.„j:— ....vl r.o •. i<- ......... T
Vol. XVIII. Part I.
Toft.
that in a country abounding with feftaries of various deno-
3 £ minations,
T E S r 39+ ! T E S
Tc!>. ruinations, who aq;ree in n®thing but venomous hoflility to
the religious eftabliihment, fome teit is neceffary, feems in¬
controvertible, if it be the bufmels of the legiflature to pre-
ferve the public peace.
To this it will be replied, That the public peace in Scot¬
land is preferved without a ted, -and that therefore a ted
cannot be neceffary in England. 1 his is plauiible, but not
conclufive. For forty years after the Revolution, there was
in Scotland no denomination of Chriftians but thofe of the
Prefbyterian church, edablifhed bylaw, the Protedant Epif-
copalians, whole church had been eftablifhed prior to that
event, and the adherents to the church of Rome. The
Epiicopalians and Papirts were effeftually excluded from eve-
Ty office in which they could injure the eccidiaftical efta-
biifltment, by the {everai reftvidlions under which they were
laid, on account of their attachment, real or fuppoied,
to the abdicated family of Stuart. The penal laws opera¬
ted upon them more powerfully than a religious tell. It is
to be obfet ved too, that in the church of Scotland, though
her clergy are better provided for than any other parochial
clergy perhaps inEurope(A), there is nothing c.fthat fplendor
and temooral mower which in England excite envy to cla¬
mour againft the eftablilhment, under the pretence of main¬
taining the caufe of religious liberty. Yet even in Scot¬
land a religious ted is oecafionaliy exafted of civil officers.
In the royal boroughs of that part of the united kingdom,
no man can hold the office of a magiflrate without previ-
oufly {wearing the burgefs-oath (fee Seceder, n° 8.) ; and
every indruedor of youth, whether in fchoqls or colleges,
may be called upon to qualify himfelf for his office, by fub-
fcribing the eflablifhed Confeffion of Faith. I he burgeis-
oath is a more efftclual ted than that which is required of
magidrates in England; for a man might with a fafe con-
fcience receive the facrament ot the I-ord’s Supper occa-
fionally in a church, “ at which he would not {wear to abide
and defend the fame to hh life's end.” This ted appears to
us to be neceffary in boroughs, where faction is commonly
blended with fanaticiim ; and if thofe fe&aries which, at
their fird appearance in 1732, were infignificant, if not con¬
temptible, continue to multiply, and to imbibe principles
much more pernicious than thofe which were held by their
fathers, it may perhaps be found expedient to extend fome
ted over the whole country.
We do not, however, by any means, wiffi to fee the facra-
mental ted introduced into Scotland. A tell may be ne-
ceffary to fecure to the church all her rights and immuni¬
ties ; but to receive the facrament can give her no fuch fe-
curity, whild it leads inevitably to the profanation of a fa-
cred ordinance. A much better ted would be, to require
every man, before he be admitted to an executive office, to
fwear that in the difeharge of it he will be careful to main¬
tain all the rights and privileges of the church edabliffied
by law. Such an oath no fenfible and peaceable diffenter
could refufe ; for it would not bind him to communicate
with the edabliffied church ; and he cannot be ignorant that
it belongs not to the executive government, but to the le-
giflature, to determine what {hall be the religion of the
date. On this account, we cannot help thinking that the Teft.
members of the legiflative body ffiould be fubjedled to no^ . li
religious tell whatever, that they may be at freedom to re-'e
form the corruptions of the church, or to exchange one
ellabliffiment for another, fhould they find fuch exchange
expedient. If this reafoning be jud, it will be difficult to
vindicate that claufe of 25 Car. II. and of 1 Geo. I. iu
which it is enabled, that no member {hall vote or lit in ei¬
ther houfe of parliament till he hath, in the prefence or the
houfe, fubferibed and repeated the declaration againft traiw
fubftantiation, the invocation of faints, and the facrifice of
the mafs. The church of Rome is indeed a very corrupt
fociety ; but if it be not ior the purity of her doblrines
and government that any church is eilubliihed in preference
to all others, why ffiould that particular church be preclu¬
ded from the poffibilify of obtaining a legal edcblifhment iu
Great .Britain, even though fhe were to become mod accep¬
table to the majority ot all ranks in the kingdom r The Eng-
lifh Catholics have unqueltiouably greater reafon to complain
of this ted, than either they or the difftliters have to com-
olain of the law which requires every civil and military offi¬
cer to receive the Ford’s Supper in the eft;/ lifhed church.
Tp.sr for Acids and Alkalis. See Chemistry, p. 595',
n0' 1549.
TEsr Liquors for Wines. See Lead, p. 741. col. 2. and
Arsenic, nJ j6.
TESTACEA, in the Linnae&n fyffem of natural hifto-
ry, .the third order of vermes. This order comprehends all
fhell-fifh arranged by Linnaeus under 36 genera. Shell-
fi!h are animals with a foft body, covered by or inclofed in
a firm, hard, and as it were dony habitation, comoofed, ac¬
cording to their three ieparate orders, iff. Or many parts
which are ranged under the name oi multivalves ; 2d, Of^ ^^
two parts which are called bivalves ; 3d, Of one parj, OTGen-raVtr\
piece only, which we caW univalves. i hole parts, pieces, mium. j
or valves, are more or lefs moveable at the animal’s piea-
fure. The animals included in theie hard habitations have
moil of them the chaiafteis of one or other of the genera
vermium, and might be reduced under the fame genera wiih
the mollulca : but as thefe characters are few, and the {hells
very numerous, and different in their rorm and ftruCture, it
will tend more to make this part of natural hiftory eafy,
to arrange the lubjeCts according to, the dulinctions of the
{hells themtelves.
There is this farther confideration in favour of this ar¬
rangement, viz. that the animals themlelves are rarely feen,
and never can be preferved in cabinets ; w’hereas the {hells-
make a figure in them, and great numbers have been met
with empty of the animal.
TESTACEOUS, in natural hiftory, an epithet fynony-
mous with Testacea.
In medicine, all preparations of fhells, and fubftances of
the like kind, are called tejlaceous. Such are powders of
crabs claws and eyes, pearl, &c. Dr Quincy and others
luppofe the virtue of all tedaceous medicines to be alike;
that they feldom or never enter the la&eals, but that the
chief of their action is in the firil paffkges ; in which, how¬
ever*
(a) There are indeed many livings in the church of England, and probably in other churches, to which nothing in the
church of Scotland can be compared in refpeft of emolument; but theie rich benefices bear no proportion to the number
of thofe which, in this age of unavoidable expence, cannot afford to the incumbents the means of decent inbin.ence as,
gentlemen. In the church of Scotland many livings amount to L. 200 each annually ; and we have reafon to hope, that
when the prefent plan for augmenting the ftipends of the clergy has been extended over Scotland, very tew wnl be below
L. 100; whilft in England the vicarages and fmall reritorics, from which we have reafon to believe that the incum¬
bents reap not L.80 a-year, greatly exceed in number all the livings in Scotland : Nay we doubt if there be not upwards-
cf a thoufand livings in England and Wales from which the rector or vicar derives not above L. 50 annually.
T E S [ 1Q5 1 T E S
TVftammt ever, they are of great ufe in abforbing acidities. Hence
they become of tife in fevers, and efpecially in reftifying
the many dittempers in children, which generally owe their
origin to fnch acidities.
TESTAMENT* or last will. Teftarteents both Ju-
flinian and Sir Edward Coke agree to be fo called, becaufe
they are (ejlatio mentis : an etymon which feems to lavour
too much ol conceit ; it being plainly a fubftantive derived
from the verb tejl^ri, in like manner za juramentum^ incremen-
tum, and others, from other verbs. The definition of the
Roman lawyers is much better than thdr etymology ;
Comment, voluntatis nojimt jvjia fententia de eo, quod quis pojl mortemfuam
vol. ii. Jieri vrlit: which may be thus rendered into Englifh, “ the
legal declaration of a man’s intentions, which he wills to be
performed after his death.’* It is called fententia, to denote
the circurnTpedtion and prudence with which it is fuppofed
to be made : it is voluntatis nojirr fententia, becaufe its effi¬
cacy depends on its declaring the teftator’s intention, whence
in Englifh it is emphatically ftyled his will; it i&jujla fen¬
tentia ; that is, drawn, attefled, and publifhed, with all due
folemnit.ies and forms of law : it is de eo, quod quis pojl mor¬
tem fuam fieri vetit, becaufe a tellament is of no force till af¬
ter the death of the teftator.
Thefe teilaments are divided into two forts ; written,
and “Verbal or nuncupative : of which the former is commit¬
ted to writing ; the latter depends merely upon oral evi¬
dence, being declared by the telfator in extremis, before a
efficient number of vvitneffes, and afterwards reduced to
writing.
But as nuncupative wills and codicils (which were for¬
merly more in ufe than at prefent when the art of writing
is become more general) are liable to great impofitions, and
may occafian many perjuries, the ftatute of frauds, 29 Car.
II. c. 3. ena&s, 1. That no written will fliall be revoked
or altered by a fubfequent nuncupative one, except the
fame be in the lifetime 01 the teftator reduced to writing,
and read over to him, and approved ; and unlefs the fame
be proved to have been fo done by the oaths of three wit-
neftes at the leaft, who, by ftatute 4 & 5 Anne, c. 16. muft
be Inch as are admiflible upon trials at common law. 2.
That no nuncupative will fhail in any wife be good, where
the eftate bequeathed exceeds 301. unleis proved by three
inch witneffts, prefent at the making thereof (the Roman
law requiring feven), and unlefs they or fome of them were
Ipecially required to bear witnefs thereto by the teftator
himfelf; and unlefs it was made in his laft ficknefs, in his
own habitation or dv/elling-houfe, or where he had been
previoufly refideni tern days at the leaft, except he be fur-
prifed with ficknefs on a journey, or from home, and dies
without returning to his dwelling. 3. That no nuncupa¬
tive will fhall be proved by the witnefies after fix months
from the making, unlefs it were put in writing within fix
days. Nor ffiall it be proved till fourteen days after the
death of the teftator, nor till procefs hath firft iftued to call
in the widow, or next of kin, to conteft it if they think
proper. Thus hath the legiflature provided againft any
fraud in fetting up nuncupative wills, by fo numerous a
tram of requifites, that the thing itlelf has fallen into dif-
nle; and hardly ever heard of, but in the only inftance
•where favour ought to be fhown to it, when the teftator is
furprifed by hidden and violent ficknefs. The teftamentary
words muft be fpokeft with an intent to bequeath, not any
ioofe idle difeourfe in his illnefs ; for he muft require the
byftanders fo bear wknefs of/Inch his intention : the will
mult be made at home, or among his family or friends, un-
Itis by unavoidable accident, to prevent impofitions from
Grangers : it mull be in his laft ficknels ; for if he recovers,
he may alter his dilpolitions, and have time to make a writ¬
ten will: it muft not be proved at too long a difiance from^eftam
the teftator’s death, Eft the words fhould efcape the memo- •—“"/■
ry of the witneffes ; nor yet too haftily and without notice,
left the family of the teftator ffiould be put to inconvenience
or furprifed.
As to written wills, they need not any witnefs of their
publication. We fpeak not here of devifes of lands, which
are entirely another thing, a conveyance by ftatute, unknown
to the feodal or common iaw, and. not under the fame jurif-
didtion as perfoiial teftaments. But a teftament of chattels,
written in the teftator’s own hand, though it has neither his
name nor feal to it, nor witneffes prefent at its publication,
is good ; provided fufficient proof can be had that it is his
hand-writing. And though written in another man’s hand,
and never figned by the teftator, yet if proved to be accord¬
ing to his inftrudlions and approved by him, it hath been
held a good teftament of the perfonal eftate. Yet it is the
fafer and more prudent way, and leaves lefs in the breaft of
the ecclefiaftical judge, jf it be figned or fealed by the te-
flator, and publifhed in the prefence of witneftes; which
laft was always required in the time of Bradlon ; or rather
he in this relpedft has implicitly copied the rule of the ci¬
vil law.
No teftament is of any efFe<ft till after the death of the
teftator ; Nam Omne tejiamentum morte confummaturn ejl, et
voluntas teflatoris efl ambulatoria ufque ad mortem. And
therefore, if there be many teftaments, the laft will over¬
throws all the former ; but the republication of a former
will revoke one of a later date, and eftablifhes the firft
again.
Regularly, every perfon hath full power and liberty to
make a will, that is not under fome fpecial prohibition by
law or cuftom : which prohibitions are principally upon
three accounts ; for want of fufficient diferetion ; for want
ot fufficient liberty and free-will j and on account of crimi¬
nal conduef.
1. In the firft fpecies are to be reckoned infants, under
the age of 14 if males, and 12 if females ; which is the rule
of the civil law. For though fome of our common lawyers
have held that an infant of any age (even four years old)
might make a teftament, and others have denied that under
18 he is capable ; yet as the ecclefiaftical court is the judge
of every tcilator’s capacity, this cafe muft be governed by
the rules of the ecclefiaftical law. So that no objedlion can
be admitted to the will of an infant of 14, merely for want
of age ; but if the teftator was not of fufficient diferetion,
whether at the age of 14 or 24, that will overthrow his
teftament. Madmen, or otherwife non compotes, idiots or
natural fools, perfons grown childifh by reafon of old age
or diftemper, inch as have their fenfes befotted with drunk-
ennefs, — all thefe are incapable, by reafon of mental difabi-
lity, to make any will fo long as fuch difability lafts. • To
this clafs alfo may be referred fuch perlons as are born
deaf, blind, and dumb ; who, as they have always wanted
the common inlets of underftanding, are incapable of ha¬
ving animum tejlandi, and their teftaments are therefore
void.
2. Such perfons as are inteftable for want of liberty or
freedom of will, by the civil law are of various kinds ; as
prifoners, captives, and the like. But the law of England
does not make inch perlons abfolutely inteftable ; but only
leaves it to the dilcretion ot the court to judge upon the
confideration of their particular circumltances of dutels,
whether or no fuch perfons could be fuppofed to have libe¬
rum animum tflandi. And, with regard to feme-coverts,
our laws differ ftill more materially from the civil. Among
the Romans there was no diftin&ion ; a married woman was
as capable of bequeathing as a feme-fole. But with us a
3 D 2 married
T E S f 396 ] T E S
Teftament. married womart is not only utterly incapable of deviling Testament (Old and New). See Bible and ScRiP-Teftam*m
u-~v lands, being excepted out of the ftatute of wills, 34 & 35 tore. ||
Hen. VI1L c. 5. but alfo Ihe is incapable of making a te- TESTATOR, the perfon who makes his will and teila-. Tefti‘do’
{lament of chattels, without the licence of her hufoand. For ment. w--y-»»
all heT perfonal chattels are abfolutely his own ; and he may TESTER, Teston, the name of a coin llruck in France
difpofe_ of her chattels real, or fhall have them to himfelf if by Louis XII. in >5’3, and in Scotland in the time of
he furvfves hejr: it would be therefore extremely inconfiilent Francis II. and Mary queen of Scotland, fo called from the
to give her a power of defeating that provifion of the law, head of the king, which was engraved upon it. The lilver
by bequeathing thofe chattels to another. The queen-con- it contained was 11 deniers 18 grains, its weight 7 de¬
fort is an exception t:o this general rule, for Ihe may dilpofe niers 1 if grains, and its value 10 iols. The coinage of it
of her chattels by will, without the confent of her lord ; and was prohibited by Henry III. in 1975, when the value of
any feme-covert may make her will of goods which are in it was augmented to 14 fols fix deniets. The teflon or te¬
ller pofleffion in outer droit, as executrix or adminiflratrix ; fler among us was rated at 12d. in the reign of Henry VIII.
for thefe can never be the property of the hufoand : and if and afterwards reduced to 6d.
die has any pin-money or feparate maintenance, it is faid ike TESTES, in anatomy, the tefticles. See the next ar«
may difpofe of her favings thereout by teflament, with- tide.
out the controtd of her huiband. But if a feme-fole makes
her will, and afterwards marries, fuch fubfequent marriage
is efleemed a revocation in law, and entirely vacates the
will.
3. Perfons incapable of making teftaments on account of
their criminal conduft, are in the firfl place all traitors
and felons, from the time of convidlion ; for then their
goods and chattels are no longer at their own difpoial, but
forfeited to the king. Neither can a felo de fe make a will
of goods and chattels, for they are forfeited by the adl and
manner of his death ; but he may make a devife of his lands,
for they, are not fubjeft to any forfeiture. Outlaws all'©,
though it be but for debt, are incapable of making a will
fo long as the outlawiy fublifls, for their goods and chattels
are forfeited during that time. As for perfons guilty of
other crimes, fliort of felony, who are by the civil law pre¬
cluded from making tellaments (as ufurers, libellers, and
others of a worfe flamp), at the common law their teila-
ments^ may be good. And in general the rule is, and has
been ‘o at lead ever fince Glanvil’s time, quod libera Jit cujuf-
cunque ultima voluntas.
I eftaments may be avoided three ways: 1. If made by a
perfon labouring under any of the incapacities before-men¬
tioned ; 2. By making another teftament of a later'date;
and* 3. By cancelling or revoking it. For though I make
a lail will and teflament irrevocable in the flrongefl words,
yet I am at liberty to revoke it ; becaufe my own aft or
words cannot alter the difpofition or law, fo as to make that
irrevocable which is in its own nature revocable. For this,
faith lord Bacon, would be for a man to deprive himfelf of that
which, of all other things, is moll incident to human con¬
dition ; and that is, alteration or repentance. It hath alio
been held, that, without an exprefs revocation, if a man,
who .hath made his will, afterwards marries and hath a child,
this is a prelumptive or implied revocation of his former
will which he made in his ate of celibacy. The Romans
were, alfo wont to lay afide teflaments as being inoffi. icfa,
ueiicient in natural duty, if they diimherited or totally pafT-
ed by (without afSgmng a true and fufficient reafon) any
•oi the children, of the teftator. But if the child had any
legacy, though ever lo imall, it was a proof that the tcflator
had not loft his memory or his reafon, which otherwife the
law preturned; but was then- fuppofed to have added thus
.r f’Jt;,ftantial caufe : and in. fuch cafe no- querela inoffi-
cioft tejamenti was allowed. Hence probably has arifen that
greundrefs vulgar error of the neceffity of leaving the heir a
Jhrlhng, or lome other exprefs legacy,, in order to difinherit
km effcaually j whereas the law of England makes no fuch
wild fuppofition of forgetfulnefs or infanity ; and therefore,
though the heir or next of kin be totally omitted, it admits
bo inojjicioJ to fet afide fuch a teftament.
Testament, in Scots law. See Law, n? clxxxi. 2, &c.
TESTICLE [tejh)r a double part in animals of the
male kind ferving for the office of generation.—See Ana¬
tomy, nJ <07. They are called tejliclety by diminution of
tejesy “ witnelles as giving tdlimony of virility. The
Greeks call them didymiy or “ twins.0
In man and moll animals, the tefticles are exterior ; in
fome, as fowls, interior. Some men have only one, ordina¬
rily they have two ; fome have naturally had three ; nay, ana-
tomifts afthre us they have known four.
TESTIMONY. See Logic, nQ 29. and Metaphy¬
sics, n° < 35—138.
Testimony, in law. See Evidence.
TESTUDO, the Tortoise, in zoology; a genus be-
longing to the clafs of amphibia, and order of reptilia. The
body has a tail, and is defended with a bony or coriaceous
covering. The mouth has naked mandibles without teeth.
Lhere are 33 fpecies, oi which the midas or common fea-
turtle is the moil remarkable. It is found in the ifland of
Afcenfion and other places in the South Sea. The fhell is
fo very ftrong that it can carry more than 6oolbs. on its
back, or as many men as can fland on it loaded. It digs
round holes in the fand, in wdrich it lays a vail numbei of
eggs yearly, to the amount of 1000, it is faid. It broods
on them during the ni. ht. Its fleih is of a greenifh colour,
makes excellent food, and is the favourite difh of iailors
as well as of epicures. It lives on cuttle and fhell fifh, and
grows to a prodigious fize, fome having been found to weLh
480 lbs.
The Americans find fo good account in catching turtle,
that they have made themfelves very expert at it: they
watch them from their nefts on fhore, in moon-light nights;
and, before they reach the fea, turn them on their backs,
and leave them till morning; when they are fure to find
them, fince they are utterly unable to recover their former
pofture : at other times they hunt them in boats, with a
peculiar kind of fpear, linking them with it through the
fhell; and as there is a cord fattened to the fpear, they are
taken much in the fame manner as the whales.
Mr White, in his Natural Hiflory of Selborne, mentions
a land-tortoife which had been kept for 30 years at Ringmer
near Lewes. It retired under ground about the middle of
November, and came forth again about the middle of April.
At its firit appearance in fpring it fhowed little inclination
for food ; in the height of lummer it became voracious; its
appetite again diminiihed toward autumn, fo that for the laft
fix weeks it fcarcely ate any thing at all. It lived chiefly
on milky plants, fuch as lettuces, dandelions, and iow-thiftlea.
Nothing furprifed Mr White more than the extreme timi¬
dity it always fhowed for rain ; for though it had a fhell
that would fecure it againft the wheel of a loaded cart, yet
it difeovered as much folicitude about rain as a fine lady
dr.efled in her bell attire, fhuffling away on the firfl fprink-
4 ling**
T E T r 397 1 T E T
reftudo lInp;S, and running ns head up in a corner. It not only TETRAORAMMATON, TirpayptcvnuTov a denorm-Temgram*
II . flept during winter, but ror a gi eat part of the fummer ; for
dtragruna-^ went t0 {n tjie longer days at four in the morning,
and often did not ftir in the morning till it was late. There
was one feafon ufually about the beginning of June when
its exfertions were remarkable. It then rofe by five in the
morning, and walked on tip toe, traverfmg the garden, ex¬
amining every wicket and interftice in the fences. The
motives that led it to thefe rambles feemed to be of the
amorous kind. Mr White fays it was an excellent
weather-glafs ; for whenever it walked upright and fed with
great avidity in the morning, rained before night. It
Ihowed great fagacity in difcerning thofe who did it kind
offices ; for whenever the old lady who had fed it for 30
years came in fight, it hobbled towards her with awkward
alacrity..
Testudo, in antiquity, was particularly ufed among the
poets, &e. for the ancient lyre ; becaufe it was originally
made by its inventor Mercury, of the black or hollow of
the teftudo aquatica, ©r fea-tortoife, which he accidentally
found on the banks of the river Nile. See Lyre.
Testudo, in the military art of the ancients, was a kind
of cover or fcreen,which the fold-iers, e. gr. a whole com¬
pany, made themlelves ef their bucklers, by holding them
up over their heads, and Handing clofe to each other. This
expedient ferved to fnelter them from darts, Hones, &c.
thrown upon them, dpecially thofe thrown from above,
when they went to the affault.
Testudo, was all© a kind of large wooden tower which
moved on feveral wheels, and was covered with bullock hides,
ferving to Iheltcr the foldiers when they approached the
walls to mine them, or to batter them with rams. It was
called teftudot fronvthe Hrength of its roof, which covered
the workmen as the fhell does the tortoife.
TETANUS, a dreadful fpafmodic diforder, in which the
whole body becomes rigid and inflexible. It moH common¬
ly proves mortal. See Medicine, n° 279.
TETHYS, a genus of infe&s belonging to the clafs of
vermes, and order of mollufca. The body is oblong, flefhy,
and without feet; the mouth conlilts of a cylindiical pro-
bofeis under the duplicature of a lip; and there are two
foramina at the left fide o( the neck. The fpecies are two,
both inhabitants of the ocean.
TETRACERA, in botany; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs oi polyandria, and order of tetragynia, and in
the natural fyfiem ranging under the doubtful. The calyx
is hexaphyllous, and the capiules four. There is only one
fpecies, the volubilis.
TE PR ADYNAMIA, c< four,” and Avvapuc
power”), tour powers; the name of the 15th clafs in
Linnaeus’s Sexual Syfiem, confining of plants with herma¬
phrodite flowers, having fix fiamina, four of which are long,
and two fliort; it coirelponds to the Jiliquof* of Ray, and
cruciformes of Tournefort. All the ipecies belonging to this
clais are diltinguifhed by cruciform flowers. It comprehends
two orders, gymnofperma, thofe plants which have naked
feeds, being four in number, (except phryma which is mo-
nofpermous) ; and angiofpermta, which contains thofe plants
the feeds of which are incloied in a capiule. See Botany,
P- <3°
TETRAGONIA, in botany; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clais of icafandrta, and order of monvgyniu ;
and in the natural fyfiem ranging under the 13th order, /uc-
culentt. 'I he calyx is divided into three, four, or five parts,
I here is no corolla ; the drupe is beneath, and the nut three
or eight-celled. There are (even fpecies ; the puticofa, de-
cumbens, herbacea, echiiiata} expanfa, cryfiallina, and the
japonica.
nation given by the Greeks to the Hebrew name of God mH,:oa
mm, “ Jehovii," becaufe in the Hebrew it confitis of four let- ^
ters. lttraQ-_r
TETRAGYNIA, « four,” an<jl yw* “ a wo- V"'”"
man”) ; the name of an order, or fecondary divifion in
the 4th, yth, 6th, 8th, and 13th daffies in the Sexual
Syfiem ; conlifting of plants which, to the claffic character,
whatever it is, add the circumftance of having fotrr fiyles or
female organs. Herb-paris and grafs of Parnaffus furnilh
examoles.
TE BRANDRIA, (nccrccpi; “ four,” and “''"f “ a man
or hufband”) ; the name of the fourth clafs in Linnaeus’s
Sexual Syfiem, confifting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which have four fiamina or male organs that are of
equal length. In this laft circumftance conflits the main
difference, according to Linnaeus, between the plants of the
clafs in queflion and thofe of the 14th clafs didynamia, in
which the four ftamina are of unequal len gth, two of them
being long, and two fhort.- The orders of this numerous
clais are three, founded upon the number of ftyles or ernale
organs. Scabious, teazel, barren-wort, the Harry plants of
Ray, and the greater number of genera in this clafs, have
one ftyle ; dodder and hypecoum have two ; holly and a
few others have four.
TE I RAO, in ornithology ; a genus of birds belonging
to the order of gal/mx, and is thus charadterized by Liar
naeus : There is a fpot near the eyes naked or papillate, or
covered, though more rarely, with feathers. Gmtlin has
enumerated about 66 fpecies. The genus tetrao compre¬
hended both the grous, partridge, and quail; but Dr Latham*
with great judgment and propriety, has made two genera of
them, under the names of tetrao, comprehending the grous ;
and perdix, comprehending the partridge and quail. Dr
Latham thus diftinguifhes the genus tetrao: The bill is like
a crooked cone, with a naked fcarlct fkin above each eye*
and the feet feathered to the toes. The perdix he cha¬
racterizes by a bill convex, ftrong, and fliort; the noftrils
are covered above with a callous prominent rim ; the orbits
are papillofe; the feet naked, and moft of the fpecies are
furnifhed with (purs. He reckons 20 fpecies under the
teirao, and 48 under the perdix. As we highly approve of
this new arrangement of Dr Latham, we are difpofed to
follow it ; but as a reference has been made from Perdix
to this place, it is proper that we fliould alfo give fome ac¬
count of that genus.
I. Tetrao. Of this genus the following fpecies are
found in Britain t 1. The urogallus, or wood cock, inhabits
woody and mountainous countries; in particular, forefis of
pines, birch-trees, and junipers feeding on the tops o* the
former and berries of the latter ; the firft often infedts the
fleflr with fuck a tafte as to render it fcarcely eatable. la
the fpring it calls the females to its haunts, with a loud and
flu ill voice ; and is at that time fo very inattentive to its
faiety, as to be very eafily fhot. It Hands perched on a tree*
and defeends to the females on their firft appearance. They
lay from 8 to 16 eggs; eight at the firft,,and more as they
advance in age*
This bird is common to Scandinavia, Germany, France,
and fevcral parts of the Alps. It is found in no other
part of Great Britain than the Highlands of Scotland*
north of Invernefs ‘r and is very rare even in thole parts.
It is there known by the name of apercahie, aaer-cahie%
and in the old law-books caperkal/y; the laft lignifying the
horfe of the woods: this fpecies being, in comparifon of
othersof the genus, pre-eminently large.
The length of the male is two feet nine inches;, its
weight fometimes 1.4 pounds. The female is much lefs*
the
T E T [ 398 ] T E T
Tetrao. frie leng’t'ii ’being tmly 26 inches. The fexes differ alfo
preat]y in colours. The bill of the male, is of a pale ytl
■ low ; the head, neck, and back, are elegantly marked, (lender
lines of grey and black running tranfverlely. The upper
part of the bread is of a tich glofiy green ; the relt of the
bread and the belly black, mixed with iome white feathers;
the Tides are marked like the neck ; the coverts of the
wintrs crofled with undulated lines of black and redddh
brown ; the extern* webs of the greater quill feathers are
black : the tail confifts of 1 8 feather-’, the middle of which
is the lon-rell ; thefe are black, marked on each fide with a
few white (pots. The legs are very Jtrong, and covered
with brown feathers; +he edges of the toes are pe&inated.
— Of the female, the bill is dufliy ; the throat red ; the
bead, neck, and back, are marked with tranfverfe bars of
red and black : the bread has fome white (pots on it, and
the lower part is of a plain orange colour : the belly is bar¬
red with pale orange and black ; the tips of the feathers
are white. The tail is of a deep md-colour barred with
black, tipped with white, and conlids of 16 feathers.
2. The tetris, black grous, or black-cock, like the former
fpecies, is fond of woody and mountainous fituations ;
feeding on bilberries and other mountain fruits, and in the
winter on the tops of the heath. In the fummer they fre¬
quently defeend from the hills to feed on corn. They never
pair : but in the fpring the male gets upon fome eminence,
crows and claps his wings ; on which fignal all the females
within hearing refort to him. The hen lays (elJoin more
than fix or feven eggs. When the female is obliged, during
the time of incubation, to leave her eggs in quelt of food,
fhe covers them up fo artfully with mofs or dry leaves,
that it is very difficult to difeover them. On this occafiou
die is extremely tame and tranquil, however wild and timo¬
rous at other times. She often keeps to her neft, though
flrangers attempt to drag her away. As foon as the
young ones are hatched, they are feen running with extreme
agility after the mother, though fometimes they are not
entirely difengaged from the (hell. The hen leads them
forwards for the firit time into the woods, to (how them
ant's eggs and the wild mountain-berries, which, while
young, are their only food. As they grow older their ap-
petities grow (Ironger, and they then feed upon the tops of
heather and the cones of the pine-tree. In this manner
they foon come to perfection : they are hardy birds, their
food lies every where before them, and it would feem that
they (hould increafe in great abundance. But this is not
the cafe ; their numbers are thinned by rapacious birds and
bealts of every kind, and ftill more by their own falacious
contefts.—'As foon as the hatching is over, which the fe¬
male performs in the manner of an hen, the whole brood
follows the mother for about a month or two ; at the end
of which the young males entirely forfake her, and keep in
great harmony together till the beginning of fpring. At
this feafon they begin for the firft time to feel the amorous
paffions; and then adieu to all their former friendfhips i They
begin to confider each other as rivals ; and the rage of con-
eupifcence quite extinguifhes the fpirit of fociety. They
fight each other like game-cocks ; and at that time are fo
inattentive to their own fafety, that it oiten happens that
two or three of them are killed at a (hot, It is probable,
that in tnefe contetts the bird which comes oft vnfeorious
takes poffeffion ot the female feraglio, as it is certain they
kave no faithful attachments.
An old black cock is in length 2 2 inches, and weighs
near four pounds. I he bill is duflcy ; and the plumage of
the whole body black, globed over the neck and rump with
a (hiking blue. The coverts of the wings arc of a dufky
brown ; the inner coverts white ; the thighs and legs are ffetrao.l
covered with dark brown feathers; the toes refemhle thofe y~-s
of the former Ipecies. The tail confifts of *6 black feathers,
and is much forked ; the exterior feathers bend greatly
outwards, and their ends feem as if cut off.—-Tire female
weighs only two pounds ; and its length is one foot fix
inches. The head and neck are marked with alternate bars
of dull red and black ; the bread with duftty black and
white ; but the laft predominates. The back, coverts of
the wings, and tail, arc of the fame colours as the neck,
but the red is deeper. The tail is (lightly forked ; it con¬
fifts of 18 feathers variegated with red and black. The
feathers under the tail are white, marked with a few bars of
black and orange. This bird hatches its young late in the
lummer. It lays from (lx to eight eggs, of a dull yellowifh
white colour, marked with numbers of very ('mail femnjinoua
fpecks; and towards the fmailer end with feme blotches of
the fame hue.
3. The fcoticus, red game, or moor-fowl, is peculiar to the
Britifh iflands. The male weighs about 19 ounces ; and is
in length inches. The bill is black ; the irides hazel-
coloured. The throat is red. The plumage on the head
and neck is of a light tawny red ; each feather is marked
with feveral tranfverfe bars of black. The back and fca-
plilar feathers are of a deeper red ; and on the middle of each
feather is a large black fpot ; the breaft and belly are of a dull
purplifh brown, crofted with numerous narrow duftcylines; the
quill-feathers are dufky; the tail confifts of 16 feathers of an
equal length, all of them (except the four middlemoft) are
black, and the middle feathers are barred with red : the
thighs are of a pale red, barred cbfcurtly with black; the
legs and ieet clothed to the very claws with thick foft white
feathers. 1 he claws are whitilh, very broad and (Irong.
The female weighs only ry ounces.—The colours in general
are duller than thofe of the male : the breaft; and belly arc
fpotted with white ; and the tips of fome of the coverts of
the wings are of the fame Colour. -Thefe birds pair in the
fpring, and lay from ftx to ten eggs. The young brood
iollow the hen the whole fummer ; in the winter they join
in flocks of 40 or 5c, and become remarkably fhy and wild;
they always keep on the tops of the hills, are fcarce ever
found on the fides, £nd never defeend into the valleys.
Their food is the mountain-berries and tops of the heath.
4. The lagopus, white game or ptarmigan, is > 5 inches in
length, and weighs 19 ounces. Its plumage is of a pale
brown or afh colour, elegantly crofted or motled with (mall
dufky fpots and minute bars 5 the head and neck with broad
bars of black, ruft colour, and white; the belly and wings
are white, but the fhafse of the greater quill-feathers black.
In the male, the grey colour predominates, except on the head
and neck, where there is a great mixture of red, with bars
ot white. The females and young buds have a great deal
of ruft-colour in them. The tail confifts of 16 feathers;
the two middle of which are afh-coloured, raotied with
black, and tipped with white ; the two next black, (lightly
marked with white at tlieir ends, the reft wholly black : the
feathers incumbent on the tail aie white, and aimoft entirely
cover it.
Ptarmigans are found in thefe kingdoms only on the
fummits of the hjgheft hills of the Highlands of Scotland,
of the Hebrides, and Orkneys : and a few ftill inhabit the
lofty hills near Ktfwick in Cumberland as well as the
mountains of Wales. They live amidft the rocks, perching
on the grey (tones, the general colour of the ftrata in thote
exalted fituations. They are very filly birds ; lo tame as
to bear driving like poultry; and, if provoked to rife, take
very (hart flights, making a great circuit like pigeons.
Tike
T E T [ 3
Eetrao. Like the "rous, they keep in fmall packs ; but never, like
“"v—"■ thoie birds, take fhelter in the heath, but beneath loofe
itones. J o the tafle they fcarce differ from a grous.
Thefe birds are called by Pliny lagopi, their feet being
clothed with feathers to the claws, as the hare’s are with
fur : the nails arc long, broad, and hollow. The firft cir-
cumftance guards them from the rigour of the winter ; the
latter enables them to form a lodge under the fnow, where
they lie in heaps to protect themfelves from the cold. The feet
of the grous are clothed in the fame manner ; but thofe of
the two frit ipecies here delcribed, which perch upon trees,
are naked, the legs only being feathered, not being in want
of fuch a protection.
II. Perdix, comprehends both the partridge and quail.
The common partridge is Jo well known that a deferip-
tion of it is unneceffary, and we have-not room to defenbe
the foreign foecies. We refer thofe who with complete in¬
fo1 mation to the accurate and valuable Syftcm of Ornithology
publiJhed by Dr Latham. The feientific cn nitholo rift will
find much , fat is faction in his Index Ornitbologus, published
in 2 vols 4to ; and lie who wifnes to be acquainted with the
nature and dilpofitions of birds, will read his Synopfis with
pkafure, publiJhed in 7 vols 4to.
The following general account of the partridge will fuf-
fice : “ Thele birds (lays Willughby) hold the principal
place in the ftafts and entertainments of princes; without
which their leads are efteemed ignoble, vulgar, and ot no
account. The Frenchmen do fo highly value, and are fo
fond of the pa tridge, that if they be wanting, they utterly
flight and defpife the beft fpread tables ; as if there could
be no feaft without them.” But however this might be in
the times of our hiftorian, the partridge is now too common
in France to be confide red as a delicacy ; and this, as well
as every other iimple difti, is explode-d for luxu-ies of a
more compound invention. In England, where the part¬
ridge is much Scarcer, and a great deal dearer, it is Still a
favourite delicacy at the tables of the rich ; and the defire
of keeping it to themfelves has induced them to make laws
for its preservation, no way harmonifmg with the general
Spirit of English legislation.
The partridge Teems to be a bird well known all over the
world, as it is found in every country and in everv climate ;
as well in the frozen regions about the pole, as the torrid
tracks under the equator. It even feems to adapt itfelf to
the nature of the climate where it refides. la Greenland,
the partridge, which is brown in- fummer, as boon as the icy
winter fets in, begins to take a covering Suited to the Seafotr:
it is then clothed with a warm down beneath ; and its out¬
ward plumage aflumes the colour of the fnow among which
it feeks its food. Thus it is doubly fitted for the place, by
the warmth and the colour of its plumage; the one to defend
it from the cold, the other to prevent its being noticed by the
enemy. Thofe of Barakonda, on the other hand, are longer
legged, much fwifter of foot, and choofe the higheft rocks
and precipices to refide in.—They all, however, agree in
one character, of being immoderately addicted to venery ;
and, as feme writers-, affirm, often to an unnatural degree.
It is certain, the male will purfue the hen even to her neft ;
and will break her eggs rather than not indulge his indi¬
cations. Though the young ones have kept together in
flocks during the winter, when they begin to pair in fpving
their focietv difperfcs ; and combats, very terrible with re-
fpedl to each other, enfue. Their manners in other circum-
ftances referable all thofe of poultry in general ; but their
cunning and inftintl feem fuperior to thofe of the larger
kinds- Perhaps, as they live in the very neighbourhood of
their enemies, they have more frequent occasion to put their
little arts in practice, and kaiu by habit the means of eva-
99 ] T E T
fion or fafety. Whenever therefore a dog or other fornn- Tetrao-.
dable animal approaches their neft, the female ufes every * J
means to draw him away. She keeps juft before him, pre¬
tends to be incapable of flying, juft hops up, and then falls
down before him, but never goes off fo far as to difeourage
her piufuer. At length, when fhe has drawn him entirely
away from her fecret treafure, fire at once takes wing, and
fairly leaves him to gaze after her in defpair. After the
danger is over, and the dog withdrawn, She then calls her
young, who affemble at once at her cry, and follow where
fire leads them. There are generally from 10 to 1 5 in a
covey ; and, if unmolefted, they live from 15 to 17 years.
There are feveral methods of taking them, as is well known;
that by which they are taken in a net with a fetting dog
is the moft pleafanc, as well as the uroft fecure. The dog,
as every body knows, is trained to this exercife by a long
c our ft: of education : by blows and careffes he is taught to-
lie down at the word of command ; a partridge is Shown
him, and he is then ordered to lie down ; he is brought into
the field, and when the fportfman perceives where the covey
lies, he orders his dog to crouch : at length the dog, front
habit, crouches wherever he approaches a covey ; and this
is the Signal which the fportfman receives for unfolding and
covering the birds with his net. A covey thus caught is
fometimes fed in a place proper for their reception ; but
they can never be thoroughly tamed like our domeftic poul¬
try. See Partridge and Shooting.
2. The coturnix, or common quail, is not above half the
fize of the partridge. The feathers of the head are black,
edged with rufty brown ; the bread is of a pale yellowish
red, Ipotted with black ; the feathers on the back are
marked with lines of pale yellow, and the legs are of a pale
hue. Except in the colours thus dtferibed, and the fize, it
every way refembles a partridge in Shape, and, except that
it is a bird of paffage, it is like ail others of the poultry kind
in its habits and nature.
The quail feems to fpread entirely throughout the old
world, but does inhabit the new ; is ften Srom the Cape of
Good Hope quite to Iceland, and is faid to be found in
Falkland Ifies ; alfo in New Zealand, throughout Puiffia,
Tartavy, and China*; and in Short is mentioned by So many # gee
travellers, and in fo many places, that we may almoit call it ai\f]er’s Obf.
inhabitant of all. It is observed to Shift quarters according 199*
to the feafon, coming northward in Spring, and departing
fouth in autumn, and in vaft flocks, like other migra¬
ting birds. Twice in a year it comes in Such vaft quantities
into Capri, that the bilhop of the island draws the chief
part of his revenue from them ; hence he is called the quail
B'tjhop. But this does not Hand alone ; almoft ail the ilknis Latham'r 1
in the Archipelago, on the oppofite coafts, are at times
covered with thele birds, and Some of them obtain a name »v*
from this circumftanee. On the weft coaft of the kingdom
of Naples, within the fpaee of four or five miles, an hundred
thoufand have been taken in a day, which have been fold
for eight livres per hundred to dealers who carry them for
fale to Rome. Great quantities alfo fometimes alight in
fpring on the coafts of Provence, especially in the diocele
of the bifhop of Frejus, which is near the lea, and appear,
at their firft landing, fo much fatigued that they are otter*
taken by the hand. Thefe circumftances then leave not a
doubt of their being the Same kind of birds which tire
divine hand of providence thought right to direft in fnch
quantities as to cover the camp of the murmuring Jfraelites.
“In the autumn, great quantities are fiequen'dy imported
into England from France for the table ; which we have fre¬
quently feen (fays Dr Latham) on their paffage to London by
the Stage-coaches, about an hundred in a large fquare box,
divided into five or fix partitions one above another, juft high
3 enough
T E T J [ 400 ] ' T E U
Tetrao enonrh to admit of the quails Sanding upright ; thefe boxes
U have wires on the fore part, and each partition furnifhed with
, T ernan. a i;ttle trough for food ; and I have been told, fays our
author, they may be conveyed thus to great diitances with¬
out difficulty.”
With us they may be faid not to be plenty at any time.
They breed with us, and the major part migrate fouth in
autumn ; the reft only fhift their quarters, as they have
been met with on the coafts of EfTex, and in Hampfhire, in
the wiftter-feafon, retiring thefe in Ocftober.
It feeds like the partridge, and like that bird makes no
neft, except a few dry leaves or ftalks fcraped together may
be called fo, and fometimes an hollow on the bare ground
fuffices. In this the female lays her eggs to the number of
fix or feven, of a whitifh colour, marked with irregular ruft-
coloured fpots : the young follow the mother as foon as
hatched, like young partridges. They have but one brood
in a year.
Quail-fighting was a favourite amufement among the
Athenians. They abftained from the flefti of this bird,
deeming it unwholefome, as fuppofing that it fed upon the
white hellebore : but they reared great numbers of them
for the pleafure of feeing them fight; and ftaked fums
of money, as we do with regard to cocks, upon the fuccefs
of the combat. Fafhion, however, has at prefent changed
with regard to this bird : we take no pleafure in its courage,
but its rlefii is confidered as a very great delicacy.—Q_uails
are eafdy caught by a call: the fowler early in the morning
having ipread his net, hides himfelf under it among the
corn ; he then imitates the voice of the female with his quail-
pipe, which the cock hearing, approaches with the utmoft
affiduity ; when he has got under the net, the fowler then
difeovers himfelf, and terrifies the quail, who attempting
to get away, entangles himfelf the more in the net, and is
taken.
TETRODON, in ichthyology ; a genus of fifties'arran¬
ged by Linnaeus under the clafs of amphibia, and order of
r.anles ; but placed by Gmelin under the clafs of pifees, and
order of Iranchiojltgi. The jaws are bony, ftretched out,
and cloven at the point ; the aperture of the gills is linear ;
the body is muricated beneath, and there are no ventral fins.
There are x 3 Ipecies ; of which the moft remarkable is the
lineatus, called by Mr Hafftlquift fahaka, which is the Egyp¬
tian and Arabic name. It has of late been found in the
Nile about Cairo, but was never known in former times.
It is faid to grow to a prodigious fize. When juft caught,
it pricks the fkin if it is taken in the bare hands, and pro¬
duces fmall puftules in the fame manner as nettles. The
flefti is poifonous. Mr Forfter confirms the account of the
poifonous nature of a fpecies &f tetrodon, in his account of
New Caledonia.
TETRARCH, a prince who holds and governs a fourth
part of a kingdom. Such originally was the import of the
title tetrarch; but it was afterwards applied to any petty
king or iovereign j and became fynonymous with ethnarch,
as appears from the following confiderations : 1. That Pliny
makes mention of fix tetrarchies within thd' city of Deca-
pohs. 2. That Herod’s kingdom was only divided into
three parts, which yet were called tetrarchies, and the fo-
7 Fair 's vere%n3 thereof, Luke iii. t. tetrarchs. 3. Jofephus tells us,
Antiq^B. I^at> after the battle of Philippi, Antony, going into Sy-
siv. c. 23. rta> conftituted Herod tetrarch ; and on medals the fame
Herod is called ethnarch.
TETRASTYLE, in the ancient architecture, a build-
ing, and particularly a temple, with four columns in its
front.
1 ETUAN, an ancient and pleafant town of Africa, in
the kingdom of Fez, and in the province of Habata. It
is pretty well built, and the inhabitants are about 15,000 in Teifcrkm
number, who call themfelves Andalujians, and almoft all fpeak !l
Spamfh ; but they are great pirates. Some fay there, are ^ eut0111c.
30,000 Moorifli inhabitants, and 5000 Jews. W. Long. ' v"]
5. 26. N. Lat. 35. 27.,
TEI1CRIUM, germander, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of didynamia, and order of
gymnofpermifl ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
42d order, Verticillatat. The corolla has no upper lip, is
divided into two parts beyond the bafe, and is divaricated
where the ftamina iftue out. There are 30 fpecies ; of which
the fcorodonia, fcordium, and chamsedrys, are natives of
Great Britain.
1. The fcorndonia, wood-fage, or germander, is diftin-
puifhed by leaves which are heart-fhaped, ferrated, and pe-
tiolated ; by racemi, which are lateral and ranged in one
row; and by an ere£t fttm. The flowers are ftraw-coloured,
and the filaments red. The plant has a bitter tafte, and
fin ells like hops with a little mixture of garlic. It is ufed
in brewing'in the ifle of Jerfey inftead of hops. 2. The
fcordium, or common water-germander, hath creeping per¬
ennial roots, fending up many fquare, procumbent, or trail¬
ing ftalks, branching diffufely ; oblong, indented, ferrated,
clofe fitting, oppofite leaves; and fmall reddifh flowers, ge¬
nerally two together, from the fides of the ftalks and branches,
in July and Auguft. This plant was formerly confidered
as medicinal, but has now fallen into diiufe. It grows na¬
turally in marfhy places, in the ifle of Ely and other parts
of England, and moft parts of Europe ; and is fometimes ad¬
mitted into gardens, in moift places, for variety, and^as a me¬
dical plant. 3. The chamadrys, or fmaller creeping ger¬
mander, hath fibrous, very creeping, fpreading roots; many
four-cornered, very branchy, trailing ftalks, near a foot long ;
oval, cuneiform, cut, crenated leaves on ftiort footftalks ;
and reddifh flowers, growing almoft in a verticillus, or whorls,
round the ftalk, three on each peduncle ; appearing in June
and July.
TEUTHIS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties belonging
to the order of abdominales. The head is fomewhat trun¬
cated on the forepart ; the branehil membrane has five rays;
the teeth equal, rigid near each other, forming a regular
feries. There are two fpecies, the hepatus and java.
TEUTONES, or Teutoni, (anc. geog.) a people al¬
ways by hiftorians joined with the Cimbri; both feated,
according to Mela, beyond the Elbe, on the Sinus Codanus,
or Baltic ; and there, it is fuppofed, lay the country of the
Teutones, now Ditmarjh ; diverfity of dialedfts producing
the different terms Tent, Tut, Dit, Tid, and Thcd, which
in the ancient German language ftgnified people. Of thefe
Teutones, Virgil is to be underftood in the epithet Teutoni-
cus, an appellation which more lately came to be. applied to
the Germans in general, and later ftill the appellation A-
lemanni.
The Teutones, in conjunftion with the Cimbri and Am-
brones, made war on the Romans, and marched towards
Italy in the year 101 B. C. We are told, that the Teu¬
tones alone were fo numerous, that they were fix whole
days without intermifiion- in paffing by the Roman camp.
In Tranfalpine Gaul they engaged the Roman conful Ma¬
rius ; but were defeated with incredible /laughter ; ioc,oco
of them, according to the loweft calculations, being killed
on the fpot. According to bthers, the number tff thoie
killed and taken prifoners amounted to 290,000. The in¬
habitants of the neighbouring country made fences for vine¬
yards of their bones. Theif king Teutobochus, faid to be
a monftrous giant, was taken prifoner and carried to Rome.
See the article Giant.
TEUTONIC, fometbing belonging to the Teutones.
Th#
1 M. X
[ 4oi ]
T H A
Teutonic The Teutonic language is fuppofed to have been the lan-
!lt guage of the ancient Germans, and hence is reckoned a-
_ T^xt' mongft the mother-tongues. See Philology, n° 219.
Teutonic Order, an order of military knights, eftablilhed
towards the clofe of the twelfth century, on the following
occafion. —When the emperor Barbaroffa engaged in a cm-
fade for the recovery of the Holy Land out of the hands
of Saladin, he was followed by great numbers of German
I volunteers, who from various motives enlifted under his ban¬
ners. After the death of Barbarolfa, the Germans, who
had fignalized themfelves before Acre or Ptolemais, refolved
to choofe another leader ; and at lafi: fixed their choice upon
Frederic duke of Suabia, fecond fon to the emperor, and
Henry duke of Brabant. Under thefe generals they be¬
haved with fo much bravery, that Henry king of Jerufalem,
the patriarch, and fevtral other princes, determined to re-
Iward their valour by inflituting an order of knighthood in
their favour. This was accordingly done ; and our new
knights had at fir ft the title of the knights of St George ;
afterwards it was thought proper to put them under the
tutelage of the Virgin Mary, to whom there was already
an hofpital dedicated on Mount Zion, for the relief of Ger¬
man pilgrims. From this time they were called Equites
Mariani, or knights of St Mary. Laws, regulations, and
ftatutes, were drawn up for them by the Chriftian kings in Sy¬
ria and the patriarch; and among other obligations it was re¬
quired, that every perfon admitted to the privileges of the or¬
der fhould be of noble parentage; that the order (hould defend
the Chriftian religion and the Holy Land ; that they fhould
exercife hofpitahty towards the Chriftians in general, but par-
ticularly thofeof their own country; and that they ftiould with
all their power endeavour to propagate and extend the Chri¬
ftian faith and the religion of Jesus. In the year 1190, ha¬
ying become rich by donations from the fuperftitious, they e-
letfted their firft grandmafter, Henry Walpot, a German, who
had diftinguiftied himielf by his zeal and valour; and their
choice was confirmed by the emoeror. The following year,
pope Celeftine III. confirmed their privileges already granted,
giving them the title of the Teutonic knights of the hofpital of St
Mary the Virgin. By the conditions of this bull, they vowed
perpetual continence, obedience, and poverty ; obligations
which it may well be imagined were not very ibiftly kept.
See Poland, n° ^9, 61, 67—69. and Prussia, n“ 3, 4.
I EWIyESBURY, a town in Gloucefterfhire, formerly
noted for its monaftery. It is now a large handfome cor-
potation, containing about 300 houfes, with a magnificent
church. It is feated at the confluence of the rivers Severn
and Avon, has a cotton manufactory, and fends two mem¬
bers to parliament. W. Long. 2. 1 N. Lat. 52. o.
TEXEL, a town of the United Provinces, in north
Holland, feated at the mouth of the Zuyder-Zee, with a
good harbour, and a ftrong fort. L is feated in a fruitful
ifland, known all over the world by the great number of
fmps that pals this way every day from all parts ; it is about
fix miles long, and five broad, lying a little northward to
the continent of Holland, between which and the ifland is
fvgtnt's one of the principal pafl'ages out of the Zuyder-Zee into
ToT^ Aie ocean' ^ defended from the lea by land hills and
y-ol,ftrong banks. Moft of the foil is applied to feed fheep, of
which they have great flocks ; and the cheefe made of their
milk is faid to vie with the Parmefan. This ifland con¬
tains feveral fair villages, and a town on the eait fide, called
ltrongly fortified and garrifoned, and inhabited chiefly
by nmerrnen. N. Eat, 53. 8. E. Long. 4. 5 1.
^ a relative term, contradiftinguifhed to glofs or
commentary, and fignifying an original difcourie exelufive
r any note or interpretation. This word is oarticularly
V ou. XVIII. Part n. * ;
ufed for a certain paffage of fcripture, chofen by a preacher Text:
to be the fubjeCt of his fermon. il
TEXTURE, properly denotes the arrangement and co-
hefion of feveral flender bodies or threads interwoven or en¬
tangled among each other, as in the webs of fpiders, or in
the cloths, fluffs. See.
Texture is alfo ufed in fpeaking of any union or confti-
tuent particles of a concrete body, whether by weaving,
hooking, knitting, tying, chaining, indenting, intruding,
comprefling, attra&ing, or any other way. In which fenfe
we fay, a clofe compact texture, a lax porous texture, a
regular or irregular texture, See.
TEWIT, in ornithology. See Tringa.
THABOR. See Tabor.
THALES, a celebrated Greek philofopher, and the firft
of the feven wife men of Greece, was born at Miletus
about 640 B. C. In order to improve himfelf in the know¬
ledge of the fciences, he travelled into Egypt, where he
difeourfed with the priefts and other learned men. Some
fay that he married ; but others obferve, that he eluded
the felicitations of his mother on this head, by telling her,
when he was young, that it was too foon ; and afterwards,
that it was two late. Thales acquired great reputation by
his wifdom and learning: he was the firft among the Greeks
who foretold eclipfes of the fun, and made extraordinary
difeoveries in ailronomy. Thales was the author of the
Ionian fe<!ft of philofophers, who were thus called from his
being born at Miletus, a city of Ionia. He maintained
that water was the principle of which all the bodies in the
univerfe are compofed; that the world was the work of
God ; and that God fees the moft fecret thoughts in the
heart of man. He faid, “ That the moft difficult thing in
the world is to know ourfelves; the moft eafy to advife
others; and the moft fweet to accomplifh our defires. That,
m order to Jive well, we ought to abftain from what we
find fault with in others, i hat the bodily felicity confifts in
health, and that of the mind in knowledge. That the
moft ancient of beings is God, becaufe he is uncreated ;
that nothing is more beautiful than the world, becaufe it
is the work of God; nothing more extenfive than fpace,
quicker than fpirit, ftrongerthan neceflity, wiler than time.’,
It was alfo one* of his fentences, “ That we ought never
to fay that to any one that may be turned to our prejudice;
and that we fhould live with our friends as with perfons
that may become our enemies.” He thanked God for
three things; that he was born of the human, not of the
brute fpecies; a man, and nat a woman ; a Greek, and not
a barbarian. None of the ancient philofophers ever applied
themfelves more earneftly to the fiudy of aftronomy than
Thales. Diogenes Laertius reports, that leaving his lod¬
ging with an old woman to contemplate the ftars, he fell
into a ditch ; on which the good woman cried, M How
canft thou know what is doing in the heavens, when thou
canft not perceive what is at thy feet ?” He went to fee
Crcefus, who was marching with a powerful army into Cap¬
padocia, and enabled him to pafs the river Halys without
making a bridge. Thales died foon after, at about 90
years of age. He compofed feveral treatifes in verfe, on
meteors, the equinoxes, See- but they are all loft.
I HaLIA, in Pagan mythology, one of the nine mufes.
She prefided over Comedy; and is reprefented crowned with
a gailand of ivy, holding a mafic in her hand, and wearing
bufkins on her leet.
1 halia, in botany : A genus of plants belonging to the
clafs of monandria, and order of monogynia ; and in the na¬
tural fyftem ranging under the 8th order, Scitaminea. The
corolla is pentapetalous and undulated ; and the drupe has a
3 E bilo-
T H A [ 4°2 ] T H A
Thalic- bilocular kernels. There is only one fpecies, the genicu-
triim,
Thame. ^yj^LlCTRUM^ meadow-rue, in botany : A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs ol polyandria, and order of
tiolygynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 26th
order, Mulhfiliqu*. There is no calyx ; the petals are
four or five in number, and the feeds are naked and without
a tail. There are 15 fpecies; three of which are indige¬
nous, the jlavum, rn'inus^ and alpinum.
1. 'Yhzjlavum, or common meadow-rue, has a leafy fur¬
rowed ftalk, and a manifold ere£t panicle. It has commonly
24 ftanuna, and from 10 to 16 pillils. The root and kaves
of this plant dye a yellow colour, and cattle are fond or it.
It grows on the banks of fome rivers : It is found at North
Queen’s-ferry, Fifefhire. 2. The minus, or fmall meadow-
rue, has fexpartite leaves, and bending flowers. The ftalk
is ftriated, and about a foot high ; the leaves are lax and
divaricated, having rigid footftalks ; they are fmooth and
glaucous, and their lobes generally trifid; the panicle is
branched and open, and the flo,wers nod : the petals are pale
green, tinged with red; the llamina are from 15 to 20;
the feeds deeply ftriated, and from two to feven in number.
This plant is frequent in fandy foils and mountainous paftures.
q. The alpinum, or alpine meadow-rue, has a very fimple
ilalk, and alrnoft naked; and a racemus fimple and terminal.
It is a pretty little plant, about a fingers-length in height;
the leaves all rife from the root, the ftalk being naked and
branched ; the flowers nod, and have 4 petals, 12 ftamma,
and 8 piftils. It is frequent on the ftdes of rivulets in the
highland mountains and other places.
THAMES, the fineft river in Great Britain, which takes
its rife from a copious fpring, called Thames Head, two
miles fouth-weft of Cirencefter in Gloiicefterfhire. It has
been erroneoufly faid, that its name is Ifis till it arrives at
Dorchefter, 15 miles below Oxford, when, being joined by
the Thame or Tame, it aflumes the name of the Thames,
which, it has been obferved, is formed from a combination
of the words Thame and Ifis. What was the origin of this
vulgar error, cannot now be traced. Poetical fidtion, how¬
ever, has perpetuated this error, and invefted it with a kind
of claftical fanaity. “ It plainly appears (fays Camden),
that the river was always called Thames or Terns, before it
came near the Thame; and in feveral ancient charters
granted to the abbey of Malmfbury, as well as that of Enf-
ham, and in the old deeds relating to Cricklade, it is never
Gazetteer' confidered under any other name than that of Thames.
He likewife fays, that it occurs nowhere under the name
of Ifis. All the hiftorians who mention the incurfions of
Ethelwold into Wiltfhire in the year 905, or of Canute in
1016, concur likewife in the fame opinion, by declaring,
that they pafled over the Thames at Cricklade in Wiltfhire.
It is not probable, moreover, that Thames Head, an appel¬
lation by which tire fource has ufually been diftinguifhed,
fhould give rife to a river of the name of Ifis ; which river,
after having run half its courfe, fhould reaflume the name of
Thames, the appellation of its parent fpring. About a mile
below the fource of the river is the firft corn-mill, which is
called Kemble Mill. Here the river may properly be faid
to form a conftant current ; which, though not more than
nine feet wide in the fummer, yet in the winter becomes
Inch a torrent as to overflow the meadows for many miles
around. But, in the fummer, the Thames Head is fo dry,
as to appear nothing but a large dell, interfperfed with ftones
and weeds. From Somerford the ftream winds to Cricklade,
where it unites with many other rivulets. Approaching
Kemsford, it again enters its native county, dividing it from
Bvrkfhire at Inglefham. It widens confiderably in its way
to Lechlade ; and being there joined by the Lech and Coin,
at the diftance of 138 miles from London, it becomes navi- Thame?,
gable for veflels of 90 tons. At Enfham, in its courfe ’•“■v—-
north-eaft, to Oxford, is the firft bridge of ftone ; a
handfome one, of three arches, built by the earl of Abing¬
don. Palling by the ruins of Godftow nunnery, where the
celebrated Fair Rofamond was interred, the river reaches
Oxford, in whofe academic groves its poetical name of Ifis
has been fo often ‘invoked. Being there joined by the
Charwell, it proceeds fouth-eaft to Abingdon, and thence
to Dorchefter, where it receives the Tame. Continuing its
courfe fouth-eaft by Wallingford to Reading, and forming a
boundary to the counties of Berks, Bucks, Surry, Midsllefex,.
Effex, and Kent, it wafhes the towns of Henley, Marlow,
Maidenhead, Windfor, Eton, Egham, Staines, Laleham,
Chertfey, Weybridge, Shepperton, Walton, Sunbury, Eaft
and Weft Moulfey, Hampton, Thames Ditton, Kingfton,
Teddington, Twickenham, Richmond, Ifleworth, Brent¬
ford, Kew, Mortlake, Barnes, Chilwick, Hammerfmith,
Putney, Fulham, Wandfworth, Batterfea, Chelfea, and
Lambeth. Then, on the north bank of the river, are Weft-
minfter and London, and, on the oppofite fide, Southwark ;
forming together one continued city, extending to Lime-
houfe and Deptford ; and hence the river proceeds to Green¬
wich, Erith, Greenhithe, Gray’s Thurrock, Gravefend, and
Leigh, into the ocean. It receives in its courfe from Dor¬
chefter the rivers Kennet, Loddon, Coin, Wey, Mole,,
Wandle, Lea, Roding, Darent, and Medway. The jurif-
didtion of the lord mayor of London over the Thames ex¬
tends from Coin Ditch, a little to the weft of Staines, to
Yendal or Yenleet to the eaft, including part of the rivers
Medway and Lea; and he has a deputy, named the water-
bailiff, who is to fearch for and punifh all offenders againft
the laws for the prefervation of the river and its fifh. Eight
times a year the lord mayor and aldermen hold courts
of confervance for the four counties of Surry, Middlefex,
Effex, and Kent. Though the Thames is faid to be
navigable 138 miles above the bridge, yet there are fa
many flats, that in fummer the navigation weftward would
be intirely flopped, when the fprings are low, were, it
not for a number of locks. But thefe are attended with
confiderable expence ; for a barge from Lechlade to London
pays for pafling through them 13I. 15s. 6d. and from Ox¬
ford to London 12I. 18s. This charge, however, is in fum¬
mer only, when the water is low ; and there is no lock from
London Bridge to Bolter’s Lock; that is, for 51^ miles
above the bridge. The plan of new cuts has been adopted,
in fome places, to fhorten and facilitate the navigation. There
is one near Lechlade, which runs nearly parallel to the old
river, and contiguous to St John’s Bridge; and there is
another a mile from Abingdon, which has rendered the
old ftream toward Culham Bridge ufelefs. But a mucii
more important undertaking has lately been accomplifhed ;
namely, the junftion of this river with the Severn. .A canal
had been made, by virtue of an a& of parliament in 173c,
from the Severn to Wall Bridge, near Stroud. A new
canal now afcends by Stroud, through the Vale of Chalford,
to the height of 343 feet, by means of 28 locks, and thence
to the entrance of a tunnel near Sapperton, a diftance of
near eight miles. The canal is 42 feet in width at top and
30 at the bottom. The tunnel (which is extended under
Sapperton Hill, and under that part of earl Bathurft’s
grounds called Haley Wood, making a diftance of two miles
and three furlongs) is near 15 feet in width, and can na¬
vigate barges of 70 tons. The canal defcendmg hence 134
feet, by 14 locks, joins the Thames at Lechlade, a diftance
of above 20 miles. In the courfe of this vaft undertaking,
the canal, from the Severn at Froomlade to Inglefham,
where it joins the Thames, is a difDnce of more than 30 mdes.
T H A
[ 4®3 3
THE
'Thamfis, The cxpence of it exceeded the i’um of 200,000!. of which
F.,-lhane. g0OO]. are laid to have been expended in gunpowder alone,
^ ufe<4 for the blowing up of the rock. This new canal was
completed in 17B9, in lefs than feven years from its com-
jnencemcnt. A communication, not only with the Trent,
.hut with the Merfey, has likewife been effected by a canal
./'-om Oxford to Coventry ; and an aft of parliament has
•palfed to extend another canal from this, at Braunlton, to
the Thames at Brentford. This is to be called Tht Grand
Jundion Canal. On the extenfrve advantages refulting
■from thefe navigable communications from the metropolis
with the ports of Briftol, Liverpool, Hull, &c. and the
principal manufafturing towns in the inland parts of the
kingdom, it is needlefs to expatiate. The tide flows up the
Thames as high as Richmond, which, following the wind¬
ing of the river, is 70 miles from the ocean ; a greater
diftance than the tide is carried by any other river In
Europe. The water is elleemed extremely wholefome, and
fit for ufe in very long voyages, during which it will work
itfelf perfectly fine.
Thames is alfo the name of a river in the Hate of Con¬
necticut in America. See the article Connecticut.
THANE, or Thanus, a name given to the nobility in
Britain before the time of William the Conqueror. It fig-
nifies a minifter or honourable retainer, from the verb thenian
“ to miniHer.” There were lever?.! degrees of nobility
among the Anglo-Saxons ; but thofe moft commonly men¬
tioned are the king’s thanes and the alderman’s thanes.
.The king’s thanes feem to have been of three different de¬
grees, according to their different degrees of wealth or fa¬
vour at court. The alderman’s thanes feem to have been
of the loweft degree of nobility, and next to them thofe who
were promoted to that dignity from their advancement in
the church, from their valour, luccefs in agriculture or com¬
merce : for if a ceorl or farmer applied to learning and
attained to priefts orders, if he acquitted himfelf fo well as to
obtain from a nobleman five hythes of land, or a gilt fword,
helmet, and breaft-plate, the reward of his valour ; or if by
his induftry he had acquired the property of five hythes of
land ; or if he applied to trade, and made three voyages be¬
yond fea in a {hip of his own, and a cargo belonging to
himfelf-—he was denominated a thane.
The thanes, who were the only nobility among the Anglo-
Saxons, were a very numerous body of men, comprehending
all the ,conliderable landholders in England, and filling up
that fpace in fociety between the ceorls or yeomanry on the
one hand, and the royal family on the other ; which is now
occupied both by the nobility and gentry. In times of
war, they conflituted the flower of their armies, and in times
of peace they fwelled the trains of their kings, and added
greatly to the fplendour of their courts, efpecially at the
three great feftivals of Chriftmas, Eafler, and Whitfuntrde.
WtHry's Hi-^rom this body all the chief officers, both civil and mi-
fiory of litary, as aldermen, greeves, earls, heretogens, &c. were
Great Bri- taken ; and to obtain ibme of thefe offices was the great
uin, vol, ii. okjeft 0f t}iejr ambition. Before they obtained an office,
their lands were their only fupport; and they lived in great¬
er or leis affluence, according to the extent of their eltates.
Thefe they divided into two parts ; one of which they call¬
ed their inlands, and the other their outlands. Their in¬
lands they kept in their own immediate poffeflion, and cul¬
tivated them by the hands of their Haves and villains, in
order to raife provifions for their families ; their outlands
they granted to ceorls or farmers, either for one year, or
for a term of years ; for which they received a certain (ii-
pulated proportion of their produce annually. Thefe
vafiems had long prevailed among their anceflors in Ger¬
many, and were adhered to by their pofferity in England Thanet
till the conqueft. %
The thanes were under no obligations on account of their .
lands, except the three following, which were indifpenfably
neceffary to the defence and improvement of their country :
To attend the king with their followers in military expedi¬
tions, to affill in building and defending the royal caftles,
and in keeping the bridges and highways in proper repair.
To thefe obligations all proprietors of land (even the
churchmen for a long time not excepted) were fubjedled;
and thefe fervices were confidered as due to their country
rather than to the perfons of their kings ; and were agreed
to by all as being neceffary to their own prefervation and
conveniency.
This title of thane was abolifhed in England at the con¬
queft, upon the introduftion of the feudal fyftem by Wil¬
liam. The titles ©f earl and baron were about the lame pe¬
riod introduced into Scotland by Malcolm Canmore, and the
title of thane fell into difufe.
THANET, an ifland of the county of Kent, furrounded
by the fea except on the north-eaft fide, where it is bound¬
ed by the branches of the river Stour, now inconfiderable to
what they were formerly. It contains feveral villages, and
the fea-port towns of Margate and Ranafgate, and has the
title of an earldom. It is celebrated for being the fpot
through which arts, fciences, and divine knowledge, came
into this happy ifle. The Britons called it Ricbborough,
from its vicinity to the city of that name, now ©nly a vener¬
able ruin ; but the Saxons called it Thanet, from fire, ha¬
ving fo many beacons eredted on it. It is in the north-eaft;
part of the county, lies open to the fea on the north and eaft,
with the river Wantfum on the weft and fouth, is about 10
miles long from the North Foreland to Sarre-Bridge, and
about 8 broad from Weftgate to Sandwich-Ferry. rY\\zLuch)mle't
north part of it is all arable, except forr.e barren land, that ^nglanri,
is fown with faintfoin, which produces a load and fome-
times two loads of hay upon an acre ; by which means, the
land that otherwife is not worth half-a crown an acre
yields 30s. or 40s. The fouth and weft parts of the ifland
are moft; of them raarfh or pafture lands. The foil is gene¬
rally very fertile, efpecially in the beft of barley, and other
forts of grain, of which it is computed above 20,000 quarters
are fent hence to London in a yrcar, befides what is fold to
other places. The alga marina, or fea-ore, as they call it,
is their chief manure. This they dry on the {here, and
burn, in order to make kelp, which the potters ufe irj
glazing their ware. But the fmell of the rotten ore upon
the foil, and thefmoke of it when burning, is very'noilome.
The gentlemen’s families are for the moft part gone from
this part of the county, having fold their eftates ; fo that
their manfion feats are converted into farm-houfes ; but then,
on the other hand, many of the yeomen and farmers have
good eftates, on which they live very genteelly. In this
ifland are ten parifhes, but feven parilh-churches, and one
chapel.
THAPSIA, the deadly catrot, in botany: A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs of pentandna, and order of
digynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 45th
order, umbellatce. The Fruit is oblong and girt with a mem¬
brane. There are five fpecies ; the villofa, feetida, afclepium,
garganica, and trifoliata. I he roots of the feetida were
formerly ordered in medicine, but are now entirely difufed ;
a fmall dofe operating with extreme violence both upwards
and downwards.
THA WING, therefolution of ice into its former fluid ftate
by the warmth of the air. See Congelation and Frost,
THE A, in botany. See Tea.
3 £2
THEA-
THE r 404 J THE
ThfeatJnS*, TH£ATINES, a religious order in the Eomifh church,
, I hcatre. j-Q ca^ecj fr0m their principal founder John Peter Caraffa,
-y—^ tj.ien 0f Theate, or Chieti, in the kingdom of Naples,
and afterwards pope, under the name of Paul IV. The
names of the other founders were Gaetan, Boniface, and
Configlieri. Thefe four pious men defiring to reform the
ecclefiaftical {late, laid the foundation of an order ot regular
clerksat Rome in the year 1524. Pope Clement VII. ap¬
proved the inftitution, and permitted the brethren to make
the three religious vows, to eleft a fuperior every three
years, and to draw up ftatutes for the regulation of the
order. They firft endeavoured, by their example, to revive
among the clergy the poverty of the apoftles and firft dif-
ciples of our Saviour, and were the fir it who affumed the
title of regular clerks.
THEATRE, a place in which fliows or dramatic re-
prefentations are exhibited.
For the origin of the dramatic art we always turn our
eyes to Greece, the nurfery of the arts and fciences. It may
indeed have been known among more ancient nations, but
no records remain fufficient to fupport this opinion. The
different Hates of Greece afferted their claim to the honour
of having given it birth, but the account of the Athenians
is moft generally received. It derived its origin from the
hymns which were fung in the feftivals of Bacchus in honour
of that deity. While thefe relounded in the ears of the
multitude, chorufes of Bacchaftts and Fauns, ranged round
certain obfcene images which they carried in triumphal
proctffion, chanted lafcivious fongs, and fometimes facrificed
individuals to public ridicule.
This was the practice in the cities ; but a ftill greater
licentioufnefs reigned in the worfhip paid to the fame divi-
Anedarfu's nity by the inhabitants of the country, and efpecially at the
'Travels, feaion when they gathered the fruits of his beneficence,
vol. 1. Vintagers, befmeared with wine-lees, and intoxicated with joy
and the juice of the grape, rode forth in their carts, and at¬
tacked each other on the road with grofs iarcafms, revenging
themfelves on their neighbours with ridicule, and on the rich
by publifhing their injuft ice.
Among the poets who flourifhed at that time, fome ce¬
lebrated the great aftions and adventures of gods and heroes,
and others attacked with afperity the vices and abfurdities
of individuals. The former took Homer for their model,
and fupported themfelves by his example, of which they
made an improper ufe. Homer, the moil tragic of poets,
the model of all who have fucceeded him, had in the Iliad
and the Odyffey brought to perfedtion the heroic poem, and
in his Margites had employed pleafantry. But as the charm
of his works depends in a great meafure on the paflions and
* motion with which he knew to animate them, the poets who
came after him endeavoured to introduce into theirs an a£lion
which might excite emotion or mirth in the fpeftators :
fome even attempted to produce both, and ventured certain
rude effays, which have fince been flyled indifferently either
tragedies or comedies, becaufe they unite the charadiers of
thofe two dramas. The authors of thefe fketehes have been
diftinguifhed by no difcovery ; they only form in the hiflory
of the art a fucceffion of names which it would be ufelefs to
recal to light.
I he necefiity and power of theatrical interefl was already
known. The hymns in honour of Bacchus, while they de-
fcribed his rapid progr-efs and fplendid conquefts, became
imitative j and in the conteils of the Pythian games, the
players on the flute who entered into competition were en- Theatre,
joined by an exprefs law to reprefent fuCcefTively the circum* v**"
fiances that had preceded, accompanied, and followed the
vidtory of Apollo over Python.
Some years after this regulation, Sufarion and Thefpis,
both born in a fmall borough of Attica, named Icaria, ap¬
peared each at the head of a company of adlors, the one on
a kind of flage, the other in a cart (a). The former at¬
tacked the vices and abfurdities of his time ; and the latter
treated more noble fubjedls, which he took from hiftory.
The comedies of Sufarion were in the fame tafte with thofe
indecent and fatirical farces which were afterwards performed
in fome of the cities of Greece. They were long the fa¬
vourite entertaintment of the country people. Athens did
not adopt this fpecies of exhibition until after it was brought
io perfedlion in Sicily.
Thefpis had more than once feen in the feftivals, in which
as yet hymns only were fung* one of the fingers, mounted
on a table, form a kind of dialogue with the chorus. From
this hint he conceived the idea of introducing into the tra¬
gedies an adlor who, by fimple recitals introduced at inter¬
vals, fhould give relief to the chorus, divide the a£lion, and
render it more interefting. This happy innovation, toge¬
ther with fome other liberties in which he had allowed him-
felf, gave alarm to the legiflator of Athens, who was more
able than any other perfon to difeern the value or danger of
the novelty. Solon condemned a fpecies of compofition in
which the ancient traditions were difguifed by fi&ions. “If
we applaud falfehood in our public exhibitions (faid he to
Thefpis), we {hall foon find that it will infmuate itfelf into
our moil facred engagements,”
The exceffive approbation and delight with which both
the city and country received the pieces of Thefpis and
Sufarion, at once juftified and rendered ufelefs the fuipicx-
ous forefight of Solon. The poets, who till then had only
exercifed their genius in dithyrambics and licentious fatire,
ft ruck with the elegant forms which thefe fpecies of com¬
pofition began to affurne, dedicated their talents to tragedy
and comedy. Soon after a greater variety was introduced
in the fubjedls of the former of thei'e poems. Thofe who
judge of their pleafures only from habit exclaimed, that thefe
fubjedls were foreign to the worfhip of Bacchus ; but the
greater number thronged with ftill more eagernefs after the
new pieces.
Phrynichus, the difciple of Thefpis, made choice of
that kind of verfe which is moft fuitable to the drama, was
the author of fome other changes, and left tragedy in its in¬
fancy.
jEfchylus received it from his hands enveloped in a rude
veftment, its vifage covered with falfe colours, or a mafic in-
expreffive of charadler, without either grace or dignity in
its motions, irifpiring the defire of an interefl which it with
difficulty excited, ftill attached to the buffooneries which
had amufed its infant years, and expreffing its conceptions
fometimes with elegance and dignity, but frequently in a
feeble and low ftyle, polluted with grofs obfeenities.
In his firft tragedies he introduced a fecond adlor; and
afterward, copying the example of Sophocles, who had juft
entered on his theatrical career, he admitted a third, and
fometimes even a fourth. By this multiplicity of penon-
ages, one of his adrtors became the hero of the piece, and
attra&ed to himfelf the principal intereit; and as the chorus
now held only a fubaltern ftation, iEfchylus took care to
fhorten
(a) Sufarion reprefented his firft pieces towards the year 580 before Chrift. Some years after, ihefpis made his fui<.
attempts in tragedy, and ailed his Alceftisin 536.
T H E
r 4°5 3
THE
Theatre. {Horten its part, and perhaps even carried this precaution
too far. _
He is cenfured for having admitted mute characters into
his drama. Achilles, after the death of his friend, and
Niobe, after the deftru&ion of her children, appear on the
ftage, and remain during feveral fcenes motionlefs, with their
heads covered with a veil, and without uttering a word ;
but if their eyes had overflown with tears, and they had
poured forth the bitterefl lamentations, could they have pro¬
duced an efftft fo terrible as this veil, this fdence, and this
abandonment to grief ?
It was not fufficient that the noble and elevated ftyie of
tragedy fhould leave in the minds of the auditors a ftrong
impreffion of grandeur ; to captivate the multitude, it was
requiute that every part of the fpediacie Ihould concur to
produce the fame effedt. It was then the general opinion
that nature, by beflowimr on the ancient heroes a more
lofty ftature, had imp re fled on their perfons a majefty v/hich
procured them as much refpedt from the people as the en-
ligns of dignity by which they were attended. JEfchylus
therefore raifed his adtors on high ftilts or bufkins. He
covered their features, which were frequently difagreeable,
with a mafic that concealed their irregularity. He clothed
them in flowing and magnificent robes, the form of which
was fo decent, that the priefts of Ceres have not blufhed to
adopt it. The inferior adtors were alfo provided with maflcs
and drefles fuited to their parts.
Inftead of thofe wretched fcaffblds which were formerly
eredfed in hafte, he obtained a theatre fumifhed with ma-
* chines, and embellifhed with decorations. Here the found
of the trumpet was reverberated, incenfe was feen to burn
on the altars, the fhades of the dead to arife from the tomb,
and the furies to rufh from the gulphs of Tartarus. In one
of his pieces thefe infernal divinities appeared, for the firft
time, with mafks of a horrid palenefs, torches in their hands,
ferpents intertwined in their hairs, and followed by a nu¬
merous retinue of dreadful fpedlres. It is faid that, at the
fight of them, and the found of their terrific bowlings, ter¬
ror feized on the whole aflembly, women miicarried, and
children expired with fear; and that the magiftrates, to
prevent fimilar accidents in future, commanded that the
chorus fhould confifl only of fifteen affors inftead of fifty.
The effeA o! fo many new objects could not but aftonifti
the fpeitators ; nor were they lefs furpriled and delighted
at the intelligence dilplayed in the performance of the
affors, v/hom iEtchylus almoft always exercried himfelf.
He regulated their fteps, and taught them to give addition¬
al force to the aftion by new and expreffive geftures.
The progrefs of the art was extremely rapid. iEichylus
was born 525 years before Cbrift, 11 years after Thefpis
had afted his Alceftis. He had for competitors Choerilus
Pratenas, and Phrynichus, whofe glory he eclipled, and
Sophocles, who livailed his own. Sophocles was born about
the year 497 11. C. about 14years before Euripides, fhefe
carried tragedy to the hi^hell perfection to which it attain¬
ed among the Greeks. Atfchylus painted men greater than
they can be, Sophocles as they ought to be, and Euripides
as they aie.
Invented towards the 50th Olympiad (about 580 B. C ),.
and adapted to the rude manners of the rallies, comedy ven¬
tured not to approach the capital ; and if by chance fome
companies of adtors, who were unconnected with any others,
found their way into the city, and performed their indecent
farces, they were lefs authorifed than tolerated by the go¬
vernment. It was not till after a long infancy that this
fpecies of drama began fuddenly to make a rapid improve¬
ment in Sicily. Inftead of a fucceflion of fcenes without
connection or tendency, the philofopher Epicharmus intro-
Theatre,
duced an aCtion, all the parts of which had a dependence on
each other ; and conducted his fubjeCt, without wandering v~'~
from it, through a juft extent to a determinate end. His
pieces, fubjeCted to the fame laws as tragedy, were known
in Greece, where they were confidered as models ; and co¬
medy foon fhared with her rival the fuffrages of the public,
and the homage due to genius. The Athenians, efpecially,
received her with the lame tranfports as they would have
teftified at the news of a viClory : many of their poets ex-
ercifed their genius in this novel fpecies of compolition ;
and their names adorn the numerous lift of writers who have
been diftinr.uilhed in comedy from the time of Epicharmus.
Such were, among the more ancient, Magnes, Cratinus, Cra¬
tes, Pherecrates, Eupolis, and Ariftophanes. They allflou-
rifhed in the age of Pericles.
If we oerule the comic pieces which have come down to
us, we lhall be convinced that the foie objed of the authors
was to pleai'e the multitude. The gods and heroes were
traveftied, grofs and obfeene language was often employed,
and virulent inve&ives were often thrown out againft indi¬
viduals of the firft rank for genius and virtue. Towards
the end of the Peloponnefian war the licentioufiaefs of co¬
medy was reftrained. The chorus was laid afide, becauie
the rich citizens were alarmed, and would no longer contri¬
bute money to fupport it, nor provide maiks with portraits
for expoling individuals.
The poets being thus reftrained from mentioning names
of living perfons on the ftage> invented falle names. 1 hey
flill expofed real and known charadfeis ; and thus gave d
more exquifite gratification to the Ipedtators, who w?ere
highly amufed with finding out the perfons intended. 1 he
confequence of the law was only to make that done writh
delicacy which was formerly done in the moll indecent and
fcurrilous manner. Ariftophanes, in fome ot his lateft pie¬
ces, has given us feme good examples of this kind of come¬
dy, which is fometimes called the middle comedy.
Comedy was flill liable to abufe, and therefore required
farther reformation. As the ufe of real names had former¬
ly been prohibited, real fubjedts were alio forbidden ; and
comedy from that time was no longer a fury armed with
torches, or a firebrand fcattering mifehief, but apleafing and
inftrudtive companion. This is called the new' comedy. The
rnoft eminent among the Greeks in this improved fpecies>
was Menander. His writings are now loft ; but we may
form a good eftimate of their merit from the comedies of
Terence, which are faid to have been borrowed from Me¬
nander, and to have nearly refembled the original, though
inferior in that vis cormca by which the elegant Grecian was
diftinguiflied. The comedy of Menander is that which has
been cultivated in modern times.
To give fome idea of a Grecian theatre, we {hall defcribe
very ftiortly the theatre of Bacchus in Athens, which was
built by the famous architedt Philos in tire time of Pericles.
The part intended for the Ipeftators was of a femicircular
form, at the diameter of which was eredled the ftage. The
orcheftra occupied the fpace where the pit in modern the¬
atres is fituated, where the muiie, the cliorus, and the mimi-
were placed. It was four feet elevated above the ground.
The fpeftators were arranged in three galleries round all
the fides of the orcheftra except that next the ftage, each
gallery containing,, eight rows of feats. At the farther end
of the orcheftra, where the ftage is eredted in modern the¬
atres, ftood the thymele or logeon, but projecting a little Gentleman's
towards the audience. It was a little higher than the or- Wagazinc
cheftra, and did not extend the whole breadth of it. In 'r i76°*
fome theatres it was only fix feet fquare. Here the prin¬
cipal part of the chorus made their recitations, and in co¬
mical interludes the niimi performed. Behind the thy-
^ mde
Theatre
* Plut. in
X. Rbet.
S Ar'tjl. in
Man.
v. i®46.
Mtben.
lib. v„
.Cap, 7.
T H E fl 406
mele appeared tlie fta^e or profcenlon, confiderably eleva-
‘ ted. No part of this theatre was covered except the ftage,
and a high gallery called circys fet apatt for the women.
'The Athenians, being eXpofed to the weather, came ufually
with great cloaks, to fecure them from' the rain or the cold;
and for defence againft the fun, they had the feiadion, a kind
-of parafol, which the Romans ufed alfo in their theatres by
the name of vmbelltc; but when a hidden ftorm arofe, the
play was interrupted, and the fpettators difperfed.
A fort of tent-work over the entire area of the edifice
might have been contrived as a fiielter from the rain and a
(hade from the fun. Such a covering would have obviated
the inconveniences of roofed theatres, which obftrudl the
free communication of the air, and of unroofed theatres,
which do not keep out. the weather. At Athens the plays
were always reprefented in the day-time, which made the
unroofed theatres lefs inconvenient.
Plays were reprefented only during the three feftivals fo-
lemnized in honour of Bacchus. The firit of thefe was ce¬
lebrated at the Pirjeus, where fome of Euripides’s pieces
were firfl pet formed. The fecond, which lafted only one
day, was kept at the end of January or beginning of Fe¬
bruary. The third, called the greater Dionyjia, was cele¬
brated a month after. It continued feveral days, and at¬
tracted a great multitude of fpeftators. In the feftivals
which lafted only one day, five or fix dramatic pieces, either
tragedies or comedies, were performed. But in the greater
Dionyfia, which continued longer, 12 or 15, and fometimes
tiiore, were afted. The performance began early in the
morning, and fometimes lafted the whole day.
The chorus, according as the fubjeft demanded, was
compofed of men and women, old men or youths, citizens
or fiaves, priefts, foldiers, See. to the number of 15 in tra¬
gedy, and 24 in comedy. The chorus came upon the ftage
preceded by a flute-player, who regulated their fteps; fome¬
times one after the other, but in tragedy more frequently
three in front and five in depth, or five in front and three in
depth.
The fame perfons performed both in tragedy and come¬
dy ; but, as among ourfelves, it was rare to meet with any
who excelled in both. The pay of thofe who had acquired
great reputation was confiderable. Polus gained a talent in
two days (equal to L..225 Sterling*). Players of eminence
were folicited by different aftors of Greece to attend their
feftivals. If, after making an engagement, they failed,
they were obliged to pay a certain fum of money; and if
they were abfent during the feftivals of their own republic,
they were condemned to a heavy fine.
The a&ors had habits and fymbols fuited to their parts.
Kings wore a diadem, leaned on a feeptre which fupported
an eagle on its top, and were dreffed in long robes of purple
or other fplendid colours ornamented with gold. Heroes,
befides having their ftature frequently increafed to fix feet
Englifhij, and their bulk in proportion, were frequently
covered with the fkin of a lion or a tyger, and armed with
Xwords, quivers, and clubs. All who fuffered misfortunes
wore a black, brown, or dirty white garment, which fre¬
quently hung in tatters. There were various kinds of malks
for tragedy, comedy, and fatire. Thefc certainly took away
the pleafure arifing from the-expreftion of the countenance;
but at any rate, little pleafure could be derived from this cir-
cumftance in a Grecian theatre, from its immenie fize, and
the great diftar.ee of the audience from the ftage.
Dramatic entertainments were introduced at Rome in the
year of the city 391. 1 hey were called ludi fcenic't, becaufe
they were firft afted in a (hade formed by the branches and
leaves of trees. 1 hey were borrowed immediately from E-
Jtruria, whence aifo they received their firft players. Thefe
] T »l-l E
Etrurians at firft only danced to a flute, without either fing- Thsat?*,
ing or afting. The Roman youth foon imitated them at'“"■’■‘v*-"
their folemn feftivals, adding raillery in rude verfes, and ges¬
tures adapted to the fubjeft. Thefe verfes were called Fef~
cennini, from Fefcennia, a city of Etruria. Livius Andro-
nicus was the firft poet who wrote a regular play in Latin.
This happened in the year of Rome ^12 or 5i4> about 160
years alter the death of Sophocles and Euripides, and 52
after that of Menander. The Grecian model was after¬
wards introduced and cultivated much by fuccecding dra¬
matic writers. This was the model of Menander, for the old
and middle comedy was unknown at Rome. As the Ro¬
mans were only imitators of the Greeks in the dramatic art,
as well as in moft of the arts and fciences, nothing more is
neceftary to be faid in addition to the account which we
have already given of the Grecian ftage.
The origin of the Englifh ftage is hid in obfeurity. It
was not, however, copied from the Grecian or Roman ; for
it was evidently different in form as well as in matter, and
may with more propriety be deduced from a Gothic origi¬
nal. It appears that there were theatrical entertainments
in England almoft as early as the conqueft; for we are told Gentleman.
by William Stephanides or Fitz-Stephen, a monk, who iq
the reign of Henry II. wrote his Defcriptio NoblUJJhrue CU °r ^
•vitatis Londonia, that “ London, inftead of the common in¬
terludes of the theatre, had plays of a more holy kind ; re-
prefentations of the miracles of confeffors, and the fuffer-
ings of martyrs. At this time there were alfo certain feta
of idle people, who travelled the countries and were called
Mummers, a kind of vagrant comedians, whofe excellence
confifted altogether in mimickry and humour.
It is probable that, foon after this time, the dramatic re-
prefentations called Myjleries were, exhibited: Thefe myfte-
ries were taken from feripture-hiftory: fome reprefented the
creation of the world, with the fall of Adam and Eve; fome
the ftory of Jofeph; and others even the incarnation and
fufferings of the Sonof God. Thefe pieces were exhibited
in a manner fo ridiculous as to favour libertinifin and infide-^^A*
lity, as appears by a petition of the chaunters of St Paul’s
cathedral to Richard II. in 1378, praying, that “ fome un¬
expert people might be prohibited from reprefenting the hi-
ftory of the Old Tcftament to the prejudice of the faid cler¬
gy, who had been at great expence to reprefent it publicly
at Chriftmas.”
In the year 1390, the parilh clerks of London are faid
to have played interludes at Skinner’s-well on three fuccef-
five days in July ; and, in 1409, to have a&ed for eight
days luccefiively a play concerning the creation of the world,
at the fame place which thence acquired the name of Clerk-
eniuell.
Thefe Myfteries were fucceeded by Moralities, in which
there were fome rude traces of a fable and a moral ; and
fome alfo of poetry, the virtues, vices, and other affections
oi the mind being frequently perfonified.
After thele Moralities came what were called Interludes,
which made fome approaches to wit and humour. Many of
thefe pieces were written by John Heywood, iefter to Hen¬
ry VIII.
In the time of Henry VIII. one or two pieces had been
publifhed under the claffical names of Comedy and Tragedy,
but they appear sot to have been intended for popular ufe.
It was not till the religious ferments had fubfided that the Perry’s Ms-
public had leifure to attend to dramatic poetry. In the '‘cs °fAn-
reign of Elizabeth, tragedies and comedies began to appear
in form, and could the poets have perfevered, the firft mo-,;/
dels were good. Gorloduc, a regular tragedy, was a£xed
in 1561; and Gafcoigne, in 1566, exhibited Jocq/la, a
tranflation from Euripides,. as alio The Suppofes, a regular
comedy.
1 Theatre, comedy, from Aricfto, near
Shakefpeare’s were printed'.
The people however ftill retained z reliili for their old
myfteries and moralities, and the popular dramatic poets
feem to have made them their models. The graver fort ot mo¬
ralities appear to have given birth to our modern tragedy ;
as our comedy evidently took its rife from the lighter inter¬
ludes of that kind. And as moft of thefe pieces contain an ab-
furd mixture of religion and buffoonery, an eminent critic has
well deduced from thence the origin of our unnatural tra-
gi-comedies. Even after the people had been accuftomed
to tragedies and comedies, moralities ftill kept their ground.
One of them, intitled T/je New Cujlom, was printed fo late
as 1573. At length they afiumed the name of mafques,
and, with fome claffical improvements, became in the two
following reigns the favourite entertainments of the court.
As for the old myfteries, which ceafed to be a&ed after
the reformation, they feem to have given rife to a third
fpecies of ftage exhibition ; which, though now confounded
with tragedy or comedy, were by our ftrft dramatic writers
confidcred as quite diftindl from them both : thefe wrere
hiftorical plays, or hiftoiies; a fpecies of dramatic writing
which refembled the old mv fteries in reprefenting a feries of
hiftorical events fimply in the order of time in which they
happened, without any regard to the three great unities.
Thefe pieces feem to differ from tragedy juft as much as
hiftorical poems do from epic : as the Pharfalia does from
the iEneid. What might contribute to make dramatic
poetry take this turn was, that foon after the myfteries
ceafed to be exhibited, there was publifhed a large collection
of poetical narratives, called the Mirror for Magi/lrates, where¬
in a great number of the moft eminent characters in Englifh
hiltory are drawn relating their owm misfortunes. This
book was popular and of a dramatic call; and therefore, as
an elegant writer has well obferved, might have its influence
in producing hiftoric plays. Thefe narratives probably fur-
nifhed the fubjedts, and the ancient myfteries fuggefted the
plan.
That our old writers confidered hiftorical plays as fome-
wdiat diftinCt from tragedy and comedy, appears from num-
berlefs paffages of their works. “ Of late days (fays Stow
in his Survey of London), inftead of thofe ftage-plays have
been ufed comedies, tragedies, interludes, and hiftories, both
true and fained.” Beaumont and Fletcher, in the prologue
to the Captain^ fayr,
“ This is nor comedy, nor tragedy,
“ Nor htJloryN 
Polonius in Hamlet commends the afters as the beft in
the world, either for tragedie, comedie, hiftorie, paftorall,
&c. And Shakefpeare’s friends, Hcminge and Condell, in
the firft follio edition of his plays, in 1623, have not only
intitled their book “ Mr William Shakefpeare’s Comedies,
Hiftories, and Tragedies,” but, in their table of contents,
have arranged them under thofe three feveral heads; pla¬
cing in the clafs of hiftories, “ King John, Richard II.
Henry IV. 2 pts, Henry V. Henry Vi. 3 pts, Richard III.
and Henry VIII.”
This diftinCtion deferves the attention of the critics : for
if it be the firft canon of found criticifm to examine any
work by thofe rules the author preicribed for his firft ob-
HE [ 4=7 1 THE
thirty years before any of fervance; then we ought to try Shakefpeare’s hiftories by Theatre.
the general laws of tragedy and comedy. Whether the rule
itfelf be vicious or not, is another inquiry ; but certainly
inquiry
we ought to examine a work only by thofe principles ac¬
cording to which it was coinpofed. This would fave much
impertinent criticifm.
Not fewer than lyplayhoufes had been opened before
the year 1633, when Prynne publifhed his H'tjlriomajlix.
From this waiter we learn that tobacco, wine, and beer, w'ere
in thofe days the ufual accommodations in the theatre, as
now at Sadlers Wells. With regard to the ancient prices
of admiflion, the playhoufe called the Hope had five different *
priced feats, from fixpence to half-a-crown. Some houfes
had penny benches* The two-penny gallery is mentioned
in the prologue to Beaumont and Fletcher’s Woman Hater ;
and feats ©f threepence and a groat in the paffage of Prynne
lalt referred to. But the general price of wdrat is now
called the Pit feems to have been a (hilling. The time of
exhibition was early in the afternoon, their plays being ge¬
nerally adled by day light. All female parts were performed
by men, no adtrefs being ever feen on the public ftage before
the civil wars. And as for the playhoufe furniture and
ornaments, they had no other feenes nor decorations of the
Itage, but only old tapeftry, and the ftage ftrewed with
rulhes, with habits accordingly j as we are affured in a flrort
Difcourfe on the Engliih Stage, fubjoined to Flecknoe’s
Love’s.-Kingdom, 1674, 12mo.
(b) For the ftate of the theatre during the time of Shake-
fpeare, fee Playhouse ; where a full account of it is given
from the late valuable edition of our illuftrious poet’s works
by Mr Malone. During the whole reign of James I. the
theatre was in great profperity and reputation : dramatic •
authors abounded, and every year produced a number of
new plays ; it became a fafhion for the nobility to celebrate
their weddings, birth-days, and other occafions of rejoicing,
with mafques and interludes, which were exhibited with fur--
prifing expence ; our great architeft, Inigo Jones, being
frequently employed to furnifh decorations, with all the lux¬
uriance of his invention and magnificence of his art. The
king and his lords, and the queen and her ladies, frequently
performed in thefe mafques at court, and the nobility at their
private houies; nor was any public entertainment thought
complete without them. This talte for theatrical entertain¬
ments continued during great part of the reign of king
Charles the firft; ; but, m the year 1633, ^ began to be op¬
posed by the Puritans from the prefs j and the troubles that
loon after followed entirely fulpended them till the reftora-
tion of king Charles the fecond in 1660.
The king, at his reftoration, granted two patents, one
to Plenry Killigrew, Efq; and the other to Sir William
Davenant, and their heirs and affigns, for forming two di-
ftindl companies of comedians. Killigrew’s were called the
King’s Servants, and Davenant’s the Duke’s Company. About
ten of the company called the King’s Servants were on the
royal houfehold eftablifhmeHt, having each ten yards of
leaflet c^oth, with a proper quantity of lace allowed them
for liveries; and in their warrants from the lord chamber-
lain they were gentlemen of the great chamber.
Till this time no woman had been fecn upon the Englifti
ftage, the chara&ers of women having always been performed
by boys, or young men of an effeminate afped, which pro¬
bably
(») We have been anxious to give as full an account of the ancient Englilh drama as we could : we muft not omit,
however, to inform our readers what Mr Malone fays of the old plays, viz., that not one play publilhed before 1-592
will bear a fecond reading; and that exclufive of myfteries, moralities, and traaflatiW, there are but 34 pieces extant
v’juch were published before that periodt
THE r 408 ] THE
Theatre, bably unlaced Shakefpeare to make fo few of his plays de-
pend upon female charafters, as they mufl have been per¬
formed to great difadvantage. The principal chara&ers of
his women are innocence and fimplicity, fuch are Defdemona
and Ophelia ; and his fpecimen of fondnefs and virtue in
Portia is very fhort. But the power of real and beautiful
women was now added to the Itage ; and all the capital
plays of Shakefpeare, Fletcher, and Ben Jonfon, were di¬
vided between the two companies, by their own alternate
choice, and the approbation of the court.
The.king’s fervants feem to have been allowed to be the
bed company ; and when the variety of plays began to be
exhaufted, they drew the greater audiences. Davenant,
therefore, to make head again ft them, iirft added fpe&acle
and mufic to aftion, and introduced a new fpectes of plays,
fince called dramatic operas; among thefe were, Tht Tempejl,
Pfyche, and Circe; which, with many others, were fet off
with the moft expenftve decorations of feenes and habits,
and with the heft voices and dancers.
In 1684 the two houies united, and continued together
for ten years. In 1690 the play began at four o’clock ;
and, we are told, the ladies of faftiion ufed to take the even¬
ing air in Hyde-park after the reprefentation ; by which
it appears that the exhibitions were in fummer too. The
principal actors were, Betterton, Montfort, Kynafton, Sand-
ford, Nokes, Underhill, and Leigh, commonly called Tony
Tefch; the aCfrefles were, Mrs Betterton, Barry, Leigh,
Butler, Montfort, and Bracegirdle ; and to this company,
in this year, old Cibber was admitted as a performer in the
lowelt rank. It was a rule with the patentees, that no
young perfon, who offered himfelf as an aftor, ftiould be
admitted into pay till after at lealt half a year’s probation ;
■ and Cibber waited full three quarters of a year before he
was taken into a fa Try of 10s. a week.
In 1695 a new theatre was opened with Mr Congreve’s
comedy of Love for Love, which had fuch extraordinary
fuccefs (fays Cibber) that fcarce any other phy was a&ed
there till the end of the feafon; but when the feafon end¬
ed, which appears to have begun in June, he does not tell
us, and it is indeed difficult to guefs; for though the com-
pany aefted in fummer, it feems improbable that they fhould
ihut up the houfe in winter, as it is difficult to conceive any
reafon tor fo doing. Congreve was then in fuch high repu¬
tation, that this company offered him a whole {hare (but
into how many {hares the whole was divided Colley has
not told us) upon condition he would give them a new
play every year. This offer he accepted, and received the
advantage, though he never fulfilled the condition; for it was
three years before he produced the Mourning Bride> and
three more before he gave them the Way of the World.
It is not neceffary that we give in detail the remaining
hiftory of the Englifti ftage : thofe who are anxious to be
acquainted with it may confult Cibber’s hiftory of the ftage,
continued by Vi&or, under the title of A Hijlory of the
Theatres of London and Dublin from the year 1730. We
lhall only mention a few fadfts rd'pefting the falaries of the
players about that period, and the rife of the price of play-
tickets.
A difference having arifen in 1733 between the mana¬
gers and a&ors, moft of the attors let up for themfelves at
the little theatre in the Haymarket. Upon this the mana¬
gers publifhed the following account of their falaries, to
fhew the public how little room they had to mutiny. To
Mr Colley Cibber, from the time of letting his {hare till
, he left the ftage, 12I 12s. per week. Mr The. Cibber 3I.
^"araxin * ar1^ w^e 8 w^0^e LLry till her death, without doing the
fo/f 733. company any fervice the greateft part of the winter ; and
his own alfo, during the time of Iris being ill, who per¬
formed but feldom till after Chriftmas. Mr Mills jun. 3I. Theatrs
under the fame circumftances with regard to his wife. Mr H
Mills fen. 11. per day for 200 days certain, and a benefit. e
clear of all charges. Mr Johnfton 51. Mr Miller si. paid
him eight weeks before he a&ed, befides a prefent of 10
guineas. Mr Harper 4I. and a prefent of 10 guineas. Mr
Griffin 4I. and a prefent. Mr Shepard 3I. Mr HaUam,
for himfelf and father (though the latter'is of little or no
fervice) 3I. Mrs Heron 5I. raifed from 40s. laft winter,
yet refufed to play feveral parts a {Tigged her, and aded but.
feldom this fealon. Mrs Butler 3I. per week. Bv thefe and
other falaries, with the incident charges (befides clothes
and feenes), the patentees are at the daily charge of 49L
odd money, each aefting-day.
Till about the fame time, the prices at the theatre were
4s. the boxes, 2s. 6.d. the pit, is. 6d. the firft gallery, and
is. the fecond, except upon the ftrft run of a new play or
' pantomime, when the boxes were 53. the pit 3s. the firft:
gallery 2 s. and the fecond 1 s. But Fleetwood thought fit
to raile the prices for an old pantomime, which was revived
without expence. This produced a riot for feveral mVhts,
and at laft a number deputed by the pit had an interview
with the manager in the green room, where it was agreed,
that the advanced prices fhould be conllantly paid at the
doors, and that fuch perfons as did not choofe to ftay the
entertainment fhould have the advanced part of their money
returned. This was a very advantageous agreement for the
manager ; becaufe, when the audience had once paid their
money, and were ieated, very few went out at the end of
the play, and demanded their advanced money ; the few
that did it at firft, foon grew tired, and at lift it fettled in
the quiet payment of the advanced price, as at this day.
It has been frequently a fubjedl ot debate, whether the
ftage be favourable to morals. We do not mean to enter
into the controverfy ; but we fhall make an observation or
two. It will be allowed by all, that the intention of the
players in adding, is to procure money; and the intention
of the audience in attending the theatre, is to feek amufe-
ment. The players then will only add fuch plays as they
believe will anlwer their intention. And what fort of plays
are thefe ? They are fuch as correfpond with the opinions,
manners, and tafte, of the audience. If the tafte of the
audience be grofs, therefore the plays will be grofs ; if
delicate and refined, they will be the fame. And if we sro
back to the time of Shakefoeare, we fhall find that this has
been uniformly the cafe. The conclufion, then, which we
draw, is this, if the taite of the audience be pure, free from
licentiouinefs, the plays will be the fame, and the ftage will
be favourable to virtue.
THEBAIC Powder. See Pharmjscv-Index.
THEBAID, a celebrated heroic poem of Statius, the
fubjedt whereof is the civil war of Thebes, between the
two brothers Eteocles and Polynices ; or Thebes taken by
'1 hefeus.
THEBES, the name of a celebrated city of ancient
Greece. It is fiippofed to have been built by Cadmus, f
about the year of the vforld 255 j. ThisiCadmus, accord-Account of
ing to the Greeks, was the fon of Agenor king of Sidon °e Cadmus
of Tyre ; but the Sidonians allow him to have been of nOgreof°un
higher quality than his cook, and tell us that his wife was ihebes.
a mufician at court, with whom he ran away into Greece.
The Greek writers tell us, that being commanded by his
father to go in fearch of his daughter Europa, whom Jupi¬
ter in the fhape of a bull had carried off, and forbid to re¬
turn without her, he built, or rebuilt, the city of Thebes,
after having long fought her in vain. He was at firft op»
pofed by the Hyantes and Aones ; the former of whom
he defeated in battle, and forced to retire into Locris:
THE
Thebe*, the latter fubmltted, and were incorporated among his fub-
v 1 jefts.
Suppofed to Thofe who endeavour to extraft fome truth from the
he one of multitude of fables in which the early part of the Grecian
♦he exihd hiftory is obfenred, are of opinion that Cadmus was one of
Cajiaamtes. jjje Canaanites expelled by Jofima ; and that he was of the
family of the Cadmonites mentioned by Mofes and Jofhua.
lie is univerfally allowed to have introduced the Phoenician
letters into Greece, fet up the firft fchools, and introduced
brafs; which,.from him, bad the name of Cadmean given to
it. The government of Thebes continued for a long time
monarchical; and the names of a number of its kings have
[ 409 1
the
they were foon after determined to aft again on the fame Theh«.
fide, by an attempt which the Spartan general, Sphodnas,
had rafhly made on the Pyrojum or harbour of Athens,
ihus, by means o! the Athenians, a powerful diverfion was
made in favour of the Thebans, wdio gradually recovered
all the towns of Boeotia, and at length began to aft offen-
fively again ft their enemies, and made a powerful invafion
in Phocis. . T hey had now many fharp encounters with
them ; which, though they did not amount to decifive
battles, yet did not fail to raife their courage, and diftrefs
that of the Spartans. In thefe encounters Pelopidas al-The Spar-
« < •' , . , r ways fignahzed himfelf; and in the battle of Tananrra,tans defeat-
been t rani nutted to us, with fome account of their tranlac- where the Lacedaemonians were entirely defeated bv the°A.ed b>' Pel°*
tions ; but fo much obfeured by fable, that little or nothing thenians and their allies, Pelopidas had a principal'fhare inpidaS'
can be determined concerning them. We (hall therefore the vi&ory, and killed the Spartan general with his own
hand. Soon after this, with a body of only 300 Thebans,
he entirely routed and difperfed near 1000 Spartans; which
was the greateft difgrace the latter had ever known ; for
till that time, whether in war with the Greeks or Barbari¬
ans, they had never been overcome by an equal, much lefs
by luch an inferior, number of troops.
1 hefe fuccefies ol the Thebans greatly alarmed the A»
thenians, who continually fought to oppofe their growing
nower Tn 1 a 4-U    * J 1 .1 ^
can be determined concerning them. We (hall therefore
pafs over this fabulous part of their hiftory, and only take no¬
tice of that period of it when the Thebans emerged from their
2 oblcurity, and for a time held the fovereignty of Greece.
Tire The- Though the Thebans had been famed in the early period
hlnlr ♦de" their .hlftory for tJieir martial atchievements, yet in pro-
ftupidpeo- ce^s tIme they ^eem to ^ave degenerated. At the time
pie. °f invafion of Xerxes, they were the firft people in
Greece who were gained over to the Perfian intereft. On ac¬
count of this mifbehaviour, they were become very obnoxi¬
ous to the other ftates, efpecially to the Athenians, whofe
power and renown increafed every day, and threatened at laft
Put them- to. fwa^ow them up altogether. The'L hebans being in no con-
felves un- dition to oppofe fuch a formidable power, put themfelves un¬
der the pro- der the proteftion of the Spartans, who, out of jealoufy of the
the s'ar- ^thenians’ readily forgave them ; and fo grateful were the
tans. ‘ J hebans for the kindnefs fhown them at this time, that du-
, rinS the whole of the Peloponnefian war Sparta had not a
more faithful ally. By theie means they not only recovered
the government of Boeotia, of which they had been former¬
ly in poffeflion, till deprived of it on account of their fiding
with the Perfians, but their city became one of the firft in
Greece. By this profperity the Thebans were fo much
elated, that, when the peace of Antalcidas came to be fign-
ed, they refufed to agree to it, as they were thus once
more deprived of the government of Boeotia ; fo that it was
S Hot without the utmoft difficulty that they were overawed
The form into it by the other ftates. Not content with forcing them
of iro.ern- to give up this point, however, the Spartans undertook to
ged ardn‘ change the ^ of the Theban government, which at this
the citadel *irne vyas a democracy, and accomplifhed through the treach-
feized by €ry of thole who had the care of the citadel,
the Spar- The Thebans continued under the power of the Spar-
tans for (our years ; at the end of which term a confpiracy
The The- beinT formed againil them by fome of the principal people
bans reco- ™ the city, among whom was a young nobleman named Pe-
bertfunder^^V ^ ?Partans wtTe maffimred and driven out, and the
Pdopidas. utadel ^gained. During the tumult Epaminondas, after¬
wards the celebrated general, with a number of the beft ci-
tizens, joined the party of Pelopidas; and the latter having
called a general aftembly of the Thebans, proclaimed liberty
to them, and exhorted them in the ftrongeft manner to
Hg t For their country. This fpeecb was received with the
gieatclt acclamations; Pelopidas was unanimoufly proclaim¬
ed the prderver of 1 hebes, and was charged with the ma-
SpartT"1 °f thC W3r WhICh WaS thCn t0 bC d<iclared againft
, tranfaftions fo much exafperated the Spartans,
hat they immediately fent their king Cleombrotus a^ainft
tftem, though it was then the depth -of winter. The Athe¬
nians, in the mean time, who had hitherto affifted the The-
"War with
Sparta.
power In this oppofition they were joined by the Platae-piat|a and
ans, who on this account became extremely obnoxious to theThefpia ra-
1 hebans, fo that they at laft came to a refolution to fur-zed by tbe
Prife their city. This_ they accompliihed, and entirelv de-Theball5•
iiroyed it, together with Thdpia, another city extremely
well affefted to Athens. Soon after this, the Thebans,
encouraged by their fuccefs, began to think of enlarging
their territories, and of making encroachments on their neigh¬
bours, as they faw other ftates had done before them. This a'JL of
fpmtofconqneftisfaid to have been raifed by their gene-Epaminun.
lal i elopidas ; in which he was feconded by Epaminondas, adas-
perfon who, though like him endowed with all the neceffa-
iv qualities to make a complete captain or patriot, had till
then preferred a private life, and lived in a conftant courfe
of virtue and the ftudy of philofophy. He had as yet fel-
dom appeared in public, except to get himfelf excufed from
thofe ftate-employments which were fo eagerly courted by
others. This, however, had not hindered him from coii-
trariting an intimate friendlhip with Pelopidas, which had
been daily improved by the correfpondence of their tempers
and principles, as well as by that zeal which both difplayed
for the good of their country ; which laft had made them,
even before this time, appear together in aftion, and to fuch
advantage, that Epammondas’s merit could be no longer
concealed, nor indeed fuffer him to continue longer in his
beloved retirement: fo that he faw himfelf, at length, de-
fervedly placed at the head of the Theban troops ; where
he gave (uch early proofs of his future prowefs and abilities,
as juftly gave him the next rank to Pelopidas. Both came
now to be confidered in the fame light, as generals in the
field, as governors at home, and as complete ftatefmen in the
council. When the general treaty for reftoring peace to
Greece came to be propofed by the Athenians, and was
upon tiie point of being executed by the reft of the ftates,
the 1 hebans refufed to agree to it, unlefs they were com-
prehended in it under the name of Bceotians. This demand
was as ftrenuoufly oppofed by the other contrafting powers
as inmted on by Epaminondas, who was there as ambaffador
on the part of the J hebans Agefilaus, in particular, told him His dflTe-
in plain terms, that the 1 hebans ought to evacuate Bceotia,rence with
and leave the cities of it free and independent. To which he Agefilaus
was answered by him, that the Lacedaemonians would do e*n° op
Vol. XVIII, Part IL " ' * ancient ProPnetorsi an(3 I*aconia to its ancient freedom; for
3 F that
THE
[ 4
war againft
Thebe:.
Thebes, that the pretenfions of the city ot i hebes to Btt'otia vvete
as wen founded, at leaft, as thofe of Sparta to thofe two
countries. After this he went on, and (bowed hovv^ far
Sparta had a ggrandized herfelf at the expence of her neigh¬
bours : that peace might be indeed obtained, and upon a fo-
lid and lading footing ; but that this could not be otherwife
than by bringing all to an equality. This bold, though
juft remondrance, in which not only Thebes, but Greece in
general was concerned, failed not, however, to exafperate
the haughty Spartan monarch ; and the Athenians, who
had till now looked upon the Thebans as dependents either
on them or on the Macedonians, were not a little offended
to hear their ambaflfadors talk in fuch high terms. i he re-
fult of the conference was, that Agefilaus (truck the name
®i Thebes out of the treaty, and declared war againft them,
about the year 371 J3. C. .
Tfe Spar- The Thebans were in no fmall confternation to fee them-
tansdeclare felves engaged in a war with the powerful Spartans, with-
out any ally to affift them ; and the reft; of the Grecian dates
having made peace with the latter, began to look upon the
ruin of the former as unavoidable. However, they relolved
to make the bell defence they could ; and put their army
under the command of Epaminondas, affigning him, at his
own requeft, fix others to a£t as counfellors or affiftants.
The Theban army confided at mod but of 6000 men,
whereas that of the enemy was at leaft thrice that number;
but Epaminondas trufted moft to his horfe, wherein he
had much the advantage both in quality and good^ ma¬
nagement : the reft he endeavoured to fupply by the difpo-
fition of his men, and the vigour of the attack. He even
refufed to fufter any to ferve under him in the engagement,
but fuch as he knew to be fully refolved to conquer or
Are enfire The two armies met at Leuctra, where the Spar-
ly defeated tans were defeated with great (laughter, as related under that
atL“ara-article.
The vidtorious general, defirous to improve this great
vidfory, fent an herald, crowned with garlands,, to commu¬
nicate it in form to the Athenians, in hopes that this would
be an effedfual means to reunite them to the Theban inte-
The^Athe- •^nt lt proved quite otherwife. Athens, which now
mans jea- looked upon them with a jealous eye, and had then in view
iou' of the the fovereignty of Greece, chole rather, if they could not
Thebans. vv|luJiy obtain it, to (hare it with Sparta, than to let the
Thebans into the whole ; and therefore even declined giving
their herald audience. However, the Thebans took care
to ftrengthen themfelves by alliances; and, befides the Ar¬
cadians and Eleans, had got the Phocians, Locrians, A-
carnanians, Eubceans, and other (fates, under their depend¬
ence : fo that they were now in a condition to adf offenhve-
The^Yhe- lively againft the Spartans. Accordingly, under'pretence
bans inva lt of afifting the Arcadians, they entered Peloponnefus with
13
vith
form l iable
?rnvy, but
are repul-
ieJ.
Pelopomre- a n-ailant army, with Epaminondas and Pelopidas at their
head. Here they v/ere joined by the Arcadian and other
confederate forces ; fo that the whole amounted to 40,000,
fume fay 50,000 men, befides great numbers of thofe who
followed the camp, rather for plunder than fighting, and
were computed about 2c,o:o more. 'The army was divided
into lour columns, and moved ftraight towards Sellafta, the
place of their rendezvous, from which they purfued their
journey with fire and fword towards Sparta. But here they
were repulfed by Agefilaus, who was then returned to that
metropolis.
To repair, in feme meafure, this difgrace, and at the
fame time to leave fome lading monument which (hould re¬
dound as much to his glory as to the mortification of the
Spartans, Epaminondas left not their territories till he had
rtdored the pofterity of the old Medenians to their ancient
dominions, out of which they had been banidied near 300
l0 ] T H E'
years; rebuilt their capital, and left a ftrong garrifon for Tb.le«.
its defence. He was, however, like to have been jWpped in 1
his return by Iphicrates, whom the Athenians had fent with.^
12,000 men to intercept him; but this lalt loitered fo long 1;jars
at Corinth, that the Thebans had paffei the defiles of Ccn-re<l to rhe.r
chreae, the chief place where he could have pbftru&cd hisaiiC;cnt do-
retreat had he taken podVffion of it in proper time. Epa-
minondas continued his march till he came in full view
of the city of Corinth. He found the roads choaked
up with trees, rocks, ftones, and every thing that could
render them impaftable ; and the Corinthians'well fortified,
and refolute on a ftout defence. But he came fo furioufiy
upon them, notwith(landing all thefe difficulties, that they
abandoned all their entrenchments and outworks to the
Thebans, and fled info the city. Thither thefe purfued The Conn,
them fword in hand, and made an horrid (laughter of them phians de-
iofomuch that Corinth muft have unavoidably fallen intofeated-
their hands, had their generals thought fit to purine thefe
advantages ; but whether they were afraid oi tne Atheni¬
ans falling upon them, or apprehended fome dangerous arn-
bufh in a country with which they were but indifferently ac¬
quainted, or whether the army was too much weakened_
through fo many fatigues, or laftly, whether the coldnefs of
the feafon, it being then the depth of winter, would not
permit them to proceed farther, they immediately marched 2o
towards Boeotia. This gave fuch an handle to their ene-j.'paminon-
mies, that they met with a very mortifying reception at das and tt-
their return to Thebes, where they were both arreiled, ant^ "
clapped up as flate-prilbners, for having prefumed to Pr°-
long their command four months longer than the time li¬
mited by law, which time took in almoft the whole of their
expedition from their firft entrance into Peloponnefus. How¬
ever, at lad, the judges being afhamed to proceed any far¬
ther, they were both honourably acquitted.
This profecution had been chiefly carried on and encou-
raged by Ivlenechdes, a difcontented T heban, and a bold
and able ipeaker, who, by his artful calumnies at the trial,
had fo far prevailed with the judges as to get Epaminondas
deprived of the government of Boeotia (or a whole year,
though he could not gain the fame advantage againft Pelo¬
pidas, who was a greater favourite of the people, as being
his fenior. 41
By this delay the Spartans, with much difficulty, had " *r
liy this delay tne ^params, wtuu — , ntwedwith
covered themfelves from their great defeat at LeuCtia, an<d;;pa,ta>
r . 1 i .1 • rr*. _ *   A o'- rrmlrl • hilt 1
fettled their affairs in as good a pofture as they could : but
though they had repulfed the Thebans in Peloponnefus, yet
from the exploits they had performed there, efpecially in
the difmembering the whole kingdom of Meflenia riom
them, they had llill caufe to fear what their forces might
do under two fuch generals *, and had accordingly taken due
care to ftrengthen themfelves againft them, and to provide
themfelves with a great number of auxiliaries from other
ftates, efpecially from that o£ Athens, with whom they had
renewed their old treaty, and had agreed that each (hould
have the command five days alternately. Soon after this trea¬
ty the Arcadians renewed the war, and took Pallene in La¬
conia by ftorm, put the garrifon to the fword, and were pre-
fently affifted by the Argives and Eleans, and Specially by
the Thebans, who fent to them 7000 foot and 500 horle
under the command of Epaminondas. This lb alarmed the
Athenians likewife, that they immediately fent Gobnas
with fome forces to oppofie his paffage in good earned ; and
he fo behaved himfelf againft the Thebans, that they weie si
forced to abandon Pelponnefus a fecond time. ius fl- *•
fuccefs gave freffi occafion to the enemies of Epammondas^
to blame his condud in the higheft terms, notwrthftandmg ‘
tire Angular bravery with which he and his troops had for¬
ced the pais. Even his friends could not but fufped him
T H E
[ 411 1
T H E
34
pclo}>idas
feized by
Aict^n !er
Thtbr. of partiality for t!he Spartans, in npt purfwing’ his advantage
over them, and makintj; a greater flauohter of them when he
^ had it ifi his power; whillt his enemies made it amount to
Epaminon- no lels than treachery to his country : lo that their brave
das tie^ra- general was once more deprived of the government of Bceo-
tia, and reduced to the condition of a private man. He
did not continue long under this difjraee, before an occa
lion offered to make his fervices again of fuch neceflity to
the itate, as to give him an opportunity to retrieve his fame,
and wipe off the ftain which his enemies had thrown upon
him.
The Theffalians, who had groaned fome time under the
tyranny of the ufurper Alexander, furnamed the Phertenn,
lent an embaffy to Thebes to implore their aid and protec¬
tion ; upon which Pclopidas was immediately lent as am*
baffador to expoftulate with him on their behalf. He was
©ffherjea. then in Macedon, from whence he took the young prince
Philip, afterwards the celebrated monarch, in order to pro-
tedf and educate him ; and, upon his return, marched di-
retlly to Pharfalus in Theffaly, in^rder to punifh the trea¬
chery of lome mercenaries, who had deferted the Thebans
in that expedition ; but when he came thither, he was fur-
prifed to be met by the tyrant at the head of a numerous
army before that city, whilil his own was but as an hand¬
ful of men in companion of it. However, whether he fup-
pofed, or would be thought to do lo, that Alexander came
thither to juftify himfelf, and anfwer to the complaints al¬
leged againft him, he went, with Ifmenias his colleague, to
him unarmed and unattended, not doubting but his character
as ambaffador from fo powerful a republic, joined to his own
character and authority, would protect them from inlult or
violence : but he found hirafelf miftaken ; for Alexander had
no foor.er got them in his hands, than he caufed them to be
leized, and fent pnfoners to Pherse.
i’he ihebatis, highly re fen ting the indignity offered to
their ambaffadors, fent immediately an army into Theli'aly:
but the generals were repulfed with .great lofs by the Phe-
rtean ufuiper; and it was owing to Epaminondas, who was
among them only as a private centinel, that they were not
totally cut off. For the Thebans, finding themfelves in
fuch imminent danger, which they attributed to the incapa¬
city of their generals, had immediately recourfe to him,
Epaminon- valour and experience had been fo often tried ; and,
tias refto- partly by perfuafions and intreaties, and partly by threats, ’
obliged him to take the command. This foon gave a diffe¬
rent turn to their affairs, and converted their flight into a
fafe and regular retreat ; for he took the horfe and light¬
armed foot, and placed himfelf at their head in the rear, and
charged the enemy with fuch vigour and bravery, that he
obliged them to defilt from their purfuit.
Ho wever, as the army had iuffered fuch lofs before as
not to be able to purfue them in their turn, he was obliged
to return with them to i htbes, with their pufillanimous
generals; where the latter were fined 12,coo drachms each,
and the former was reinllated in the command, ai'.d fent
with a new reinforcement to repair the late diihonour, and
proiecute their revenge. t he news of his being in full
march on this errand greatly alarmed the tyrant ; but Epa-
minondas, preferring the larety of his imprifoned colleague
to all other conficleiatious, forbore puflrirg hoftilities to ex¬
tremes, for fear of provoking the enemy to wreak all his fu¬
ry on him : to prevent which, he contented himfelf for a
while hovering about with his army, and now and then with
Inch flight Ikirnulhcs as ihould intimidate the tyrant, and
*um l^lc loor'er to make lome fatisfadfory offers. A-
Itxander being fully convinced of the iuperiority of the The¬
ban general, was glad to acceot of a truce of 30 days, and
to reflate Pelopidas and Ilmenias to him ; upon which he
*5
A Theban
army lent
to tefeue
him, de¬
feated.
26
red.
47
lopiuas.
immediately withdrew his forces, and returned with them Thebe*-
to Thebes
By this time Thebes wae raifed to a fufficient beight of
reputation and glory to fceein to aim in earneft at the
fovereignty of Greece. '1 he main obftacle to it was,
that the other dates grew fo jea.lous of her prefent great*
nefs, as to enter into the ftrongelt alliances and confedera¬
cies to prevent its farther growth ; fo that not being able
now to procure many allies at home, they made no difficul¬
ty to leek for them abroad ; and the Lacedaemonians, by
leading the van, gave them a plaufible pretence to follow
their fleps, and to procure an alliance with Perfia, which at
that time they found was ready to accept of the offers on any
terms ; the only queftion was, which of the three ffates
fhould be pre'erred, Sparta, Athens, or Thebes. At the
fame time, the rl hebans piopoltd to their new confederates
to fend likewife proper deputies to the Perfian court, in or¬
der to fupport their refpective intereffs; which they readily 28
agreed to. rI hefe were the Arcadians, Eleans, and Ar Sr-cceft of
gives ; at the head of whofe deputation Pelopidas was fent Peiol s
on the behali of the Thebans ; which the Athenians being t1,e 1 e,"
T 1 1 •, , • rn, r . • Uan COUIt.
appniec of, appointed two on their part. Ihefe being all
arrived at the Perfian court, began to purfue each their re-
Ipeftive interefts; but Pclopidas had by that time gained
Inch credit there, both for his fingular addrefs and his ex¬
traordinary exploits, that he was diftinguifhed in a particu¬
lar manner from all the other deputies, and was received by
the king with the molt manifeft marks of honour and efleem,
who freely owned himlelf convinced that the Thebans were
the people on whom he could moll fafely depend ; and after
having greatly appl uded the equity of his demands, rati¬
fied and confirmed them with great readinefs, to the no (mall
mortification of the other (fates. The fubllance of them
was, that the liberties formerly granted to the other towns of
Greece (hould be confirmed ; That Meffenia, in particular,
fhould continue free and independent on the jurifdiftion of
Sparta ; that the Athenians fhould lay up their fleet; and
that the 'i hebans fhould be looked upon as the ancient and
hereditary friends of Perfia.
The Thebans took advantage of the diffenfions which
prevailed among the Greeks as a pretence for increafing
their forces ; and Epaminor.das thought it a proper oppor-The The-
tunity for his countrymen to make a bold effort to obtain bans- pro
the dominion at fea, as they had obtained it in a great
fure at land. He propoied it to them in a public affembly, flcet;
and encouraged their hopes from the experience of the La¬
cedaemonians, who in Xerxes’s time had, with ten fhips only
at fea, gained the fuperiority over the Athenians, who had
no fewer than 200 ; and added, that it would be a difgrace
now to Thebes to fnffer two fuch republics to engrofs the
empire of fo extenfive an element, without putting in at
leait tor their fhare of it. The people readily came into his
propotal, not without extraordinary applaufe, and immedi¬
ately ordered 100 galleys to be equipped ; and in the mean¬
while fent him to Rhodes, Chios, and Byzantium, tofecure
thole flates in their intereil, and get what affxftance he could
from them. Plis negotiations had all the fuccefs that could
be wifbed for, notwithHanding the ftrenuous oppofition of
the Athenians, and of their admiral Laches, who was fent
with a powerful iquadron againft him. But what more ef¬
fectually thwarted all his meafures, was the work that they
found for him at land, and the obliging the Thebans to
take part in the quarrels that then reigned among their
neighbours: fo that whatever proje&s they had concerted,
proved abortive for the prefent; and the death of Epami¬
nondas, which happened not long after, put an effe&ual flop
to them.
During the abfence of that general, and of his colleague
3 F 2 Pelopidasj
gain ft the
Thefialian
tyrant.
THE [41
Thehes. Pelopidas, the Orchomenians, being fpirlted up by feme
u—v Theban fugitives, had formed a defign to change the The¬
ban government into an ariftocracy ; and 3co horfemen of
the former had been adlually fent to put it in execution.
Their project, however, was timely difeovered by the vigi-
,0 lance of the magiftrates, who caufed them to be feized, and
The city ofput immediately to death. They next fent a lufficient force
Orchome- againlt the city of Orchomenos, with orders to put all the
nos razed. men to a,. j to women an(j children for Haves,
which was pundlually done ; after which they razed that
noble city to the ground. Pelopidas was then on his way
Pe’o'pidas to Thefialy, at the head ot a powerful army, whither he had
marches a- been fent to affiit the Theflalians, who ftill groaned under
the tyranny ot lexander the Pheraean, and had made feve-
ral brave efforts to recover their liberty, but had been ftill
overpowered by that ufurper. Being joined by the Thefta-
lians, he encamped in the face ot the enemy, though far fu-
perior in number, and conf ftin > of above 2.0,000 men. A
fierce engagement icon enfued, in which both ftdes fought
with uncommon bravery. The place where the battle was
fought was called Cynocephala^ from feveral little hills on -it,
between which there ran a large plain. Both fides endea¬
voured at firft to poft themfelves on thefe eminences with
their foot, whilft Pelopidas ordered his cavalry to charge
that of the enemy below ; which they did with fuch fuccefs,
that they foon put them to the rout, and purfued them over
the plain. i his obliged the tyrant to gain the tops of the
hills, where he greatly ann yed the Theffalians that endea¬
voured to force thofe afeents; fo that Pelopidas was obliged
to give over his pmfuit to come to their relief. This im¬
mediately infpired the f heftalians with frefh courage, who
began again to charge the enemy at feveral onfets ; and foon
threw them into fuch diiorder, that they were forced to
give way. Pelopidas no fooner perceived the advantage,
than he began io look about for Alexander, with a defign
of en aging him. plaving found him out as he was com¬
manding his right wing, and endeavouring to rally his men,
he moved direiftly to him ; and being got near enough to
be heard by him, challenged him to decide the battle by
fingle combat with him. Alexander, inftead of accepting
the offer, turned about, and with all the fpeed he could ran
to fereen himfelr amongft his guards. Upon this Ptlopidas
charged him with fuch furious fpeed, that he obliged him
to retire farther, and fhelter himielf within the thickeft
ranks; the fight of which made him attack with frefli vi¬
gour, and fight more defperately againft him. He tried in
vain feveial times to break through their ranks to reach him,
cutting down great numbers of thofe that came forward to
oppofe him i his eagernels at length expofed him fo far to
the darts that were fhot at him at a diftance, that fome of
them went quite through his armour, and gave him a def-
perate wound or two, while the reft advanced and llabbed
him in the bread with their fpears.
It is fcarce poflible for words to exprefs the grief and de¬
spair which not only his brave Thebans, but likewife the
Theffaliaus and other allies, fhowed at the Tight of their
{lain general: fome of the latter, who had perceived the
danger he was expofed to, came down the hill with all poffible
fpeed to his relief; but when they perceived that they were
come too late to fave him, both they and the reft of the
little army thought on nothing now but to revenge his
death. i hey rallied accordingly, both horfe and foot, as
quick as poflible, and began to charge the enemy afrefh, and
with fueh defperate fury, that they at length gained a com-
AW nler pkte vidory over them, and killed above 30CC of them in
dueated, their purfuit, befides a much greater number which they
had ilain on the held of battle, though they ftill locked up.
32
h kilied.
33
2 ] THE
on all thefe advantages as vaftly too fmall to campenfate the Thebef,
lots of their brave general. ^ mj
The news of his death had no fooner reached Thebes,
than the whole city was leen in as deep a mourning as his
army. However, they fent a reinforcement to it of 7000
foot and yoo horte, as well to revenge the death of that ge¬
neral, as to improve the vidory he had gained over the ene¬
my ; by the help of which they fell io furioufly on them,
that they quickly broke and totally defeated the fhattered
remains of ^Alexander’s army. Hereupon he was forced to
fue ior peace, and to accept it on fuch conditions as the 34
conquerors thought fit to impole. He was at length dif at
patched in his bed by his wtfe Thebe, affifted by her br>)-murd<;recJ’
ihers, about fever, years after his defeat. His body was af¬
terwards dragged along the ftreets, trodden under foot, and
left a prey to the dogs. 35
All this while the Thebans were watching to improve An,1lk‘nn
every commotion that happened, every fuccefs they met^
with, to the forwarding of their then reigning and favourite04115’
projeft, of increaling th^ir power above all the reft, and in
their turn to give laws to Greece. Their late fuccefs in
Theffaly, and the rupture between the Arcadians and Man-
tineans at the fame time, about fome confecrated money
which the former had taken cut of the temple of Olympias
to pay their troops employed againft the Eleans, and which
the latter called a downright iacrilege, beiides other dif-
corcis that reigned in the other ftates of Greece, gave frefh
encouragement to Thebes to fet up for arbitreis in thoie
diiputes; and lo much the more, as thofe who had embez¬
zled the iacred money, and wanted rather to embroil mat¬
ters than to have them brought to light, lent that republic
word that the Arcadians were juft upon the point of re¬
volting to the Spartans, and advried them to come and put
an immediate ftop to it. At the fame time they diipatched
forne private dire&ions to a Theban officer at i’egea, to
apprehend feveral of their own people as difturbers of the
peace. This was accordingly done, and fereral eminent
perfons were com.ntd as prifoners of ftate : they were loon
after difeharged, and loud complaints were made againffc
fuch arbitrary and unjuft proceedings. The officer was ac-
cufed before the Theban lenate for having intermeddled ii>
their affairs, and endeavoured to interrupt the good corre-
fpondence between the two ftates. It was even iniilfed on
by fome of the Tegeans, that he fhould be indicted and
proceeded againft by his principals ; whilft the more mode¬
rate fort, who forelaw the conlequences that were likely to
attend luch appeals, and that it would infallibly bring the
Lhebans upon them, loudly protefted againft their march¬
ing into their territories, and did all they could 10 prevent
it. ihe 1 hebans, however, were become too powerful and
ambitious to mils lo fair an opportunity of getting once
more footing in Peloponnefus, as they had long ago preme- 36
dilated ; and Epaminondas was fo tar 1mm making a lecret of-Epamin©i>
their dehgn, that he told the Arcadian deputies in juilitica-^8
deputies ... , -
*£**1 * . , ^ » fes trie
tion 01 it, that as it was on their account that the Theban*uates jt-
engaged in the war, they had added treacheroufty with th^m Greece,
in making peace with .Athens without their confent: how¬
ever, that when he was got with his army on his march into
Peloponnefus to afiift his friends, he would 10011 fee whati
proofs the Arcadians would give of their fidelity. 1 his
ipeech did not fail to alarm them oready; elpecially*
as it was fpoken in Inch a mabiiterial ftyle and threatening,
tone. Even thofe who were beft affedted to the Thebans
could not forbear expreftiug their diffike of it ; and all
that had the welfare or Peloponnefus at heart readily agreed
with the Mantineans, that there was no time to be loft La
ule all proper means to prevent the impending ftorm.
1 Athena ,
THE
[ 4*3 1
T H E
37
\ combi*
lation
igainft
riisbes.
38
pa- inon
as rvakes
n unf'ic-
ifsful a;-
:mjit on
parca.
Thekn. Athens and Sparta were accordingly applied to, and
J were eaiily prevailed upon to aflift the Mantineans, and to
come into a ftridl conlederacy againft the Thebans ; and to
prevent all difputes about the command of the army, it was
agreed that each ftate fliould have it in its own territories ;
which plainly Ihows how terrified they all were at the ap-
preheniion or a freflt invafion of the Thebans: for this was
a point which neither the Spartans nor Athenians would
have fo readily given up to the Arcadians, though thefe had
formerly as ilrenuoufly infilled upon it, even when they were
almolt reduced to the laft extremity, and had never been
able to obtain it till now. But Epaminondas was then in
full march at the head of his Boeotian troops, with fome
Euboean auxiliaries, and a body or Itout Theflalian horfe ;
and was moreover to be joined by the MelTenians, Arrives,
and leveral other nations, as foon as he had entered Pelo-
ponnefus. The confederate army a^ainll him had ordered
their rendezvous at Mantinea, the place which they natural¬
ly concluded would be firll attacked, as being the chief feat
of thofe who had revolted from the Thebans But whilft
they were fecuring thtmfelves on that fide, Epaminondas,
who wifely confidered how far this confederacy and expedi¬
tion mull have drained the city of Sparta of its main
ftrength, broke up privately from Nemasa, where he had
lain lor fome time encamped,, and marched all that night
with a defign to have furprifed that important capital: but
his project being timely difeovered, the vigilant king took
care to difconcert it; fo that, though the Theban general
made feveral vigorous aflaults on that city, he was fo lloutly
repulfed, and the Spartans behaved with fuch intrepid va¬
lour, that he was forced to retire and turn his thoughts
againfl Mantinea, which he judged by this time to have
been quite defencelefs. He judged rightly indeed ; for the
place was not only drained of its troops, but likewife of its
inhabitants, who took that opportunity, whilll the feene of
war was in Lacedaemon, to gather in their harveft, and were
lautiiiea. fcattered all over the country ; fo that he would not have
met with any difficulty in gaining the town, had not the
Athenian auxiliaries come unexpe&edly to its relief, and gi¬
ven him a frefh repulfe.
1 hele two laft defeats greatly exafperated the Theban
general, who had never till now been ufed to them., and could
not but forelee that they would not only leffen his reputa-'
tion with his allies, but, if not timely retrieved, would fully
the glory of all his former exploits. What added to his
prelent difficulties was, that the time allotted him for his
expedition was almoft expired; fo that he had but a Ihort
fpace left to undertake fome brave atchievement, which
might recover his and his country’s honour, and keep up
the fpints of his auxiliaries and thofe under his proteftion.
He was moreover got very far into the enemy’s country, and
faw plainly enough how narrowly they watched all his mo¬
tions, and how well prepared they were to oppofe him what¬
ever attempt he relolvcd upon, whether to attack them or
to retreat. Under all thefe difficulties, he rightly confider-
ed, that he mull immediately refolve upon a decifive battle ;
in which, if his priltine fortune followed him. he might at
once retrieve his aftairs, and make hinUclt mafter ot Pelo-
ponnefus ; or, if that tailed him, as it lately had done, fall,
honourably in the attempts In this engagement Epami¬
nondas made the wifefl ditpofition of his troops, attacked
and fought with the maft intrepid courage and condudd,
and had opened himfelf a way through the Spartan pha-.
lanxes, thrown them into the utmolt con'ufion, and made a
terrible daughter of them, infomuch that the field of battlev
was covered with their wounded and flain, when, in the:
heat of the fight, having ventured himfelftoo far in order to.
give them a total overthrow, the enemy rallied again, pour.
39
.nd on
40
attic of
laminea.
ing with their whole fury three volleys of darts at him, Thebe?,
fome of which he drew out and returned to them, till at ^
length, being covered with wounds, and weakened with the£paI^jnorv.
lols of fo much blood, he received a mortal wound from a das killed*
javelin, and was with great difficulty refeued from the ene¬
my by his brave Thebans, and brought alive, though
fpeechlefs, into his tent. As foon as he had recovered him¬
felf, he afked his friends that were about him what was be¬
come of his ihield ; and being told that it was lafe, he bee-
koned to have it brought to him, and kiffed it. He next
inquired which fide had gained the vidlory; and being an-
fwered, The Thebans ; he replied, Then all is well: and up*
on obferving fome of his friends bewail his untimely death,
and leaving no children behind him, he is faid to have an-
fwered, Yes ; I have left two fair daughters, the victory of
Leuftra, and this of Mantinea, to perpetuate my memory.
Soon after this, upon drawing the point of the javelin out
of his body, he expired.
The confequence of this great general’s fall, and of this
bloody fight, in which neither fide could boaft any great
advantage over the other, but a great lofs of men on botii
fides, infomuch that Xenophon makes it a drawn battle, was*
that both parties agreed on a ceflation of arms, and parted,
as it were by confer.t, to take care of their wounded and
flain. The Thebans indeed thus far gained the greater
fhaie of glory, that they renewed the fight, and after a mofl
defperate conteft, gained the vi&ory over thofe Spartans
that oppofed them, and refeued the body of their dying ge- 43
neral out of their hands. However, an effedlual end was Peace ccn«*
put to this bloody war, and a general peace agreed on byciu<^*
all but Sparta ; who refufed it only becaufe the MefTenians
were included in it. But as to the Thebans, they had no
great reafon to boaft of this dear-bought vidlory, fince their
power and glory began to decline from that very time ; fo
that it may be truly laid, that it. role and fet with their
great general. 43
Ou the death of Epaminondas, the Thebans relapfed into nate of
their former ftate of inaftivity and indolence; and at lafl*
having ventured to oppofe Alexander the Great, their city en
was taken, and the inhabitants flaughtered for feveral hours,
after which the buildings were deftroyed. It was rebuilt
by Callander, but never afterwards made any confiderable
figure among the Hates of Greece. About the year 146
B. C. it fell under the power of the Romans, under which
it continued till the extin&ion of their empire by the Turks.
It is now called Thlve, and is nothing to what it was for¬
merly ; yet it is four miles in circumference, but fo full of
ruins, that there are. not above 4000 Turks and Chriftians
in it. It is now famous for a fine fort of white clay, of
which they make bowls for pipes after the Turkifh fafhion.
They are never burnt, but dry naturally, ard become as hard
as a Hone. There are two mofques in Thebes, and a great
many Greek churches* It is feated between two fmail ri¬
vers, in E. Long. ^3. 40. N. Let. 38. ry
Thebes, in Egypt, one of the moft renowned cities of
the ancient world. It was alfo called Dio/polis, or the city
o' Jupiter, and was built, according to fome, by Oliris, ac¬
cording to othei s by Bufiris. Its length, in Strabo’s time,:
was 80 furlongs, or ten miles; but this was nothing in com-Univa W :
parilon of its ancient extent, Before it was ruined by Cam-A'/?<”‘J'»
byfes, which, we are told, was no lefs than 4-0 ftadia, orvo1'*'
52 miles and an half. The wealth of this city was fo great,
that, after it had been plundered by the Perfians, what
was found, on burning, the remains of the pillage, amounted
to above 30^ talents of gold and 300 of filver.
Mr Bruce vilited the ruins of this celebrated city ; but
in'orms us that nothing now remains except four temples,:
and thefe neither fo entite nor magnificent as fome others at
■i
Theft.
,£ruce s
V^r^vels.
THE [41
n place calied Demhrn, Thebes has been celebrated by
Homer tor its hundred gates; but Mr Bruce informs us,
that no veftiges of thefe are now remaining, neither can we
difeover the foundation of any wall it ever had; “ and as
for the horlemen and chariots it is faid to have fent out, all
the Thebaid fown with wheat would not have maintained
one half of them. Thebes, at leaft the ruins o" the temples
called Medlnet Tabu, are built in a long ftretch of about a
mile broad, moll parfimoniouily cholen at the fandy foot of
the mountains. The Hort'i Penfiles, or hanging gardens,
were furely formed upon the Tides of thefe hills, then fup-
plied with water with mechanical devices, i he utmeft is
done to Ipare the olain, and with great reafon ; for all the
fpace of ground this ancient city has had to maintain its my*
riadr, of horfes and men, is a plain of three quarters o1 a mile
broad between the town and the river, upon which plain the
water riles to the hevrht ov four and five feet. All this
pretended populoufnefs of ancient Thebes I therefore believe
to be fabulous.”
Mr Bruce, after examining the ground on which Thebes
is fuppofed to have Hood, thinks that it had no walls, and
that confequently Homer’s dory of its having an hundred
gates is mifunderRood. The mountains of the 1 hebaid
Rand clofe behind the town, not in a ridge, but (landing
Rngle, fo that you can go round each of them. A hundred
of thefe are laid to be hollowed out for fepulchres and other
purpofes. Thefe, he thinks, were the hundred gate's of
Homer ; in proof of thi« they are Rill called by the natives.
Jieeban el Meluhe, “ the ports or gates of the kings.”
All that is faid of Thebes by poets orhiRorians after the
days of Homer is meant of Hioipolis, which was built by
the Greeks long after Thebes was deRroyed, as its name
-teRifies •, though Diodorus fays it was built by Buliris. It
was on the eafl fide of the Nile, whereas ancient Thebes was
on the wtR, though both are conlidered as one city ; and
Strabo fays, that the river runs through the middle of
Thebes, by which he means between Old Thebes and Di-
oipolis.
THEFT, or simple larceny, is “ the felonious taking
and carrying away of the perional yoodsof another. ’ I his
offence certainly commenced then, whenever it was that the
bounds of property, or laws of meum and tuum, were eRa-
blilhed. How far fuch an offence can exiR in a Rate of na¬
ture, where all things are held to be common, is a queRion
that may be f Ived with very little difficulty. 'The difllirb-
ance of any individual in the occupation of what he has
feized to his prelent ufe, feems to be the only offence of this
kind incident to fuch a Rate. But, unqueRionably, in fe¬
cial communities, v'hen property is eRabhlhed, any violation
of that property is fubjedl to be punifhed by the laws of
fociety ; though how far that punilhment fhould extend is
matter of conf deiable doubt.
By the Jewifh law it was only punilhed with a pecuniary
fine, and fatisfaftion to the party injured ; and in the civil
law, till fome very late conRitutions, we never find the pu-
m’fhment capital. The laws of Draco at Athens punilhed it
with death: but his laws were laid to be written with blood;
and Solon afterwards changed the penalty to a pecuniary
muldt. And lo the Attic laws in general continued ; ex¬
cept that once, in a time ot dearth, it was made capital to
break into a garden and Real figs: but this law, and the in-
formeis agamR the offence, grew fo odious, that from them
all malicious informers were Ryled fycaphunti; a name which
we have much perverted from its original meaning. From
thefe examples, as well as the reafon of the thincr, many
learned and fcrupulous men have queRioned. the propriety,
if not lawfulnels, of inflidling capital pur.iRiment for fimple
theft. And certainly the natural pumRunent for injuries to
4 ] T H E
property feems to be the lofs of the offender’s own proper-
ty ; which ought to be univerfally the cafe, were all mens'”
fortunes equal. But as thofe who have no property them*
felves are generally the moR ready to attack the property of
others, it has been found neceffary, inRead of a pecuniary,
to fubllitute a corporal punilhment; yet how far this cor¬
poral punilhment ought to extend, is what has occafioned
the doubt. Sir Thomas More and the Marquis Beccaria,
at the diRance of more than two centuries, have very fen-
fibly propofed that kind of corporal punifhment which ap¬
proaches the neared to a pecuniary fatislaftion, viz. a tem¬
porary imp ilonmtnt, with an obligation to labour, firft for
the party robbed, and afterwards for the public, in works of
the mod flavifh kind ; in older to oblige the offender to re¬
pair, by his induRry and diligence, the depredations he has
committed upon private property and public older. But,
notwithllanding all the remonlbances of fpeculative politi¬
cians and moialilfs, the punilhment oc theft Rill continues
throughout the greate;A part ot Europe to be capital : and
Puffendorf, together with Sir Matthew Hale, are of opi¬
nion that this mud always be referred to the prudence of
the legillature ; v. ho are to judf.e, fay they, when crimes
are become fo enormous as to require fuch fangumary re.
llridlions. Yet both thefe writers agree, that fuch punilh¬
ment ihould be cautioufly inflidled, and never without the
utmoR necefiity.
The Anglo Saxon laws nominally punifhed theT with
death, if above the value ot twelvepence : but the cri¬
minal was permitted to redeem his life by a pecuniary
raaiom; as, among their anceilors the Germans, by a fated
number of cattle. But in the 9th year of Henry I. this
power ot redemption was taken away, and all perfons guilty
of larceny above the value of twelvepence were dire died to
be hanged ; wh ch law continues in force to this day. For
though the inferior fpecies of the t, or petit larceny, is only
punilhed by whipping at common law, or (by Rat. 4 Geo. I.
c. 11.) may be extended to tranfportation tor feven years, as
is alfo exprelsly diredied in the cafe of ;he Plate-glafs Com¬
pany ; yet the punifhment of grand laiceny, or the Healing
above the value of twelvepence (which ium was the lland-
ard in the time of king Athelllan, »oo years a o), is i t com¬
mon law regularly death : which, conhderin the great in
termediate alteration in the price or denomination of mo¬
ney, is undoubtedly a very rigorous conllitution ; and made
Sir Henry Spelman ; above a century lince, when money
was at twice its prelent rate) complain that while every
thing elfe was riien in its nominal value, and become dearer,
the life of man had continually grown cheaper. It is true,
that the mercy of juries will oiten make them Rrain a point,
and bring in larceny to be under the value of twelve pence,
when it is really of much greater value : but this, though
evidently juRifiable and proper when it only reduces the pre¬
lent nominal value of money to the ancient ilandard, is other-
wile a kind of pious perjury, and does not at all excuie our
common law in this reipedl from the imputation ot leventy,
but rather ftrongly confeffes the charge. It is likewile true,
that by the merciful extenlions o the benefit ot deny by
our modern ftatute-law, a perfon who commits a fimple lar¬
ceny to the value of thirteen pence or thirteen hundred
p unds, though guilty of a capital offence, fhall be excufed
the pains of death ; but this is only for the firil offence.
And in many caks of iimple larceny the benefit of clergy
is taken away by Ratute: as from horle-ltealing in the prin¬
cipals and accelfones both before and after the fact ; theft
by great and notorious thieves in Northumberland and Cum¬
berland ; taking woollen cloth from oft the tenters, or li¬
nens, fuftians, calicoes, or cotton goods, from the place of
manufadlure (which extends, in the laft cafe, to aiders, af«
lifters.
the [ 415 ] THE
Theft ' fillers, pnvtlrerS, buyers, and receiver?); felon'umfly driving
r. II away, or othervvile ftealing one or more flieep or other cattle
'a 1 ~ fpecified in the afts^or killing them with incent to fteal the
whole or any part of the carCafe, or aiding or afUiling there¬
in *, thefts on navigable rivers above the value of forty {hil¬
lings, or being prefent, aiding and afHfling thereat; plunder¬
ing veifels in did reft, or that have differed fhipwreck; fteal-
rng letters lent by the poll ; and alfo dealing deer, hares,
and conies, tinder the peculiar circumftances mentioned in
the Waltham black a6f. Which additional feverity is ow¬
ing to the great malice and mifehief of the theft in fame of
thefe inftances ; and, in others, to the difficulties men would
otherwile lie under to pteierve thofe goods, which are fo
ealily carried off. Upon which laft principle the Roman
law punilhed more feverely than other thieves the Abi^ei or
dealers of cattle, and the Balnear'ii or filch as ftole the
Clothes of perfons who were wafhing in the public baths ;
both which conftitutions feem to be borrowed from the laws
of Athens. And, fo too, the ancient Goths punifhed with
unrelenting feverity thefts of cattle, or of corn that was
reaped and left in the field : filch kind of property (which
no human induftry can fufficiently guard) being efleemed
under the peculiar cufiody of heaven.
Tm ft-Bote (from the Saxon theof, i. e. fur, and bote,
compenfatis), is the receiving of a man’s goods again from a
thief, after ftolen, or other amends not to profecute the fe-
Ion, and to the intent the thief may efcape; which is an of¬
fence punifhable with fine and imprifonment, &c.
THELIGONUM, in botany : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the claft of mm,tecta, and order of polyandria ; and
in the natural fyffem ranging under the 53d order, Scabndec.
*1 he made calyx is bifid ; there is no corolla ; the ftamina
are generally 12. The female calyx is alfo bifid; there is
no corolla ; only one pilfil; the capfule is coriaceous, unilo¬
cular, and monofpermous. There is only one fpecies, the
Cynocrambe, which is indigenous in the fouth of Europe.
THEME, denotes the fubjedt of an exercife for young
ffudents to write or compofe on.
THEMISON, a phyfician of Laodicea, a difciple of Af-
clepiades. He founded the methodic left, with a view to
the more eafily teaching and pra&ifing the art of medicine.
(See Medicine, n° 37). Themifon gave the firft ac¬
count of diacodium, which was prepared of the juice and
deoo&ion df poppy-heads and honey. He invented a pur¬
ging medicine called beira.
1 HEMIS i JUS, an ancient Greek orator and philofo-
pher, a native of Paphlagonia, who flouriffied in the 4th
century. He had great intereft and favour with the empe¬
rors in his time, and though a heathen, was of a very tole¬
rating fpirit. He taught for many years at Conitantinople,
of which city he was made prafeft by Julian and Theodo-
fius; and lived to be exceeding old. More than 30 of his
orations are ftdl extant, befide commentaries on feveral parts
of Ariflotle’s works.
THEMISTOGLES, the renowned Athenian admiral,
general, and patriot, who gained the battle of Salamis
again if the Perfians. Being banifhed his country by his un¬
grateful iellow-citixens, he fled to Artaxerxes king of Per-
fia : but, in order to avoid taking up arms againft his coun¬
try, he flew himfelf, 464 B. C. See Attica, n° 76, etfeq.
1 HEOBALD (Lewis), the fon of an attorney at Sit-
tingbourn in Kent, was a well-known writer and critic in
the early part of the prefent century. He engaged in a
paper called the Cenfor, publiflied in Miff’s Journal, where¬
in, by delivering his opinions with too little referve con¬
cerning fome eminent wits, he expofed himfelf to their re¬
ft ntment. Upon the publication of Pope’s Homer, he prai-
Kd n in terms of extravagant admiration, yet afterwards
thought proper to abufe it as earneftly ; for which Pope at Theobro-
firft made him the hero of his Dunciad, though he after- n’a
ward laid him afide for another. Mr Theoba.ld not only eX-Th(JJrit r
pofed himfelf to the laflres of Pope, but waged war with Mr i
Dennis, who treated him more roughly, though with lefs
fatire.. He neverthelefs publifhed an edition of Shakefpeare,
in which he corre&ed, with great pains and ingenuity, many
faults that had crept into that poet’s writings. This edi¬
tion is {fill in great etteem ; being in general preferred to'
thole publiflied by Pope, Warburton, and Hanmer. He alfo
wrote fome plays, and tranflated others from the ancients.
THEOB ROMA, in botany: A genus of plants belong¬
ing to the claft of polyadtlphia, and order of pentandria; and
in the natural fyftem ranging under the 37th order, Colum-
nifera. The calyx is triphyllous ; the petals, which are
five in number, are vaulted and two-horned ; the ne&arium
is pentaphyllous and regular ; the ftamina grow from the
ne&arium, each having five anther®. There are three fpe¬
cies ; the cacao, gUazuma, and angujla.
The cacao, or chocolate tree, we (hall deferibe in the
words of Dr Wright: “ In all the French and Spanifh iflands^W™
and fettlements in the warmer parts of America, the choco- Medical
late tree is carefully cultivated. This was formerly the cafe Jou™f,
alfo in Jamaica ; but at prefent we have only a few ftrag-vo*'
gling trees left as monuments of our indolence and bad po¬
licy*
“ This tree delights in ffiady places and deep valleys. It
is feldom above 20 feet high. The leaves are oblong," large,
and pointed. The flowers fpring from the trunk and large
branches ; they are fmall, and pale red. The pods are oval
and pointed. The feeds or nuts are numerous, and curiouf-
ly flowed in a white pithy fubftance.
“ The cocoa nuts being gently parched in an iron pot
over the fire, the external covering feparates eafily. The
kernel is levigated on a fmooth Hone ; a little arnotto is
added, and with a few drops of water is reduced to a maft,
and iormed into rolls of one pound each. This fimple pre¬
paration is the moft natural, and the beft. It is in daily
ufe in moft families in Jamaica, and feems well adapted for
rearing of children.” See Chocolate.
THEOCRACY, in matters of government, a ftate go¬
verned by the immediate direction of God alone : fuch was
the ancient government of the Jews before die time of
Saul.
IHEOCRITUS, the father of paftoral poetry, was
born at Syracufe in Sicily. I wo of his poems afeertain his
age ; one addfeffed to Hiero king of Syracufe, who began
his reign about 275 years before Chrift ; and the other to
Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt. Hiero, though a
prince diftinguifhed in arms and political wiidom, does not
ieem to have been a patron of learning. This is fuppofed
to have given birth to the 16th Idyllium. From Syracufe
Theocritus went to Alexandria, where he feems to have
found a munificent patron in Ptolemy Philadelphus, if we
may judge from the panegyric which he compofed on that
prince (the 17th Idyllium). It has been faid that Theocri¬
tus was ftrangled by Hiero, but we have not found evidence ■
of this.
The compofitions of this poet are diftinguifhed, among
the ancients, by the name of Idylliums, in order to expreft
the fmalkefs and variety of their natures : they would now
be called Mifce//antes, or Poems on federal Occafions. The
hrft nine and the eleventh are confeffed to be true paftorals,
and hence I heoentus has ufualiy paffed for nothing more
than a paftoral poet ; yet he is maniteftly robbed ot a great
part of his fame, it his other poems have not their proper
laurels. For though the greater part of his Idylli urns can¬
not be called the longs of fliepherds, yet they have certainly
their
THE* [ 416 ] THE
•Theodolite.their refpeftive merits. His paftorals ought to be con-
Tiieodore. fidere(j as foundation of his credit.; upon this claim
he will be admitted for the finifher as well as the inventor of
his art, and will be acknowledged to have excelled all his
imitators as much as originals ufually do their copies.
The works of this poet were firtt publifhed in folio by
.Aldus Manutius at Venice in 1495. A more elegant and
correct edition was printed by Henry Stephens at Paris in
I (,66. An edition was publifhed at Leipfic in 17^5’ with
valuable notes by the learned Reifke. But what will molt
highly gratify the admirers of paftoral poetry, is an edition
publifhed in 1770, 2 vols pto, by Mr I homas Warton. It
is accompanied by the fcholia of the belt editors, and the
different readings of 15 MSS.
THEODOLI TE, a mathematical inftrument formeafu-
ring heights and diftances. See Geometry, p. 679,
THEODORE, king of Corfica, baron Nieuhoff in the
county of La Marc in Weftphalia. He had his education
in the French lervice, and afterwards went to Spain, where
he received fome marks of regard from the duke of Riperda
and cardinal Alberoni; but being of an unfeltled difpoli-
tion, he quitted Spain, and travelled into Italy, England,
and Holland, in fearch of fome new adventure. He at laft
fixed his attention on Corfica, and formed the fcheme of
rendering himfelf fovereign of that ifland. He was a man
of abilities and addrefs ; and having fully informed himfelf
of every thing relating to Corfrca, went to Tunis, where he
fell upon means to procure fome money and arms; and then
went to Leghorn, from whence he wrote a letter to the
Corfican chiefs Giafferi and Paoli, offering confiderable af-
fiflance to the nation if they would eledl him as their fove¬
reign. This letter w'as configned to Count Domenico Riva-
rola, who a&ed as Corfican plenipotentiary inTufcany;
and he gave for anfwer, that if Theodore brought the afiift-
ance he promifed to the Corficans, they would very willing¬
ly make him king.
Upon this he, without lofs of time, fet fail, and landed at
Tavagna in the fpring of the year 1736. He was a man of
a very ftately appearance, and the Turkifh drefs he wore
added to the dignity of his mien. He had a few attendants
with him ; and his manners were fo engaging, and his of¬
fers fo plaufible, that he was proclaimed king of Corfica
before Count Rivarola’s difpatches arrived to inform the
chiefs of the terms upon which he had agreed. He brought
with him about 1 coo zequins of Tunis, befide fome arms
and ammunition, and made magnificent promifes of foreign
affiflance ; whence the Corficans, who were glad of any
fupport, willingly gave into his fchemes. 1 heodore in-
ftantly afiumed every mark of royal dignity. He had his
guards and his officers of ftate ; he conferred titles of ho¬
nour, and ftruck money both of filver and copper. The
filver pieces were few in number, and can now hardly be
met with ; the copper coins have on one fide T. R. that
is, “ Theodorus Rex,” with a double branch croffed, and
round it this infcription, Pro bond publico Re. Co. that
is, “ For the public good of the kingdom of Corfica on
the other fide is the value of the piece; Cinque folidi, or five
lb us.
The Genoefe were not a little confounded with this un-
cxpedled adventurer. They publifhed a violent manifelto
againft Theodore, treating him with great contempt; but
at the fame time (flowing they were alarmed at his appear¬
ance. Theodore replied, in a manifefto, with all the calm-
nefsand dignity of a monarch ; but after being about eight
months in Corfica, perceiving that the people began to cool
-in their afie&ians towards him, he affembled his chiefs, and
declared he would keep them no longer in a itate of uncer¬
tainty, being determined t© leek in perfon the fupport he fo
long expe&ed. He fettled an adminiflration during his ab- TfamWt,
feEce, recommended unity in the flrongeff terms, and leftTheodom,
the ifland with reciprocal affurances of fidelity and affeftion. v~,"~
He went to Holland, where he was fo fuccefsful as to ob¬
tain credit from feveral rich merchants, particularly Jews,
who trufted him with cannon and other warlike ftores to a
great value, under the charge of a fupercargo. With thefe
he returned to Corfica in 1739; ^ut by ^i8 the
French, as auxiliaries to the Genoefe, had become fo power¬
ful in the ifland, that though Theodore threw in his fup-
ply of warlike ftores, he did not incline to venture his per¬
fon, the Genoefe having fet a high price on his head. Lie
therefore again departed ; and after many unavailing at¬
tempts to recover his crown, at length chofe for retirement
a country where he might enjoy the participation of that
liberty which he had fo vainly endeavoured to give his Cor¬
ficans ; but his fituation in England by degrees grew
wretched, and he was reduced fo low as to be feveral years
before his death a prifoner for debt in the King’s Bench.
At length, to the honour of fome gentlemen of rank, a
charitable contribution was fet on foot for him in the year
1753. Mr Bofwell obferves, that Mr Horace Walpole ge-
neroufly exerted himfelf for the unhappy Theodore, and
wrote a paper in The World with great elegance and hu¬
mour, foliciting a contribution for the unhappy monarch
in diflrefs, to be paid to Mr Robert Dodfley bookfeller, as
lord high treafurer. This brought him a very handfome
Aim, and he was fet at liberty. That gentleman adds, that
Mr Walpole has the original deed, by which Theodore
made over the kingdom of Corfica in fecurity to his credi¬
tors, and that he has alfo the great feal of the kingdom.
Theodore died in 1756, and was buried in St Anne’s
churchyard, Weftminfter; where, in 1757, a fimple una¬
dorned monument of marble was erefted to his memory by
a gentleman, with an infcription ; which, after mentioning
fome of the above particulars, concludes with the following
lines :
The grave, great teacher, to a level brings
Heroes and beggars, galley-flaves and kings;
But Theodore this moral learn’d ere dead, ~l
Fate pour’d its leflon on his living head, >
Bellow’d a kingdom and deny’d him bread. J
Theodore left a fon, who was an accomplifhed gentleman.
THEODORET, bifhop of St Cyricus in Syria, in the
4th century, and one of the moll learned lathers of the
church, was born in the year 386, and was the difciple of
Theodorus Mopfueflia and St John Chryfoflom. Having
received holy orders, he was with difficulty perfuaded to
accept of the bifhopric of St Cyricus, about the year 420.
He difcovered great frugality in the expences of his table,
drefs, and furniture, but fpent confiderable fums in impro¬
ving and adorning the city of Cyricus. He eredled two
large bridges, public baths, fountains, and aquedudls, and
laboured with great zeal and fuccefs in his diocefe. Yet hi*
zeal was not confined to his own church: he went to preach
at Antioch and the neighbouring towns ; where he became
admiredyfor his eloquence and learning, and had the happi-
nefs to convert multitudes of people. He wrote in favour of
John of Antioch and the Neftorians, againfl Cyril’s 1 welve
Anathemas : he afterwards attacked the opinions of Neflc-
rius, and was depofed in the fynod held by the Eutychians
at Ephefus ; but was again rellored by the general coun¬
cil of Chalcedon, in which he was prefent, in 45I* It
is thought that he died foon after; though others fay that
he lived till the year 43 7. There are itill extant I heo-
doret’s excellent Commentary on fat Paul s Epiflles, and on
feveral other books of the Holy Scriptures. 2. His Ec-
clefiaflical Hiftory from the time of Arius to Theodofius
[ Th
'J'l-
THE [ 4t
erdofuio, t!>e Younger. 3. The hiftory of the famous Anchorites of
eogony. tjme. Epiftles. 5. Difcourfes on Providence. And,
”” 6. An excellent treatife againft the Pagans, intitled, De Cu-
rtiruRs Graiorum Ajfeciibus ; and other works. The heft
edition of all which is that of Father Sirrnond in Greek and
Latin, in 4 vols folio.
THEODOSIUS I. called the Great, was a native of
Spain. The valour he had fhown, and the great lervices
he had done to the empire, made Gratian, attacked by the
( oths and Germans, to admit him as a partner in the go¬
vernment. He received the purple in 379, aged 43. See
Constantinople, n° 77—88.
THEGGONY, formed from God, and yov*gen'tura.
7 1 T H E
“ feed, offspring,” that branch of the heathen theology Theogn’#.
which taught the pentalogy of their gods. w v
Hefiod gives us the ancient theogony, in a poem under
that title. Among the mod ancient writers, Dr Burnet
obferves, that theogony and colmogony fignified the fame
thing. In effedf, the geneiation of the gods of the ancient
Perfians, fire, water, and earth, is apparently no other than
that of the primary elements.
THEOGNIS, an ancient Greek poet of Megara in A-
chaia, fiourifhed about the 59th Olympiad, 144 B. C.
We have a moral work of his extant, containing a fum-
mary of precepts and refle&ions, ufually to be found in the
colkdlions of the Greek minor poets.
THEOLOGY
t TT S a Greek word (floNoyia), and fignifies that feience
Definition. X which treats of the being and attributes of God, his
relations to us, the difpenfations of his providence, his will
with refpedf to our aft ions, and his purpofes with refpeft to
our end. The word was firft ufed to denote the fyftems,
or rather the heterogeneous fables, of thofe poets and philo-
< lophers who wrote of the genealogy and exploits of the
gods of Greece, Hence Orpheus, Mufeus, Hefipd, Phe-
recydes, and Pythagoras, were called theologians ; and the
fame epithet was given to Plato, on account of his fublime
fpeculations on the fame fubjeft. It was afterwards adopt¬
ed by the earlieft writers of the Chriilian church, who
ifyled the author of the apocalypfe, by way of eminence,
0 btcmyoc, the Divine.
Although every pagan nation of antiquity had fome
tutelary deities peculiar to itfelf, they may yet be confidered
as having all had the fame theology, fince an intercommuni¬
ty of gods was univerfally admitted, and the heavenly bodies
were adored as the dii majorum gentium over the whole earth.
This being the cafe, we are happily relieved from treating,
in the fame article, of the truths of Chriftianity and the
fiftions of paganifm, as we have elfewhere traced idolatry
from its fource, and fhewn by what means “ the foolilh
hearts of men became lo darkened that they changed the
glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to
« corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beads, and
creeping things.” See Polytheism.
The abfurdities and inconfiftency of the pretended reve¬
lation of the Arabian impoftor have been iufficiently expofed
under the words Alcoran and Mahometanism ; fo that
^ the only theology of which we have to treat at prefent is
Chritlian Chrijlian theology, which comprehends that which is com-
theoio^y, monly called natural, and that which is revealed in the
feriptures of the Old and New Teftaments. Thefe taken to¬
gether, and they ought never to be feparated, compofe a
body of feience io important, that in comparifon with it all
other fciences fink into infignificance ; for without a com¬
petent knowledge of the attributes of God, of the feveral
relations in which he Hands to us, and of the ends for which
we were created, it is obvious that we muff wander through
life like men groping in the dark, ftrangers to the road on
which we are travelling, as well as to the fate awaiting us at
3 the end of our journey.
To be flu- But if this knowledge be necefiary to all Chriftians, it is
r'lLw'" doub,y tbo^e who are appointed to feed the flock of
thofe in- thrift, and to teach the ignorant what they are to believe,
ttnded for and what to do, in order to work out their own falvation.
tbefervice ihewildom and piety of our anceftors have accordingly
founded profefforfhips of theology in all our univerfities,
where the principles of our religion are taught in a fyftema-
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
of the
church.
tic and fcientific manner ; and the church has ordained, that
no man fhall be admitted to the office of a preacher of the
gofpel who has not attended a regular courle of fuch the¬
ological leftures.
It mud not, however, be fuppofed, that, by merely liden-
ing to a courie of leftures however able, any man will be¬
come an accomplidied divine. The principles of this feknee
are to be found only in the word and works of God; and he
who would extraft them pure and unfophidicated, mud dig ^
for them himfelf in that exhaudleis mine. To fit a man for Previous
this important invedigation, much previous knowledge is re-knowledge
quifite. He mud dudy the works of God fcientifically
before he can perceive the full force of that tedimony whichyecut;on 0f
they bear to the power, the wiidom, and the goodnefs of this ftudy.
their author. Hence the neceffity of a general acquain¬
tance with the phyfical and mathematical fciences before a
man enter upon the proper dudy of theology, for he will
not otherwife obtain jud and enlarged conceptions of the God
of the univerfe. See Physics, n° 115.
But an acquaintance with the phyiieal and mathematical
fciences is.not alone a fufficient preparation for the dudy of
theology. Indeed it is podfible for a man to devote himfelf
lo wholly to any of thefe fciences, as to make it counteraft.
the only purpofes for which it can be valuable to the divine ;
for he who is condantly immerfed in matter, is apt to fufpeft.
that there is no other fubdance ; and he who is habituated
to the routine of geometrical demondration, becomes in
time incapable of reafoning at large, and edimating the
force of the various degrees of moral evidence. To avert
thefe untoward conlequences, every man, before he enter
upon the dudy of that feience which is the iubjeft of the
prefent article, Ibould make himfelf acquainted with the
principles of logic, the feveral powers of the human mind,
and the different fources of evidence ; in doing which he
will find the greated afifidance from Bacon’s Novum Organism,
Locke’s FJjay on the Human Underjlanding, Reid’s EJfays on
the Intellectual and Active Powers of Man, and Tatham’s
Chart and Scale cf Truth. Thefe works, of which the
young dudent ought to make himielf mader, will teach him
to think judly, and guard him againd a thoufand errors,
which thofe who have not laid fuch a foundation are apt to
embrace as the truths of God.
The man who propofes to dudy theology ought to have
it in view, as the ultimate.end of his labours, to impart to
others that knowledge which he may procure for himfelf.
“ Amongfi: the many marks which didinguifh the Cbrijlian
philofopher from the Pagan, this (fays a learned writer *) is * IVarbur*
one of the mod driking—the Pagan lought knowledge in a*™-
lelfifh way, to fecrete it for his own ufe ; the Chrijlian leeks
it with the generous purpofe (fird. -in view, though lad in
3 G execution)
4.8 T H E O
I r >'!uc- execution) to impart it to others. The Pagan philofopher,
t’on‘ therefore, having cultivated the art of thinking, proceeds to that
Qf f-pgafong^ in order to difplay his vanity in the dexterous ufe
of deceit. On the other hand, the Chrijlian philofopher culti¬
vates the art of [peaking, for the foie purpofe of diflemina-
ting the truth in his office of preacher of the gofpel.”
As every "man, before he enters upon the proper ftudy of
theology, receives, at leaft in this country, the rudiments of
a liberal education, it may perhapsl)e fuperfluous to mention
here any books as peculiarly proper to teach him the art of
fpeaking : we cannot however forbear to recommend to our
fludent the attentive peiufal of Q_uintilian’sand
Dr Blair’r heEtures on Rhetoric and the Belles Lettres. A fa¬
miliar acquaintance with thefe works will enable him, if he
be endowed by nature wuth talents fit for the office in which
he propofes to engage, to exprefs his thoughts with corredt-
nefs and elegance ; “ without which, it has been well obfer-
ved, that fcience, efpecially in a clergyman, is but learned
lumber, a burden to the owner, and a r.uifance to every body
dfe.”
No man can proceed thus far in the purfuits of general
fcience without having been at leaft initiated in the learned
languages ; but he who intends to make theology his pro-
feffion ffiould devote hirnfelf more particularly to the ftudy
of Greek and Hebrew, becaufe in thefe tongues the origi¬
nal fcriptures are written. By this we do not mean to in-
fimiate that it is neceffaty for the man whole views afpire
no farther than to the office of paftor ol a Chriftian con¬
gregation, to make himfelf a profound critic in either of
thefe ancient languages. The time requifite for this purpofe
is lo lony, that it would leave very little for other ftudies ol
infinitely more importance to him, whofe proper bufinefs it is
to infttudb the ignorant in thofe plain and fimple truths
which are fufficient to guide all men in the way to lalva-
tion. Still, however, it is obvious, that he who is incapable
of confulting the original fcriptures, muft reft his faith, not
upon the lure foundation of the word of God, but upon the
credit of fallible tranllators; and if he be at any time called
upon to vindicate revelation againft the feoffs of infidelity, he
will have to ftruggle with many difficulties which arc ealdy
? folved by him who is mafter of the original tongues.
Cautions to The fludent having laid in this ftock of preparatory
be obferved knowledge, is now qualified to attend with advantage the
i" theological le&ures of a learned profeffor; but in doing this,
tufes erf he ffiould be very careful neither to admit nor rejedt any
profeiTor. thing upon the bare authority of his mafter. Right prin¬
ciples in theology are of the utmoft importance, and can
reft upon no authority inferior to that of the word of God.
On this account v/e have long been of opinion, that a pro¬
feffor cannot render his pupils fo much fervice by a fylte-
matical courfe of ledlures, as by directing their ftudies, and
pointing out the road in which they may themfelves arrive
|n the fhorteft time at the genuine fenfe ol the facred ferip-
L O G- Y.
tares. In this opinion we have the honou? to agfee with Pi’elim.
the ableft letturer $ in theology that we have ever heard. nar>'. ^;rec«
T. he authors of all fyftems are more or lefs prejudiced in a'“>s'
behalf of fome particular and artificial mode of faith. He,
therefore, who begins with the ftudy of them, and after-
wards proceeds to the faertd volume, fees with a jaundiced y Akerdem
eye every text fupporting the peculiar tenets of his firft
mafter, and adds as abfurd a part as he who tries not the
gold by the copel, but the copel by the gold. Before our
young divine, therefore, fit down to the ferious perufal of
any one of thofe injlitutes or bodies of theology which abound
in all languages, and even before he read that which the
nature of our work compels us to lay before him, we beg
leave, with the utmoft deference to the fuperior judgment of
our more learned readers, to recommend to his confideration-
the following
Preliminary Directions for the Stupy ok
Theology.
Christian theology is divided into two great parts, naturalc\v\^m
and revealed; the former comprehending that which may theology
be known of God from the creation of the world, even his divided in.
eternal power and Godhead ; the latter, that which is dif-to t;wo
covered to man nowhere but in the facred volume of the ^
Old and New Teftaments.
Concerning the extent of natural theology many opi-F.'rP prin-
nions have been formed, whi 1ft fome have contended thatciplesof
there is no fuch thing. Into thefe difputes we mean notthe(,lo£>r.
at prefent to enter. We believe that one of them could
have had no exiftence among fober and enlightened men,
had the contending, parties been at due pains to define with
accuracy the terms which they ufed. Whatever be the
origin of religion, which we have endeavoured to afeertaiu
elievvhere (lee Religion, n® 6—17.), It is obvious, that no
man can receive a written book as the word of God till he be
convinced by fome other means that God exifts, and that
he is a Being of power, wifdotn, and goodnefs, who watches
over the conduft of his creature man. If the progenitor
of the human race was inftrudted in the principles of reli¬
gion by the Author ol his being (a fact of which it is diffi¬
cult to conceive how a confiftent theift can entertain a
doubt), he might communicate to his children, by natural
means, much of that knowledge which he himfelf' could not
have difeovered had he not been fupernaturally enlightened.
Between iliuftrating or proving a truth which is already
talked of, and making a difeovery of what is wholly un¬
known, every one perceives that there is an immenfe dif¬
ference (a). «
lo beings whofe natural knowledge originates wholly To the
from fenfation, and whofe minds cannot, but by much dif-earlieft
cipline, advance from lenfe to fcience, a long feries of re-”10^1^
velations might be neceffary to give them at nrft juft notionsedrevJk-"
of God and his attributes, and to enable them to perceivetions.
the
(a) The diferiminating powers of Ariftotle will not be queftioned; and in tire following extract made by Cicero from
fome of his works which are now loft, he expreffes our rentiments om this important fubjedt with his ufual prec'ifion :
■ “ Praeclare ergo Ariftoteles, si essent, inquit, qui fub terra femper habitaviffent, bonis, et illuftribus domiciliis, quae
effent ornata fignis atque picturis, inftruftaque rebus iis omnibus, quibus abundant ii, qui beati putantur, nec tamen
exiffent unquam fupra terram : accepissent autem fama et auditione, esse quoddam n-umen, et vtm deorum ;
deinde aliquo tempore, patefadtis terns faucibus, ex illis abditis fedibus evadere in hrec loca, quae nos incolimus, atque
exire potuiffent : cum repente terram, et maria, coalumque vidiffent: nubium magnitudinem, ventorurnque vim cognovif-
fent, ad'pexiffentque folem, ejufque turn magnitudinem, pulchritudinemque, turn etiam efficientiam cognoviffent, quod is
diem efficeret, toto coelo luce diffufa : cum autenr terras nox opacaffet, turn coelum totum cCrnerent aflris diftindtum et
ornatum, lunseque luminum varietatem turn crefcentis, turn fenefeentis, eorumque omnium ortus et occaius, atque in
omni seternitate rates, immutabilefque curfus : hvec cum viderentj pieoiECT-o et esse decs, et ha:c tanta opera
deorum esse arbitrarcatur,” Me Mat, Jj&rvm, Kh, ii* § 37. ‘
From
T II E O
PrslImU tl>c relatiftn between the effe& and its caufe, fo as to infer
uaryjDlrec-jjy the powers of their own reafon the exiftence of the
turns. (5reator from the prefence-of his creatures. Such revela*
™ tions, however, could be fatisfadfory only to thofe who im¬
mediately received them. Whenever the Deity has been
pleafed by fupernatural means to communicate any informa¬
tion to man, we may be hire that he has taken effeftual care
to fatis;y the perfon fo highly favoured that his undevftand-
ing was not under the influence of any illufion ; but inch
a perfon could not communicate to another the knowledge
which he had thus received by any other means than an
addrefs to his rational faculties. No man can be required
to believe, no man indeed can believe, without proof, that
another, who has no more faculties either of fenfation or
intellect than himfelf, has obtained information from a fource
to which he has no poffible accefs. An appeal to miracles
would in this cafe ferve no purpofe ; lor we muft believe
in the exiftence, power, wifdom, and juftict, ot God, be¬
fore a miracle can be aclmitted as evidence of any thing but
LOGY.
fore he enter upon the important taflf of fearching the fcnp- Piolimi-
tures. On this fubjedt many books have been publifhed inna‘ho^n'c*
©ur own and other languages ; but perhaps there is none —^ - >
more worthy of attention than the Religion of Nature de¬
lineated by Mr Wollaflon (b ). It is a work of great merit,
and bears ample teftimony to its author’s learning and acute- XI
nefs : yet we think it ought to be read with caution. Mr Books re-
Wollafton’s theory of moral obligation is fanciful and ground- commend-
lefs ; and whilft we readily acknowledge that he demon-e '
ftrates many truths with elegance and perfpicuity, we can¬
not deny that he attempts a proof of others, for which
we believe no other evidence can be brought than the
declarations of Chrift and his apoflles in the holy fcrip-
tures. To fupply the defe&s of his theory of morals, we.
would recommend to the ftudent an attentive perufal of
Cumberland on the Law of Nature, and Paley’s Elements of
Moral Philofophy. A learned author* affirms of Cumber- * ‘■ur*
land, that “ lie excels all men in fixing the true grounds ",l'
of moral obligation, out of which natural law and natural
the power of him by whom it is performed See Miracle, religion both arifeand we have ounelves never read a
‘ ‘ work which the various duties which a man owes to his
Maker, himfelf, and his fellow-creature^are more accurately
ftated or placed on a furer bafis tharf in the moral treatiie
of the archdeacon of Carlifle.
As Wollafton demonftrates with great perfpicuity, and
to the abfolute conviction of every man capable of feeling
      __ the force of argument, the being and many of the attributes
through the fucceeding generations of the human race but of God, it may perhaps appear fuperfiuous to recommend
by the immediate infpiration of each individual. We indeed any other book on that fubjcft. Tl he preient age, however.
9 *
\nd yet It is therefore undeniable that there are fome principles
jnay bepro- 0f theology which may be Called natural; for though it is
I d natural1" in t^e ^’gheft degree ptobable that the parents of mankind
irincqles. received all their theological knowledge by fupernatural
means, it is yet obvious that fome parts of that knowledge
muft have been capable of a proof purely rational, other-
wife not a fingle religious truth could have been conveyed
admit many propofitions as certainly true, upon the foie au¬
thority of the Jewifh and Chriftian fcriptmes, and we re¬
ceive thefe fcriptures with gratitude as the lively oracles
of God ; but it is felf evident that we could not do either
the one or the other, were we not convinced by natural
means that God exifts, that he is a Being of goodnefs,
juftice, and power, and that he infpired with divine wifdom
the penmen of thefe facred volumes. Now, though it is
very pofhble that no man or body of men, left to themlelves
from infancy in a defert world, would ever have made a
theological difcovery ; yet whatever propofitions relating to
the being and attributes of the firft caufe and the duty of man,
can be demonftrated by human reafon, independent of writ¬
ten revelation, may be called natural theology, and are of the .
utmoft importance, as being to us the firft principles of all range, and traced atheifm through all the mazes or anti¬
religion. Natural theology, in this fenfe of the word, is quity, expofing the weaknefs ©f every argument by which,
foundation of * ftw witVir^nt si fncfi 3n jihiurditv Jisd ever been maintained* In exiisuix**
having, among other wonderful phenomena, witnefted
vival of the monfter Atheifm, we would advife our ftudent
to read with much attention Cudworth s Intellectual Syftem,
and to read it rather in Mofheim’s Latin tranflation than
in the author’s original Englifh. In the original, though
many authors are quoted that are now but little known, there
are very few references to the book, or chapter, or feCtion,
from which the quotations are taken. Thefe omiffionsare
fupplied by the tranflator, who has likewife enriched his
edition with many valuable and learned notes. It is well
known that Cudworth wrote his incomparable work in con¬
futation of Hobbes’s philofophy ; but inftead of confining
himfelf to the whimfies of his antagonift, which were in a
little time to fink into oblivion, he took a much wider
the Chriftian revelation ; for without
previous knowledge of it, we c@uld have no evidence that
the fcriptures of the Old and New Teftaments are indeed
the word of God.
Our young divine, therefore, in the regular order of his
theology toftu^ies 0Ucrht to make himfelf mafter of natural theology fee-
be fhidied
before the
Natural
fuch an abiurdity had ever been maintained,
ing the metaphyfical queftions agitated among the Greeks
concerning the being and perfections of God, he has not
only given us a complete hiftory of ancient learning, as far
as it relates to thefe inquiries, but has in fad anticipated
molt of the fophifms of our modern atheifts, who are by
3 G 2 no
doctrines
of revela¬
tion.
From this paffage it is evident, that the Stagyrite, though he confidered the motions of the heavenly boaies, the ebbing
and flowing of the fea, and the other phenomena of nature, as affording a complete/rw/ of the being and providence
of God, did not however fuppole that from thefe phenomena an untaught barbarian would difeover this fundamental
principle of religion. On the contrary, he exprefsly affirms, that before a man can feel the force of the evidence whiot
they give of this important truth, he n ull have heard of the exiftence and power of God.
(b) It may not be improper to inform the reader, that Mr Wollafton, the author oi the Religion of Nature, was a
different man from Mr Woolfton, who blafphemed the miracles of our Saviour. i he former was a clergyman of gieat
piety, and of fuch moderate ambition as to remle one of the higheft preferments in the church of England winn i*.
was offered to him ; the latter was a layman remarkable for nothing but gloomy infidelity, and a perverfe delire to
deprive the wretched of every lource of comfort. In the mind of the loimer, philofophy and devotion were happi y
united ; in the mind ot the latter, there was neither devotion nor fcience. Yet thefe writers have been frequently
confounded; fometimes through inadvertence from the fimilarity of their names; and fometimes, we are afraid, defign-
edly, from a weak and bigotted abhorrence of every fyflem of religion that pretends to have its foundation in reafon aud
ip the natuie of things.
How the
fcriptures
are to be
itudied.
420 T H E O
Preiimi- n0 means facli difcoverers as they are fuppofed to be by
nary Dnec-^j,. illiterate admirers.
. The lludent having made hirnfclf mailer of natural the¬
ology, and carefuily endeavoured to afcertain its limits, is
now prepared to enter upon the important talk of fearching
the fcriptur es. In doing this, he ought to diveft himfelf
as much as pofiibie of the prejudices of education in behalf
of a particular fyftem of faith, and lit down to the iiudy
of the facred volume as of a work to which he is an entire
ilranger. He ought firit to read it as a moral hiftory of
facts and doctrines, beginning with the books ot Moles, and
proceeding through the reft, not in the order in which they
are commonly publifhed, but in that in which there is rea-
fo-n to believe they were written (fee Scriptures). If he
be matter of the Hebrew and Greek languages, he will
doubtlefs prefer the original text to any verfion ; and in
this perufal we would advife him to confult no commentator,
becaufe his object at prefent is not to iiudy the do&rmes
contained in the biblc, but merely to difcover what are the
fubjetds of which it treats. Many hiflories of the bible
have been written ; and were we acquainted with a good
one, we fhould recommend it as a clue to diredt the young
divine’s progrefs throuph the various books which compofe
the facred volume. Stackhoule’s hiftory has been much ap¬
plauded by fonie, and as much cenfured by others. It is
not a work of which wre can exprels any high degree of
approbation ; but if read with attention, it may no doubt
be ufeful as a guide to the (cries of ladls recorded in the
fcriptures. Between the Old and New Teflaments there
is a great chaim in the hiftory of the Jewifh nation ; but
it is fupplied in a very able and latisfaftory manner by Dr
Prideaux, whole Old and New TeJ]ament connedled is one
of the inoft valuable hillorical works in our own or any other
language. Shuckford’s Sul red and Profane Htftory of the
U'orld connected is likewife a work of merit, and may be
read with advantage as throwing light upon many paflages
of the Old i eftament: but this author is not intitled to
the lame con dence with Prideaux, as his learning was not
fo great, and his partialities feem to have been greater.
In thus making himlelf mafttr of the hiltory of the Old
and New 1 ellaments, the Undent will unavoidably acquite
fome general notion of the various doftrines which they
contain. ihefe it will now be his bulinefs to Iiudy more
particularly, to afcertain the precife meaning of each, and
to clillinguilh luch as relate to the whole human lace, from
thofe in which Abraham and his pofterity were alone in-
terefted. He mult therefore (ravel over the facred volume
a fecond time ; and itill we would advife him to travel with-
out a guide. From Walton’s Polyglote htble, and the large
colledtion called Critici facri, he may indeed derive much
affiitance in his endeavours to afcertain the fenfe of a difficult
text ; but we think he will do well to make little ule of
commentators and expofttors, and Itiil lefs of fyftem-builders,
till he has formed lome opinions of his own refpe&ing the
leading dodlrines of the Jewilh and Chriltian religions.
ImprelTed (fays an able writer) with an awful fenfe of
the importance of the facred volume, the philofophical di¬
vine will lhake off the bias of prejudices however formed,
ol opinions however lancfioned, and of paffions however
conftitutional, and bring to the ftudy of it the advantage
of a pure and impartial mind. Inltead of walling all his
laboui upon a number o( minute and lels f.gnificant parti¬
culars, and of reiining away plain and obvious ienfe by the
LOGY.
fub tie ties of a narrow and corrofive mind, his fir ft objeft Prd,’ml.
will be to inftitute a theological inquiry into the general de-nar>’ Da'cc*
f:gn or the written word; and from principles fully con-; t‘0H8'
tained and fairly underflood, to illuftrate the trite nature and
genius of the religious difpenfation in all its parts. He will
mark the difference between the firft and fecond covenants,
ana obferve the connexion that lubfills between them. He
will trace the temporary economy of the Old Tfoment, and
weigh the nature and intent ol the partial covenant with
the Jews; obferving with aftonilhment how it was made
introductory of better things to come : and he wdl follow
it through the law and the prophets in its wonderful evolu¬
tions, till he fee this vail and preparatory machine of provi¬
dence crowned and completed in the eternal gofpel. This
New Teflament, the laft and belt part of the religious difpen- •
lation, he will purfue through the facred pages of that
golptl with redoubled attention ; contemplating the divine
foundation on which it claims to be built, the fuioernatural
means by which it was executed, ajsd the immortal end
which it has in view. *” * Tatham'r
In the courfe of this inquiry into the import of the fa- C!,<irt ,nj
cred volume, the lludent will pay particular attention to H ff
the circumltances of the age and country in which its va- ^ 1
rious writers refpe&ively lived, and to the nature of the
difierent Jlyles, analogical and parabolical, in which it is writ¬
ten. He will likewiie keep in mind that God, whom
it claims for its author, is the parent of truth, and that all
his adlions and dilpenfations mull be conlillent with one an¬
other. He will therefore compare the different paffages of
the Old and New Te laments which relate to the fame
doctrine, or to the fame event, reafonably concluding
that the bible mult be the bell interpreter of itfelf; and
though the opinions which he thus forms may often be er¬
roneous, they will feldom be dangerous errors, and may
eafily be corrected by mature refledfion, or bv confulting
approved authors who have treated before him of the va¬
rious points which have been the fubjeft or his ftudies. Of
this mode of proceeding one good conlequence will be, that,
having from the facred fcriptures formed a lyltem of the-
ology lor himlelf, he will afterwards Iiudy the fyftems of
other men without any violent prejudice-^ for or again!! them;
he will be lo much attached to his own opinions as not to
relinquilh them in obedience to mere human authority, at
the lame time that he will be ready to give them up when
convinced that they are not well founded ; and if he have
read the fcriptures to any good purpofe, he will have ac¬
quired luch a love of truth as to embrace her wherever fhe
may be found, whether among Papifts or Protellants, in
the fchool of Arminius or in that of Calvin.
As we have fuppofed that every man, after having formed
a theological fyttem of his own, will confult the fyftems of
others, it may perhaps be expe&ed that we Ihould here
recommend thofe which, in our opinion, are moll worthy T„
of his attention. To do this, however, would, we appre-Approved
head, be a very ungracious interference with the righ s offyhem? of
private judgment. It would be to arrogate to ourlelves
kind of authority to which, when affumed by others, we
have cautioned our readers not to fubmit. But left we
Ihould be fufpedtedof wilhing to bias the mind of the young
ftudent toward the fhort fyftem which we are obliged to
give, we lhall juft oblerve, that by the divines o: what is
called the Arminian fchool, Epifcopius’s Thcologia Injiitutio-
nes (c), Limborch’s 'Iheologia Chrfliana, and Locke’s Rea-
fonabienefs
(c) There is, however, one chapter of this work whieh^the majority of Arminiansjoudly condemn. Epifcopius acknow¬
ledge*
T H E O
Wel’mS. fohalhntfs of Chriflianity, fiav'1 1 -jn^ bct u held in the highelt
nary D ree-e|^eem . the follower* of Calvin have preferred the
. Injlituiiones of their mailer, Turretine’s Injlitutio Theologize
ElenRicte, and Gill's Body of Diromtty. This laft work,
which was publifhed in two vols 4to in 1769, has many
merits and many defeats. Its ityle is coarle, impure, and
tedious; and the author, who was a zeal ms antipasdo-bap-
tift, and feems to have poffeffed very little fcience, embraces
every opportunity of introducing the difetiminating tenets
of his fedi : but his book is fraught with profound learn¬
ing, breathes the fpi. it of piety, and may be read with ad¬
vantage by every divine who has previoufly formed the out-
lines of a fyflem for himfelf.
Bool, re- As tire Jewifh a- d Chriiiian difpenfations are clofely link-
enrameort. ed together, bein '- in truth but parrs of one great whole, it
f] impofiible to have an adequate notion of the latter with-
jeniatioc. out underltanding the deh n ot the former. Now, thou di
the Mqfaic religion is nowhere to be learned but in the Old
Teftament, it may be eonvenientvfor our iludent, after he has
formed his own opinions of it from that famed fource, to
, know what has been written on the fubjedt by others. For
illuftrating the ritual law, a learned prelate warmly recom¬
mends the Ducior Dub 'ttantium of Maimonides, and Spencer’s
book entitled De Legibus Hebrairum Rituahbus. Both
works have undoubtedly great merit j but our young divine
will do well to read along with them Hermanni Witfii JEgyp-
tiac j, and Dr Woodward’s Difcourfe on the Worfhip of the
Ancient Egyptians, communicated to the London Society
of Antiquaries in 1775, wdiere fume o‘ Spencer’s notions
are Ihortly and ably re'uted. On the other parts of this
diipenfation, fuch as the nature of its civil government ; the
rewards and punifhments peculiar to it (p) ; its extraordi¬
nary adminillration by appointed agents, endowed with fu-
pernaturaj. powers, and with the gifts of miracles and pro¬
phecy ; the double fenfe in which the latter is lometimes in-
v"Ived ; and the language confequent to its nature and ufe—
the reader will find much erudition and in -enuity difplayed
in the fecond part of Warburton’s Divine Legation of Mops
demonjlrated. His Lordfhip indeed is fvipoAcd by many,
and perhaps jufUy, to have advanced, together with a great
deal of good lenfe, many paradoxes in his favourite work ;
but ftill that work is entitled to a ferious perufal, for it difplays
great learning and genius, and, we believe, the heavieft cen-
T, fares have fallen upon it from thofe by whom it was never read.
Inquiry to Having proceeded thus far in the courfe, the Undent’s
be 1 ade in-next bufinefs fhould be to inquire ferioufly what evi-
to ;he reah-dence there is that the dodfrines which he has fo carefully
lation^" ftuc^ed were indeed revealed in times paft by God. He
muft already have perceived, in the nature and tendency of
tire doctrines themfelves, ftrong marks of their origin being
LOGY. 4^'
more than human ; but he mull: likewife have met with ma- Brel in.-
ny difficulties, and he muft prepare himfelf to repel the at-naT
tacks of unbelievers. Here he will find opportunities of ^
exerting the utmott powers of his reafoning faculties, and
of employing in the fervice of religion all the ftores he may
have amaffed of human learning. The feriptures pretend
to have been written by feveral men who lived in Afferent
ages of the world ; but the latell of them in an age very re¬
mote from the prefent. His firft bufinefs thererore muft
be to prove the authenticity of thele books, by tracing them
up by hiltorical evidence to the feveral writers whole names
they bear. But it is not enough to prove them authentic.
They profefs to have been written by men divinely affiited
and infpired, and of courfe infallible in what they wrote He
muft therefore inquire into the truth of this infpiration.
“ The Bible contains a number of truths doctrinal and mo¬
ral, which are called myfleriesy and afferted to be the imme¬
diate dilates of God himfelf. To evince this great point
to man, a number of fupernatural tejls and evidences are infe-
parably connefted with thofe myfteries ; fo that if the for¬
mer be true, the latter muft likewife be fo. He muft there¬
fore examine thefe lefts and evidences, to eftablilh the divi¬
nity of the Holy Scriptures and in this part of his courfe
he will find much affiftance from manv writers whole de¬
fences of the truth and divinity of the Chriftian religion do
honour to human nature. jg
The firft ftep towards the embracing of any truth is, toB.i ks re¬
get fairly rid of the objections which are made to it; and
the general objections made by dciftical writers to the Chri-^J^
ftian revelation are by no writer more completely removed
than by Bi hop Butler, in his celebrated work entitled The
Analogy of Religion mtural and revealed to the Conjh*ution and
Courfe of Nature. This book therefore the Undent Ihould
read w.th attention, and meditate upon with patience; but
as it does not furnilh a pofitive proof of the divinity of our
religion, he Ihould pafs from it to Grotius de Veritate Reli-
gionis Chrijliana, and Stillin -fleet’s Origines Sacra. Both
thele works are excellent; and the latter, which may be con-
fidered as an improvement of the former, is perhaps the full-
eft and ableft defence ot revelation in general that is to be
found in any language. In this part of the united king¬
dom it is now indeed hardly mentioned, or mentioned with
indifference ; but half a century ago the Enodilh divines
thought it a fubjeft of triumph, and fly led its author their
incomparable Stillingfleet. Other works, howeve-, may be
read with great advantage, and none with greater than Pa-
ley’s Evidences of the Chnflian Religion, and Leflie’s Short
Method with the Defls; which laft work, in the compafs of
a very few pages, contains proofs of the divinity of the Jew-
iffi and Chriftian revelations, to which the celebrated Dr
Mid-
ledge? (lib. iv. fed. 2. cap. 33.) that it may be proved from feripture, that the perfon who was afterwards Jefus Chrift
was from eternity the only begotten of his Father, by whom all things were made, and that therefore he is really and
truly God. He mentions five fenfes in which our Saviour is called the Ion or God.; and fhewa that in this fifth and
laft fenfe the filiation is peculiar to him alone. Yet in cap. 34. he ilates the following queftion : “ An quintus ifte mo¬
dus filiationis Jefu Chrifti ad falutem feitu ac creditu neceffariu# fit, ufque, qui ilium negant, anathema dicendum fit ?” and
gravely anlwers it in the negative. It is not to be wondered at that moft Arrninians differ from this celebrated re-
monftrant in their anlwers to this queftion ; for nothing can be more ablurd than to hold religious communion with thofe
who deny the divinity of that perlon, whofe divinity, it is acknowledged, nu.y be clearly proved. Againft this extravagant
poiiUon many Armiman pens were drawn ; but none to better purpofe than that of bifhop Bull, whofe Judicium Ecclefta
Catholic* trturn pnmorum Jeculorum, GV. affertum contra M. Stmonem Epifcopium aliofque, obtained for its author the thanks
o. the whole clergy of trance affembled. (1710) ^ Germaine en 1-aye in a national fynod.
(n)^ On this fubjeCt the reader will find many excellent obfervations in Biffiop Bull’s Harmoma Apoflolica, with its fe-
vera defences, and in a fmall book of Dr Wells’s, entitled .in Help for the right underftanding ot the feveral Divine
aws ana Covenants, whereby man has been obliged through the feveral ages- of the world to guide himielf in order to
422
THRO
Prelimi- Middleton confcfTed (e), that for 20 years he had laboured
nary Direc-'n va;n to fabricate a fpecious anfwer ( f ).
, tl0^‘ : Having fatistkd himfelf of the truth of revelation in gene¬
ral, it may be worth the young divine’s while to provide a
Tewifh cm- defence of the Chriftian religion againft the objections of
troverfy to modern Judaifra. In this part of his ftudies he will need no
befiudied, other inftruftion than what he may reap from Limborch’s
work entitled De Veritate Reltgioms Chrijltanx amici colla~
tio cum erudite judao. “In that deputation which was
held with Orobio, he will find all that the ftretch of human
parts on the one hand, or feience on the other, can produce
to varnifh error or unravel fophiflry. All the papers of
Orobio in defence of Judailm, as oppofed to Chriftianity,
are printed at large, with Limborch’s anfwers, fedlion by
fe&ion; and the fubtileft fophlfms of a very fuperior Genius
are ably and fatisfadtorily detedted and expofed by the flrong,
profound, and clear reafoning, of this renowned remon-
t Warlur- ftrantf.” See Orobio and Limborch.
^tUns fjrti'e ^various controverfies lubfilting between the feveral
Study0*/ denominations of Chriftians, about points which feparate
them into different churchtr, ought next to be ffudied in
the order of the courfe ; for nothing is unimportant which
■divides the followers of that Mafter whofe favourite precept
'was love. It has indeed been long fafhionable to decry pt>-
troverfies lemical divinity as an ufelefs, if not a pernicious, ffudy ; but
among it is not impoffible that this fafhion, like many others, has
Chrifhans }ia^ origin [n ignorance, and that it tends to perpetuate
t nr elve“. tp0fe ibhifms which it profefTes to lament. We are, how¬
ever, far, very far, from recommending to the young divine
a perufal of the works o1 the feveral combatants on each f:de
of a difputed queilion, till he has fitted himfelf tor judging
between them by a long courfe of preparatory fludy ; and
the only preparation which can fit him for this purpofe is
an impartial and comprehenfive fludy of ecclefiaftical hiflo-
ry. He who has with accuracy traced the progrels of our
holy religion from the days of the apoftles to the prefent
time, and marked the introduction of new doctrines, and
the rile of the various feCts into which the Chriilian world
is unhappily divided, is furnifhed with a criterion within
himfelf by which to judge of the importance and truth of
the many contefled dodtrines; whilft he who, without this
preparation, fhall read a multitude of books on any one re¬
ligious controverfy, will be in danger of becoming a convert
to his laft author, if that author poffefs any tolerable (hare
of art arid ingenuity. This we know was the cafe with
Pope, who declares, that in fludying the controverfy be¬
tween the chtn'chts of England and Rome, he found hinr-
felf a Papifl and Proteilant by turns, according to the lafl
book he read.
Importance There are many hiflories of the Chriflian church which
of ecclefia poffefs great merit, but we are acquainted with none which
Itoiy^nd aPPears t° us wholly impartial. Mofheim’s is perhaps the
books re-
commend-
Yltology.
And the va-
19
L O G y.
mofl perfed compend (g) ; and one of its greRteft excel- Prelim!,
lencies is, that on every lubject the beil writers are referred nar>'
to for fuller information. Thefe indeed flrould often be , tl0ns‘
confulted, rot only to fupply the defeats neceffarily relult-
ing from the narrownefs of the limits which the author,
with great propriety, prelcribed to himfelf ; but alfo to cor-
re6l his partial obliquities; for with all his merits, and they
were many and great, he is certainly not free from the in¬
fluence of prejudice. Indeed there is no coming at the true
hiftory «f the primitive church, but by fludying the work* .
of the primitive writers; and the principal works o! the
four firfl centuries will amply reward the labour of perufing
them (h). The rife and proprefs of the retormation in ge¬
neral, the mofl important period of church-hiftory, may be
befl learned from bleidan’s book De Statu Rtligionis et Rei-
public# Carolo V. Cafare Commentarii; the Hiilory of the
Reformation of the Church of Scotland from Knox and
Spotifwood ; and that of the Church of England from the
much applauded work of Bifhop Burnet.
After this courfe of ecclefiafiical hiflory, the young di¬
vine may read with advantage the mofl important contro¬
verfies which have agitated the Chiillian world ; for he will
m w read them without danger of giving up his faith to the
mere authority of great names To enumerate thefe con¬
troverfies, and to point out the ableft authors who have
written on each, would be a very tedious, and perhaps not a
very profitable, talk. On one controverfy, however, we are
induced to recommend a very mafterly work, becauie it is
fufficient of itfelf to fix the principles of Proteftants with
relpett to the church of Rome, and .'o put to fhame the fa-
fhionable cenfurers of polemi aj d.vinity. The work to which
we allude is Chillingworth’s book againfl Knott, entitled
The Religion of Protejl nts a fafe ’way to Salvation ; in
which the fchool jargon of that fubtile Jefuit is incompara¬
bly expoled, and the long difpute between the Popifh and
Reformed churches placed on its proper ground, the Holy
Scriptures. 0
One of the ftrongefl and mofl plaufible obje&ions to.the-p^^
fludy of polemical divinity, is its tendency to give a rigid
turn to the fentiments of thofe long engaged in it; whiltl
we know, from*higher authority than that of the ableil dif-
putant, that “ the end of the commandment is eharity.”
But for prefer ving charity in the minds of Chriflians, there
are better means than abfolute ignorance or indifference to
truth. Charity is violated only when a church unreafon-
ably reflrains the inquiries of its own members, or exercifes
intolerance towards thole who have renounced its jurifdic-
tion. The injuftice of the firfl fpecies of ecclefiaftical ty¬
ranny is txpoled in a very mafterly manner by Jeremy Tay¬
lor in his Tibet ty of Prophecymg, and by Stillingfleet in
his Iremcum ; the injuttice of the fecond, by Locke in his
jctlebrated Letters on Toleration. The man who lhall per-
ufe
(e) This piece of information we had from the late Dr Berkeley, prebendary of Canterbury, who had it irom Arch-
bifhop Seeker, to whom the confeffion was made. t > 1 A f
(f) To thefe defences of revelation we might have added the colle&Ion of fermons preached at Boyle’s ledture from
1691 to 1732, publifhed in three volumes folio, 17^9 ; the works of Leland; Bifhop Newton s Liffertations cn log e
cy ; and above all, Lardner’s’ Credibility of the Gofpel Pliftory, with the Supplement to it. But there wot. e no uu
of recommending eminent writers on this fubjebl. We have mentioned fuch as we moil approve among t oie wit 1 wiom
we are beft acquainted ; but we muft, once for all, caution the reader againft fuppofing that we approve of every thing
to be found in any work except the facred feriptures. — „ ,
fo) The Bifhop of Landaff, in the catalogue of books publifhed at the end of his Theological Trafts, recommend*
feveral other ecclefiaftical hiftories as works of great merit; fuch as, Dupin’s, Echard’s, Gregory s, and 101 mey s, to¬
gether with Pauli Ertiefi Jablorjhi hflitutiones Hiftona C hrfnan a, publifhed at Frankfort in three volumes, ‘ 754'(,7;
(h) For a proof of this pofition, and for a juft tftimate of the value of the Fathers, « they are called, lee the wtr®*
dudlion to Warburton’s Julian, and Kelt’s Sermons at Bampton’s Lectures,
THEOLOGY.
423
Prcliwi- yfe thefe three works, and impartially weigh the force of
mary D^rec-t^ejr arguments, will be in no danger, unlefs his pride be very
nons. ^ ,rreati or his temper uncommonly irritable, of thinking un-
Vj|," v " '"charitably of thofe from whofe principles the love of truth
may compel him to diffent.
In thefe directions for the ftudy of theology, we might
have enumerated many more books on each branch of the
fubjeft wrll deferving of the molt attentive perufal; but he
who /hall have gone through the courfe here recommended,
will have laid a foundation on which, it he continue his di¬
ligence, he may raife fuch a fuperltru£ture as will entitle
him to the chara&er of an accomphfhed divine. His dili¬
gence mull indeed be continued through life ; for when a
man ceafes to make acquiiitions in any department of learn¬
ing, he loon begins to lofe thofe which he has already made ;
and a more contemptible character is nowhere to be found
than that of a clergyman unacquainted with the learning of
his profelfion. This learning, however, is not to be acqui¬
red, and indeed is hardly to be preferved, by lludying bo¬
dies or injlitutes of theology ; and though we have mentioned
a few generally approved by two rival fedts of Chiiltians,
and mult, in contornaity with the plan of our work, give
another ourfelves, we do not hef:tate to declare, that the
man who has carefully gone through the courfe of ftudy
which we have recommended, though it be little more than
the outlines on which he is to work, may, with no great lofs
to himfelf, negleft ours and all other fyftems. For as an
* Tattam. excellent writer *, whom we have often quoted, wrell ob-
ferves, “ to judge of the faft whether fuch a revelation con¬
taining fuch a principle, with its myfteries and credentials,
was actually Cent from God and received by man, by exa¬
mining the evidences and circumjlances which accompanied it
—the time when, the place where, the manner how, it was
delivered—the form in which it defeends to us-—and in what
it is contained— together with the particular fubjlance and
burden of it—" and how every part is to be rightly under-
Jlood: thele are the various and extenfive fubjedts which con-
ftitute the fubiime office ot thsologic reasoning and
the proper study of On this account we Prelimi-
fhall pafs over fli.rhtly, and fometimes perhaps without any nar7 ^src''“
notice, many things which every clergyman ought tho- 1 ^ - .y
rou.rhly to underlland, and confine ourfelves, in the /hurt
comotnd which we are to give, to the prime articles of
Chriftian theology. In doing this, we ftiall endeavour as
much as poffible to diveft ourfelves of party prejudices ; but
as we are far from thinking that this endeavour will be com¬
pletely fuccefsful (for we beheve there is no man totally free
trom prejudice), we cannot conclude this part of the article
more properly than with the following folemn Charge,
with which a very learned divine £ always prefaced hia / Dr Taytb*
Theological Ledtures. of Norwich.
I. “ I do folemnly charge you, in the name of the God
of Truth, and of our Lord Jelus Chrift, who is the Way,^ p
the Truth, and the Life, and before whofe judgment-feattoft‘U(jents
you mult in no long time appear, that in all your ftudies0ftheology*
and inquiries of a religious nature, preient or future, you
do conitantly, carefully, impartially, and confcientioully, at¬
tend to evidence, as it lies in the Holy Scriptures, or in the
nature of things, and the didlates of realon ; cautioufly
guarding againft the fallies of imagination, and the fallacy
of ill-grounded conjecture.
II. “ That you admit, embrace, or aftent, to no principle
or fentiment by me taught or advanced, but only fo far as
it /hall appear to vou to be fupported and juftifted by pro¬
per evidence from revelation or the reafon of things.
III. “ That if, at any time hereafter, any principle or
fentiment by me taught or advanced, or by you admitted-
or embraced, fhall, upon impartial and faithful examination,
appear to you to be dubious or fahe, you either fufpect or
totally rejeCt fuch principle or fentiment.
IV. “ That you keep your mind always open to evi¬
dence : That you labour to bani/h from your breaft all pre¬
judice, prepoftefiion, and party-zeal: That you ftudy to live
in peace and love with all your fellow Chriltians ; and that
you fteadily affert for yourfelf, and freely allow to others^
the unalienable rights of judgment and confcience.”
FartI. Of NATURAL THEOLOGY.
Sect. I. Of the Being and Attributes c/God.
« st TTE who cometh to God, fays an ancient divine *, deeply
A--*- read in the philefophy of his age, muft believe that
he is, and that he is a rewarder of them who diligently feek
him. This is a truth as undeniable as that a man cannot
The being concera himlelf about a nonentity. The exiftence of God
of G d is indeed the foundation of all religion, and the lirit principle
t^e fcience which is the fubjeCt of this article. It is like-
wife a principle which rrult command the affent of every
man who has any notion of the relation between effeCts and
their caufes, and whofe curiofity has ever been excited by the
phenomena of nature. This great and important truth we
have eliewhere endeavoured to demonftrate (fee Metaphy¬
sics, Part III. (Tap. vi.) ; but it may be proved by argu¬
ments lefs abftraCted from common apprehenfion than the
nature of that article required us to ufe. Of thefe we fhall
give one or two, wdiich we hope will be level to every ordi¬
nary capacity ; whd/t, at the fame time, we earneftly recom¬
mend to the young divine a diligent ftudy of thofe books
on the fubjeCt which we have mentioned in the preceding
3 ^ directions.
Propaga- ^ e ^ee that the human race, and every other fpecies of
tim of ani-animals, is at prefent propagated by the co-operation of two
parents} but has this procefs continued from eternity ? A
4
moment’s reflection will convince us that it has not. Let
us take any one man alive, and, to avoid perplexity, let us
fuppofe his father and mother dead, and himfelf the only
perfon at prefent exilting : how came he into the world .? It
will he faid he was produced mechanically or chemically by
the conjunction of his parents, and that his parents were
produced in the fame manner by theirs. Let this then be
luppofed ; it muft furely be granted, that when this maa
was born, an addition was made to the feries of the human
race. But a feries which can be enlarged may likewife be
diminifhed ; and by tracing it backwards, w^e muft at fome
period, however remote, reach its beginning. There muft
therefore have been a ftrit pair of the human race, who were
not propagated by the conjunction of parents. How did
thefe come into the world ?
Anaximander tells us *, that the firft men and all animals « See 2W-
were bred in warm moifture, inclofed in cruftaceous fkius/oT %/«’*
like crab ft/h or lobflers ; and that when they arrived at at-eiturts.
proper age, their /belly prifons growing dry, broke, and
made way for their liberty. Empedocles informs us, that
mother Earth at lirll brought forth vaft numbers of legs,
and arms, and heads, &c. which, approaching each other,
arranging themfelves properly, and being ceiftented toge¬
ther, flailed up at once full grown men. Another of thefe
philofophers relates, that there firft grew up a fort of womb?,
4*4-
Being and
attributes
of God.
^ Diodorus
Sfiulus apu
Kitfeb.
Fry. E-
va-nzeL
^4
And vege¬
table-,
a?
And from
the laws
-of attrac¬
tion and re
Bullion,&c
1 XI IX VJ
W'hicK bavirjr {beir roets m the earth, attrafted thence a
kind of milk for the nourifhment of the foetus, which in
procefs of time broke through the membranes and fit died
for itielf; whilft. the Egyptian fathers^ oi this hopeful
fchool content themfelves with fimply affirming, that animals
like vegetables fprung at firft from the bofom of the earLh.
Surely thoie fages, or theii followers, fhould have been able
to tell us why the earth has not in any clitj'ate this power
of putting forth vegetable men or the parts of men at pre-
fent. If this univerfal parent be eternal and fek-exiftent, it
muft be incapable of decay or the fmalkft change in any oi
its qualities; if it be not eternal, we fhall be obliged to tind
a caufe for its exiftence, or at leaft for its form and all its
powers. But fuch a caufe may have produced the firft hu¬
man pair, and undoubtedly did produce them, without ma¬
king them Ipring as plants from the foil. Indeed the growth
of plants themlelves clearly evinces a caufe fuperior to any
vegetative power which can be fuppofed inherent in the
earth. . No plant, from the fturdy oak to the creeping ivy,
can be propagated but from feed or flips from the parent
flock ; but when one contemplates the regular procefs of
vegetation, the exiftence of every plant implies the prior ex¬
iftence of a parent feed, and the exiilence of every feed the
prior exiftence of a parent plant. Which then of thefe,
the oak or the acorn, was the firft, and whence was its tx-
iftence derived ? Not from the earth ; for we have the evi¬
dence of univerfal experience that the earth never produces
a tree but from feed, nor feed but from a tree. There muft
therefore be fome fuperior power which formed the firft feed
or the firft tree, planted it in the earth, and gave to it thofe
powers of vegetation by which the fpecies has been propa¬
gated to this day.
Thus clearly do the proceffes of generation and vegetation
indicate a power fuperior to thofe which are ufually called
the powers of nature. The fame thing appears no lefs evi¬
dent from the laws of attraction and repuliion, which plainly
prevail through the whole fyftem of matter, and hold toge¬
ther the ftupendous ftruCture. Experiment fhows that very
few particles of the moft folid body are in actual contact
with each other (fee Optics, n° 63—68, Physics, n° 23.)j
and that there are confiderable interftices between the par¬
ticles of every elaftic fluid, is obvious to the fmalleft re¬
flection. Yet the particles ot folid bodies ftrongly cohere,
whilft thofe of elaftic fluids repel each other. How are
thefe phenomena accounted for ? To fay that the former
is the effeCt of attraction and the latter of repulfion, is
only to fay that two individual phenomena are fubjeCt to
thofe laws which prevail through the whole of the claffes
under which ^hey arc relpeCtively arranged ; whilft the que-
ftion at iffue is concerning the origin of the laws them-
selves, the power which makes the particles of gold co¬
here, and thofe of air repel each other. Power with¬
out fubftance is inconceivable ; and by a law of human
thought, no man can believe a being to operate but where
it is in fome manner or other aCtually prefent: but the par¬
ticles of gold adhere, and the particles of air keep at a di-
ftance from each other, by powers exerted where no matter
is prefent. '['here muft therefore be fome fubftance endow¬
ed with power which is not material.
Of this fubftance or being the power is evidently im-
menfe. The earth and other planets are carried round the
fun with a velocity which human imagination can hardly
conceive. I hat this motion is not produced by the agency
of thele vaft bodies on one another, or by the interpohtion
of any material fluid, has been fhown elfewhere (fee Meta¬
physics, m 196— 200. and Optics, n 67 ); and knee it is
a law of our beft philofophy, that we are not to multiply fib-
Ranees without necejjity^ we muft infer that the fame Being
I an
and vegetables, endowing Bein;,? »li(j
tfributej
of God.
Xi V./ vjr 1 »
which fanned the firft animals
them with powers to prooagate their refpettive kinds, is atmhut-s
likewife the caufe of all the phenomena of nature, fuch as
cthfon, repuforty elafctty, and motion, even the motions of
the heavenly bodies themfelves.
If this powerful Being, who is the parent of vegetable
and animal life, and the fource ot all corporeal motions, be
fek-exiftent, intelligent, and independent iu his actions and
volitions, he is an original or firft caufe, and that Being whom
we denominate Goo. It he be not felf-exiftent and inde¬
pendent, there muft be a caufe in the order of nature prior
and fuperior to Him, which is either itfelf the firft cauie, or
a link in that feries of caufes and effetfts, which, however
vaft we fuppofe it, m,uft be traced ultimately to fome one
Being, who is felf-exiftent, and has in himfelf the power of
beginning mot on, independent of every thing but his own
intelligence and volition, in vain have the Atheills alleged,
that the feries may afeend infinitely, and for that reafon 26
have no firft: mover or caufe. An infinite feries of fuccef-Abfiirdiir
five beings involves an abfurdity and con tradition (fee ME-"[*nf;k4h’
taphysics, n* 288.): but not to infift upon this at prefent,0f
we fhall only beg leave to confider fuch a feries as a whole,
and fee what confequences will flow from the fuppoiition.
That we may with logical propriety confider it in this light,
is incontrovertible ; for the birth ot every individual of the
human race fhows that it is made up ot parts; but parts im-
oly a whole as neceflarily as an attribute implies its lub-
ftance. As in this fuppofed feries there is no caufe which
is not likewife an effedl, nor any body moving another
which was not itfelf moved by a third, the whole is unde¬
niably equivalent to an infinite eft’edt, or an infinite body
moved : but if a finite effedl muft neceffarily have proceeded
from a caufe, and a finite body in motion muft have been
put into that ftate by a mover, is there a human mind which
can conceive an infinite effedt to have proceeded from no
caufe, or an infinite body in motion to have been moved by
nothing ? No, furely ! An infinite efFedft, were fuch a thing
poffible, would compel us to admit an infinite caufe, and an
infinite body in motion a mover of infinite power.
This great caufe is God, whofe wifdom, power, and
goodnefs, all nature loudly proclaims. That the phenomena
which we daily fee evince the exiftence of one fuch Being,
has juft been ftiown ; and that we have no realon to infer
the exiftence of more than one, a very few reflections will
make abundantly evident. For, not to lay more ftrefs than
it will bear upon that rule of Newton’s, which forbids us-pj,^^
to multiply fubftances without neceffity, luch a harmony only one
prevails through the whole viiible univerfe, as plainly (hows‘>rigirol
it to be under the government of one intelligence. Thatcau^e'
on this globe the feveral elements ierve for nounfhment to
plants, plants to the inferior animals, and animals to man ;
that the other planets of our fyftem are probably inhabited,
and their inhabitants nourilhed in the fame or a limilar man¬
ner ; that the fun is fo placed as to give light and heat to
all, and by the law of gravitation to bind the whole planets
into one fyftem with itfelf—are truths fo obvious and io um-
verfally acknowledged, as to fuperfede the necefiky of efta-
blifhing them by proof. The fair inference therefore is,
that the folar fyftem and all its parts are under the govern¬
ment of one intelligence, which direfts all its motions and all
the changes which take place among its parts for fome wife
pu’-pofes. To fuppofe it under the government ot two or
more intelligences would be highly unreaionable ; tor it thefe
intelligences had equal power, equal wifdom, and the lame
defigns, one of them would evidently be fuperfiuous ; and ir
they had equal power and contraiy defigns, they could not
be the parents of that harmony which we clearly perceive to
prevail in the fyftem.
3 E"
Part I.
attributes
<if God.
Of infinite
pawer,
wiidom,
and
d Religion
of Nature,
fedt. v.
prop. 14.
T H E O
But the Being capable of regulating the movements of
fo vail a machine, may well be fuppofed to poffefs infinite
power, and to be capable of fuperintending the motions of
the univerfe. That the widely extended fyftem of nature
is but one fyftem, of which the feveral parts are united by
many bonds of mutual connexion, has been (hown elfe-
where (fee Physics), and appears daily more and more evi¬
dent from our progrefs in phyfical difcoveries ; and therefore
it is in the higheft degree unreafonable to fuppofe that it has
more than one author, or one fupreme governor.
As the unity of defign apparent in the works of creation
plainly prove the unity of their Author, fo do the immenfity
of the whole, and the admirable adjuftment of the feveral
parts to one another, demonftrate His power and His wif-
dom. On this fubjedt the following beautiful reflexions
by Mr Wollailon are deferving of the moll ferious atten¬
tion.
“ In order (fays that able writer |j) to prove to any one
the grandnefs of this fabric of the world, one needs only to
bid him confider the fun, with that infupportable glory and
luftre that furrounds it; to demonftrate its vaft diftance,
magnitude, and heat; to reprefent to him the chorus of pla¬
nets moving periodically, by uniform laws, in their feveral
orbits about it; guarded fome of them by fecondary planets,
and as it were emulating the ftate of the fun, and probably
all pofleffed by proper inhabitants ; to remind him of thofe
furpriling vifits which the comets make to us, and the large
trains or uncommon fplendor which attends them, the far
country from which they come, and the curiofity and horror
which they excite not only among us, but in the inhabitants
of other planets, who may alfo be up to fee the entry and
progrels of thefe minifters of fate : to direX his eye and
contemplation through thofe azure fields and vaft regions
above him up to the fixed Jlnrs, that radiant numberlefs holt
of heaven; and to make him underftand how unlikely a
thing it is that they Ihould be placed there only to adorn
and befpangle a canopy over our heads ; to convince him
that they are rather fo many other funs, with their feveral fy-
items of planets about them; to Ihow him by the help of
glafl'es ftill more and more of thefe fixed lights, and to be¬
get in him an appreheniion of their inconceivable numbers,
and thofe immenfe fpaces that lie beyond our reach and even
our imagination : One needs but to do this (continues our
author), and explain to him fuch things as are now known
almoft to every body; and by it to fhow, that if the world
be not infinite, it is infinito Jimilis, and undoubtedly the work
of an Infinite Architect.
“ But if we would take a view of all the particulars con-
tained within that aftonilhing compafs which we have thus
haftily run over, how would wonders multiply upon us ? li¬
very corner, every part of the world, is as it were made up
of other worlds. If we look upon this our earth, what icope
does it furnifh for admiration ? The great variety of moun¬
tains, hills, valleys, plains, rivers, feas, trees, and plants !
'The many tribes of different animals with which it is flock¬
ed ; the multifarious inventions and works of one of thefe,
i. e. of us men ; with the wonderful inftinXs of others, guid¬
ing them uniformly to what is beft for themfelves, in fitua-
tions wl^ere neither fenfe nor reafon could direX them. And
yet when all thefe (heaven and earth) are furveyed as nicely
as they can be by the help of our unaffifted fenies and of
telelcopes, we may diicover by the affiftance of good micro-
fcopes, in very fmall parts of matter, as many new wonders
as thole already difeovered, new kingdoms of animals, with
new and curious architeXure. So that as our fenfes and
even conception fainted before in the vaft journeys we took
in confidering the expanfe of the univerfe, they here again
fail us in our refearches into the principles and minute paits
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
LOGY. 425
of which it is compofed. Both the beginnings and the ends Bein^ snci
of things, the leajl and the greatejl, all confpire to bailie us ;
and which way foever we profecute our inquiries, we ftill
meet with frefb fubjeXs of amazement, and frefh reafons to
believe that there are indefinitely more and more behind,
that will forever efcape our eagereft purfuits and deepeft pe¬
netration.
“ In this vaft affemblage, and amidft all the multifarious
motions by which the feveral proceffes of generation and
corruption, and the other phenomena of nature, are carried
on, w'e cannot but obferve that there are ftated methods, as
fo many forms of proceeding, to which things punXually and
religioufly adhere. The fame caufes circumftanced in the fame
manner produce always the fame ejfcEts ; all ihc fpecies of ani¬
mals among us are made according to one general idea ; and
fo are thofe of plants alfo, and even of minerals. No new fpe-
cies afe brought forth or have arifen anywhere; and the
old are preferved and continued by the old ways.
“ It appears, laftly, beyond difpute, that in the parts and
model of the world there is a contrivance for accomplifli-
ing certain ends. The fun is placed near the centre of our
fyftem, for the more convenient difpenfing of his benign in¬
fluences to the planets moving about him ; the place of the
earth’s equator interfeXs that of her orbit, and makes a pro¬
per angle with it, in order to diverfify the year, and create
an ufeful variety offeofons ; and many other things of this
kind will be always obferved, and though a thoufand times
repeated, be meditated upon with pleafure by good men and
true philofophers. Who can obferve the vapours to afeend,
efpecially from the fea, meet above in clouds, and fall again
after condenfation, without being convinced that this is a
kind of diflillation, in order to clear the water of its groffer
falts, and then by rains and dews to fupply the fountains
and rivers with frefh and wholefome liquor ; to naurifh the
vegetables below by fhowers, which defeend in drops as
from a watering-pot upon a garden ? Who can view xhtfrac¬
ture of a plant or animal, the indefinite number of its fibres
and fine veffels, the formation of larger veffels, and. the feve¬
ral members out of them, with the apt difpofition of all
thefe ; the means contrived for the reception and diftribu-
tion of nutriment; the fed this nutriment has in extending
the veffels, bringing the vegetable or animal to its full
growth and expanfion, continuing the motion of the feveral
fluids, repairing the decays of the body, and preferving life?
Who can take notice of the feveral faculties of animals, their
arts of faving and providing for themfelves, or the ways in
which they are provided for ; the ufes of plants to animals,
and of fome animals to others, particularly to mankind; the
care taken, that the feveral fpecies fhould be propagated,
without confufion, from their proper feeds ; the ftrong in¬
clination planted in animals for that purpofe, their love of
their young and the like. —Who (fays our author) can ob¬
ferve all this, and not fee a defign in fuch regular pieces, fo
nicely wrought and fo admirably prelerved ? It there were
but one animal in exiftence, and it could not be doubted
but that his eyes were formed that he might fee with them,
his ears that he might hear with them, and his feet tp be in-
ftruments by which lie might remove himfelf from place to
place ; if defign and contrivance can be much lefs doubted,
when the fame things are repeated in the -individuals of all
the tribes of animals ; if the like obfervations may be made
with refpeX to vegetables and other things ; and if all thefe
clafes of things, and much more the comprehend¬
ed under them, be inconceivably numerous, as moft unque-
ftionably they are —one cannot but be convinced, from what
fo plainly runs through the nobler parts of the vifible world,
that not only they, but other things, even thofe that feem to
bs lefs noble, have their ends likewife, though not always
3 H
4*6
Being and
attributes
of God.
T H E O
perceived by capacities limited like outs. And fmce we
cannot, with the Epicureans of old, fuppofe the parts of mat¬
ter to have contrived amonfr themfelves this wonderful form
of a world, to have taken by agreement each its refpecftive
poft, and then to have purfued in conjuntffion conftant ends
by certain methods and meafures concerted, there muft be
fome other Being, whofe wiidom and power are equal to
fuch a mighty work as is the JlruBure and prefervation of the
world. There muff be fome Almighty Mind who modelled
and preferves it ; lays the caufes of things fo deep ; pre-
fcribes them fuch uniform and fteady laws; deftines and
adapts them to certain purpofes; and makes one thing to fit
and anfwer another fo as t@ produce one harmonious whole.
Y es, '
Thefe are thy glorious works, Parent of good !
Almighty, thine this univerfal frame,
Thus wondrous fair ; Thyself how wondrous then !
29 How wondrous in wifdom and in power !”
Goednefs. But the goodness of God is not kfs confpicuous in his
works than His power or His wifdom. Contrivance proves
defign, and the predominant tendency of the contrivances in¬
dicates the difpofition of the defigner. “ The world (fays an
f Dr PAy. elegant and judicious writer*}') abounds with contrivances, and
all the contrivances in it with which we are acquainted are di¬
rected to beneficial purpofes. Evil nodoubt exifts; but it is ne¬
ver that we can perceive the objeft of contrivance. Teeth are
contrived to eat, not to ache; their aching now and then is
incidental to the contrivance, perhaps infeparable from it ;
but it is not its objeCt. This is a diftinCxion which well de-
ferves to be attended to. In defcribing implements OS' huf-
bandry, one would hardly fay of a fickle that it is made to
cut the reaper's fingers, though from the conftruChon of the
inftrument, and the manner of ufing it, this mifchief often
happens. But if he had occafion to defcnbe inflruments of
torture or execution, this, he would fay, is to extend the fi-
news ; this to difiocate the joints ; this to break the bones ;
this to fcorch the foies of the feet. Here pain and milery
are the very objedls of the contrivance. Now nothing of
this fort is to be found in the works of nature. We never
difcover a train of contrivance to bring about an evil pur-
pofe. No anatomift ever difcovered a fyftem of organi¬
zation calculated to produce pain and difeafe ; or, in explain-
\ ing the parts of the human body, ever faid, this is to irri¬
tate, this to inflame, this duff is to convey the gravel to
the kidneys, this gland to fecrete the humour which forms
the gout. If by chance he come to a part of which he
knows not the ufe, the molt that he can fay is, that to him
it appears to be ufelefs : no one ever fufpefts that it is put
there to incommode, to annoy, or to torment. If God had
wiflied our mifery, he might have made fure of his purpole,
by forming our fenfes to be as many fores and pains to us
as they are now inllrr.ments of gratification and enjoyment;
or, by placing us among objefts fo ill fuited to our percep¬
tions as to have continually offended us, inltead of minifter-
ing co our refrefhment and delight. He might have made,
for inltance, every thing we tailed bitter, every thing we
faw loathfome, every thing we touched a lling, every fmell
a flench, and every found a difeord.”
Inltead of this, all our fenfations, except fuch as are ex¬
cited by what is dangerous to our health, are pleafures to
us: The view of a landfeape is pleafant ; the talte of nou-
rilhing food is pleafant ; founds not too loud are agreeable,
while mufical founds are exquifite ; and hardly any fmells,
except fuch are excited by effluvia obvioully pernicious to
the brain, are difagreeable ; whillt fome of them, if not too
long indulged, are delightful. Our lives are preferved and
the fpecies is continued by obeying the impulfe of appetites;
L O G Y. Part T,
of which the gratification is exquifite when not repeated Being 511(|
too frequently, to anfwer the purpoles of the Author of our at?r>fu'e»
being. Since, then, God has called forth his confummate
wifdom to contrive and provide for our happinefs, and has "" ,
made thofe things which are neceffary to our exitlEnce and
the continuance of the race fources of bur greatell fenfual
pleafures, who can doubt but that benevolence is one ofhis
attributes ; and that, if it were not impious to draw a com-
parifon between them, it is the attribute in which he himfelf
moll delighteth ?
But it is not from feniation only that we may infer the
benevolence of the Deity : He has formed us with minds
capable of intellectual improvement, and he has implanted
in the brealt of every man a very ftrong defire of adding
to his knowledge. This addition to be fare cannot be made
without labour; and at firlt the requifite labour is to moll
people irkfome : but a very fhort progrefs in any ftudy con¬
verts what was irkfome into a pleafure of the moll exalted
-kind ; and he who by lludy, however intenfe, enlarges his
ideas, and is confcious that he is daily riling in the icale of
intelligence, experiences a complacency, which, though not
fo poignant perhaps as the pleafures'of the fenfualift, is fuch
a? endears him to himfelf, and is what he would not ex¬
change for any thing elle which this world has to bellow,
except the Hill fvveeter complacency arifing from the confci-
oufnefs of having difeharged his duty.
That the pra&ice of virtue is attended with a peculiar
pleafure of the pureft kind, is a fa£l which no man has ever
quellioned, though the immediate fource of that pleafure has
been the fubjeCt of many difputes. He who attributes it
to a moral fenfe, which inflindlively points out to every
man his duty, and upon the performance of it rewards him
with a fentiment of felf-approbation, mull of neceffity ac¬
knowledge benevolence to be one of the attributes of that
Being who has fo conftituted the human mind. That to
protedl the innocent, relieve the diltrefled, and do to others
as we would in like circumftances wilh to be done by, fills
the breaft, previous to all refleflion, with a holy joy, as the
commiffion of any crime tears it with remorfe, cannot in¬
deed be controverted. Many, however, contend, that this
joy and this remorfe fpring not from any moral inftindl im¬
planted in the mind, but are the confequence of early and
deep-rooted afibciations of the praflice of virtue with the
hope of future happinefs, and of vice with the dread of fu¬
ture mifeiy. Ou the refpeCtive merits of thefe two theo¬
ries we fhall not now decide. We have faid enough on the
fubjeft in other articles (fee Instinct, Moral Philoso¬
phy, and Passion) ; and fhall here only obferve, that they
both lead with equal certainty to the benevolence of the
Deity, who made us capable of forming aflbeiations, and
fubjedtd thofe aflbeiations to fixed laws. This being the
cafe, the moral fenfe, with all its inflantaneous effeCts, af¬
fords not a clearer or more convincing proof of his good-
nefs, than that principle in our nature by which remote cir¬
cumftances become fo linked together, that, after the con¬
necting ideas have efcaped from the mind, the one eircum-
ftance never occurs without bringing the other alio into
view. It is thus that the pleafing complacency, which was
perhaps firft excited by the hopes of future happinefs, comes
in time to be fo aflbeiated with the confeioufnefs of virtu¬
ous conduCt, the only thing entitled to reward, that a man
never performs a meritorious aCtion without experiencing
the moft exquifite joy diffufed over his mind, though his
attention at that inftant may not be directed either to hea¬
ven or futurity. Were we obliged, before we could expe¬
rience this joy, to eftimate by reafon the merit of every in¬
dividual adlion, and trace its connection to heaven and fu¬
ture happinefs through a l®ng train of intermediate argu¬
mentation,
[‘art !.
Being and mentation, we (hould be in a great tneafure deprived of the
attribute^ pretent reward of virtue; and therefore this affociating
r vf God. principle contributes much to our happinefs. But the be-
" v nevolence of a Being, who feems as it were thus anxious to
furnifh us with both fenfual and intelie&ua! enjoyments, and
who has made our duty our greateil pleafuie, cannot be que-
fiioned ; and therefore we mufl infer, that the Author of
Nature wifhes the happinefs of the whole fenlible and intel-
ligent creation.
Ejections, To fuch reafqning as this in fupport of the Divine Be¬
nevolence many objedlions have been made. Some of them
'appear at firft fight plaufible, and are apt to ftagger the
faith of him who has beftowed no time on the fludy of that
branch of general fcience which is called phyfics (fee Phy-
-sics). To omit thefe altogether in fuch an article as this
might be conftrued into negledl; whilft it is certain that
'there is in them nothing worthy of the attention of that
man who is qualified either to eftimate their force, or to
underhand the arguments by which they have often been
repelled.
It has been afked, Why, if the Author of Nature be a be¬
nevolent Being, are we neceffarily iubjedf to pain, difeafes,
and death ? The fcientific phyfiologifl replies, Becaufe from
thde evils Omnipotence itfelf could not in our prefent Hate
Lnfwered exempt us, but by a conftant feries of miracles. Pie who
admits miracles, knows likewife that mankind were origi-
nally in a Hate in which they were not fubjeft to death ;
and that they fell under its dominion through the fault of
their common progenitors. But the fall and reftoration of
man is the great fubjeft of revealed religion; and at prefent
we are diicufling the queftion like philofophers who have
no other data on which to proceed than the phenomena of
nature Now we know, that as all matter is divifible, every
fyitem compofcd of it muft neceflarily be liable to decay
and diffolution ; and our material fyftem would decay and
be diflblved long before it could ferve the purpofes of na¬
ture, were there not methods contrived with admirable wif-
dom for repairing the wafte occafioned by perpetual fridtion.
The body is furnifhed with different fluids, which continual¬
ly circulate through it in proper channels, and leave in their
way what is neceffary to repair the lolids. Thefe again are
Supplied by food ab extra ; and to the whole proceffes of di-
geftiorr, circulation, and nutrition, the air we breathe is ab-
iolutely neceffary. (See Physiology, Self. I, 2, 3, 4, 5)-
But as the air is a very heterogeneous fluid, and fubjedt to
violent and fudden changes, it is obvious that thefe changes
mufl affedt the blood, and by confequence the whole frame
of the human body. We fee the air indeed in procefs of
time confume even marble itfelf; and therefore cannot won¬
der, that as it is in one ftate the parent of health, it fhould
in another be the fource of diieafe to fuch creatures as man
and other terreftrial animals. Nor could thefe confequences
be avoided without introducing others much more deplo¬
rable. The world is governed by general laws, without
which there could be among men neither arts nor fciences ;
and tho’ laws different from thofe by which the fyftem is at
prelent governed might perhaps have been eftablilhed, there
is not the fmalleft reafon to imagine that they could on the
whole have been better, or attended with fewer inconvenien-
cies. As long as we have material and folid bodies capable
or motion, liable to reliftance from other folid bodies, lup-
ported by food, fubje£t to the agency of the air, and divi¬
fible, they mull neceflarily be liable to pain, difeafe, corrup¬
tion, and death, and that too by the very influence of thofe
laws which preferve the order and harmony of the univerfe.
i hus gravitation is a general law fo good and fo neceflary,
that were it for a moment fufpended, the world would in-
ftantly fijll to pieces ; and yet by means of this law the man
427
muft inevitably be ctufhed to death upon whom a tower Beirg and
fhall chance to tumble. Again, the attraftion of coheflon
is a general law, without which it does not appear that any t _ ^* f
corporeal fyftem could poflibly exift : it is by this law too,
or a modification of it, that the glands and ladleals of the
human body extract from the blood fuch particles as are ne¬
ceffary to nourifh the folids ; and yet it is by r ears of the
very fame modification of the very tame law that a man is
liable to be poifoned. How are thefe effedfs to be pre¬
vented ?
Shall burning iEtna, if a fage requires,
Forget to thunder, and recal her fires ?
On air or fea new motions be impreft,
Oh blamelefs Bethel ! to relieve thy breaft :
When the loofe mountain trembles from on high
Shall gravitation ceafe if you go by ?
Or fome old temple nodding to its fall,
For Charters’ head referve the hanging wall ?
Such a perpetual miracle, fuch a frequent fufpending of
the laws of nature in particular inftances, we cannot doubt
to be within the compafs of Almighty power : but were
this fufpenfion really to take place, mankind would be in¬
volved in ignorance greater than that of childhood ; for not
one of them could know, or have any means of difeoveriag
this moment, what was to happen the next; and the confe¬
quence would be, that, uncertain but the Angle motion of a
fingle joint might bring on them fudden deftruiStion, they
would all perifli in a ftate of abfolute inactivity. 34
But though the human body could not have been pre-SiAnefs,
ferved from dangers and diffolution but by introducing evils
greater on the whole than thofe to which it is now liable, Qf (jcath
why, it has fomethnes been aiked, is every diforder to which ferve good
it is fubjeCt attended with ficknefs or with pain ? and why purpofes.
is fuch a horror of death implanted in our breafts, feeing
that by the laws of nature death is inevitable ? We anfwer,
That ficknefs, pain, and the dread of death, ferve the very
beft purpofes. Could a man be put to death, or have his
limbs broken without feeling pain, the human race had long
ago been extinft. Felt we no uneafinefs in a fever, we
fhould be infenfible of the difeafe, and die before we fiifpeft-
ed our health to be impaired. The horror which generally
accompanies our refledlions on death tends to make us
more careful of life, and prevents us from quitting this
world rafiily when our affairs profper not according to our
fond wifhes. It is likewile an indication that our exiftence
does not terminate in this world ; for our dread is feldom
excited by the profpeCt of the pain which we may fuffer
when dying, but by our anxiety concerning what we may
be doomed to luffer or enjoy in the next ftage of our exiftence;
and this anxiety tends more perhaps than any thing elfe to
make us live while we are here in iuch a manner as te enfure
our happinefs hereafter.
Thus from every view that we can take of the works and
laws of God, and even from contidering the objedh’ons which
have fometimes been made to them, we are compelled to ac¬
knowledge the benevolence of their Author. We muft not,
however, fuppofe the Divine benevolence to be a fond and
weak affection like that which is called benevolence among
men. All human affefHons and paffions originate in our
dependence and wants ; and it has been doubted whether
any of them be at firft. diiinterefted (fee Passion) : but he
to whom extftence is effential cannot be dependent ; he who
is the Author of every thing can feel no want. The divine
benevolence therefore muft be ■whcllydifinterefted, and of
courfe free from thofe partialitiesoriginating in felf-love, which
are alloys in the moft fublime of human virtues. The molt
benevolent man on earth, though he wilhes the happinefs of
3 H a every
THEOLOGY.
4*8
Being and
attributes
of God.
33 .
The divine
benevo¬
lence coin-
e dent with
juftice.
34
God in-
compre-
heufible,
35
Eut con-
ftantly pte.
lent to his
works.
T H E O
every fellow-creature, has Hill, fro;n the ties of blood, the
endearments of friendlhip, or, perhaps from a regard to his
own intereft, forne particular favourites whom, on a compe¬
tition with others, he would certainly prefer. But the
equal Lord of all can have no particular favourites. His
benevolence is therefore coincident with juflice; or, to fpeak.
more properly, that which is called divine juflice, is only be¬
nevolence exerting itfelf in a particular manner for the pro¬
pagation of general felicity. When God preferibes laws
for regulating the conduit of his intelligent creatures, it is
not becaufe he can reap any benefit from their obedience to
thofe laws, but becaufe fuch obedience is needfary to their
own happinels ; and when he punifhes the tranfgreffbr, it is
not becaufe in his nature there is any difpofition to which
the profpeit of fuch punilhment tan alford gratification,
but becaufe in the government of free agents punifhment is
necelfary to reform the criminal, and to intimidate others
from committing the like crimes. But on this fubjeft we
need not dwell. It has been {hewn elfewhere (Metaphysics,
n°3X2.), that all the moral attributes of God, his holi¬
ness, justjce, Mercy, and truth, {hould be conceived
as the fame divine benevolence, acting in different ways
according to different exigencies, but always for the fame
fublime end—the propagation of the utmoli pofiible happi-
nefs.
The fubftance or effence of this felf-exiftent, all-powerful,
infinitely wife, and perfedfly good Being, is to us wholly in-
comprehenfible. That it is not matter, is (hewn by the
procefs of argumentation by which we have proved it to
exift ; but what it is we know not, and it would be impious
prefumption to inquire. It is fufficient for all the purpoies
of religion to know that God is fome how or other pre-
fent to every part of his works ; that exiftence and every
pofiible perfection is dfential to him ; and that he wiflies
the happinefs of all his creatures. From thefe truths we
might proceed to prove and illuttrate the perpetual fuper-
intendance of his providence, both general and particular,
over every the minuted; part of the uni'verfe : but that fubjeft
has been difeufled in a feparate article ; to which, therefore,
we refer the reader. (See Providence). We (hall only
obferve at prefent, that the manner in which animals are pro¬
pagated affords as complete a proof of the confiant fuperin-
tendance of divine power and wifdom, as it does of the im¬
mediate exertion of thefe faculties in the formation of the
parent pair of each fpecies. For were this bufinefs of pro¬
pagation carried on by necejfary and mechanical laws, it is
obvious, that in every age there would be generated, in each
fpecies of animals, the very fame proportion of males to fe¬
males that there was in the age preceding. On the other
hand, did generation depend upon fortuitous mechanifm, it
is not conceivable but that, iince the beginning of the world,
or, according to this hypothefis, during the courfe of eterni-
ty, feveral fpecies of animals {hould in fame age have ge¬
nerated nothing but males, and others nothing but females ;
and that of courfe many fpecies would have been long fince
extmCt. As neither of thefe cafes has ever happened, the
prefervation of the various fpecies of animals, by keeping up
conftantly in the world a due, though not always the fame,
proportion between the fexes of male and female, is a com¬
plete proof of the fuperintendance of divine providence, and
of that faying of theg apoftle, that it is “ in God we live,
move, and have our being.”
Sect. II. Of the Duties and SctnSlions of Natural
Religion.
From the fiiort and very inadequate view that we have
taken of th« divine perfections, it is evidently our duty to
LOGY. . Part I,
reverence in our minds the felf-cxiftent Being to whom they Duties and
belong.' This is indeed not only a duty, but a duty of fan^ions
which no man who contemplates thefe perfections, and be- ^ej^;Ura*
lieves them to be real, can pofiibly avoid the performance. > ^ n'_r
He who thinks irreverently of the Author of nature, can 36
never have confidered ferioufly the power, the wifdom, andReverenM:
the goodnefs, difplayed in his works; for whoever has a^^^du'
tolerable notion of thefe muff be convinced, that he who Co G0d.U5
performed them has no imperfection ; that his power can
accomplifh every thing, which involves not a contradiction ;
that his knowledge is intuitive, and free from the oofilbility
of error ; and that his goodnefs extends to all without parti¬
ality and without any alloy of felfifh defign. This convic¬
tion muff make every man on whole mind it is impreffed
ready to prortrate himfelf in the duff before the Author of
his being ; who, though infinitely exalted above him, is the
fource ®f all his enjoyments, conftantly watches over him
with paternal care, and protefts him from numberlefs dan¬
gers. The fenfe of fo many benefits muff excite in his
mind a fentiment of the livelieft gratitude to him fro,m
whom they are received, and an ardent wifh for their conti¬
nuance.
Whilft filent gratitude and devotion thus glow in the Of whom
bread of the contemplative man, he will be careful not to ;10 P'Titive
form even a mental image of that all-perfeCt Being t© whom, a
they are direded. He knows that God is not material; ornK: ’
that he exifts in a manner altogether incomprehenfible ; that
to frame an image of him would be to afifign limits to what
is infinite ; and that to attempt to form a pofitive concep¬
tion of him would be impioufly to compare himfelf with his
Maker.
8
The man who has any tolerable notion of the perfec-ig(nv j1(.
tions of the Supreme Being will never fpeak lightly of him,. ught to
or make ufe of his name at all but on great and folemn 'oe tyokca
occalions. He knows that the terms of all languages are0*5 ac^
inadequate and improper, when applied direftly to him who
has no equal, and to whom nothing can be compared ; and
therefore he will employ thefe terms with caution. When he
fpeaks of his mercy and compaflion,he will not confider them
as feelings wringing the heart like the mercy and compaf-
fion experienced by man, but as rays of pure and difintereft-
ed benevolence. When he thinks of the ftupendous fyftem
of nature, and hears it, perhaps, faid that God formed it for
his own glory, he will refleCi that God is fo infinitely exaltr
ed above all his creatures, and fo perfed in himfelf, that he
can neither take pleafure in their applaufe, as great men do
in the applanfes of their fellow-creatures, nor receive any
accefiion of any kind from the exiftence of ten thoufand
worlds. The immenfe fabric of nature therefoie only difi-
plays the glory or perfeftions of its Author to us and to
other creatures who have not faculties to comprehend him in
himfelf.
3>
When the contemplative man talks of God, he What is
does not dream that his fervices can increafe the divine feli- meant fcy
city ; but means only that it is his duty to obey the divine |HrvinS
laws. Even the pronoun He, when it refers to God, cannot
be of the fame import as when it refers to man ; and by tl-e
philoiophicai divine it will feldom be ufed but with a mental
allufion to this obvious diftin&ion.
As the man who duly venerates the Author of his being
will not (peak of him on trivial occafions, fo will he be
{till {urther from calling upon him to witneis impertinences
and falfehood, (fee Oath). He will never mention his
name but with a paufe, that he may have time to refteft in
filence on his numberlefs perfe&ions, and on the imroenie
diftance between himfelf and the Being of whom he is
fpeaking. The flighted: refledion will convince him that
the world with all that it contains depends every moment
upon
Parti. . T.H.AE O
Duties and upon that God who formed it; and this conviction will
fandtions cornpel him to wifh for. the divine protedtion of himfelf and
of natural fr;en(js from all dangers and misfortunes. Such a with
t rel'gi°n» jS effe6t a prayer, and will always be accompanied with
* adoration, confeffion, and thankfgiving (fee Prayer). But
adoration, confefiions, application, and thankfgiving, confti-
tute what is called ‘wotjhip, and therefore the worfhip of
God is a natural duty. It is the addreffing of ourfelves as
his dependants to him as the lupreme caufe and governor of
the world, with acknowledgments of what we enjoy, and
petitions for what we really want, or he knows to be con¬
venient for us. As if, ex. gr. I Ihould in fome humble and
compofed manner (fays Mr Wallafton) pray to that “ Al¬
mighty Being, upon whom depends the exiitence of the
40 world, and by whofe providence I have been preferved to
Dirine this moment, and enjoyed many undeferved advantages,
wo lhip a that iie Would gracioufly accept my grateful fenfe and
natural ^u"acjinowle(jgmen|;j; 0f alJ his beneficence towards me; that he
would deliver me from the evil confequences of all my tranf-
greffions and follies; that he would endue me with fuch
difpolitions and powers as may carry me innocently and
fafely through all future trials, and may enable me on all
occafions to behave myfelf conformably to the laws of rea-
fon pioufly and wifely ; that He would fuffer no being to
injure me, no misfortunes to befal me, nor me to hurt my¬
felf by any error or mifcondudl of my own ; that he would
vouchfafe me clear and diftind perceptions of things ; with
fo much health and profperity as may be good for me ;
that I may at leaft pafs my time in peace, with content¬
ment and tranquillity of mind ; and that having faithfully
difeharged my duty to my family and friends, and endea¬
voured to impiove myielf in virtuous habits and ufefui
knowledge, I may at laft make a decent and happy exit,
and find myfelf in fome better Hate.”
That an untaught favage would be prompted by inJlinS
to addrefs the Supreme Being in fuch terms as this, we are
fo far from thinking, that to us it appears not probable that
fuch a favage, in a ftate of folitude, would be led by inftindt
to fuppofe the exiftence of that Being. But as foon as the
being and attributes of God were, by whatever means, made
known unto man, every fentiment expreffed in this prayer
mud neceflarily have been generated in his mind; for not
to be fenlible that we derive our exiftence and all our en¬
joyments from God, is in effedt to deny his being or his
providence ; and not to feel a wilh that he would give
us what we want, is to deny either his goodnefs or his
power.
The worlhip of God therefore is a natural duty refulting
from the contemplation of his attributes Ind a fenfe of our
own dependence. But the reafoning which has led us to
this conclufron refpedls only private devotion ; for it is a
queftion of much greater difficulty, and far enough from
public wor-being yet determined, whether pubiu: worfhip be a duty of
that religion which can with any propriety be termed na¬
tural reli- Mr Vv ollafton indeed poiitively affirms that it is,
gion ? and endeavours to prove his pofition by the foilowiug argu¬
ments.
. 41 “ A man (fays he) may be confidered as a member of
fur it ' fome Society; and a.sfuch he ought to worfhip God if he has
the opportunity of doing it, if there be proper prayers ufed
publicly which he may refort to, and if his health, &c. permit.
Or the foeiety may be conirdered as one body, that has com¬
mon interefts and concerns, and as fuch is obliged to worfhip
the Deity, and offer one prayer. Befides, there arc many who
know not of themfelves how to pray ; perhaps cannot fo
much as read. Thefe muft be taken as they are; and con-
fequently fome time and place appointed where they may
. 41
whether
or rot is
LOGY. 429
have fuitable prayera read to them, and be guided in their Duties and
devotions. And further, towards the keeping mankind in ^
order, it is necejfary there fhould be fome religion profefied, reiji,jon_
and even eftablifhed, which cannot be without public worfhip, 1 .-,.1
And were it not for that fenfe of virtue which is principally
preferved (fo far as it is preferved) by nationalybrwr and
habits of religion, men would foon lofe it all, run wild,
prey upon one another, and do what elfe the werft of la¬
vages do.”
Thefe are in themfelves juft obfervations, and would come
with great force and propriety from the tongue or pen of a
Chriftian preacher, who is taught by revelation that the
Mafter whom he ferves has commanded his followers “ not
to forfake the aflembling of themfelves together,” and has
promifed, “ that if two of them (hall agree on earth as touch¬
ing any thing that they fhall afk, it fhall be done for them
of his Father who is in heaven.” As urged by fuch a man
and on fuch grounds, they would ferve to fhow the fitnefs of
the divine command, and to point out the benefits which a
religious obedience to it might give us reafon to expedf.
But the author is here profeffing to treat of natural religion,
and to ftate the duties which refult from the mere relation
which fubfifts between man as a creature and God as his
creator and conftant preferver. Now, though we readily
admit the benefits of public worfhip as experienced under
the Chriftian difpenfation, we do not perceive any thing in
this rcafoning which could lead a pious theift to expedl the
fame benefit previous to all experience. When the author
thought of national forms and ejlablijhments of religion, he cer- Borrowed
tainly loft fight of his proper fubjedt, and, as fuch writers[r0.T1 rcve*
are too apt to do, comprehended under the religion of na-'
ture what belongs only to that which is revealed^ Natural
religion, in the proper fenfe of the words, admits of no parti¬
cular forms, and of no legal ejtabllfloment. Private devotion
is obvioufly one of its duties, becaufe fentiments of adora¬
tion, confeffion, fupplication, and thankfgivmg, neceffaiiiy
fpring up in the bread of every man who has juft notions of
God and of himfelf: but it is not fo obvious that fuch no¬
tion* would induce any body of men to meet at Jlatei times
for the purpofe of expreffing their devotional feutiments in
public. Mankind are indeed focial beings, and naturally
communicate their fentiments to each other ; but we cannot
conceive what fhould at firft have led them to think that
public worlhip at dated times would be acceptable to the
felf-exiftent Author of the univerfe. In cafe of a famine, or '
any other calamity in which the whole tribe was equally in¬
volved, they might fpeak of it to each other, inquire into
its caufe, and in the extremity of their diftrefs join perhaps
in one fervent petition, that God would remove it. In the
fame manner they might be prompted topeur forth occational
ejaculations of public gratitude for public mercies; but it
does not follow from thefe incidental occurrences that they
would be led to inftitule times and places and forms of
national worfhip, as if they believed the omnifeient Deity
more ready to hear them in public than in private. That
the appointment of fuch times and forms and places is her
neficial to fociety, experience teaches us ; and therefore it is
the duty, and has been the pra&ice, of the fupreme magiftrate
in every age and in evei'y civilized country to provide for
the maintenance of the national worfhip. But this piaftice
has taken its rife, not from the deductions of reaton, but
either from diredt revelation, as among the Jews and
Chriftians ; or from tradition, which, had its origin in fome
early revelation, as among the more enlightened Pagans of
ancient and modern times.
We hope that none of our readers will be fo urjuft as to
fuppofe that by this difquiiition we mean, in any degree, to
call
4 JO
T II E O
44
Its great
uleiulnefs.
4«
The prac¬
tice of
virtue a
duty cf na
tural reli*
. gion.
Dot es am! call in qucflion tlie fitnefs or tire duty of public wovfhip.
undiors js f0 far from our intention, that we firmly believe
with Mr Wollafton, that what piety remains among us is to
be attributed in a great mealure to the pradlice of frequent¬
ing the church on Sundays ; and that it is the negleft of
this particular duty which has rendered the prefent genera¬
tion of men lefs pious, lefs humble, and more ptone to fac¬
tion, than their fathers were, who made it a point every
Lord's day to unite with fome congregation of Chriftians in
the public worfiu’p of their Creator and Redeemer. But
whilit we are convinced of the importance and necefllty or
this too much neglefted duty, and could wifh to imprels
our conviction upon the minds qf all our readers, we do not
apprehend that we leffen its dignity, or detract from the
weight of almofl univeral practice, by endeavouring to de¬
rive that practice from its true fource, which appears to us
to be not human reafon, but divine revelation.
But whatever doubts may be entertained with refpedt to
the origin of public worfhip, there can be none as to the
foundation of moral virtue. Reafon clearly perceives it to
be the will of our Maker, that every individual of the human
race fhould treat every other individual as, in fimilar circum-
flances, he could juftly expect to be treated himfelf. It is
thus only that the greateil fum of human happinefs can be
produced (fee Moral Philosophy, n° ry. and 135.) ; for
were all men temperate, fober, juft in their dealings, faithful
to their promifes, and charitable to the poor, &c. it is ob¬
vious that no miferies would be felt upon earth, but the few
which, by the laws of corporeal nature, unavoidably refult
from the union of our minds with fyftems of matter. But
it has been already fhown, that the delign of God in forming
fentient beings was to communicate to them fome portion,
or rather fome refemblance, of that felicity which is effential
to himfelf; and therefore every aft ion which in its natural
tendency co-operates with this defign muft be agreeable to
.him, as every aftion of a contrary tendency muft be dif¬
ag reeable.
From this reafoning it follows undeniably, that we are
obliged not only to be juft and beneficent to one another,
but alfo to abftain from all unnecefiary cruelty to inferior
Cruelty to animals. That we have a right to tame cattle, and employ
the inferior them for the purpofes of agriculture and other arts where
ftrength is required, is a pofition which we believe has never
been controverted. But if it is the intention of God to com¬
municate, in different degrees according to their different
ranks, a portion of happinefs to all his creatures endowed
with fenfe, it is obvious that we fin againft him when we
fubjeft even the horfe or the afs to greater labour than he
is able to perform ; and this fin is aggravated when from
avarice we give not the animal a fuffxcient quantity of food
to fupport him under the exertions which we compel him to
make. That it is our duty to defend ourfeives and our
property from the ravages of beafts of prey, and that we
may even exterminate fuch beafts from the country in which
we live, are truths which cannot be queilioned ; but it has
been the opinion of men, eminent for wifdom and learning,
that we have no right to kill an ox or a {beep for fcocl^ but
in confcquence of the divine perrniflion to Noah recorded in
the ninth chapter of the book of Genefis. Whether this
opinion be well or ill founded we fhall not pofitively deter¬
mine, though the arguments upon which it is made to tell
are of fuch a nature as the fafhionable reafoners of the pre¬
sent day would perhaps find it no eafy talk to anfwer ; but
it cannot admit of a doubt, that, in killing fuch animals,
we are, in duty to their Creator and ours, bound to put
them to the leail poflible paiti. If this be granted, and we
4o not fee hov/ ft can be denied by any mac convinced of
46
animals a
fin.
LOGY. Partl.i
the benevolence ox the Deity, it is ftlll more evident that we Duties and 1
aft contrary to the divine will when, for our mere amufe- Dn ftionn J
ment, we torture and put to death fucli animals as are con- 0 Iiaturd
r rr ,, . • • • . . r 1 i • i • i religion.
feffediy not injurious to ourfeives, or to any thing upon which
the comforts of life are known to depend. We are indeed
far from being convinced with the "poet, that infefts and
reptiles “ in mortal fufterance feel as when a giant dies/’
(fee Pleasure and Physiology, Seft. viii.) ; but their
feelings on that oCcafion are certainly fuch, as that, when we
Wantonly iftflift them, v/e thwart, as far as in our power, the
benevolent purpofe of the Creator in giving them life and
fenfe. Let it be obferved too, that the man who praftifes
needlefs cruelty to the brute creation is training up his mind
for exercifing cruelty towards his fellow-creatures, to his
fiaves if he have any, and to his fervants ; and by a very
quick progrefs to all who may be placed beneath him in the
Icale of feciety.
Such are the plain duties of natutal religion ; and if they
were univerfally praftifed, it is felf-evident that they would
be produftive of the greateft happinefs which mankind could
enjoy in this world, and that piety and virtue would be
their own reward. They are however far from being uni¬
verfally praftifed ; and the confequence is, that men are fre¬
quently raifed to affluence and power by vice, and fome-
times funk into poverty by a rigid adherence to the rules of
virtue.
This being the cafe, there can be no queftion of greater
importance, while there are few more difficult to be anfwer- -
ed, than “ What are the fanftions by which natural religion
enforces obedience to her own laws ?” It is not to be iup-
pofed that the great body of mankind fhould, without the ^
profpeft of an ample reward, praftife virtue in thofe inftances'NAtural
in which fuch praftice would be obvioufly attended with religion de« l
injury to themfelves ; nor does it appear reafonable in any
man to forego prefent enjoyment, without the well-grounded* future 1
hope of thereby fecuring to himfelf a greater or more per-qtate.
manent enjoyment in reverfion. Natural religion therefore,
as a fyftem of doftrines influencing the conduft, is exceeding¬
ly defeftive, unlefs it affords lufficient evidence, intelligible
to every ordinary capacity, of the immortality ot the foul, or
at leaft of a future ftate of rewards and punifflments. That
it does afford this evidence, is ftrenuoufly maintained by fome
deilts, and by many philofophers of a different deicription,
who, though they profefs Chriftianity, feem to have fome
unaccountable dread of being deceived by their bibles in
every doftrine which cannot be propped by the additional
buttrefs of philofophical reafoning. 4g
One great argument made ufe of to prove that the im-q’he gene-
mortality of the foul is among the doftrines of natural reli-ral txpec-
gion, is the univerfal belief of all ages and nations that menj^d^0*®
continue to live in fome other ftate after death has feparated '
their fouls from their bodies. “ Quod fi omt im confenfus
naturae vox ejl: omnefque, qui ubiqui funt, confentiunt effe
aiiquid,quod ad eospertineat, qui vita cefferint: nobis quoque
idem exiftimandum eft'*, et fi, quorum aut ingenio, aut vir-
tute animus excellit, eos arbitramur, quianatura optima funt,
cernere naturae vim maxime: verifimile eft, cum optimus
quifque maxime pojleritati Jermat, effe aliquid, cujus is poft
mortem fenfutn lit, habiturus. Sed at decs effe natura opi-
namur, qualefque fint, ratione cognofcimus, lie permanere
animos arbitramur confe'nfu nationum omnium ^ ^<9,4
That this is a good argument for the truth 01 the doc-j./'Q js ^
trine, through whatever channel men may have received it, [6,
we readily acknowledge ; but it appears not to us to be any 49
proof of that doftrine’s being the deduftion of human rea- Mot the
foning. The popular belief of Pagamfm, both ancient and b
modern, is fo fantaftic and abfurd, that it could never have
been
reiigi
.5°
Opinions
Parti. T H E O
Duties an I been rationally inferred from' what nature teaches of God
fandtions anj couit Jn the Elyfium of the Greek and Roman
of natural p0etS) jeparted fpirits were vifible to mortal eyes; and muft
therefore have been clothed with fome material vehicle of
fufficient denfity to refleft the rays of light, though not to
relift the human touch. In the mythology of the northern
nations, as deceafed heroes are reorefented as eating and
drinking, they could not be confidered as entirely divefted of
matter; and in every popular creed of idolatry, future re¬
wards were fuppofed to be conferred, not for private virtue,
but for public violence, upon heroes and conquerors and the
deftroyers of nations. Surely no admirer of what is now
called natural religion will pretend that thefe are part of its
doftrines ; they are evidently the remains of lome pnmeva.l
tradition obfcured and corrupted in its longprogrefs through
ages and nations.
The philofophers of Greece and Rome, defpifing the po-
tffbherT" Pu*ar mythol°gy of their refpe&ive countries, employed
retpedting much time and great talents in difquifitions concerning the
a future human foul and the probability of a future ftate ; and if
(Utf. the genuine conclufions of natural religion enthis fubjeft are
anywhere to be found, one would naturally look for them in
the writings of thofe men whofe genius and virtues did
honour to human nature. Yet it is a faft which cannot be
controverted, that the philoiophers held fuch notions con¬
cerning the fubftance of the foul and its ftate after death as
could afford no rational fupport to fuffering virtue, (fee
Metaphysics, Part III. chap. 4). Socrates is indeed an
exception. Confining himfelf to the ftudy of ethics, and
defpifing thofe metaphyfical fubtilties with which fo many
others had bewildered themfelves, that excellent perfon in¬
ferred by the common moral arguments (fee Moral Phi¬
losophy, n° 232—246), that the reality of a future ftate
of rewards and punifhments is in the higheft degree proba¬
ble. He was not, however, at all times abfolutely convinced
of this important truth ; for a little before his death he
faid to lome who were about him, “ I am now about to
leave this world, and ye are ftill to continue in it; which of
* Vlato‘m us have the better part allotted us, God only knows
dpol'g. Sec. And again, at the end of his moft admired dilcourfe concern¬
ing the immortality of the foul, delivered at a time when he
muft have been ferious, he faid to.his friends who came to
pay their laft vifit, “ I w'ould have you to know that
I have great hopes that I am now going into the company
of good men ; yet I would not be too peremptory and confi-
Pinto in concerning it
Next to Socrates, Cicero was perhaps the moft refpeftable
of all the philofophers of antiquity ; and he feems to have
ftudied this great queftion with uncommon care: yet what
were his concluiions ? After retailing the opinions of various
fages of Greece, and {flowing that fome held the foul to he
the heart; others, the blood in the heart; fome, the brain ,•
others, the breath ; one, that it was harmony ; another, that it
was number; one, that it was nothing at all; and another,"‘that
it was a certain quintejfence without a name, but which might
properly be called fvlfxi^ia—he gravely adds, “ Harum fen-
tentiarum quse vera fit, Deus aliquis viderit: qr.as veiifimil-
lima, magna queftio eft He then proceeds to give his
own opinion ; which, as we have flrown elfewhere, wast that
the foul is part of God.
To us who know by other evidence that the foul is im¬
mortal, and that there will be a future ftate in which all the
obliquities of the prefent fhall be made ftraight, the argu¬
ment drawn from the moral attributes of God, and the un¬
equal diflribution ©f the good things of this life, appears to
have the force of demonftration. Yet none of us will furely
pretend to fay that his powers of reafoning are greater
puj.
§ T«/c.
W-
hb. 1. § 9,
ii>, ix.
LOG Y. 431
than were thofe of Socrates and Cicero: and therefore thelAdesand
probability is, that had we been like them deftitute of the
light of revelation, we fliould have been difturbed by the rei^j n#
fame doubts, ahd have faid with the latter, upon reading the ———. ->
arguments of the former as detailed by Plato, “ Nefcio , .51
quomodo, dum lego, aflentior : cum pofui librum, et mecum^1'*1.01^
ipfe de immortalitate animorum coepi cogitate, affenfio illa(;f revda-
elabitur ^.5, tion we
No one, we hope, will fufpcrft us of an impious attempt ^10Uld
to weaken, the evidence of a future ftate, God forbid ! The^'^^ .
expectation of that ftate is the only fupport of virtue and^g them-
religion ; and we think the arguments which wehave ftated| Ibid.
elfewhere, and referred to on the prefent occafion, make the
reality of it fo highly probable,'that, though there were no
other evidence, he would adl a very foolifli part who fhould
confine his attention wholly to the prefent life. But we do
not apprehend that we can injure the caufe either of virtue
or of religion, by confefting, that thofe arguments which left
doubts in the minds of Socrates and Cicero appear not to
us to have the force of complete demonjlration of that life
and immortality which our Saviour brought to light through
the gqfpeL . _ 52
Were the cafe, however, otherwife ; were the arguments Natural re-
which the light of nature affords for the immortality of the'ft?'011 iias
human foul as abfolutely convincing as any geometrical of certain- ’
monffration—natural religion would ftiil be defeftive ; be-iyrecon-
caufe it points out no method by which fuch as have offend-ciliug the
ed God may be certainly reftored to his favour, and to the^'T^0
hopes of happinefs which by their fin they had loft. The/ 1
he who knows whereof we are made would fhow himfelf
placable to finners, and that he would find fome way to be
reconciled, might perhaps be reafonably inferred from the
confideration of his benevolence difplayed in his works-
But when we come to inquire more particularly how we
are to be reconciled, and whether a propitiation will be re¬
quired, nature flops fhort, and expedls writh impatience the
aid of fome particular revelation. That God will receive
returning finners, and accept of repentance inftead of perfeft
obedience, cannot be certainly' known by thofe to whom he
has not declared that he will. For though repentance be
the moft probable, and indeed the only means of reconcilia¬
tion which nature fu ggefts ; yet whether he, who is of purer
eyes than to behold iniquity, wdil not require fomething
further before he reflore finners to the privileges which they
have forfeited, mere human reafon has no way of difeover-
ing. From nature therefore arifes no fufficient comfort to
fmners, but anxious and endleis folicitude about the means
of appeafing the Deity. Hence thofe divers ways of facrifi-
cing, and thofe numberlefs fuperftitions which overfpread the
heathen w^orld, but which wrere fo little fatisfaftory to the
wifer part of mankind, that, even in thofe days of darknefs*
the philofophers frequently declared that, in their opinion,
thofe rites and oblations could avail nothing towards appea¬
ring the wrath of an offended God, or making their prayers
acceptable to him. Hence Socrates and one of his dif-
ciples are reprefented by Platof as expedting a perfon divine- f j„ Aldbi-
ly comir.iffioned to inform them w'hether facrifices be ac- odes.
ceptable to the Deity, and as refolving to offer no more till*
that perfon’s arrival, wftnch they pioufly hoped might be at
no great diflance.
This darktiefsof the pagan wmnd, which the heft of menTl cfe
who lived under it fo pathetically deplored, is to us who doubts re¬
live under the funfhine of the gofpel happily removed byrr’oved (T
the various revelations contained in the feriptures of the 01d^!U ',criP'
and New Teftaments. Thefe taken together, and in the *
order in which they w^ere given, exhibit fuch a difplay of
providence, fuch a fyftem_of dodlrines, and fuch precepts of
5 practical
T H E O
4i- i n c. yj
Pac^c and praflical wirdom, as the ingenuity o? man could never have
fand o'ns difcovered. 'i’he Chriftian, with the fcriptures in his hands,
( \ \ 1 * < n 1(^1 f 1 t ^   11.1 T _   - - - J A J 1 h-w ^ n
fa!
of mcuial
rc!u?i'in. c^n reS
1 C W • -* 1 1 ^ vt* y *■ v. '
ulate his condudl by an infallible guide, and reft his
LOGY.
hopes on the fureft foundation,
our bulineis to examine.
Part II,
Thefe fcriptures it is nowl-^desand
hni^iotu
of natural
religion.
Part II. Of REVEALED THEOLOGY.
Many pre- TN every civilized country the popular fyftem of theology
fences to i ha3 claimed its origin from divine revelation. The Pa-
revelation, gans 0£ antiquity had their augurs and oracles ; the Chinefe
have their infpired teachers Confucius and Fohi ; the Hin¬
doos have their facred books derived from Brahama ; the
followers of Mahomet have theirkoran diftated.by an angel;
and the Jews and Chriftians have the fcriptures of the Old
and New Teftaments, which they believe to have been writ¬
ten by holy men of old, who fpake and wrote as they were
moved by the Holy Ghoft.
7'hat the claims of ancient Paganifm to a theology de¬
rived from heaven, as well as the limilar claims of the Chinefe,
Hindoos, and Mahometans, are ill founded, has been Ihown in
various articles of this work, (fee China, Hindostan, Ma¬
hometanism, Mythology, and Polytheism) ; whilft,
under the words Religion, Revelation, and Scripture,
55 vve have fufficiently proved the divine infpiration of the
Though Jewiih and Chriftian fcriptures, and of courfe the divine
tHd ch ^ origin of Jewifh and Chriftian theology.. Thefe indeed are
mian revc- not tvvo fylLms of theology, but parts of one fyftem which
larions'are was gradually revealed as men w'ere able to receive it ; and
alone true, therefore both fcriptures mull be ftudied by the Chriftian
divine.
There is nothing in the facred volume which it is not of
importance that he fhould underftand whofe oflice it is to
be a teacher of religion ; for the whole proceeds from the
fountain of truth : but fome of its do&rines are much more
important than others, as relating immediately to man’s
tverlafting happinels ; and thefe it has been cuftomary to
arrange and digeft into regular fyftems, called bodies or injli-
tutes eft Chr'ijTian theology. Could thefe artificial fyftems be
formed with perfedl impartiality, they would undoubtedly
be ufeful, for the bible contains many hiftorical details, but
jemotely related to human falvation ; and even of its moft
important truths, it requires more time and attention than
the majority of TChriftans have to bellow, t® diicover the
-5 mutual connection and dependence.
Common Artificial fyftems of theology are commonly divided into
dhnfions of two great parts, the theoretic and the practical; and thefe again
thtTf c^ are into many inferior branches. Under the
1 ° (J^’ theoretic part are fometimCs claffed,
x. Dogmatic theology; which comprehends an entire fyftem
of all the dogmas or tenets which a Chriftian is bound to
believe and profefs. The truth of thefe the divine mull
clearly perceive, and be able to enforce upon his audience:
and hence the neceffity of ftudying what is called,
2. The exegejisy or the art of attaining the true fenfe of
the holy fcriptures ; and,
3. Hermeneutic theology, or the art of interpreting and
explaining the fcriptures to others; an art of which no man
can be ignorant who knows how to attain the true fenfe of
them himfelf.
4. Polemical theology'-, or controverfy ; and,
5. Moral theology, which is dilUnguilhed from moral
phi!ofophyr, or the fimple do&rine of ethics, by teaching a
much higher degree of moral perfection than the mere light
of reafon could ever have difeovered, and adding new mo¬
tives to the praClice of virtue.
The praCtical faiences of the divine are,
1. Homiletic, or pajloral theology; which teaches him to
adapt his difeourfes from the pulpit to the capacity of his
hearers, and to purfue the beft methods of guiding them by
bis doCtrine and example in the way of falvatioh.
2. Catechetic theology, or the art of teaching youth and
ignorant perfons the principal points of evangelical doCtrine,
as Well with regard to belief as to practice.
3. Cafmjlic theology, or the fcience which decides on
doubtful cafes of moral theology, and that calms the feru-
ples of confcience which arife in the Chriftian’s foul during
his journey through the prefent world.
We have mentioned thefe divifions and fubdivifions of
the fcience of theology, not becaufe we think them impor¬
tant, but merely that our readers may be at no lofs to un¬
derftand the terms when they meet with them in other ^
works. Of fuch terms we (hall ourfelves make no ufe, for ufeleh.
the greater part of them indicate diftinCtions where there is
no difference, and tend only to perplex the Undent. As
the truths of Chiiftianity are all contained in the fcriptures
of the Old and New Teftaments, it is obvious that dogma¬
tic theology muft comprehend the fpeculative part of that
which is'called moral, as well as every doCtrine about which
controverfy can be of importance. But no man can extraCt
a fmgle dogma from the bible but by the praClice of what
is here called the exegefis ; fo that all the fubdiviiions of this
arrangement of theoretical theology muft be ftudied together
as they neceffarily coalefce into one. The fame thing is true
of the three branches into which praCtical theology is here
divided. He who has acquired the art of adapting his ho¬
milies to the various capacities of a mixed audience, will
need no new ftudy to fit him for inftruCtingchildren, and the
moft ignorant perfons who are capable of inftruCtion ; and
the complete mafter of moral theology will find it no very
difficult talk to refolve all the cafes of confcience which he
can have reafon to fuppofe will ever be fubmitted to his
judgment. For thefe reafons we fhall not, in the ffiort fum-
mary which our limits permit us to give, trouble either our¬
felves or our readers with the various divifibns and fubdivi¬
fions of theology. Our preliminary directions will (how them
how we think the fcience fhould be ftudied ; and all that
we have to do as fyftema title of which we are far
from being ambitious, is to lay before them the view which
the fcriptures prefent to us of the being and perfections of
God, his various difpenfations to man, and the duties thence
incumbent upon Chriftians. In doing this, we fhall follow
the order of the divine difpenfations as we find them recorded
in the Old and New Teftaments, dwelling longeft upon thofe
which appear to us of moft general importance. But as we
take it for granted that every reader of this article will have
previoufiy read the whole facred volume, we fhall not
fcruple to illuftyate dogmas contained in the Old Teftament
by texts taken from the New, or to confirm doCtrines pe¬
culiar to the Chriftian religion by the teftimony of Jewiffi
prophets.
, Sect. I. Of God and his Attributes.
58
In every fyftem of theology the firft truths to be be-The firfl
lieved are thofe which relate to the being and attributes of revelation
God. The Jewifh lawgiver, therefore, who records theJjJPP^
earlieft revelations that were made to man, begins his hi-0j Q0d t(,
ftory with a difplay of the power and wifdom of God in thebe a know;)
creation of the world. He does not inform his country-truth.
£ ‘ tnai,
Pure II. T H F. O
Ood and men, auJ ejtpeeV them to bdkve, upon tbe aiitbor.ty of his
liis atm- divine com^iflion, that God exi/ls ; for he well knew that
, the being of God muft be admitted, and' tolerably jnft no-
U“1~v' ’" tions entertained of his attributes, before man can be re¬
quired to pay any regard to miracles which afford the only
evidence of a primary revelation. ‘‘ In the beginning (fays
he) God created the heavens and the earth.” Here the
being of God i£ affumed as a truth univerfally received j but
the fentence, fhort as it is, reveals another which, as we
s fhall afterwards (hew, human reafon could never have dif-
covered.
It will however be proper, before we confider the crea¬
tion of the world, and compare what the feriptures fay of it
with the opinions of the moft enlightened ancients on the
fame fubjeft, to attend to the appellation which is here
given to God ; and inquire what light is thrown upon it
by fubfequent revelations. The paffaee in the original is
cvnK N-ami’m:!, where it is remarkable that the Creator is
59 denominated by a noun in the plural number, fignifying li-
nary^eno- terally “ perfons under the obligation of an oath to perform
mmanon certain conditions.” This is certainly a very extraordinary
of the Su- denomination for the one fupreme and felf-exiftent Being ;
and what adds to the ftrangenefs of the phrafeology is, that
book of the verb with which this plural noun is made to agree is
Geuefis put in the fingular number. What now could be the facred
hiiiorian's motive for expreffmg himfelf in this manner ? His
ftyle is in general remarkable for its plainnefs and gram¬
matical accuracy ; and we believe it would be difficult to
find in all his five books a fingle phrafe not relating to the
Supreme Being in which there1 appears fuch a violation of
concord.
In anfwer to this queftion, it has been faid, that Mofes
mfes the plural noun to exprefs in a magnificent way the
majefiy of God, juft as it is cuftomary for kings and earthly
potentates, when publiihing edi&s and laws, to ca.ll them-
felves ive and us. But there is no evidence on record that
fuch a mode of fpeaking was introduced among kings at a
period fo early as the era of Mofes. Pharaoh was probably
as mighty a potentate as any who then icigned upon the
earth ; but though he is often mentioned by the fame facred
hiftorian as iffuing edifts with regal authority, he is no¬
where reprefented as fpeaking of himfelf in the plural num¬
ber. Let it be obferved, too, that whenever this phrafeo¬
logy was introduced among men, the plural noun was in
every grammatical tongue joined to a plural verb ; whereas
Mofes not only puts the noun and the verb in different
numbers in the verfe under conlideration, but afterwards
reprefents the 0‘nbK as faying, “ let us make man in our
imageand, “ behold the man is become as one of us.”
Such phrafes as thefe laft were never ufed by a fingle man,
and therefore cannot have been borrowed from human idioms.
Do they then denote a plurality of gods ? No ; there is
nothing which the feriptures more frequently or more earneft-
iy inculcate than the ur.ity of the divine nature. i he texts
afferting this great and fundamental truth are almolt num-
t Deut.iv. berlefs. “ Unto thee (fays Moles to his countrymen f) it
3j, and 39. was ihewed, that thou mighteft know that the Lord is God;
vi. 4. there is none el/e btfule* him. Know therefore that the
Lord he is God in heaven above and upon the earth beneath :
there is none elfe. And again, “ Hear, O Ifrael, the Lord our
God is owe Lord” or, as it is expreffed in the original, “ Je¬
hovah ourGod is one Jehovah,” one Being to whom exiftence
is effential, who could not have a beginning and cannot
have an end. In the prophecies of Ifiiah, God is intro-
1 Ifaiahxiv. duced as repeatedly declaring J, “ I am Jehovah, and there
5,6,18, is none elfe ^ there is no God befides me; that they may
si-xliv, S. know from the rifing of the fun and from the welt, that
there is none bejides m*?: I am Jehovah^ and there is none elfe :
, Vot. XVIII. Part II.
43.5
God and
his attri¬
bute*.
LOGY.
Is there a God befides me ? Yea there is no Qod\ I kd«w
not any.” In perfect harmony with thefe declarations of
Mofes and the prophets, our Saviour, addreffing himlelf to
his Father, fays$, “ This is Ire eternal, that they might § j(,ha xvii,
know Thee) the only true God, and Jefus Chtift whom Ihouj.
haft fent;” and St Paul, who derived his dodtrine from his
divine Mailer, affirms 1|, that “an idol is nothing in the jj j Cor \ ii>,
world ; and that there is none other God but one.” 4-
The unity of the divine nature, which, from the order
and harmony of the world, appears probable to human
reafon, thefe texts of revelation put beyond a doubt. Hence
the firft precept of thfe Jewifh law, and, according to their
®wn writers, the foundation of their whole religion, was,
“ Thou fhalt have none other gods before Me.” Hence, too,
the reafon of that llriift command to Jews and Chriftians
to pive divine worfhip to none but God : “ Thou fhalf.
worfhip the Lord thy God, and him only lhalt thou ferve
becaufe he is God alone. Him only muft we fear, becaufe
he alone hath infinite power; in him alone muft we truft,
becaufe “ he only is our rock and our falvation ;” and to him
alone muft we direft our devotions, becaufe “ he only know-
eth the hearts of the children of men.” 6©
It is^aft difpute, then, that the word D'nVR doss not in-Denote* a
dicate a plurality of gods. In the opinion, however, ofPj^^T
many eminent divines, it denotes, by its junftion with the'j^
fingular verb, a plurality of perfons in the one Godhead; and head,
lome few have contended, that by means of this peculiar
conftruction, thediriftian doefrine of the Trinity may be
proved from the firft chapter of the book of Genefis. To
this latter opinion we can by no means give our affent.
That there are three diftinft perfons in the one divine nature
may be inferred with fufficient evidence from a multitude
of paffages in the Old and New Teftaments diligently com¬
pared together ; but it would perhaps be rafh to reft the
proof of fo fublime a myftery upon any fingle text of holy
icripture, and would certainly be fo to reft it upon the text
in queftion. That Moles was acquainted with this doc¬
trine, we, to whom it has been explicitly revealed, may rea-
fonably conclude from his fo frequently making a plural
name of God to agree with a verb in the fingular number;
but had we not poffeffed the brighter light of the New
Teftament to guide us, we fhould never have thought of
drawing fuch an inference. For fuppofing the word D'nbR to
denote clearly a plurality of perfons, and that it cannot pof-
fibly fignry any thing elfe, how could we have known that
the number is neither more nor lels than three, had it not
been afeertained to us by fubfequent revelations ?
There are indeed various paft'ages in the Old Teftament,
of the phrafeology of which no rational account can be given,
but that they indicate more than one perfon in the God¬
head. Such are thofe texts already noticed ; “ and the
Lord God faid, let us make man in our image, after our
likenefs ;” and “ the Lord God faid, behold the man is be¬
come like one or us.” To thefe may be added the fol¬
lowing, which are to us perfectly unintelligible upon any
other fuppofition; “ and the Lord God faid, let us go down,
and there contound their language f.” “ If I be a Mcjltr (in )- Gen. ti,
the Hebrew adonim, masters), where is my fear j ?” “ The 6, 7-
fear of the Lord (Jehovah) is the beginning of wifdom, 1 Ma*- u
and the knowledge of the Holy (in the Hebrew holy ones)
is underftanding ||.” “Remember thy Creator (Hebrew, j| jx>
thy Creators) in the days of thy youth*.” “And now 10.
the Lord God and his Spirit hath fent me J” “ Seek ye *_Eccl.
out of the book of the Lord and read ; for my mouth it
hath commanded, and his spirit it hath gathered them f-”x!vtu. j6.
That thefe texts imply a plurality of divine perfons, ^ ifaiah
feems to us incontrovertible. It has been already ob-xxxiv. 16.
ierved, that when Mofes reprefents God as Lying,, let u a
3 I make
434 THEOLOGY. Part If,
GocJara make man, the majefty of the plural number had not been Christ, and the Hoi,y Ghost, which might have fug- God and
bates adopted by eaithly fovereign^; and it is obvious that the gefted a thought that one only of the three is God } but in ^’3 a^l'h
.—Supreme Being could not, as has been abfurdjy fuppofed, the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy -bntes'
‘ call upon angels to make man ; for in different places of Ghost. Whatever honour, reverence, or regard, is paid ' V ^
* Jobix. g.fcripture * creation is attributed to God alone. Hence it is to the firft perfon in this folemn rite, the fame we cannot
Ifa. xlv./v/that Solomon fpeaks of Creators in plural number, though but fuppofe paid to all three. Is he acknowledged as the
J‘m'J he means only the one Supreme Being, and exhorts objedt of worfhip ? So are the other two likewife. Is he
men to remember them in the days of their youth. In God and Lord over us? So are they. Are we enrolled
the paffage hilt quoted from Ifaiah, there is a diftindtion as fubjedfs, fervants, and foldiers, under him ? So are we
jmde between the Lord God and his Spirit; and in the equally under all. Are we hereby regenerated and made
other, three divine perfons are introduced, wz. the Speaker, the temple of the Father ? So are we 'likewife of the Son
trie Lot d, and the Spirit of tue Lord. It does not, how- and Holy Ghoft. “We will come (fays our Saviour t) 1 John xiir
ever, appear evident from thefe paffages, or from any other and make our abode with him.” »j*
that we recoiled! in the Old Tefiament, that the perfons in If thofe who believe the infpiration of the fcriptures
Deity are three and no more: but no fober Chriftian will could require any further proof that the Godhead compre-
harbour a doubt but that the precde number was by fome bends a Trinity of perfons in one nature, we might urge upon
means or other made known to the ancient Hebrews; for in- them the apoftolical form of benediftion ; “ The -/race of
quines leading to it would be naturally fuggefted by the our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, Imd the
form in which the high-pneft was commanded to blefs the communion of the Holy Ghost, be with you all*.” *4 Cor
people _ “ The Lord blefs thee and keep thee. The Lord Would St Paul, or any other man of common fenfe, have™- ^
make his face to flnne upon thee, and be gracious unto in the fame fentence, and in the moft folemn manner, re-
thee. the Lord lift up his countenance upon thee, and commended his Corinthian converts to the love of God,
f Numb. vi. give thee peace f. . and to the grace and communion of two creatures? We
34j *5, 2 . (Jf this benediction it has been well obferved, that if its fhould think it very abfurd to recommend a man at once
thiee articles be attentively confidered, they will be found to the favour of a king and a beggar ; but how infinitely
to agree refpeftively to the three perfons taken in the uiual fmall is the diltance between the greateft earthly potentate
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, and the meaneft beggar when compared with that which
The 1 ather is the author of blejfing and prefer 'nation. Grace muft for ever fubfift between the Almighty Creator of hea-
andilluminaiian are from the Son, by whom wehave “the light ven and earth and the moll^elevated creature ?
o’ 1 m knowledge of the glory of God, in the face of Jeius But how, it will be allied, can three divine perfons be 6
Lecce is the gift of the Spirit, whofe name is the but one and the fame God ? This is a queflion which has Difficulties
61 ornjorter, and whole firff and belt fruitis the work of ptace (1). been often put, but which, we believe, no created being >n this doe.
ATrinity Similar to tnis benediftion, but much more explicit, is can fully anfwer. The divine natute and its manner oTr^lie*
in unity the the foi m o Chi irtian baptifm ; which, to us who live under exiftence is, to us, wholly incomprehenfible ; and we might
foi 'ture ^ cfiTbhfhes the truth of the doc- with greater reafon attempt to weigh the mountains in a
^ trine of the ! rinity beyond all reafonable ground o! difpute. pair of feales, than by our limited faculties to fathom the
. 0a)s our bluffed Saviour) and teach all nations, bap- depths of infinity. The Supreme Being is prefent in power
tizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and to every portion of fpace, and yet it is demonftrable, that in
of the tioly Ghoft. What was it the apoflles, in obedi- hiseffence heis not extended (feeMfiTAPHY sics,^309, 3<o).
ence to tills command, were to teach all nations? Was it Both thefe truths, his inextenfion and omniprefence, are fun-
not to turn from iheit vanities to the living God; to re- damental principles in what is called natural religion ; and
nounce their idols and lalle gods, and fo to be baptized in the when taken together they form, in the opinion of -moft peo-
Ini^ n ° ^ ^a^ier’ ar-d of the Son, and of the Holy pie, a myftery as incomprehenfible as that of the Trinity
, ‘U) • Jv nat now muft occur to the Gentile nations upon in unity. Indeed there is nothing of which it is more dif-
tuis occai.on, but that, inftead of all their deities, to whom ficult for us to form a diftinff notion than unity fimple,-and
they had before bowed down, they were in future to ferve, abfolutely indivifible ; and we are perfuaded that iuch of
worfhip, and adore, bather. Son, and Holy Ghoft, as the our readers as have been accuftomed to turn their thoughts
only true and living God : i o fuppofe. that God and two inwards, and reflect upon the operations of their awn minds,
creatures aie heie joined together in the folemn rite by will acknowledge the difficulty is not much lefs to them,
which men were to oe admitted into a new religion, which Though the Trinity in unity, therefore, were no Chriftiaa
dire&ly condemns all creature-'iuorjhip, would be fo extra- doftrine,. myfteries muft ftill be believed ; for they are as
vagantly umeaionable, tnat we are perfuaded fuch a fup- ihteparftble from the religion of nature as from that of re-
pontion never was made by any converted Polytheift of an- velation'; and atheifm involves the moft incomprehenfiblfe
tiquity. , he nations were to be baptized in the name of bf all myfteries, even the beginning'of exiftence without a
t nee peiiOns, in the fame manner,. and therefore, doubtlels, caufe. We muft indeed form the beft notions that we can
iii t e j ame fife. It is not faid in the name of God and of this and of all other myfteries ; for if we have no no
is U.o faithful fervants ; nor in the name of God, and tions whatever of a Trinity in unity, we can neither believe
nor
Al l, rfrus Alphonfi, an eminent Jew, converted in the beginning of the 12th century, and prefented to the font by
pnon us a King of Spain, wrote a learned treatife againft the Jews, wherein he prefles them with this feripture, as
a P—m argument t at there are three perions to whom the great and incommunicable name of 'Jehovah is applied. And
even the unconverted Jews, according to Beehai, one of their Rabbies, have a tradition, that when the high-prieft
pionouncec t.ns e mg over the people—elevatione manuum Jit dig ties compefuit, ut Triada exprimerent, “he lifted up his
an s, an . 1 po eo ms fingers into fueh a form as to exprefs a Trinity.’' All the foundation there is for this in the
cnpm.e,. is ev. ix. 2?. As for the reft, be it a matter of fa£t or not, yet if we eonfider whence it comes, there
io lou.e ii..g very remarkable m it. cee Obferv. Jof. de voif in Pug* Fid. p. 400, 556, 557*
Fare IT. T H E O
God and nor dlfbeKeve that do^rlne. _ It is 4iowever to be remem-
his aun- bered, that all oar notions of God are more or lefs analo.
gical; that they muft be exprefied in words which, literally
interpreted, are applicable only to man ; and that propofi-
tions underftood in this literal fenfe may involve an appa¬
rent cOntradi&ion, from which the truth meant to be* ex-
preffed by them would be feen to be free, had we diredl
and adequate conceptions of the divine nature. On this
account it is to be wifhed that men treating of the myllery
of the holy Trinity, had always exprefled themfclves in
fcripture language, and never aimed at being wife beyond
what is written ; but fince they have a&ed otherwife, we
mud, in juftice to our readers, animadvert upon one or two
iiatements ot this dodfrine, which we have reafon to believe
are earneftly contended for by fome who confider themfelves
as the only orthodox.
In the fcriptures, the three perfons are denominated by the
terms Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, or by God, the
word, who is alio declared to be God, and the Spirit of
God. It each be truly God, it is obvious that they muft all
have the fame divine nature, juft as every man has the fame
hunaan nature with every other man; and if there be but one
God, it is equally obvious that they muft be of the fame
individual fybftance or effence, which no three men can pof-
hbly be. In this there is a difficulty ; but, as will be feen
by and by, there is no contradiction. The very terms
Father and Son imply fuch a relation between the two
perfons lo denominated, as that though they are of the
fame lubftance, pofleffed of the fame attributes, and equally
Subordina- God, juft as a human father and his fon are equally men,
^et ^ie kcon^.muft be perfonally fubordinate to the firft. In
tidrd per- niann€r5 Holy Ghost, who is called the Spirit of
fons. God, and is faid to proceed from the Father, and to be fent
by the Son, muft be conceived as fubordinate to both, much
in the lame way as a fon is fubordinate to his parents, tho’
poflelTed of eqital or even of fuperior powers. That this
is the true doctrine, appears.tons undeniable from the words
cl our Saviour himfelf, who, in a prayer addreffed to his
(j Johnxvii. Father, ftyles|| him by way of pre-eminence, “ the only true
3’ God,” as being the fountain or origin of the Godhead
from which the Son and the Holy Ghoft derive their true
divinity. In like manner, St Paul, when oppoling the po-
lytheifm of the Greeks, lays exprefslyj, that- “ to us there
is but one God, the Father, of whom are all things, and
we in, or for, him; and one Tord Jesus Christ, by whom
are all things, and we by him.”
_ -f t-f16 primitive fathers of the Chriftian church main¬
tained this fubordination of the fecond and third perfons
of the bleffed Trinity to the firft, has been evinced with
fuch complete evidence by bilhop Bull, that we do not per¬
ceive how any man can read his works and entertain a
doubt on the fubjeCl. We fhall tranfcribe two quotations
fiom hire, and refer the reader for fuller fatislaCtion to
Je3. \. of his Defenjio jidet Nlcena. The firft fhall be a
paffage cited from Novatian, or whoever is the author of
tne book on the 1 rinity publilhed among the works of
I ertullian, in which the learned prelate affures us the fenfe
of all the ancients is expreffed. “ Qma quid eft Filius, non
ex ie eft, quia nec innatus eft ; fed ex patre eft, quia geni-
tus eft: five dum verbum eft, five dum virtus eft, five dum
fapientia eft, five dum lux eft, five dum Filius eft, et quic-
quid. horum eft, non aliunde eft quam ex Patre, Patn fuo
originem faam debens.” The next is from Athanafius,
who has never been accufed of holding low opinions re-
fpecfting the fecond perlon of the holy Trinity. This
father, in his fifth diicourfe againft the Arians, fays, *“7*
yctp Tot liiavvnv tv Tcivlti r# ccpx'1 >,v 0* xor< o Koyoe, tiv irp-jf rov Bec,,
C? tof yap ial.v n ap^ti, x.ai iTreiSav if; uvlue icr'h, Six tqvto xai 6{9f *!»
, according to Jolnij the word was in this jirjl pan.
$ r Cor.
viiL 6.
L O G Y. j
cip/e, and the word was God. For God is the principle; God and
and becaufi the word is from the principle, therefore the word ^
is God. Agreeably to this dodiifine, the Nicene fathers, f.
in the creed which they publifhed for the ufe of the uni-
verfal church, ftyle the only begotten Son, God of God
Q-o; ex 8i:v.
Regardlefs however of antiquity, and, as we think, of the pieniel by
plain fenfe of fcripture, fome modern divines of great learn-fome mo-
ing contend, that the three perfons in Deity are all conjub-dern di
f.antia!, co-eternal, co-ordinate, without derivation, fubordina-^^'
tion, or dependence, of any fort, as to nature or effence ; whiift
others affirm, that'the fecond and third perfons derive from
the firft their perfonality, but not their nature. We ihall
confider thefe opinions as different, though, from the-ob-
feurity of the language in which we have always feen them
expreffed, we cannot be certain but they may be one and
.the fame. The maintainers of the former opinion hold,
that the three perfons called Elohim in the Old leftament,
naturally independeRt on each other, entered into an agree¬
ment before the creation of the world, that one of them
fhould in the fulnefs of time affume human nature, for the
purpofe of redeeming mankind from that mlfery into which
it was forefeen that they would fall. This antemundane
agreement, they add, conftitutes the whole of that paternal
and filial relation which fubfifts between the firft and fecond
perfona whom we denominate Father and Son ; and they
bold, that the Son is faid to be begotten before all worlds,
to indicate that Ife who was before all worlds was begotten,
or to be begotten, into the office of redeemer; or, more de-
cifively, to iignify that he undertook that office before the
creation, and ajfumed to himfelf feme-appearance or figure
of the reality in which he was to execute it ; and he is
called nonoymc or the only begotten, becaufe he alone was
begotten into the office of redeemer*.
To many of our readers we doubt not but this will
pear a very extraordinary doftrine, and not eafy to be re- , ^
conciled with the unity of God. It is however fufficiently p}je exprcft
overturned by two fentences of hoty fcripture, about thedodtrine o£
meaning of which there can be no difpute. “ In this (faysfcriPture-
St Johnf)' was manifefted the love of God towards us, f J^hniv.
becaufe that God fent his only begotten Son into the world, 9»
that we might live through him.” Taking the word fon in its
utual acceptation, this was certainly a wonderful degree of
love in the Father of mercies to fend into the world on
our account a perfon fo nearly related to him as an only
fon ; but if we fubftitute this novel interpretation of the
words only begotten fon in their ftead, the apoftle’s reafoning
will lofe all its force. St John will then be made to fay,
“ In this was manifefted the love of God toward us, be¬
caufe that God fent a divine perfon equal to himfelf, and no
way related to him, but who had before the creation cove¬
nanted to come into the world, that we might live through
him.” Is this a proof of the love of the perfon here called
God ? Again, the inipired author of the epiftle to the He¬
brews, treating of our Saviour’s priefthood, lays, among
other things expreffive of his humiliation, that “ though he
was a son, yet learned he obedience (or, as others would
render the words vira^aviv, he taught obedience) by the
things which he fuffered J.” If the word fon be here un-j He|Ji v Sj
derftood in its proper fenfe, this verfe difplays in a very
ftriking manner the condefcenfion of our divine Redeemer,
who, though he was no lefs a perfon than the proper Son
of God by nature, yet vouchfafed to learn or teach us obe¬
dience by the things which lie fuffered ; but if we fubftitute
this metaphorical fonfhip in place of the natural, the reafon¬
ing of the author (for that he is reafoning cannot be de¬
nied) will be very extraordinary. “ Though this divine
perfonage agreed before all worlds to fuffer death for the
ledemption of man, yet learned he obedience, or yet taught
3 I 2 he
435 T H E O
, God and Kg us obedience, by the things which he fu{Fered.,, What
his a-tri- feufc Js there in this argument ? Is it a proof of condefcen-
t liUtc ‘ f2on to fulfil one’s engagement ? Surely, if the meaning of
the word jon, when applied to the fecond perfon of the
blefled Trinity, were what is here ..fuppofed, the infpired
writer’s argument would have been more to the purpofe for
which it is brought had it run thus; Though he was
not a Ion, i. e. though he had made no previous agreement,
yet condefcended he to learn or teach,” &c.
The other opinion, width fuppofes the Son and the Holy
Ghoft to derive iron, the Father their perfonality, but not
their nature, is to us wholly unintelligible ; for perfooality
cannot exift, or be conceived in a ftateof reparation from all
natures, any more than a quality can exift in a ftate of re¬
paration from all fubftances. The former of tliefe opinions
we are unable to reconcile with the unity of God ; the lat¬
ter is clothed in words that have no meaning. Both, as far
we can underftand them, are palpable polytheilm ; more
palpable indeed than that of the Grecian philofophers, who
though they worftupped gods many, and lords many, yet
all held one God luprtme over the reft. See Folythe-
g6 1-sm, n^32.
The fecond But it the Son and the Holy Ghoft derive their nature
snd rbird as well their perfonality from the Father, will it not follow
perfon. not^^ t]1Cy, muq; pofterior to him in time, fince every effect
tae i vit,* P°fter!or to its caufe ? No ; this confequence feems to fol¬
low only by reafoning too clofely from one nature to another,
when there is between the two but a very diftant analogy.
It is indeed true, that among men, every father muft be
prior in timp as well as in the order of nature to his fon ;
but were it eflential to a man to be a father, fo as that he
could not exift otherwife than in that relation, it is obvious
that his fon would be coeval with himfelt, though ftill as
proceeding from him, he would be pofterior-dn the order of
nature. This is the cafe with all neceflary csules and ef-
fe&s. The vifible fun is the immediate and neceftary caufe
of light and heat, either as emitting the rays from his own
fubftance, or as exciting the agency of a fluid diffufed for
that purpofe through the whole fyftem. Light and heat
therefore muft be as old as the lun ; and had he exifted from
all eternity, they would have exifted from eternity with
him, though ftill, as his efFefts, they would have been be¬
hind him in the order of nature. Hence it is, that as we
mutt fpeak analogically of the Divine nature, and when
treating of mind, even the Supreme mind, make ufe of
words literally applicable only to the modifications of mat¬
ter, the Ni'cene lathers illuftrate the eternal generation of
the fecond perfon of the blefled Trinity by this proceffion
of light from the corporeal fun, calling him God ct God,
light of hght.
Another comparifon has been made ufe of to enable us
to form iome notion, however inadequate, how three Di-
■v’-ne perfons can fubfift in the fame iubftance, 3nd thereby
conftitute but one God. Moles informs us, that man was
made after the image of God. That this relates to1 the
foul more than to the body of man, has been granted by all
but a few grofs anthropomorphites ; but it has been well
§ T.efsite's °,ai"erve^ that the foul, though in itfelf one indivifibfe and
Secbtitin unextended fubftance, is conceived as coniifting of three
Lontroverfy. principal faculties, the underjlanding, tho memory, and the
•will. Of thefe, though they are all coeval in time, and
equally eflentiai to a rational foul, the underftanding is in
the order of nature obvioufly the firft, and the memory the
fecond ; for things muft. be perceived before they can be re- i
membered ; and they muft be remembered and compared to¬
gether before they can excite volitions, from being, fome
agreeable, and others difagreeable. The raemory therefore
may be laid to fpring from the underftancKng, and the will
L O G Y. Part 11
from both; and as thefe three faculties are conceived to God and
conftitute one foul, fo may three Divine perfons parta- am'fi
king of the fame individual nature or efferice conftitute   ^es' ,
one God. £7
Thefe parallels or analogies are by no means bvought for- No contra,
ward as proofs of the Trinity, of which the evidence is to ‘!n
be gathered wholly from the word of God ; but they ferve he d,,drine
perhaps to help our labouring minds to form the jufteft no-of the Tn.
tions of that adorable myftery which it is poffible for us to mty.
form in the ptefent ftate of our exiftence ; and they feem to
refeue the dodlrine fufficiently from the charge of contradic- ,
tion, which has been fo often urged againft it by Unitarian
writers. To the laft analogy we are aware it has often been
cbjefted, that the foul may as well be faid to coniift of te-n
or twenty faculties as of three, fince the paffions are equally
eflential to it with the underftanding, the memory, and the
will, and are as different from one another as thefe three fa¬
culties are. This, however, is probably a miftake ; for the heft
philofophy feems to teach us, that the pafiions are not in¬
nate ; that a man might exift through a long life a ftranger
to many of them ; and that there are probably no two minds
in which are generated a// the paflions (fee Passion) ; but
underftanding, memory, and will, are abfolutely and equally
neceflary to every rational being. But whatever be in this,
if the human mind can be conceived to be ©ne indivihble fub-
ftance, confifting of different faculties, whether many or
few, why fhould it be thought an impoflibility for the infi¬
nite and eternal nature of God to be communicated to three
perfons adfing different parts in the creation and govern¬
ment of the world, and in the great fcheme of man’s re¬
demption. ^
To the do&rine of the Trinity many objeftions have been objedtrens,
made, as it implies the divinity of the Son and the Holy
Ghoft ; of whom the former aflumed our nature, and in it
died for the redemption of man. Thefe we fhall notice
when we come to examine the revelations more peculiarly
Chriftian ; but there is one objeftion which, as it refpefts
the dodtrine in general, may be properly noticed here. It
is laid that the firft Chriftians borrov/ed the notion of a
Tri-une God from the later Platoniits ; and that we hear
not of a Trinity in the church till converts were made from
the fchool of Alexandria. But if this be the cafe, we may
properly afk, whence had thofe Platonifts the dodlrine them-
felves ? It is not furely fo fimple or fo obvious as to be like¬
ly to have occurred to the reafoning mind of a Pagan phi-
lofopher ; or if it be, why do Unitarians fuppole it to in¬
volve a contradiction ? Plato indeed taught a doftrine in
fome refpefts fimilar to that of the Chriftian Trinity, and
fo did Pythagoras, with many other philofophers o? Greece
and the Eaft (fee Platonism, Polytiteism, and Pytha¬
goras) ; but tho' thefe fages appear to have been on fome *
occalions extremely credulous, and on others to have indul¬
ged themfelves in the moft myfterious {peculations, there is
no room to fuppofe that they were naturally ‘weaker men
than ourfelves, or that they were capable of inculcating as
truths what they perceived to involve a contradiflion. ft he
Platonic and Pythagorean Trinities never could have occur¬
red to the mind of him who merely from the works of crea¬
tion endeavoured to dilcover the being and attributes of
the Creator ; and therefore as thofe philofoplisrs travelled in¬
to Egypt and the Eaft in queft of knowledge, it appears to
us in the higheft degree probable, that they picked up this
myfterious and lublime doftrine in thofe regions where it
had been handed down as a dogma from the remoteft aSes> ^n^re(jj
and where we know that fcience was not taught fyftemati- w
cally, but detailed in colledtions of fententious maxims and
traditionary opinions. If this be io, we cannot doubt but
that the Pagan Trinities had their origin in iome primeeval
reve-
hi-, attri¬
butes.
G«n.
1,27.
rartir. T H E O
God and rcvelatiori. Nothing elfe indeed can account for the general
prevalence of a doctrine fo remote from human imagina¬
tion, and of which we find veftiges in the facred books of
almoft every civilized people of antiquity. The corrupt
flate in which it is viewed in the writings of Plato and
others, is the natural confeqnenge of its defcent through a
long courfe of oral tradition ; and then falling into the
hands of men who bent every opinion as much as poffible
to a conformity with their own {peculations. '-'he Tri¬
nity of Platonifm therefore, inftead of being an objection,
lends, in our opinion, no feeble fupport; to the Chriftiart doc¬
trine, fmce it affords almoft a complete proof of that doc¬
trine’s having made part of the firlt revelations communica¬
ted to man.
. Having thus difcovered that the one God, to whom Mo-
fes gives the plural name Elohim, comprehends three per-
fons ; let us now inquire what power this Tri une God ex¬
erted, when, as the fame facred writer informs us, he crea¬
ted the heaven and the earth. That by the heaven and the
earth is here meant the whole univerfe, vifible and invifible,
is known to every perfon acquainted with the phrafeology
of Scripture ; and we need inform no man converfant with
Knglifh writers, that by creation, in its proper fenfe, is
meant bringing into beings or making that to exift which ex-
illed not before. It muft, however, be acknowledged, that
the Hebrew word Kno does not always imply the produc¬
tion of fiibllance, but very often the forming of particular
organized bodies out of pre-exifting matter. Thus when it
is faid # that “ God created great whales, and every living
creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abun¬
dantly after their kind,” and again, that “ he created man
male and female though the word xia is ufed on both oc-
caftons, we are not to conceive that the bodies of the firft
human pair, and of thefe animals, were brought into being
from nonentity, but only that they were formed by a pro¬
per organization being given te pre-exiftent matter. But
when Moles fays, “ In the beginning God created the hea¬
ven and the earth,” he cannot be fuppoled to mean that
“ in the beginning God only gave form to matter already
exifting of itfelf;” for in the very next verfe we are affured
that after this atl of creation was over, “ the earth was Hill
•without form and void,” or, in other words, in a chaotic
liate.
That the Jews, before the coming of our Saviour, un-
derftood their lawgiver to teach a proper creation, is plain
from that paflage in the iecond book of the Maccabees, in
which a mother, to perfuade her fon to fuffer the cruelleft
tortures rather than forfake the law of his God, ufes the
following argument : “ I befeech thee, my fon, look upon
the heaven and the earth, and all that is therein, and confi-
dcr that God made them of things that were not.” To
the fame purpofe the infpired author of the epiftle to the
Hebrews, when magnifying the excellence of faith, fays,
“ '1 brooch faith we underftand that the worlds were fra¬
med by the word of God, fo that things which are feen were
not made of things which do appear ;” where, as bifhop
Pearfen has ably proved |1, the phrafe is equi-
\ Expoftt,(m vaient to eux in the quotation from the Maccabees.
The very firft verie, therefore, of the book of Genefis in¬
forms us ol a moft important truth, which all the uninfpi-
red wifdom of antiquity could not difeover. It aflures us,
that as nothing exifts by charce, fo nothing is neceftarily
exifting but the three divine perions in the one Godhead
Every thing die, whether material or immaterial, derives its
fub(lance, as well as its form or qualities, fr m the fiat
ef that fdf-exiftent Being, “ who was, and is, and is to
come.”
It does not, however, follow from this verfe, or from any
LOGY.
437
70
Creation
aug'.t by
VIofes.
efthe Creed.
other paflage in the facred Scriptures, that the whole mi- G an 1
verie was called into exiftence at the fame inftant; neither ^1du^tri'
is it by any means evident that the chaos of our world ' •
was brought into being on the firft of thofe fix days during 71
which it was gradually reduced into form. From a paf-The whole
fage £ in the book of Job*, in which we are told by God hirn-^111^^^
felf, that vvhen the ‘‘ foundation of the earth was laid theut onceJ
morning ftars lang together, and all the fons of God fhouted f xxxviii. 7,
for joy, ’ it apoears extremely probable that worlds had
been created, formed, and inhabited, long before our earth
had any exiftence. Nor is this opinion at all contrary to
what Mofes fays of the creation of the ftars; for though
they are mentioned in the fame verfe with the fun and moon,
yet the manner in which, according to the original, they are
introduced, by no means indicates that all the ftars were
formed at the fame time with th'e luminaries ot our fyftem.
Moft of them may have been created long before, and tome
of them fince, our world was brought into being ; for that
claufe (verfe 16.) “ he made the ftars alfo,” is in the He¬
brew no more than “ and the ftars ;” the words he made be¬
ing inferted by the tranflators. The whole verfe therefore
ought to be rendered thus, “ and God made two great
lights ; the greater light to rule the day, and the leffer light
with the ftars to rule the night•where nothing is intima¬
ted with refpedl to the time when the ftars v/ere formed,
any more than in that verfe of the Plalms ||, which exhorts || pfalma
Us to give thanks to God who made the moon and ftars tocs.xx.vi. p,
rule by night; for his mercy endureth “ for ever.” The
firft verfe of the book of Genefis informs us, that all things
fpiritual and corporeal derive their exiftence from God ; but
it is nowhere laid that all matter was created at the fame
time ; and the generations of men afford fufflcient evidence
ot a fucceffive and continual creation of fpirits.
That the whole corporeal univerfe may have been created
at once muft be granted ; but if fo, we have reafon to be¬
lieve that this earth, with the fun and all the planets of the
fyftem, were fuffered to remain for ages in a ftate of chaos,
“ without form aud void becaufe it appears from other
feriptures, that worlds of intelligent creatures exifted, and
even that fome angels bad fallen from a ftate of happinefs
prior to the era of the Mofaic cofmogony. That the bin 7'’-
and the other planets revolving round him were formed at^f ^
the fame time with the earth, cannot indeed be queftioned ; ted at ones,
for it is not only extremely probable in itfelf from the
known laws of nature, but is exprefsly affirmed by the fa¬
cred hiilorian, who relates the formation of the iun and
moon in the order in which it took place. Into the par¬
ticulars of his narrative we have no occafion to enter, as it
is fufficiently explained and vindicated in other articles of'
this work (fee Creation and Earth) ; but there is one
difficulty which, though we have given the common iolu-
tions of it elfewhere, we may again notice in this place,
becanfe it has furnifhed infidel ignorance with fomething
like an obje&ion to the divine legation of the Hebrew law¬
giver. > %
Mofes informs us, that on thefrjl day after the produc-^ difficulty
tion of the chaos, the element of light was created; and yetClved.
within a few fentences he declares, that the fun, the foun¬
tain of light, was not made till the fourth day. How are
thefe two paffages to be reconciled ? We anfwer, That they
may be reconciled many ways. Mofes wrote for the ufe of
a whole people, and not for the amufement or inftrudtian of
a few aftronomers ; and in this view his language is juffici-
.ently proper, even though we fuppofe the formation of the
fun and the other planets to have been carried on at the
lame time, and in the fame progreflive manner, with the for¬
mation ofkthis earth. The voice which called light into,
exiftence would feparate the fiery and luminous particles of
2, v * the-
43S T H E O
(}nd and chaos from thofe which were opake, and, on thishypo-
t^e^13’ confolidate them in one globe, diffufing an obfcure
t,[ir- * , light through the planetary fyftem ; but if the earth’s atmo-
fphere continued till the fourth day loaded with vapours, as
• from the narrative of Mofes it appears to have done, the
fun could not till that day have been feen from the earth, and
may therefore, in popular language, be faid with fufficient
propriety to have been formed on the fourth day, as it was
then fir ft made to appear. (See Creation, n° 13, and'
Earth, n° 10S, 174, 175). But though this folution of
the difficulty ferves to remove the infidel objedfion, and to
fecure the credit of the facred hiftorian, candour compels
us to confefs that it appears not to be the true folution.
The difficulty ilfelf arifes entirely from fuppofing the fun
to be. the foie fountain of light; but the truth of this opi¬
nion is not felf-evident, nor has it ever been eftablifhed by
fatisfaftory proof. It is indeed to a mind divefted of undue
deference to great names, and confidenng the matter with
impartiality, an opinion extremely improbable. The light
of a candle placed upon an eminence may in a dark night be
' ^een |n every direction at the diftance of at lead three miles.
Tut if this fmall body be rendered vifible by means of rays
emitted from itfclf, the flame of a candle, which cannot be
fuppofed more than an inch in diameter, muft, during eve¬
ry inftant that it continues to burn, throw from its own fub-
fiance luminous matter fufficient to fill a fobencal fpace of
fix miles in diameter. This phenomenon, if real, is certain¬
ly furpnfing ; but if we purfue the refleftion a little farther,
our wonder will be greatly increafed. The matter which,
when convertd into flame, is an-inch in diameter, is not, when
Ox. the confiftence of cotton and tallow, of the dimenfions
of the 20th part of an inch ; and therefore, upon the com¬
mon hypothefis, the 20th part of an inch of tallow may be
fo isrefied as to fill a fpace of 113,0976 cubic miles! a ra-
refa&ion which to us appears altogether incredible. We have
indeed heard much of the-divifibility of matter ad infinitum,
and think we underftand what are ufually called demonjlra-
twns of the truth of that propofition ; but thefe demonftra-
tions prove not the aftual divifibility of real folid fubftances,
but only that upon trial we fhall find no end of the ideal
proce's of dividing and fubdividing imaginary extenfion.
Upon the whole, therefore, we are much more inclined
to believe that the matter of light is an extremely fubtile
fund, diffufed through the corporeal univerfe, and only ex-
cited to agency by the fun and other fiery bodies, than that
it confifts of ftreams. continually iffuing from the fubftance
of thefe bodies. It is indeed an opinion pretty generally
received, and certainly not improbable in itfelf, that light
and electricity are one and the fame fubftance (fee El&c-
TRicnr-Index) -, but we know that the eleCtrieal fluid,
though pervading the whole of corporeal nature, and, as
experiments fhow, capable of aCting with great violence,
yet lies dormant and unperceived till its agency be excited
by feme foreign caufe. Juft fo it may be with the matter
otlight. 1 hat. fubftance may be “ diffufed from one end
o Uie creation § to the other, it may traverfe the whole
umverte, form a communication between the moil remote
inheres, penetrate into the inmoft reeeffes of the earth, and
on y wait to be put in a proper motion to communicate vi-
lible fcnfations to the eye. Light is to the organ of fight
what the air is to the organ of hearing. ' Air is the medium
w nci, vi lating on the ear, caufes the fenfation of found ;
but ,t equally extfts round us at all t.mea, though there be
no fouorous body to put it in m0t;011. m
'gin mal be T y eLe."ied at a11bJ night a» well as
by day. from the mod d.ftant fixed flats to this earth, tho'
tt then only flukes our eyes fo as to excite vifible fenfatrons
tvhen impelled by the fun or lome other mats of fire." Nor
§ Nature
difplayed.
L 0 Q Y. Part IF,
let any one imagine that this hypethefis interferes with any God ami
of the known laws of optics ; for if the rays of light be im- ^‘s attri’
pelied in itraight lines, and in ths fame direction in which,
they are fuppofed to be emitted, the phenomena of vifion
muft neceflarily be the fame.
Mofes .there tore was probably a more accurate philofopherMofes a
tnan he is iometimes luppofed to be. 1 he element of lightf°ui|d phi,
was doubtlefs created, as he informs us, on the firft day ; la%h«-
but whether it was then put in that Hate in which it is the
medium of vifion, we cannot know, and we need not in¬
quire, fince there was neither man nor inferior animal with
organs fitted to receive its impreffions. For the firft three
days it may have been ufed only as a powerful inftrument to
reduce into order the jarring chaos. Or if it was from the
beginning capable of communicating vifible fenfations, and
dividing the day from the night, its agency muft have been
immediately excited by the Divine power till the fourth
day, when the. fun was formed, and endowed with proper
qualities for inflrumentally difeharging that office. This
was indeed miraculous, as being contrary to the prefent laws
of nature : but the whole creation was miraculous ; and we
furely need not hehtate to admit a lefs miracle where we
are under the neceffity of admitting a greater. The power
which called light and all other things into exiftence, could
give them their proper motions by ten thoufand different
means ; and . to attempt to folve the difficulties of creation
by philofophic theories refpeCting the laws of nature, is to
trifle with, the common fenfe as well as the piety of man¬
kind : it is to confider as fubfervient to a law that very
power by whofe continued exertion the law is eftabliffied.
Having thus proved that the univerfe derives its being,
as well as tiie form and adjuftment of its leveral parts,
from the one fupreme and lelf-exiftent God, let us here
paule, and refledt on the fubhme conceptions which fuch
aftonifhing works are fitted to give us of the Divine per¬
fections.
And, in the firft place, how ftrongly do the works oftnfinife
creation imprefs upon our minds a conviiftion of the infinite Powt;r
power of their Author? He fpoke, and the univerfe ftartedthe Cm’
into being ; he commanded, and it flood fail. How migh-tor*
ty is the arm which “ ftretched out the heavens and laid
the foundations of the earth ; which removeth the moun¬
tains, and they know it not; which overturneth them in his
anger ; which fhaketh the earth out of her place, and the
pillars thereof tremble ! How powerful the word which
commandeth the fun, and it rifeth not; and which fealeth
up the flats ; ’ which fuflaineth numberlefs worlds of ama¬
zing bulk fufpended in the regions of empty fpace, and di¬
rects their various and inconceivably rapid motions with the
utmoft regularity ! “ Lift up your eyes on high, and be- *
hold, who hath created all thefe things ? By the word of
the Lord were the heavens made, and all the hoft of them
by the breath of his mouth. Hell is naked before him, and
deflrudlion hath no covering. He flretcheth out the North
over the empty place, and hangeth the earth upon nothing.
He has meafured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and
meted out the heavens with a fpan ; and comprehended the
duft of the earth in a meafure ; and weighed the mountains
in feales, and the hills in a balance. Behold ! the nations
ate as a drop of the bucket, and are counted as the fmall
duft of the balance; behold, he taketh up the ifles as a very
little thing. All nations before him are as nothing, and
they are counted to him lefs than nothing, and vanity. To || Pf. xxxiii.
whom then will ye liken God, or what Lkenefs will yecom-ffi9-» Job
pare unto him || ?” *x- 4> &c*
As the works of creation are the effecls of God’s power, /j.
they likewife in the moft eminent manner difplay his wif- 76
dom. This was fo apparent to Cicero, even from theHiswif*
partial0111’
11
And good
fiefs.
Part II. / T H E O
God and partial and very imperfeft knowledge in aftronomy which
l-r- ^’‘3 t‘rRe affor<^e^> t^at he declared § thofe who could alfert
^ 1. ; the contrary void of all underftanding. But if that great
$ Dt Nat- mafter of reafon had been acquainted with the modern dif-
Dmurn, lib coveties in aftronomy, which exhibit numberlefs worlds fcat-
i1, tered through fpace, and each of immenfe magnitude ; had
he known that the fun is placed in the centre of our fyftem,
and that to diverfify the feafons the planets move round him
with exquiiite regularity ; could he have conceived that the
diftindtion between light and darknefs is, produced by the
diurnal rotation of the earth on its own ytis, inftead of that
difproportionate whirling of the whole heavens which the
ancient aftronomers were forced to fuppofe ; had he known
©f the wonderful motions of the comets, and coniidered how'
fuch eccentric bodies have been preferved from falling upon
fome of the planets in the fame fyftem, and the feveral fy~
ftems from falling upon each other; had he taken into the
account that there are yet greater things than thefe, and
“ that we have feen but a few of God’s works —that vir¬
tuous Pagan would have been ready to exclaim in the words
oi: the Pfalmift, “ O Lord, how manifold are thy works !
In wisdom haft thou made them all; the earth is full of
thy riches.”
That creation is the offspring of unmixed goodnefs, has
been already fhown with fufficient evidence (fee Metaphy¬
sics, n J 312. and n 29. of this article) ; and from the vaft:
number ot creatures on our earth endowed with life and
fenfe, and a capability of happinefs, and the infinitely greater
number which probably inhabit the planets of this and other
fyftems, we may infer that the goodnefs of God is as bound-
lefs as his power, and that “ as is his majefty, fo is his mer¬
cy.” Out of his own fulnefs hath he brought into being
numberleis worlds, repleniftred with myriads of myriads of
creatures, furnifhed with various powers and organs, capaci¬
ties and inftinfts ; and out of his own fulnefs-.he continually
and plentifully fupplies them all with every thing neceffary
to make their exiftence comfortable. “ The eyes of all
wait upon him, and he giveth them their meat in due fea*
fon. He openeth his hand and fatisfies the defires of every
living thing : he loveth righteoufnefs and judgment ; the
earth is full of the goodnefs of the Lord. He watereth the
ridges thereof abundantly ; he fettleth the furrows theieof;
he maketh it foft with fhowers, and bleffeth the fpringing
thereof. He crowneth the year with his goodnefs ; and his
paths drop fatnefs. 'ihey drop upon the pafturesof the wil-
dernefs ; and the little hills rejoice on every fide. The paf-
tures are clothed with flocks ; the valleys alfo are covered
with corn ; they fhout with joy, they alfo fmg Survey
the whole of what may be feen on and about this terraque-
ioVc' V’ 0U3 an-d %> if our Maker hath a fparing and a ni-
’ ' gardly hand. Surely the Author of fo much happinels muft
be eifential goodnefs; and we muft conclude with St John,
78 that “ God is love.”
The lecond . i hefe attributes of power, wifdom, and goodnefs, fo con-
the Trbity fPicuoufly displayed in the works of creation, belong in the
the imme- fame lupreme degree to each perfon in the blefied Trinity ;
diate Crea-f°r Mofes declares that the heaven and the earth were crea¬
tor. ted, not by one perton, but by the Elobim. The Kayos in¬
deed, or fecond perfon, appears to have been the immediate
1 Ch.j. 3. Creator ; for St John afFures us |], that “ all things were
made by him, and that without him was not any thing
made that was made.” Some Arian writers of great learn¬
ing (and we believe the late Dr Price was of the num¬
ber) have aflerted, that a being who was created himfelf
may be endowed by the Omnipotent God with the power
01 creating other beings ; and as they hold the Kayos or ivord
to be a creature, they contend that he was employed by
the Supreme Deity to create, not the whole univerfe, but
* Pf. cxlv.
ij, 16
LOGY,
only this earth, or at the utmofl the folar fyftem. “ The old
argument (fays one of them)* that no being inferior to the
great Omnipotent can create a world, is fo childifh as to
de.erve no aniwer. Why may not God communicate the
power of making worlds to any being whom he may choofe
to honour with fo glorious a prerogative ? I have no doubt
but fuch a power may be communicated to many good men
during the progrefs of their exiftence ; and to iay that it
may not, is not only to limit the power of God, but to con-
tradidf acknowledged analogies.” ^
We are far from being inclined to limit the power ofCreat‘017
God. He can certainly do whatever involves not a direftpec,lliar tc>
cdntiadidhon ; and therefore, though we know nothing
logous to the power ot creating worlds^ yet as we perceive
not any contradiction implied in the notion of that power
being communicated, we fhall admit that fuch a Communi¬
cation may be pojfible, though we think it in the higheft de¬
gree improbable. But fuiely no man will contend that the
•whole uniberfe was brought into exiftence by any creature ;
becaufe that creature himfelf, however highly exalted, is ne-.
ceflatily comprehended in the notion of the univerfe. How
St Paul exprelsly affirms that, by the fecond perfon in§ Colof.
the blefted Prinity, 4t were all things created that are in1?-
neaven, and that are in earth, visible and inviftble, whether
they be thrones, or dominions, or principalities, or
powers ; all things were created by him and for him ; and
he is before all things, and by him all things confift.” In¬
deed the Hebrew Scriptures in more places than one f ex-f Ffa. xl.
prefsly declare that this earth, and of courfe the whole folar12- x‘*v- 24»
fyftem, vrz.s formed as well as created, not by any inferior be- Ierern- x-
ing, but by the true God, even Jehovah alone ; and in the *.0 I^'
New Teftament *, the Gentiles are faid to be without ex- *om- U
cufe for not glorifying him as God, “ becaufe his eternal18 *%>
power and Godhead are clearly feen from the creation of
the world. ’ But ir it were natural to fuppofe that the
power of creating worlds has been, or ever will be, commu¬
nicated to beings inferior to the great Omnipotent, this rea-
foning of the apoftle’s would be founded on falfe principles,,
and the fentence which he paffed on the Heathen would be
contrary to juftice.
But though it be thus evident that the ^yos was the im¬
mediate Creator of the univerfe, we are not to fuppofe that
it was without the concurrence of the other two perfons.
p h_e Father, who may be faid to be the fountain of the Di¬
vinity itfelf, was certainly concerned in the creation of the
world, and is therefore in the apoftle’s creed denominated
the “ Father Almighty, Maker or heaven and earth and
tnat the Holy Ghoft or third perfon is likewife a Creator,
we have the exprefs teftimony of two infpired writers • “By
the word of the Lord (fays the Pialmift) were the heavens
made, and all the hoft of them by the breath (Hebrew, Spi¬
rit) of his mouth.” And Job declares, that the “ Spirit
ot God made him, and that the breath of the Almighty
gave him life.” Indeed thefe three divine per Ions are fo
iatimattly united, that what is done by one muft be done
by all, as they have but one and the fame will. This is
the rcafort Aligned by Origen * for our paying divine won- Contr. Com
Hup to each.; cuv tcv TVS cth^das y.«, rov U/OVP.5S6.
T»v ccAnSfia,, ov7a Svo th vrotfcuni orpccyfialoc, fy T„ 0/u.ovoix, xai
T” *«< T» ravbhr, ms (Sovkw*s, “ we worfhip the Fa
cher of truth, and the Son the truth itielf, being two things
as to Hypoftafis, but one in agreement, confent, and fame-
nefs or will. Nor is their union a mere agreement in will
only; it is aphyftcal or effential union: fo that what is done
by one muft neceffarily be done by the others alfo, accord¬
ing to that of our Saviour, “ I am in the Father and the
ratner m me : ihe bather who dwelleth in me, he doth the
works.”
Thua
439
God and
his attri¬
butes.
4'4®
Original
flute of
T H E O
Thai we fee, that to the feveral perfocs in the ever Met-
fed Trinity is equal praifg due for the creation or tie
world. Their all-powerful word commanded into being
every thing that exifts, and by the fame Divine power is
every thing continued in exiftence. Well therefore might
the Pfalmill call upon the heavens and the earth to praiie
the name the Lord ; “ for he commanded, and they were
created. He hath alfo eftabliflied them for ever and ever ;
he hath made a decree which (hall not pafs. Let all things
praife the name of the Lord; for his name C»nbK nw, Fa¬
ther, Sow, and Holy Ghoft, alone is excellent, and his glory
above the earth and heaven.”
Sect.IL Of the Original State of Man, and the
f.rfi Covenant of Eternal Life ’which God vouchfafed
to make with him.
8,° . In the Mofaic account of the creation, every attentive
oLhe Tx 7 reader mull be {truck with the manner in which the fupreme
preflion in Beinp- is reprefented as making man : “ And God faid, let
wh-ich Godus j^ake man in our image, after our likenefs ; and let
is faul to them have dominion over the hfh of the fea, and over the
5 man ^ o[ the air^ and over the catt[e) and over all the earth,
and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earthy
So God created man in his own image ; in the image ot
God created he him ; male and female created he them.
And God bleffed them ; and God faid unto them, be fruit¬
ful, and multiply, and replenifh the earth, and fubdue it ;
and have dominion over the fifh of the lea, and over the
fowl of the air, and over evgry living thing that meveth upon
the earth. And God faid, behold, I have given you every
herb bearing feed, which is upon the face of all the earth;
and every tree, in the which is the fruit ol a tree yielding
feed : to you it fhall be for meat. And God law every
thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good.
And the evening and the morning were the fixth day.
Thus the heavens and the earth were finhhed, and all the
hoft of them. And on the feventh day God ended his
work which he had made ; and he relied on the feventh day
from all his works which he had made. And God blefied the
feventh day, and far.dlified it: becaufethat in it he had reft-
* G(nn ; ed from all his work which God created and made ifT
»6, &c. ii. This is a very remarkable paffage, and contains much im-
3> portant information. It indicates a plurality of perfons in
the Godhead, deferibes the nature of man as he came at
firft from the hands of his Creator, and furnifhes data from
which we may infer what were the duties required of him
in that primeval {late, and what were the rewards to which
gT obedience would entitle him.
fn his own Of the plurality of Divine perfons, and their effential
image. union, we have treated in the preceding feftion, and pro¬
ceed now to inquire into the fpecific nature of the hrft
man. This muft be implied in the ima^e of God, in which
he is faid to have been created ; for it is by that phrafe alone
that he is chafafterized, and his pre-eminence marked over
. the other animals. Now this image or likenefs muft have
been found either in his body alone, his foul alone, or in
both united. That it could not be in his body alone, is
obvious ; for the infinite and omnipotent God is allowed
by all men to be without body, parts, or paffions, and
therefore to be iuch as nothing corporeal can poflibly re-
femble. \
Different If th*8 likenefs is to be found in the human1 foul, it comes
♦pinions re-to be a queftion in what faculty or power of the foul it
fpecStf g confifts. Some have contended, that man is the only crea-
cGGod^6 ture on t^u's eart^ w^° 18 an‘mated by a principle eftentially
different from matter ; and hence they have inferred, that
lie is faid to have been formed in the Divine image, on ac*
L O G Y. „ PanU,
count of the immaterialit y of that vital principle which was Origin*!
infufed into his body when the “ Lord God breathed into iUteul
his noftrils the breath of life, and man became a livinir foul^.5’ ^
That this account of the animation of the body of man in-§ G£D, jj,
dicates a fuperiority of the human foul to the vital pri *;iple 7«
of all other animals, cannot, we think, be queftioned ; but
it does not therefore follow, that the human foul is the on¬
ly immaterial principle of life which animates any terreftrial
creature. It has been fhown elfewhere (fee Metaphysics*
n° 235*), that the power of feniation, attended with indivi¬
dual conlcioufnefs, as it appears to be in all the higher fpe-
cies of animals, cannot reluk from any onjanical ftrudture,
or be the quality of a compound extended being. The vi¬
tal principle in fuch animals thetefore muft be immaterial as
well as the human foul; but as the word immaterial denotes
only a negative notion, the fouls of men and brutes, though
bot^ immaterial, may yefftie fubflances effentialiy different.
Tms being the cafe, it is plain that the Divine image in
which man was formed, and by which he is diftinguiftied
from the brute creation, cannot confift in the mere circum-
ftapee of his mind being a fubftarice different from matter,
but in fome pofitive quality which diftinguifhes him from
evAy other creature on this globe. 83
About this charadteriftic quality very various opinions CaIv.1,:lfl‘c
have been formed. Some have fuppofed jj “ that the image
of God in Adam appeared in that reAitude, righteoufnefs, ^ ^ cy2>>.
and holinefs, in which he was made ; for God made man vinity, b,ili,
upright (Ecclef. vii. 2..), a holy and righteous creature ;ch. 3.
which holinefsand righteoufaefs were in their kind perfecl;
his underftanding was free from all error and miftakes; his
will biaffed to that which is good; his affedions flowed in
a right channel towards their proper objeds; there were no
ftnful motions and evil thoughts in his heart, nor any pro-
penfity or inclination to that which is evil; and the whole
of his condud and behaviour was according to the will of
God. And this righteoufnefs (fay they) was natural, and
not perfonal and acquired. It was not obtained by the exer-
cife of his free-will, buj was created with him, and belong¬
ed to his mind, as a natural faculty or inftind.” They
therefore call it original righteoufnefs, and fuppofe that it was
loft in the fall. s4
To this dodrine many objedions have been made. It hasobjedri
been faid that righteoufnefs confifting in ri.:>ht adions pro-to.
ceeding from proper principles, could not be created with
Adam and make a part of his nature ; becaule nothing which
is produced in a man without his knowledge and confent
can be in him either virtue or vice. Adam, it is added,
was unqueftionably placed in a ftate of trial, which proves
that he had righteous habits to a quire ; whereas the doc¬
trine under confideration, affirming his original righteouf¬
nefs to have been perfed, and therefore incapable of im¬
provement, is inconfillent with a ftate of trial. 1 hat his
underhandirig was fiee from all errors and miftakes, has been
thought a blaiphemous pofition, as it attributes to man one
of the incommunicable perfedions of the Deity. It is like-
wife believed to be contrary to fad ; for either his under¬
ftanding was bewildered in error, or his affedion? flowed
towards an improper objed, when he fuffered himfeif at the
perfuafion of his wife to tranfgrefs the exprefs law of his
Creator. The objedor expreffes his wonder at its having
ever been fuppofed that the whole of Adam s conduct and
behaviour was according to the will of God, when it is fo
notorious that he yielded to the firft temptation with
which, as tar as we know, he was affaile^ m paradite. .
Convinced by thefe and other arguments, that the image
of God in which man was created could not conhft in on- ^
ginal righteoufnefs, or in exemption from all poffibffity ^^ngi,p
error, many learned men, and Biffiop Bull* among others/
* J havciii.
of the an¬
cient fa¬
thers
§ t Cor.
jv. *5,46.
Part If. T H E O
Onpitial have fuppoffd, that ty the imatre of God j's to be under¬
rate ot ^00{i certain gifts and powers fupernaturally infufed by the
, T'1<* Holy Spirit into the minds of our firft parents, to guide
them in the ways ot piety and viitue This opinion they
Opinion of reft chiefly upon the authority of Tatian, Irenseus, Tertul-
Kl?i'Tn eUllli3n’ ^■yPr‘an> Athanafius, and other fathers of the primi-
ofdieTn- t‘ve c^urc^ 5 kut they think, at the fame time, that it is
countenanced by feveral paflages in the New Teftament.
'I'lms when St Paul fays §, “ and fo it is written, The firft
man Adam was made a living foul, the laft Adam was made
a quickening Spiritthey underitand the whole paffage as
relating to the creation ot man, and not as drawing a com-
parifon between Adam and Chrift, to ftiow the great fuoe-
riority of the latter over the former. In fnpport of this
interpretation they obferve, that the apoftle immediately
adds, “ howbeit, that was not firft which is fpiritaal. but
that which is natural, and afterwards that which is fpiii-
tual;” an addition w'hich they think w'as altogether needlefs,
if by the quickening Spirit he had referred to the incarna¬
tion of Chrift, which had happened in the very age in which
he was writing. They are therefore of opinion, that the
body of Adam, after being formed of the dull of the ground,
was firft animated by a vital principle endowed with the fa¬
culties of reafon and fenfation, which entitled the whole
man to the appellation of a living foul. After this they
fuppofe certain graces of the Holy Spirit to have been in¬
filled into him, by which he was made a quickening fpirit,
or formed in the image of God ; and that it was in confe-
quence of this fuccefiion of powers communicated to the
fame perfon, that the apoftle faid, “ Howbeit, that was not
firft which is fpiritual, but that which is natural.”
We need hardly obferve, that with refpeft to a queftion
of this k.nd the authority of Tat'ian and the other fathers
quoted is nothing. Thole men had no better means of
difeovering the true fenfe of the feriptures of the Old
I eftament than we have ; and their ignorance of the l?,n-
guage in which thefe feriptures are written, added to fame
metaphyheal notions relpedting' the foul, which too many of
them had derived from the fchool of Plato, rendered them
very ill qualified to interpret the writings of Moles. Were
authority to be admitted, we fhould confider that of bifhop
Bull and his modern followers as of greater weight than the
authority of ail the ancients to wliOm they appeal. But
authority cannot be admitted ; and the reafoning of this
learned and excellent man from the text of St Paul is furely
very inconclulive. It makes two perfons of Adam ; a firft,
when he was a natural man compofcd of a body anda reafonable
founded ’ 3 i5con<^’ wlien lie was endowed with the gifts of the
.our e • j}0|y Spink and by them formed in the image of God ! In
the vcrle following too, the apoftle exprefsly calls the fecond
man, of whom he had been fpeaking, “ the Lord from
heaven but this appellation we apprehend to be too high
for Adam in the Hate of greateft perfe&ion in which he
ever exifted. Iliat our firft parents were endowed with the
pi ts of the Holy Ghoft, we are lirongly inclined to believe
for reafons which {had be given by and by ; but as theft* gifts
were adventitious to their nature, they could not be that
image in which God ma:Ie man.
Since man was made in the image of God, that phrafe,
whatever be its precile import, muft denote ftnnething pe-
(utia 'Hud at the lame time eflential to human nature ; but
the only two qualities at once natural and peculiar to man
Uic his (hape and his reafon. As none but an anthropomor-
p.nte ky that it was Adam’s Ihape which reflected this
t Warlur- h’8 Creator, it has been concluded that it was the
ton‘‘ Divine acu ty t’ealou which made the refernblance. To give
bT' * ^‘ength to this argument it is obferved that when God
lx‘ aH’ * txt make man in our image,” he immediately adds,
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
*7
Othtr opj-
niutif.
LOGY. * 441
“ and let them have dominion over the flfo of the fea, and over Original
the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth ^are
but as many of the cattle have much greater bodily ftrengtfi   ^ . j
than man, this dominion could not be maintained but by the
faculty of reafon bellowed upon him and withheld from them.
If the image of God was itnpreffed only on the mind of
man, this reafoning feems to be conclufive ; but it has been
well obferved £ that it was the whole man, and not the fmlf G'tt's
alone, or the body alone, that is laid to have been formed in
the divine image ; even as the whole man, foul and body, is >
the feat of the new and fpiritual image of God in regenera¬
tion and famflification. “ The very God of peace (fays
the apoftle) fandlify you wholly ; and may your whole
fpirit, foul and body, be preferved blamdels to the coming of
our Lord Jefus Chrift.” It is worthy of notice too, that
the realon alligned for the prohibition of murder to Noah
and his fons after the deluge, is, that man was made in the
image of God. “ Whofo fheddeth man’s blood, by man
lhall his blood be Ihed ; for in the image of God made he
man.” Thefe texts feem to indicate, that whatever be
-meant by the image of God, it was ftamped equally on the
foul and on the body. In vain is it faid that man cannot re-
femble God in fhape. This is true, but it is little to the
purpofe ; for man does not refemble God in his reafoning
faculty more than in his foim. It would be idolatry to
fuppofe the fupreme majefty of heaven and earth to have a
body or a fhape ; and it would be little fhort of idolatry to
imagine that he is obliged to compare ideas and notions
together; to advance from particular truths to general pro-
pelkions; and to acquire knowledge, as we do, by the tedi¬
ous procefles ot indiiftive and fyHogiftic reafoning. There
can therefore be no direift image of God cither in the foul 88
or in the body of man ; and the phrafe really feems to importTrU€
nothing more than thofe powers or qualities by which maft1thd
was fitted to exercife dominion over the inferior* creation ; *a C’
as if it had been faid, “ Let us make man in our image, after
our likenefs, that they may have dominion, &c.” But the
ereft form of man contributes in fome degree, as well as his
rational powers, to enable him to maintain his authority over
the brute creation ; for it has been obftrved by travellers,
that the fierceft beaft of prey, unlefs ready to perifti by
hunger, {brinks back from a ftea.dy look of the human fact
divine.
By fome*, however, who have admitted the probability* Gill, &c,
of this interpretation, another, and in their opinion a ftill
better reafon, has been devifed for its being faid that man
was formed in the image of God. All the members of
Chrift’s body, fay they, were written and delineated iri the
book of God’s purpofes and decrees, and had an ideal ex-
iftence from eternity in the divine mind ; and therefore the
body of Adam might be laid to be formed after the
image of God, becaule it was made according to that
idea. But to this reafoning objeftions may be urged, which
we know not how to nnl'wer. "All things that ever were or
ever (hall be, the bodies of us who live at prtfent as well as
the bodies ot thole who livid 5000 years ago, have from all
eternity had an ideal exiftence in the Divine mind ; nor in
this fenfe can one be laid to be prior to another. It could
not therefore be after the idea of the identical body of
Chrift that the body of Adam was formed ; for in the Di¬
vine mind ideas of both bodies were prtfent together hom aft
eternity, and each body was undoubtedly formed after the
ideal archetype of itfelf. It may be added likewile, that the
body of^Chi ift was not God, nor the idea of that body the
idea of God. Adam therefore could not with propriety, or
even with truth, be laid to have been formed in the image
ot God, if by that phrafe nothing more were intended than
the reiemblance between his body and the body of Chrift.
3 k ' The
442
T H E O
Origina’
ftate of
man.
,8?
Religious
inftrudlion
communi¬
cated to
Adam.
9°.
Inftstution
of the Sab¬
bath.
•f Dr Toy
lor of Nor¬
wich.
9*
Duties of
*nan in his
original
ftate,
8 Gen. i.
aj. v. a.
Theie obje^Hona to this interpretation appear to 115 un-
anfwerable ; but we mean not to dictate to our readers.
Every man will adopt that opinion which he thinks fup-
ported by the bell arguments; but it is obvious, that what¬
ever more may be meant by the image of God in which man
was made, the phrafe undoubtedly comprehends all thofe
powers and qualities by which he is enabled to maintain
his authority over the inferior creation. Among thefe the
faculty of realon is confeffedly the molt important ; for it is
by it that man is capable of being made acquainted with the
Author of his being, the relation which fubfifts between
them, and the duties implied in that relation from the crea¬
ture to the Creator.
That the Irrft, man, however, was not left to difeover thefe
things by the mere efforts of his own unaflifted reafon, we
have endeavoured to (how in another place ; (See Religion,
n° 5— to.); and the conclufion to which u^e were there led, is
confirmed by the portion of revelation before us, The in-
fpired hiftorian fays, that “ God bleffed the feventh day and
[anS'sJied'it, becaufe that in it he had refted from all his
works, which he created and made but Adam could not
have underftood what was meant by the fandification of a
particular day, or of any thing elfe, unlefs he had previoufly
received fome religious inftruftion. There cannot there¬
fore be a doubt, but that as foon as man was made, his
Creator communicated to him J.he truths of what is called
natural religion, which we have endeavoured to explain and
eftablifh in Part I. of this article ; and to thefe were added
the precept to keep holy the Sabbath-day, and fet it apart
for the purpofes of contemplation and worfhip.
This was a very wile inlfitution, as all the divine inflitu-
tions muff be. “ The great end for which we are brought
into life, is to attain the knowledge and be confirmed in the
love of God. 'This includes obedience to his will in thought,
word, and deed, or that courfe of conduct which can
alone make us happy here, and fit us for everlalting glo¬
ry hereafter. But of thefe things we cannot retain a
proper fenfe without clofe and repeated application of
thought ; and the unavoidable cares and concerns of the
prefent life occupying much of our attention, it is, in the
nature of things, neceffary that fome certain portion of
time fhould be appropriated to the purpofes of religious in-
flrudlion and the public adoration of our Creator, in whom
we all live, and move, and have our being.” Hence a very
learned divine f has inferred, that though the particular time
is a matter of politive appointment, the obfervation of a lab-
bath in general is a duty of natural religion, as having its
foundation in the reafon of things. See Sabbath.
Man therefore in his natural and original Hate was a rational
and religious being, bound to do “ juitice, to love mercy, to
walk humbly with his God, and to keep holy the Sabbath-
day.” Thefe feem to be all the duties which in that ftate were
required of him ; for as foon as he was introduced into the
terreftrial paradife and admitted into covenant with his Ma¬
ker, he was placed in afupernatural Hate, when other duties
were of courfe enjoined.
1 hat our firft parents were both made on the fixth
day, Mofes exprefsly affirms when he fays [j, that “God
created them male and female, and blefTed them, and call¬
ed their name Adam (k), in the day when they were
created i” but that they were introduced into the garden
of Eden on that day, is an opinion which, however gene-
ftare f
» an.
Gen. if,
and
LOGY. fanU.
rally it may be received, feems not to be reeoneileable with Gn.nnij
the plain narrative of the facred penman. After telling us
that on the fixth day God hnifhed all his works, which he
faw to be very good, and relied on the feventh day, he briefly
recapitulates the hiflory of the generations of the heavens
and of the earth, gives us a more particular account of the
formation of the firft man, informing us that the “ Lord
G od formed him out of the drift of the ground, and breathed
into his noftrilsthe breath of life, when man became a living
foul and then proceeds to fay j;, that the “ Lord God 1
planted a garden eaftward in Eden, where he put the manj|’.K’'
whom he hai? formed." From this fhort hiftory of the firft,
pair it appears beyond’difpute evident, that neither the man
nor the woman was formed in the garden ; and that from
their creation fome time elapfed before the garden was
prepared for their reception, is likewife evident from a com- ^
parifon of Gen. i. 29. with Gen. ii. 16, 17. In the firft of Before he
thefe paflages God gives to man, immediately after his w*8 p'ace<
creation, “ every herb bearing feed which was upon the^"
face of ail the earth, and every tree, without exception, jen
in which was the fruit of a tree bearing feed : to him he
faid it fhould be for meat.” In the fecond, “ he command¬
ed the man, faying, of every tree of the garden thou mayeft
freely eat ; hut of the tree of knowledge of good and
evil, thou fhalt not eat of it ; for in the day thou eateft
thereof thou fhalt furely die.” When the firft grant of
food was given, Adam and his wife muft have been where
no tree of knowledge grew, and they muft have been in¬
tended to live at leaft fo long in that ftate as that they
fhould have occafion for food, othefrwife the formal grant of
it would have been not only fuperfluous, but apt to miflead
them with refpeft to the fubfequent reftrittion.
In this original ftate man was under the difeipline of what
we have called natural religion, entitled to happinefs while he
fhonld perform the duties required of him, and liable to
punifhment when he fhould negledf thole duties, or tranfgrefs
the law of his nature as a rational and moral agent. This
being the cafe, it is a matter of fome importance, and what
will enable us to perceive more clearly the prerogatives of
Chriilianity, to afeertain, if we can, what the rewards and
punifhments are which naturalj*eligion holds out to her vo¬
taries.
That under every difpenfation of religion the pious and
virtuous man fhall, during the whole of his exiftence, enjoy
more happinefs than milery; and that the incorrigibly wic¬
ked, if there be any fuch, fliall have a greater portion of mi-
fery than happinefs, are truths which cannot be controverted
by any one who admits, that the Almighty governor of the
univerfe is a Being of wifdom, goodnefs, and juftice. But
refpefting the rewards of virtue and the punifhment of vice,
more than thefe general truths feems not to be taught by
natural religion. Many divines, however, of great learning Did not,
and worth, have thought otherwife, and have contended, that when per-
from the nature of things the rewards bellowed by an infinite^?™^
God upon piety and virtue muft be eternal like their au-to eterllJjI
thor. Thefe men indeed appear willing enough to allow life,
that the punifhments with which natural religion is armed
againft vice muft be only of a temporary duration, becaufe
reafon, fay they, is ready to revolt at the thought of everlaJU
ing punifhment.
T his opinion, which confounds natural with revealed reli¬
gion, giving to the former an important truth which belongs
cxclufively
( k.) I he woman was fome time afterwards diftinguifhed by the name of Eve becaufe fhe was to be the mother of
*11 living, and particularly of that blefled feed which was to bruife the head of the ferpent. See Parkhurji’s Lexicon on
the word.
Part IT. T H E O
Otiginal exclusively to the latter, has been fo ably confuted by a learn-
ed writer, who was never averfe from allowing to human
reafon alT tfie difeoveries which it can jullly claim, that we
fhall fubmit his arguments to our readers in preference to
any thing which we can give ourfelves.
“ If reafon doth, on the one hand, feem to revolt at ever.
Ifi/lingpunjbment, we muft confefs that fancy, on the other,
(even when full plumed by vanity), hath fcarce force enough
to rife to the idea of infinite rewards. How the heart of man
came to confider this as no more than an adequate retribution
for his right conduit during the fhort trial of his virtue here,
would be hard to tell, did we not know what menders
pRtDE begot of old upon Pagan philofophy ; and how much
greater ftill thefe latter ages have difclofed, by the long in¬
cubation of fchool-divinity upon folly. What hath been
LOGY,
443
O'lginai
ftate of
94
4rgu-
"rovethn ursed from natural reafon, in fupport of this extravagant
* hey did prefumption, is fo very flender, that it recoils as you enforce
Inconclu- it. Firft, you fay, ‘ that the foul, the fubjeft of thefe eter-
he* nal rewards, being immaterial, and fo therefore unaffeiled by
the caufes v/hich bring material things to an end, is, by its
nature, fitted for eternal rewards.—This is an argument ad
ignorantinm, and holds no farther.—Becaufe an immaterial be¬
ing is not fubjedf to that mode of diffolntion which affeits
material fuhflances, you conclude it to be eternal. This is
going too fait. There may be, and probably are, many
natural cauf.es (unknown indeed to us), whereby immaterial
beings come to an end. But if the nature of things cannot,
yet God certainly can, pyt a final period to fuch a being when
it hath ferved the purpofe of its creation. Doth annihi¬
lation impeach that wifdom and goodnefs which was dif-
played when God brought it out of nothing P Other immate¬
rial beings there are, viz. the fouls of brutes, which have the
fame natural fecurity with man for their exiftence, of whofe
eternity we never dream. But pride, as the poet obierves,
calls God unjujl.
If man alone engrofs not heaven’s bioh care ;
Alone madeperfeEt here, immortal theie.
However, let us (for argument’s fake) allow the human
foul to be unperifhable by nature, and fecured in its ex¬
iftence by the unchanpeable will of God, and fee what will
follow from thence— A n infinite reward for virtue, during one
moment of its exiftence, becaufe reafon difeovers that, by
the law of nature, fome reward is due ? By no means.
When God hath amply repaid us for the performance of our
duty, will he be at a lofs how to difpofe of us for the long
remainder of eternity? May he not find new and endlefs
employment for reafonable creatures, to which, when pro¬
perly difeharged, new rewards and in endlefs fucceflion will
be afiigned ? Modeft reafon feems to di&ate this to the fol¬
lowers of the law of nature. The flattering expedient of
eternal rewards for virtue here was invented in the fim-
plicity of early fpeculation, after it had fairly, brought men
to conclude that the foul is immaterial.
“ Another argument urged for the eternity of the re¬
wards held out by natural religion to the practice of piety
and virtue is partly phyfical and partly moral. The merit
of fervice (fay the admirers o* that religion) increafes in
proportion to the excellence of that Being to whom our fer¬
vice is directed and becomes acceptable. A n infinite being,
therefore, can difpenfe no rewards but what are infinite.
And thus the virtuous man becomes intitled to immortality.
“ The misfortune is, that this reafoning holds equally on
the fide of the unmerciful doffors, as they are called, who
doom the wicked to everlasting punishment. Indeed
were this the only diferedit under which it labours, the
would hold themfelves little concerned,
is, that the argument from infinity 'proves
mercilefs dodlors
But the tiuth
juft nothing. To make it of any force, b^Ji the parties
fhould be infinite. This inferior emanation t)f God’s image,
man, fhould either be fupremely good or lupremely bad, a:
kuid of deity or a kind of dt'vil. But thefe reafoners, in,
their attention to the divinity, overlook the humanity which
ma'-' es the decreafe keep pace with the accumulation, till
the i :it* of lo -ic, that he . nclufioh Jallows the weaker part,
comes ia to end the difpnte j;. f tVarbur-
i hefe arguments feem to prove unanfwerably that im-/0"’'f
mortality is not edential to any part of the compound being
man, and that it cannot be claimed as a reward due to hisjx. ’
virtue. It is not indeed effential to any created being, for
what has not exittence of itfelf, cannot of itfelf have per¬
petuity of exiftence (fee Metaphysics, n’’ 272, &c.) ; and
as neither man nor arirel can be profitable to God, they can¬
not claim from him any thing as a debt. Both, indeed, as
moral agents have duties prelcribed them ; and while they
faithfully perform thefe duties, they have all the feciirity
which can arife from the perfeft benevolence of him who
brought them into exiftence, that they fhall enjoy a fuffi-
cient portion of happinefs to make that exiftence preferable
to non exiftence; but reafon and philofophy furnifh no data
from which it can be inferred that they fhall exiil for ever.
Man is compofed in part of perifhable materials. However
perfedt Adam maybe thought to have been when he came firft
from the hands of his Creator, his body, as formed of the duft
of theground, muft have been naturally liable to decay anddif-
lolution. His foul, indeed, was of a more durable fubftanee;
b " as it was formed to animate his body, and had no prior
confeious exiftence, it is not ealy to conceive what fhould have
led him, under an equal providence, where rewards and
punifhments were exadtly diftributed, to fuppole that one
part of him fhould furvive the other. In his natural and
original ftate, before the covenant made with him in paradife, 95
he was unqueftionably a mortal creature. How long he ^a?1. ^.e"
continued in that ftate, it feems not poffible to form a plan-trmh^icn'
fible conjebture. Bifhop Warburton iuppofts him to have into para-
lived feveral years under no other difpenfation than that oBhfe liable
natural religion; during which he was as liable to death as hist0 tfeath-
fallen pofterity are at preient.
“ We muft needs conclude (fays this learned writer*),* Vivin*
that God having tried Adam in the fate of nature, and ap-^‘’^”»
proved of the good uie he made of his free-will under the
diredfion of that light, advanced him to a fuperior ftation in f96*
Paradife. How long, before this remove, man had con- How long
tinued fubjedt to natural religion alone, we can only guefs: but*1® ^ontinu-
of this we may be aflured, that it was fome confiderable^^ C wt
time before the garden of Eden could naturally be made
fit for his reception. Since Mofes, when he had concluded
his hiftory of the creation, and of God’s rfi on, and fan3ifi.
cation of, the ieventh day proceeds to fpeak of the condi-
tion of this new world in the following terms : “ And God
made every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and
every herb of the field before it grew ; for the Lord God had
not caufed it to rain upon the earthed Which feems plainly f Gen. ft,
to intimate, that when the feeds of vegetables had been 4)5*
created on the third day, they were left to nature, in its
ordinary operations, to mature by fun and fhowers. So
that when in courie of time Paradife was become capable
of accommodating its inhabitants, they were tranfplanted
thither.”
This reafoning is not without a portion of that ingenuity
which was appaient in every thing that fell from the pen of
Warburton ; but it was completely confuted alrr.oft as fooa
as it was given to the public, and fhown to be deduced
from premifes which could be employed againft the author’s
fyftem. If only the feeds of vegetables were created on the
third day, and^then left to nature, in its ordinary operations,
3 K 2 to
444
Origins!
ftare of
man.
* Gen i.
Ji.
97
Imjioifible
to he
ki.own.
^ Gen. ii.
8, ij, 16,
*2-
T H E O
to mature by ion and {bower?, the firfl pair muft have
perifhed before a finale vegetable could be fit to furnilh
them v/ith food; and we may fuppofethat it was to prevent
this di{'after that the garden of Eden was miraculoufly ilored
at once with full grown trees and fruit in perfedi^maturity,
whilft the reft of the earth was left under the ordinary laws
of vegetation. There is, however, no evidence that they
were only the feeds of vegetables that God created. On
the contrary, Mofes fays cxprefsly f, that God made the
earth on the third day bring forth the herb yielding feed alter
his kind, and the tree yielding fruit whole feed was in itlelr
after his kind and when he recapitulates the hiftory of
the creation, he fays, that God made, not every feed, but
every p/ant of the'field before it was in the earth, and every
herb of the field before it grew. From the procefs of vege¬
tation, therefore, nothing can be inferred with refpeft to
the time ox Adam’s introduction into Paradiie, or to afcer-
rain the duration of his or Final date of nature. If angels
were created during the fix days o‘■ which the Hebrew law¬
giver writes the hiftory, an hypothefts very generally received
( fee Anoel though in the opinion of the prefent writer
not very probable, there can be no doubt but our firft pa¬
rents lived a con fide sable time under tne law of nature before
thev were raifed to a iuperior llation in the garden of Eden;
for it feems very evident that the period ot their continu¬
ance in that ilation was not long. Of this, however, no-
thinif can be faid with certainty. T hey may have lived for
years or only a few days in their original (late ; but it is
very neceflary to diftinguiih between that ftate in vvh * i
they were under no other difpenfation than what is com¬
monly called natural religion, entitled, upon their obedience,
to the indefinite rewards of piety and virtue, and their ftate
in Paradife when they were put under a new law, and by
the free grace of God promiied, if they ihould be obedient,
a fupernatural and eternal reward- Into that ftate we mult
now attend them, and afeertain, if we can, the precife terms
of the firft covenant.
Mofes, who in this inveftigatioir is our only guide, tells
us, that the I.ord God, after he had formed the firft pair,
ii planted a garden eaftward in Eden, and took the man
and put him into the garden to chefs it and to keep it.
And the Lord God (continues he) commanded the man,
faying, of every tree of the garden thou mayeft freely eat ;
but of the tree of the knowledge or good and evil thou
{halt not eat of it ; for in the day that thou eateft thereof,
thou {halt furely die Here is no mention made of the
laws of piety and moral virtue refulting from the relation in
which the various individuals of the human race ftand to
each other, and in which all as creatures ftand to God their
Almighty and benefieienc Creator. With thefe laws Adam
was already well acquainted; and he muft have been fenfible,
that as they were founded in his nature no fubfequent law
could difpenfe with their obligation. They have been
equally binding upon all men in every ftate and under every
difpenfation j and they will continue to be fo as long as the
LOGY. Part II.
general ora&t’ce of juftice, mercy, and piety, fhall contribute Origin*!
to the fum of human happinefs. The new law peculiar to
his paradifaical ftate was the command not to eat of the fruit
of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. This was
a pofitive precept, not founded in the nature of man, but
very sroper to be the teft of his obedience to the will of his
Creator. The laws of piety and virtue are fanftioned by
nature, or by that general fyftem of ruie-s according to which q8
God governs the phylical and moral worlds, and by which c
he has fecured, in feme ftate or other, happinefs to
pious and virtuous man, and mifery to fuch ?.s Ihall prove nja(ic
incorrigibly wicked. The law refpedting the forbidden Adam ie
fruit was famftioned by the penalty of death denounced l ar‘“-'he,
againft difobedience ; and by the lubjedls of that law the
nature of this penalty muft have been perfectly underftood :
but Chriftian divines, as we finall afterwards fee, have differed
widely in opinion refpetting the full import of the Hebrew
words which our tranflatoi s have rendered by the phrafe
thou Jhalt furely die. All, however, agree that they threaten¬
ed death, in the common acceptation of the word, or tire
reparation of the foul and body as one part of the ptrnifh-
rnent to be incurred by eating the forbidden fruit; and
hence we muft infer, that had tire forbidden fruit not been
eaten, our tirft parents would never have die'’, btcaufe the
penalty of death was denounced againft no other tranfgreffion.
What therefore is laid refpe£t;ng the fruit of the tree of
knowledge, implies not only a law but alfo a covenant (l).
promifing to man, upon the obfervance of one pofitive pre¬
cept, immortality or eternal life ; which is not effentia! tf>
the nature of any created being, and cannot be claimed a*
the merited reward of the gi eateft virtue or the moit fer¬
vent piety.
This obvious truth will enable us to difpofe of the ob¬
jections which have been fometimes brought by free-think¬
ing divines againft the wifdom and juftice of punifhing lo
feverely as by death the breach of a mere pofitive precept ;
which, confidered in itfelf. or as connected with the general
principles of moral obligation, appears to be a precept of
very little importance. We have only to reply, that as aa
exemption from death is not due either to the nature or to the
virtue of man, it was wife and juft to make it depend upon
the obfervanceof a pofitive precept, to imprefs upon the minds-
of our firft parents a conftant conviction that they were to be
preferved immortal, not in the ordinary courfe of divine pro¬
vidence, but "by the fpecial grace and favour of God. The
fame confideraUoft will fhow us the folly of thole men who.,
becaufe the terms of the firft. covenant, as ftated in fume
fyftems of theology, agree not with certain phiiofophicai
maxims which they have adopted, are for turning all that is
faid of the trees of knowledge and of life into figui e and.
allegory. But the other trees which Adam and Eve were
permitted to eat were certainly real trees, or they muft have
perifhed for want of food. And what rules of interpretation
will authorife us to interpret eating and trees literally in one
part of the fentence and figuratively in the other ? A garden
(l) It does not appear that anv tranfaftion between God and mankind in general was denominated by a word equiva¬
lent to the EngUfh word covenant till the end of the fourth century, when fuch phrateology waa introduced into tfie
church by the celebrated Auguftine, bifhop of Hippo. That the phrafeology is ftriaiy proper, no man can iuppoie
who refle&s on the infinite diftance between the contracting parties, and the abfolute dominion of the one oyer the other.
To be capable of entering int® & covenant, in the proper fenfe of the word, both parties mull have a right eit icr to agree
to the terms propofed or to rejeft them ; but furely Adam had no right to bargain with his Maker, or to ret uie the gut of
immortality on the terms on which it was offered to him. The word difpenfation would more accurately aenote what is
here meant by the word covenant; but as this laft is in general ufe, we have retained it aifufficient, when thus explained, to
diftinguifti what man received from God upon certain pofitive conditionSj.f^pm whathe had a claim to by the coniutution
cf his nature.
1
Part H. J n E o
Oritriral in a delightful cliiTiate is the very habitation, and the fruits
ftate of produced in that garden the very food, which we fhould
Tn',n naturally fuppole to have been prepared lor the progenitors
of the human race ; and though in the garden a&ually fitted
up for this purpole two ti ees were remarkably diltinguifhed
from the reft, oerhaps in fituation and appearance as w^ell as
in ufe, the diftinfiion was calculated to ierve the beft of
purpofes. 1 he one called the tree of lift, of which, while
they continued innocent, they were permitted to eat, ferved
as a facramental pledge or ailurance on the part of God,
that as long ns they fhould chferve the terms of the cove¬
nant their life ftiouldbe preferred; the other, of which it was
death to tafte, was admirably adapted to imprefs upon their
minds the neceftity of implicit obedience to the Divine will,
in whatever manner it miiiht be made known to them.
A oueltion has been Halted, and it is of fome importance,
What would have finally become of men if the fi.rft cove¬
nant had not been violated ? i hat they would have been all
immortal is certain ; but it is by no means certain that they
would have lived for ever upon this eaith. On the contrary,
it has been an article of very general belief in all ages of the
• BulV: church *, that the garden of Eden was an emtlem or type
JLite of of heaven, and therefore called Paroaift (tee Paradise) ;
, Manbfore an(j t^?t lV)^tr the firft covenant, mankind, after a fufficient
tb‘falt’ probation here, were to be tranflaled into heaven without
H,d9i?r.<t tailing death. This doArine is not indeed explicitly
been vu la- taught in icripture ; but many things contpire to make
ted,enti- jt prob?.ble. 1'he trequent communications between
heaven1110 God'and man before the fall(M), feem to indicate that Adam
’ - was training up for fome higher (late than the terreftrial pat a-
dii'e. Had he been intended for nothing but to cultivate
the ground and propagate his fpecic , he might have been
left like other animals to the guidance of his own reafon
and inilincts ; which, after the rudiments of knowledge were
communicated to him, muft iurely have been fufficient to
*SireA him to every thing neceflary to the com1 or to of a life
merely fenfual and lational, otherwrfe he would have been
an im'perfeA animal. It is obvious too, that this earth, how¬
ever fertile it may have originally been, could not have af¬
forded the means of fubfiftence to a race of immortal beings
multiplying to infinity. For thefe reafons, and others
which will readily occur to the reader, it feems incontrover¬
tible, that, under the firft covenant, either mankind would
have been fucceffively tranflated to fome fuperior ftate, or
would have ceaftd to propagate their kind as foon as the
earth fhould have been replenifhed with inhabitants. He
who rtfleAs on the prorr.ift, that, after the general refurrec-
tion, there is to be a new heaven and a new earth, will pro¬
bably embrace the latter part of the alternative; but that
part in its confequences differs not from the former. In the
new earth promifed in the Chriflian revelation, nothing is to
dwell but righteoufnefs. It will therefore be precifely the
fame with what we conceive to be expreffed by the word
heaven ; and if under the firft covenant this earth was to
be converted into a fimilar place, where, alter a certain
period, men fhoutd neither marry nor be given in marriage,
but enjoy what divines have called tire beatific vfion, we
may confidently affirm, that, had the firft covenant been
faithfully obierved, Adam and his pofterity, after a lufficient
ioo probation, would all have been tranflated to fome fuperior
Ant the Hate or heaven.
t ftsA t0 £t them for that ftate, the gifts of divine grace feem
to have been ablolutely neceflary. lo tlrem it was a date
Li O G Y, 445
certainly fupernatural, otherwife a God of infinite vriidorti Ork^tial
and petfeA goodr.els would not, for a moment, have placed
them in an inferior ftate. But to enable any creature, eipe- -Tri_ .j
dally luch a creature as man, whom an ancient philoiopher
has juftly ftyled S/-'’* to rife above its nature,
foreign and divine aid is unqueftionably requilite: and
therefore, though we cannot perfuade ourfdves that the gifts
of the Holy Ghoft conftituted that image of God in which
man was originally made, we agree with bifhop Bull, that
thefe gifts were bellowed upon our firft parents to enable
them t© fulfil the terms of the covenant under which they
were placed.
Upon the w'hole, are think it apparent from the portions of
fevioture which we have examined, that Adam and Eve were
endued with fuch powers of body and mind as fitted them to
exercife dominion over the other animals; that thoie powers
conflituted that image of God in which they are laid to
have been formed ; that they received by immediate revela¬
tion the firft principles of all ufeful knowledge, and elpecial-
ly of that i vftem w hich is ufually called natural religion ; that
they lived for fome time wuth. no other religion, entitled to
the natural rewards of piety and virtue, but ail the while
liable to death ; that they were afterwards tranflated into
paradiie, where they w-ere placed under a new iaw. with the
penalty of death threatened to the breach of it, and the pro- Iof
mife of endiefs life if they fhould faithf ully obferve it ; and ft is there-
that they were endued with the gifts of the Holy Ghoft, tofAe impro-
enable them, it not wanting to themfelves, to fulfil the terms
of that covenant, which has been improperly termed
covinaut f works, fince it flowed from the mere grace ot
God, and conferred privileges on man to which the moffi
perfeA human virtue could lay no juft claim.
Sect. III. Of the Fall of Adam, and.its Confequences,
Ffom the preceding account of the primeval ftate of man*
it is evident that his continuance in the terreftrial paradiie,
together with all tire privileges which he there enjoyed, were
made to depend upon his obfervanceot one pofitive precept.
Every ether duty incumbent on him, whether as resulting
from what is called the law' of his nature, or from the exprefs iq3
command of his God, was as much his duty before as after he ,\s ;c coupp
was introduced into the garden of Eden; and though the he violated
tranfgreffion of any law would undoubtedly have becn°'^y
punitoed, or have been forgiven only in coniequence of fin.
cere repen.ance and amendment, it does not appear that ap0f,t;ve
breach or the moral law, or of the commandment relpettingcomn.and.
the ianAincation or the Sabbath-day, would have been punifh-
ed with death, whatever may be the import of that word in
the olace where it is jlrft threatened- The punifhment was
denounced only again ft. eating the fruit of the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil; For “ the Ford God com¬
manded the man, faying, of every tree of the garden thou
maytit freely eat, but of the tree of the knowledge of good
and evil thou fhalt not eat of it ; for in the day that thou
eateft thereof thou fhalt furely died’ To the u'ord death
in this paffage divines have affixed many and different mean¬
ings. By fome it is fuppoled to import a reparation of the
foul and body, while the latter was to continue in a ftate of
confcious exrftence ; by others, rit is taken to imply annihi¬
lation or a Hate without conlcioufnefs ; by fome, it is imagin¬
ed to fignify eternal life in torments ; and by others a fpi-
titual and moral death, or a Hate neceflarily lubjoA to fin.
( m ) That there were fuch frequent commvroicatioiw-, has been fliown to be in the higheft degree probable by the laUr
Dr Law bilhop of Carliflc- ‘bee his Difiourfe on the'federal Difenjations of revealed Religion.
44<5
T H E O
Ir vvas vi.
la.ed,
fall <-f A- In any one of thefe acceptations it denoted fomething new
to Adam, which he could not underftand without an ex¬
planation of the term ; and therefore, as it vvas threatened as
the punithment of only one tranfgreffion, it could not be
the divine intention to inflift it upon any other.
The abftaining from a particular fruit in the midft of a
garden abounding with- fruits of all kinds, was a precept
which at frft view appears of eafy obfervation ; and the
penalty threatened againft the breach of it was, in every
fenle, awful. The precept, however, was broken notwith-
ilanding that penalty; and though we may thence infer that
our firft parents were not beings of fuch abfolute perfeftion
as by fyftem-building divines they have fometimes been re~
prefented, we fhnll yet find, upon due coufideration, that
the temptation by which they were feduced, when taken
with all its circumil;ances, was fuch as no wife and modeft
man will think himfelf able to have refilled. The fhort hi-
llory of this important tranfaftion, as we have it in the third
chapter of the took of Genefis, is as follows.
“ Now the ferpent was more fubtilethan any beaft of the
field which the Lord God had made ; and he laid unto the
woman, Yea, hath God f?.id, ye fhall not eat of every tree of
the garden ? And the woman faid unto the ferpent, We rpay
eat of the fruit of the trees of the garden; but of the fruitof the
tree which is in the mid(l of the garden, God hath laid ye lhall
•not eat of it, neither fhall ye touch it, left ye die. And the
lerpent faid unto the woman, ye lhall not furely die : For
God doth know, that on the day ye eat thereof, then your
eyes fhall be opened, and ye lhall be as g’ods, knowing good
and evil. And when the woman /uw that the tree was good
lor food, and that it was pldafant to the eyes, and a tree to
be defired to make one wife, fhe took of the fruit thereof,
and did eat, and gave alfo unto her hufband with her, and he
did eat.”
To the lefs attentive reader this cop.verfation between the
a'moft art ^erPent ar|d the woman muft appear to begin abruptly ; and
ful temp- Ldeegl it is not poffible to reconcile it with the natural order
Cation, of a dialogue, or even wuth the common rules of grammar,
but by fuppofing the tempter’s queftion, “ Yea, hath God
faid, ye lhall not eat of every tree of the garden ?” to have
been fuggelted by fomething immediately preceding either
in words or in figmficant figns. Eve had undoubtedly by
fome means or other informed the ferpent that Ihe was for¬
bidden to eat of the fruit upon which he was probably feall-
ing ; and that information, whether given in words or in
aftions, muft have produced the queftion with which the
famed hiftorian begins his relation of this fatal dialogue.
We are told that the woman faw that the tree was good for
food; that it was pleafant to the eyes, and a tree to be defired
to make one wife; but all this fhe could not have feen, had
not the ferpent eaten of its fruit in her prefence. In her
walks through the garden, it might have often appeared,
pleafant to her eyes ; but previous to experience fire could
not know but that its fruit was the moft deadly poifon, far
lefs could fhe conceive it capable of conferring wifdom.
But if the ferpent eat of it berore her, and then extolled its
virtues in rapturous and intelligible language, fhe would at
once fee that it was not deltruttive of animal life, and na¬
turally infer that it had very fmgular qualities. At the
moment Ihe was drawing this inference, it is probable that
he invited her to partake of the delicious fruit, and that her
104
In confe-
dam, and
hs o>nfe.
quences.
LOG Y. Part II.
refufal produced the conference before us. That fhe yield- F* 1 of a.,'
ed to his temptation need excite no wonder ; for lire knew
that the ferpent was by .nature a mute animal, and if he attri-
bated his fpeech to the virtues of the tree, Ihe might infer,
with fome plaufibility, that what had power to raife the
brute mind to human, might raife the human to divine, and
make her and her hulband, according to the promile of the
tempter, become as gods, knowing good and evil. Milton,
who was an eminent divine as well as the prince of poets,
makes her reafon thus with herfelf.
Great are thy virtues, doubtlefs, beft of fruits,
Tho’ kept from man, and worthy to be admir’d;
Whofe tafte, too long forborne, at lirft elfay
Gave elocution to the mute, and taught
The tongue not made for fpeech to fpeak thy praife.
* * * -* " *
   For us alone
Was death invented ? or to us denied
This intelleftual food, for beafts relerved ?
For beafts it feems : yet that one beaft which firft
Hath tafted, envies not, but brings with joy
The good befallen him, author unfufpedt,
Friendly' to man, far from deceit or guile.
What iear I then, rather what know to fear
Under this ignorance of good and evil,
Of God or death, ef law or pen? • ?
Here grows the cure of all, this t divine,
Fair to the eye, inviting to the , ,
Of virtue to make wife ; what hinders then
To reach, and feed at once both body and mind ?
Pa adife Loft, book ix,
Ful! of thefe hopes of rarfing herfelt to divinity, and not,
as has iometimes been fuppofed, led headlong by a lenfual ap¬
petite, fhe took of the fruit and did eat, and gave to her huf¬
band with her, and he did eat. The great poet makes Adam
delude himfelf with the fame fophiftry that had deluded Eve,
-end :nfer, that as the ferpent had attained the language and
reafoning powers of man, they fliould attain
Proportional afeent, which ceuld not be
But to be gods, or angels, demi-gods.
Thus was the covenant, which, on the introdu&ion of our And Adam
firft parents into paradife, their Creator was gracioufly plea-.a^ Eve
Aid to make with thei ,, broken by their violation of the con-
dition on which they were advanced to that fupernatural° para ^
ftate; and therefore the hiilorian tells us, that ‘‘ left they
fhould put forth their hand and take alfo of the tree of life
and eat, and live for ever, the Lord God lent them forth
from_ the garden of Edrn to till the ground from whence
they were taken (n).” Had they been fo fent forth with¬
out any farther intimation relpedting their prefent condi¬
tion or their future prolpedls, and if the- death under which
they had fallen was only a lols of confcioufnefs, they' would
have been in precilely the lame ftate in which they lived be¬
fore they were placed in the garden of Eden ; only their
minds muft now have been burdened with the inward fenfe
of guilt, and they muft have known them tel ves to be fubjedb
to death ; of which, though not exempted from it by nature,
they had probably no apprebenjion till it was revealed to them
in the covenant of life udrich they had fo wantonly broken.
God, however, did not fend them forth thus hopelefs and
forlorn Irom the paradife of delights which they had fo re-
- cently
*05
(n) Ihe ideas which this language conveys are indeed allegorical; but they inform us of this, and nothing but this*
that immortal life was a thing extraneous to our nature, and not put into our pafte or compofition when firil faShioned by >'
the forming hand of the Creator.” IVarburton’s Divine Legation, Book ix. Chap, u
Partir. T H E O
Fall *'f A- cently forfeited. He determined to punlfh them for their
4am, and tranfgrefiion, and at the fame time to give them an opportu-
ii.'. c° fe- recoverJng more than then loll inheritance. Call-
^ t}ierefore the various offenders before him, and inquiring
into their different degrees of guilt, he began with pronoun¬
cing judgment on the ferpent in terms which implied that
there was mercy for man. “ And the Lord God faid unto
the ferpent, Becaufe thou hall done this, thou art curfed
above all cattle, and above every beall of the field: upon
thy belly lhalt thou go, and dull fhalt thou eat all the days
of thy life ; and I will put enmity between thee and the
woman, and between thy feed and her feed: it llral! bruile
I0g thy head, and thou lhalt bruife his heel.”
The temp- That this fentence has been fully inflifted on the ferpent,
ter j unilh- no reafoning can be necelfary to evince. Every fpecies of
ec*' that reptile is more hateful to man than any other terrellrial
creature ; and there is literally a perpetual war between
them and the human race. It is remarkable too that the
bead of this animal is the only part which it is fafe to bruife.
H is tail may be bruited, or even cut off, and he will turn
with fury and death on his adverfary ; but the llightell
llroke on the head infallibly kills him. That the ferpent,
or at kail the greater part of lerpents, go on their belly,
*■ Dila nay's every one knows; though it is fald *, that in fome parts of
JJm;. the call ferpents have been feen with wings, and others
Candour vv‘t^1 feeL a"d that thefe Ipecies are highly beautiful. It
there be any truth in this llory, we may fuppofe that thefe
walking and flying ferpents have beenfuffered to retain their
original elegance, that mankind might lee what the whole
genus was before the curfe was denounced on the tempter
of Eve : but it is certain that moll of the fpecies have
neither wings nor feet, and that many of the moll poifon-
ous of them live in burning defers, where they have nothing
1' See Be- to eat but the dull among which they crawl ||.
chart and To this degradation of the ferpent, infidels have.objedled,
Pliny on implies the punifhment of an animal which was in-
^capable of guilt ; but this objection is founded in thought-
TraveU. kffnefs and ignorance. The elegant form of any fpecies of
inferior animals adds nothing to thehappinefs of the animals
themfelves: the als is probably as happy as the horfe, and
the ferpent that crawls as he that flies. Fine proportions
attradl indeed the notice of man, and tend to imprefs upon
his mind juft notions of the wildom and goodnefs of the
Creator ; but furely the iymmetry of the horfe or the^beauty
of the peacock is more properly displayed for this purpofe
than the elegance of the inftrument employed by the enemy
of mankind. The degradation of the ferpent in the pre¬
fence of our firft parents mull have ferved the bell of pur-
pofes. If they had fo little refledtion as not yet to have dif-
covered that he was only the inftrument with which a more
powerful Being had wrought their ruin, they would be con¬
vinced, by the execution of this fentence, that the forbidden
* fruit had no power in itfelf to improve the nature either of
man or of beaft. But it is impoflible that they could be fo
ftupid as this objedlion fuppofes them. They doubtlefs
knew by this time that fome great and wicked fpirit had
adluated the organs of the ferpent; and that when enmity
was promifed to be put between its feed and the feed of the
woman, that promife was. not meant to be fulfilled by fer¬
pents oqcafionally biting the heels of men, and by men in
return bruifing the heads of ferpents 1 If fuch enmity, though
it has literally taken place, was all that was meant by this
prediction, why was not Adam diredled to bruife the head
of the identical ferpent which had feduced his wife ? If he
could derive any confolation from the exercife of revenge,
furely it would be greater from his revenging himfelf on his
own enemy, than from the knowledge that there fhould be
its confe-
quence*.
107
LOGY. 447
a perpetual warfare between his defeendants and the breed
of ferpents through all generations.
We are told, that when the foundations of the earth were
laid, the morning ftars fang together, and all the fons of God
fhouted for joy ; and it is ?.t leaft probable that there would
be fimilar rejoicing when the fix days work of creation was
finifhed. If fo, Adam and Eve, who were but a little
lower than the angels, might be admitted into the chorus,
and thus be made acquainted with the exiftence of good and
evil Ipirits. At all events, we cannot doubt but their gra¬
cious and merciful Creator would inform them that they had
a powerful enemy ; that he was a rebellious angel capable
of deceiving them in many ways; and that they ought there¬
fore to be conftantly on their guard againft his wiles. They
muft have known too that they were themfelves animated
by fomething different from matter; and when they found
they were deceived by the ferpent, they might furely, with¬
out any remarkable ftretch of lagacity, infer that their ma¬
lignant enemy had actuated the organs of that creature in a.
manner fomewhat fimilar to that in which their own fouls-
adluated their own bodies. If this be admitted, the degra¬
dation of the ferpent would convince them of the weaknets
of the tempter when compared with their Creator; and
confirm their.hopes, that lince he was not able to preferve
unhurt his own inftrument of milchief, he fhould not be
able finally to prevail againft them ; but that though he
had bruifed their heels, the oromiled feed of the wroman
fhould at laft bruife his head, and recover the inheritance
which they had loft. See Prophecy, n° 9, 10.
Having thus punifhed the original inftigator to evil, the Sentence
Almighty Judge turned to the fallen pair, and faid to thcF^®”^
woman, “ J will greatly multiply thy forrow and thy con-^,^
ception : in forrow fiialt thou bring forth children ; and thy
defire fhall be to thy hufband, and he fhall rule over thee.
And unto Adam he laid, Becaufe thou haft hearkened un¬
to the voice of thy wife, and haft eaten of the treeol which
I commanded thee, faying. Thou (halt not eat of it ; curled
is the ground lor thy fake ; in forrow fhr.lt thou eat of it all
the days of thy life. Thorns alfo and thiftles fhall it brin^
forth unto thee, and thou fhall eat the herb of the field. In
the fweat of thy face fhalt thou eat bread till thou return
unto the ground ; for out of it waft thou taken : for dull
thou art, and unto duft fhalt thou return.”
Here is a terrible denunciation of toil and mifery and
death upon two creatures ; who, being inured to nothing,
and formed for nothing but happinefs, muft have left infi¬
nitely more horror from fuch a fentence, than we, who are
familiar with death, intimate with rnifery, and " born to
forrow as the fparks fly upward,” can form any adequate
conception of. The hardfhip of it, too, feems to be aggra¬
vated by its being feverer than what was originally threat¬
ened againft the breach of the covenant of life. It was in¬
deed faid, “ la the day thou eateft thereof, thou fhalt furely
die but no mention was made of the woman’s incurring
forrow in conception, and in the bringing forth of children j
of the curfe to be inflidled on the ground ; of its bringing
forth thorns and thiftles in Head of food for the ufe of man ;
and of Adam’s eating bread in forrow and the fweat of his-
face till he fhould return to the duft from which he was taken. roy
Thefe feeming aggravations, however,, are in reality in- An obfeure
fiances of divine benevolence. Adam and Eve were now intimation
fubjedled to death ; but in the fentence paffed on the
pent, an obfeure intimation had been given them that they £rora
were not to remain for ever under its power. It was there- jt<
fore their intereft, as well as their duty, to reconcile them¬
felves as much as poflible to their fate ; to wean their affec¬
tions from this world, in which they were to live only for a
4 time i.
44« T H E O
Fall of A- time; anr! to hope, with humble cor.’fi^ence, in the prornife
dam, and 0f thtir God, that, upon their dtparture from it, they Ihould
Vuences" received into tome better ilate. To enable them to wean
A. - t- their affetiions from earth, nothing could more contribute
than to combine fenfual enjoyment with forrow, and lay
them tinder the tiectffity of procuring their means of fub*
fiftence by labour, hard and often fruitlefs. This would dai¬
ly and hourly imprels upon their minds a full conviclion that
the prefent wot Id is not a place ht to be an everlafting habita¬
tion ; and they would look forward, with pious relignation,
to death, as putting a period to all their woes. Had they
indeed been furnifhed with no ground of hope beyond the
grave, we cannot believe that the .Righteous Judge of all
the earth would have added to the penalty origimally threat¬
ened. That penalty they would doubtlels have inclined the
very day on which they fell; but as they were promifed a
■deliverance from the confequences of their fall, it was pro¬
per to train them up by fevete difeipline for the happinel’s re¬
ferred for them in a future ftate.
After the paflin > of their fentence, the roan and woman
were turned out into the world, where they had formerly
lived before they were placed in the garden of Eden ; and
all future accete to the garden was for ever denied them.
They were not, however, in the fame ftate in which they
were originally before their introduftion into Paradife :
They were now confcious of guilt; doomed to fevere labour;
liable to forrovv and ficknefs, dii'eafe and death : and all thefe
miferies they had brought, not only upon themfelves, but
alfo, as we learn from different paffages of the New Tefta-
ment, upon their unborn pofterity to the end of time. It
may feem indeed to militate agarnft the moral attributes of
God, to inflift rnifery upon children for the fins of their pa¬
rents ; but before any thing can be pronounced concerning
the Divine goodnefs and juftice in the pretent cafe, we
inuft know precifely how much we fuffer in confequence of
Adam’s tranfgreflion, and whether we have ourfelves any
109 fttErre in that guilt which is the caufe of our fufferings.
Doubtful 1 bat women w'ould have had lefs forrow in conception
whether and in the bringing forth of children ; that vve fhould have
been fubjecled to lefs toil and exempted from death, had
exempted1 crur Parent:i n°t fallen from their paradifaical ftate—
from pain are truths incontrovertible by him who believes the infoira-
tmder the tion of the Holy Scriptures ; but that mankind would in
rur| C°Ve’ t*iat ^ate *iave keen wholly free From pain and every bodily
'* diftrefs, is a propofftion which is not to be found in the
Bible, and which therefore no man is bound to believe.
The bodies of Adam and Eve confifted of fit fit, blood, and
bones, as ours do ; they w'ere furrounded by material ob¬
jects as wre are ; and their limbs were unqueftionably ca¬
pable of being fraftured. That their fouls fitould never be
Separated from their bodies while they abftained from the
forbidden fruit, they knew from the infallible promife of
him who formed them, and breathed into their noftrils the
breath of life; but that not a^bone of themfelves or oftheir
numerous pofterity fhould ever be broken by the fall of a
flone or of a tree, they were not told, and had no reaion to
cxpefl. Of fuch fradtures, pain would furely have been the
confequence ; though we have reafon to believe that it
would have been quickly removed by fome infallible remedy,
probably by the fruit of the tree of life.
Perhaps it may be laid, that if w7e fuppofe our firft pa¬
rents or their children to have been liable to accidents of
this kind in the garden of Eden, it will be difficult to con¬
ceive how they could have been preferved from death, as a
none-might have fallen on their heads as well as on their
feet, and have at once deitroyed the principle of vitality.
But this can be fail only by him who knows little of the
phyfical world, and itill lefs of the power of God* There
LOGY.
Part.
are many animals which are fufceptible of pain, and yet not ^'1 l,f A.
ealily killed; and man in oaradife roHht have relembled <^aX3’>H11'-
thefe. At any rate, we are fure that the Omnipotent Crea-
tor could anrl would have prefervtd him from death ; but -y—
we have no reafon to believe that, by a conllant miracle, he
would have preferved him from every kind of pain. In¬
deed, if, under the firft covenant, mankind were in a ftate
of probation, it is certainly conceivable that fome one indi¬
vidual of the numerous race might have fallen into fin, with¬
out adlually breaking the covenant by eating the fruit of
the tree of knowledge ; and fetch a fmuer would undoubted¬
ly have been punifhed by that God who is of purer eyes
than to behold iniquity : but how punifhment could haver
been inflicted on a being exempted from all pofiibility of pain
as well as of death, we confeis ourfeives unable to imagine.
Remorfe, which is the infeparable confequence of guilt, and
conftitutes in our prefent ftate great part of its punifhment,
flows from the fearful looking for of judgment, which the
fenner knows (hall, in a future ftate, devour the adverfaries
of the go (pel of Chrifl ; but he, who could neither fuffer
pain nor death, had no caufe to be afraid of future judge¬
ment, and was therefore not liable to the tortures of re¬
morfe. We conclude, therefore, that it is a miftake to fup¬
pofe pain to have been introduced into the world by the fall
of our firft patents, or at leaft that the opinion contrary to
ours has no foundation in the word of God. Iin
Death, however, was certainly introduced by their fall ;Thou^h
for the infpired apoftle affures us, that in 'Idam all they would
and again, that through the offence of one many are deadf
But concerning the full import of the word death m this xv. 22.
place, and in the fentence pronounced upon our firft parents, f
divines hold opinions extremely different. Many contend,v- 1$4
that it includes death corpo « fp'intu or enor .7 and eternal;
and that all mankind are fubje&ed to thefe three kinds of
death, on account of their fh?.re in the guilt of the original
tranfgreflion, which is ufually denominated original fm, and
confidered as the fource of all moral evil.
That all men are fubje&ed to death corporal in confe¬
quence of Adam’s tranfgreffion, is univerfally admitted; but
that they are in any fenfe partakers of his guilt, and on that
account fubjefted to death fpiritual and eternal, has been
very ftrenuoufly denied. To difeover the truth is of great
importance ; for it is intimately connedted wdth the Chri-
ftian dodtrine of redemption. We fhall therefore ftate, with
as much impartiality as we can, the arguments commonly
urged on each hde of this much agitated queftion : but
fhould the reader perceive, as veiy probably he may, that
we lean more to the one fide than to the other, he will d<»
well to fhitt our book, and, d.iiregarding all artificial fy-
ftems, ftudy, with an unbiafled mind, the writings only of
the prophets and anoftles. , It
Thofe who maintain that all men fmned in Adam, gene-Dotfnnerf
rally ftate their dodbrine thus : “The covenant being made original tin
with Adam as a public perfon, not for himfdf only but^at#t‘*
for his pofterity, all mankind defeending from him by or¬
dinary generation finned in him and fell with him in that
firft tranfgrtfiion ; whereby they are deprived of that origi¬
nal ftghteoufnefs in which he was created, and are utteiiy
indifpofed, dil'abkd, and made oppofite to all that is fpivt-
tually good, and whoHy inclined to all evil, and that conti¬
nually ; which is commonly called original fin, and from
which do proceed all adtual tranfereffions, ft) as we are by
nature children of wrath, bond-flaves to Satan, and juflly
liable to all puRifhments in this world and in that, which is
to come, even to everlaiting reparation from the comfortable
prefence of God, and to moft grievous torments in ioul and
body, without intermiftion, in hell-fire for ever.’,
That which in this paffage wc arc fiift to examine, is the
3 fenlcEce
Pan If. , T H E O
Fall of A- fentence which affirms all mankind defcendinsr from Adam
dam, and ordinary generation to have finned in him and fallen
quences" w‘t^1 ’n ^'ir^ tranlkrellion 5 the truth of which is at-
> - v tempted to be proved by various texts of Holy Scripture.
Thus St Paul fay? exprefsly, that “ by one man fin entered
into the world, and death by fin ; and fo death palled upon
m all men, for that all have fnned. But not as the offence,
Arguments fo alfo is the free gift. For if,' through the offence of onr,
for it. many be dead ; much more the grace of God, and the gift
by grace, which is by one man, Jefus Chrift, hath abound¬
ed unto many ; and not as it was by one that finned, fo is
the gift (for the judgment was by one unto condemnation) ;
but the free gift is of many offences unto junification. For
if, by one man’s offence, death reigned by one; much more
they, who receive the abundance of grace and of the gift
of righteoufnefs, Hull reign in life by one, Jefus Chrift.
Therefore as, by the offence of one, judgment came upon all
men to condemnation ; even fo, by the righteoulnefs of One,
the free gift came upon all men unto juftification of life.
For as by one man’s difobedience many were made fnners ;
| Rom. v. f0 by the obedience of one fhall many be made righteous^;.”
*2, iJ J0'Xn this paffage the apoftle affures us, that all upon whom
death hath paffed have finned; but death hath paffed upon
infants, who could not commit a&ual fin. Infants there¬
fore mult have finned in Adam, fince death hath paffed up¬
on them ; for death “ is the wages only of fin.” He tells
uslikewife, that by the offence of one, judgment came upon
all men to condemnation; and therefore, lince the Righteous
Judge of heaven and earth never condemns the innocent
with the wicked, we muft conclude, that all men partake of
the guilt of that offence for which judgment came upon
them to condemnation. Thefe conclufions are confirmed
by his faying exprefsly, that “ by one man’s difobedience
# Rom. lii. many (i. e. all mankind) were made fnners d' and elfewhere*,
So. and that “ there is none righteous, no not one and that his
'uid" ” I* Ephefian converts “ were dead in trefpaffes and fins, and
were by nature children of wrath even as ethers.” The fame
doffrine, it is laid, we are taught by the infpired writers of
the Old Teftament. Thus Job, expoftulating with God
for bringing into judgment with him fuch a creature as
man, fays, “ Who can bring a clean thing out of an un¬
clean ? Not one.” And Eliphaz, reproving the patient pa¬
triarch for what he deemed prefumption, afks J, “ What is
man that he Ihould be clean, or he who is born of a woman
that he Ihould be righteous ?” From thefe two paffages it
is plain, that Job and his unfeeling friend, though they a-
greed in little elfe, admitted as a truth unqueftionable, that
man inherits from his parents a finful nature, and that it is
impoffible for any thing born of a woman by ordinary ge¬
neration to be righteous. The Pfalmift talks the very fame
language ; when acknowledging, his tranfgreffions, he fays $,
“ Behold I was ftiapen in iniquity, and in fin did my mo¬
ther conceive me.”
Having thus proved the faff, that all men are made fin-
ners by Adam’s difobedience, the divines, who embrace this
fide of the queftion, proceed to inquire how they can be
partakers in guilt which was incurred fo many ages before
they were born. It cannot be by imitation ; for infants,
according to them, are involved in this guilt before they be
capable of imitating any thing. Neither do they admit
that fin is by the apoftle put for the confequences of fin,
and many laid to be made finners by one man’s difobe-
efience, becaufe by that difobedience they were lubjedfed to
death, which is the wages of fin. This, which they call
the doftrine of the Armir.ians, they affirm to be contrary
to the whole fcope and defign of the context; as it con¬
founds together fin and death, which are there reprefented,
-the one as the caufe, and the other as the cffe<?;. It like-
Vou XVIII. Part II.
LOGY.
449
I Job xiv,
4. and xv,
14.
§ Pfalmll.
5.
T,3
Adam’s
guilt impu
ted to his
pofteritj'.
wife exhibits the apoftle reafoning in fuch a manner as Fa!l< fA-
would, in their opinion, difgrace any man of common fenfe,
and much more an infpired writer; for then the fenfe of quencef."
thefe words, “ Death hath paffed upon all men, for that G—v 1
all have finned,” muft be, death hath paffed upon all men,
becaufe it hath paffed upon all men ; or, all men are ob¬
noxious to death, becaufe they are obnoxious to it. The
only way therefore, continue they, in which Adam’s pofte-
rity can be made finners through his difobedience, is by the
imputation of his difobedience to them ; and this impu¬
tation is not to be confidered in a moral fenfe, as the adlion
of a man committed by himfclf, whether good or bad, is
reckoned unto him as his( own ; but in a forenfic fenfe, as
when one man’s debt§ are in a legal way placed to the ac¬
count of another. Of this we have an inftance in the
apoftle Paul, who faid to Philemon concerning Onelrmus,
“ If he hath wronged thee, or oweth thee any thing
Rt it be imputed to me,” or placed to and put on
my account. And thus the pofterity of Adam are made
finners by his dilobedience ; that being imputed to them
and put to their account, as if it had been committed by
them perfonally, though it was not.
Some few divines of this fchool are indeed of opinion,
that the phrafe, “ By one man’s difobedience many were
made finners,” means nothing more than that the pofterity
of Adam, through his fin, derive from him a corrupt na¬
ture. But though this be admitted as an undoubted truth,
the more zealous abettors of the fyftem contend, that it is
not the whole truth. <s It is true (fay they) that all men
are made of one man’s blood, and that blood tainted with
fin ; and fo a clean thing cannot be brought out of an un¬
clean. What is born of, the flelh is fleft), carnal and cor¬
rupt : every man is conceived in fin and fhapen in iniquity ;
but then there is a difference between being made fnners and
becoming finful. The one refpedfs the guut, the other the
pollution of nature ; the one is previous to the other, and
the foundation of it. Men receive a corrupt nature from
their immediate parents ; but they are made finners, not by
any aft of their difobedience, but oiuy by the imputation of
the fin of Adam.”
To confirm and illuftrate this doftrine of imputed fin,
they obferve, that the word y.'ulir1a.iho-aj, ufed by the apoftle,
fignifies conf ituted in a judicial way, ordered and appointed
in the difpenfation of things that fo it fhould be ; juft as
Chrift was made ftn or a finner by imputation, or by that
conftirution of God which laid upon him the fins of all his
people, and dealt with him as if he had been the guilty per-
fon. That this is the fenfe of the paffage, they argue fur¬
ther from the punifhment inflifted on men for the fin of ,T^
Adam. The puniflrment threatened to that fin was death pn t ^ ; s
which includes death corporal, moral, and eternal. Corpo-mm c • r
ral death, fay they, is allowed by all to be fuffered on ac-Putet’ £u
count of the fin of Adam ; and if fo, there muft be guilt,
and that guilt made over to the fufterer, which can be done
only by imputation. A moral death is no other than the
lofs of the image of God in man, which confifted in righte¬
oufnefs and holinefs ; and particularly it is the lofs of ori¬
ginal righteoufnefs, to which fucceeded unrighteoufnefs and
unholinefs. It is both a fin and a punifhment for fin ; and
fince it comes upon all men as a punifhment, it muft fuppofe
preceding fin, which can be nothing but A dam’s diiobc-
dience ; the guilt of which is made over to his pofterity by
imputation, ’ibis appears flill more evident from the pofte¬
rity of Adam being made liable to eternal death in confe-
quence of his tranfgreffion ; for the wages of fin, we are
affuied, is death, even death eternal, which never can be in¬
flifted on guiltlefs perfons. But from the paflage before us
we learn, that “ by the offence of one judgment came upon
3 L aU
4.50
T H E O
rity.
f Rom. v.
14.
Fall of A- all men to condemnation and therefore the guilt of that
dim, and 0ffence mull be reckoned to all men, or they could not be
lienee*'. iuMy condemned for it. That Adam’s fin is imputed to
> 1 Jjis pofterity, appears not only from the words, “ by one
man’s difobedience many were made finnersbut likewife
from the oppofite claufe, 44 fo by the obedience of One (hall
many be made righteous for the many ordained to eter¬
nal life, for whom Chrifl died, are made righteous, or julii-
lied, only through the imputation of his righteoufnefs to
them; and therefore it follows, that all men are made fmners
only through the imputation of A dam’s difobedience.
To this doftrine it is faid to be no objedtion that Adam’s
pofterity were not in being when his fin was committed ;
for though they had not then adtual being, they had yet a
virtual and reprefentative one. They were in him both fe~
* Rom. v. m\naUy an(l federally, and finned in him * ; juft aS Levi was
I2' _ in the loins of Abraham, and paid in him tithes to Melchi-
f tIeL vr- zedeck f. From Adam, as their common parent, they de-
IO‘ rive a corrupt nature; but it is only from him, as their fe-
TI^ deral head, that they derive a fhare of his guilt, and are
Adam a fe-fubje£ted to his puniihment. That he was a federal head
deral head to an hls pofterity, the divines of this fchodl think evident
mh'spofle-^om i3t.ln;ir cal]ed a figure of Chrift j; ; and the firft A-
dam deferibed as natural and earthly, in contradiftinftion to
Chrift the fecond Adam deferibed as fpiritual and the Lord
from heaven ; and from the punifhment threatened againft
his ftn being inflitled not on himfelf only, but on all his
fucceeding offspring. He could not be a figure of Chrift,
fay they, merely as a man ; for all the fons of Adam have
been men as well as he, and in that fenfe were a-s much fi¬
gures of Chrift as he ; yet Adam and Chrift are conftantly
contrafted, as though they had been the only two men that
ever exifted, becaufe they were the only two heads of their
refpeffive offspring. He could not be a figure <9f Chrift
on account of his extraordinary produ&ion ; for though
both were produced in ways uncommon, yet each was
brought into the world in a way peculiar to himfelf. The
firft Adam was formed of the duft of the ground ; the fe¬
cond, though not begotten by a man, was born of a wo¬
man. They did not therefore refemble each other in the
manner of their formation, but in their office as covenant-
heads ; and in that alone the comparifon between them is
exadt.
Nor have any of'the pofterity of Adam, it is faid, reafon
to complain of fuch a procedure. Had he flood in his in¬
tegrity, they would have been, by his Handing, partakers of
all his happinefs ; and therefore fhould not murmur at re¬
ceiving evil throuqh his tall. If this do not fatisfy, let it
be confidered, that fince God, in his infinite wifdom,
thought proper that men fhould have a head and reprefen¬
tative, in whofe hands their good and haopinefs fhould be
placed, none could be fo fit for this high ftation as the com¬
mon parent, made after the image of God, fo wife, fo holy,
juft, and good. Laftly, to filence all objections, let it be
remembered, that what God gave to Adam as a federal
head, relating to himfelf and his pofterity, he gave as the
Sovereign of the univerfe, to whom no created being has a
* See Gill's right to aik, “ What doft thou * ?”
Body of jji- Such are the confequences of Adam’s fall, and fuch the
’viuuy. doftrine of original fin, as maintained by the more rigid
followers of Calvin, 'fhat great reformer, however, was
117 not the author of this doftrine. It had been taught, fo
St Aug,if- early as in the beginning of the fifth century, by St Au-
t heir'of this Su^ne> t^ie celebrated biftiop of Hippo (fee A ugustine) ;
do&riue. and the authority of that father had made it more or lels
prevalent in both the Greek and Roman churches long be¬
fore the Reformation. Calvin was indeed the moft eminent
modern divine by whom it has been held in all its rigour j
116
No caufe
of com-
plaintin
this confli
tution of
thine?.
LOGY. Part If*
and it conftitutes one great part of that theological fyftem Fall of A-
which, from being taught by him, is now known by the
name of Cahnnifm. Thofe by whom it is embraced main- queiiccs'
tain it with zeal, as, in their opinion, forming, together with
the other tenets of their mailer, the only pure fyftem of
evangelical truths ; but it hath met with much oppoikion
in lome of the Lutheran churches, as well as from private
divines in the church of England, and from the great bo¬
dy of Dutch remonftrants (fee Calvinism, Arminians,
and Synod of Dort) ; and of their objections it is now
our duty to give a candid view, as well as of the dobtyine
which they fubilitute in its ftead.
They begin then with alleging, that if it was as fovb-Objedions
reign of the univerfe that God gave to Adam what he re-t0it»
ceived in paradife relating to himfelf and his pofterity, A-
dam could in no fenfe of the words be a federal head ; be¬
caufe, upon this fuppofmon, there was no covenant. The
Sovereign of the Univerfe may unqueftionably difpenfe his
benefits, or withhold them, as feems expedient to his infinite
wifdom ; and none of his fubjeCls or creatures can have a
right to fay to him, What doll thou ? But the difpenfing
or withholding of benefits is a tranfaClion very different
from the entering into covenants ; and a judgment is to be
formed of it upon very different principles. Every thing
around us proclaims that the Sovereign of the Univerfe is a
being of perfect benevolence ; but, fay the difciples of the
fchool now under confideration, the ditpenfation given to
Adam in paradiie was fo far from being the offspring of
benevolence, that, as it is underftood by the followers of
Calvin, it cannot poffibly be reconciled with the eternal laws
of equity. Tire felf-exiftent and all-fufficient God might
or might not have created fuch a being as man ; and in ei¬
ther cafe there would have been no reafon for the queftion
“ What doft thou ?” But as foon as he determined to create
him capable of happinefs or mifery, he would not have been
either benevolent or juft, if he had not placed him in a ftate
where, by his own exertions, he might, if he chofe, have a
greater fliare of happinefs than of mifery, and find his ex-
illence, upon the whole, a bleffing. They readily acknow¬
ledge, that the exiftence of any created being may be of
longer or fhorter duration, according to the good pkafure
of the Creator ; and therefore they have no objeftion to the
apoftolic doeffrine, that “ in Adam all die for immortali¬
ty being not a debt, but a free gift, may be bellowed upon
any terms whatever, and with perfedl juliice withdrawn
when thefe terms are not comolied with. Between death,
however, as it implies a lot's of confcioufnefs, and the ex¬
treme mifery of eternal life in torments, there is an immenle
difference. To death all mankind might jullly be fubjeft-
ed through the offence of one ; becaufe they had originally
no claim of right to be exempted from it, though that one
and they too had remained for ever innocent: but eternalAs^^on.
life in torments is a puniihment which a God of jullice andfiftent witk
benevolence can never xnflidt but upon perional guilt of the the juftice
deepeft die. That we can perfonally have incurred guiltGo^'
from a crime committed fome thoufands of years before we
were born, is impoffible. It is indeed a notion, if fuch a
notion can be formed, as contrary to Scripture as to reafon
and common fenfe: for the apollle exprefsly informs us *, * ijohn iif
“ that fin is the tranfgreffion of fome lawand the fin of4-
Adatn was the tranfgreffion of a law which it was never in
our power either to obferve or t© break. Another apoille-j- f Rom. ir*
affures us, that “ where no law is, there is no tranfgreffion15-
but there is now no law, nor has been any thefe 5000 years,
forbidding mankind to eat of a particular fruit; for, accord¬
ing to the Calvinifls themfelvesj, Adam had no foonerl GUI's Bc-
committed his firft fin, by which the covenant with him
broken, than he ceafed to be a covenant-head. The lawL^jJio,
6 given
of thin;:
Part. II. T H E O
Fall of A- gjiven him was no more ; the promife of life by it ceafed ;
dam, aud an(j -(.g fan6lion, death, took place. But if this be fo, how
is it poffibie that his unborn pofterity fhould be under a law
which had no exiftence, or that they fhould be in a vvorfe
hate in confequence of the covenant being broken, and its
promii'e having ceafed, than he himfelf was before the cove¬
nant was firft made r He was originally a mortal being, and
was promifed the fupernatural gift of immortality on the
hngle condition of his,abftaining from the fruit of the tree
of knowledge of good and evil. From that fruit he did not
abftaiu ; but by eating it fell back into his natural ftate of
mortality. Thus far it is admitted that his pofterity fell
with him ; for they have no claim to a fupernatural gift
The icrip- which he had forfeited by his tranfgrdTion. But we cannot
ture, and admit, fay the divines of this fchool, that they fell into his
the nature guilt; for to render it poffibie for a man to incur guilt by
the tranfgreffion of a law, it is neceffary not only that he
have it in his power to keep the law, but alfo that he be
capable of tranfgreffing it by a 'voluntary deed. But furely
no man could be capable of voluntarily eating the forbidden
fruit 5000 years before he himfelf or his volitions exilfed.
The followers of Calvin think it a fufficient objedtion to the
dodhine of trJnifubftantiation, that the fame numerical body
cannot be in different places at the fame inflant of time.
But this ubiquity of body, fay the remonftrants, is not more
palpably abiurd, than the fuppofition that a man could ex¬
ert volitions before he or his will had any exiftence. If in¬
deed there be any difference between the two cafes, it is in
favour of the Catholic dodtrine of the real prefence ; for we
are by no means fo intimately acquainted with the internal
iubftance of body, and what can be predicated of it, as we
are with the nature of guilt and the exercife of volition.
Thefe we know thoroughly as they really are in themfelves;
the former only relatively as it is feen in its qualities.
Nor will the introdudtion of the word imputation into this
important queftion remove a fingle difficulty. For wliat is
it that we mean by faying that the fm of Adam is imputed
to his pofterity? Is the guilt of that fin transferred from him
to them ? So furely thought Dr Gill, when he laid that it
is made over to them. But this is the fame abfurdity as the
making over of the fenfible qualities of bread and wine to
the internal fubftance of our Saviour’s body and blood!
This imputation either found the pofterity of Adam guilty
of his fin, or it made them fo. It could not find them guil¬
ty for the reafon already affigned ; as well as becaufe the
apoftle lays exprefsly, that for the offence of one judgment
came upon all men, which would not be true had all offend¬
ed. It could not make them guilty ; for this reafon, that
if there be in phyfics or metaphyfics a fingle truth felf-evi-
dent, it is, that the numerical powers, a&ions, or qualities,
of one being cannot poffibly be transferred to another, and
be made its powers, adlions, or qualities Different beings
may in diftant ages have qualities of the fame kind ; but as
ealily may 4 and 3 be made equal to 9, as two beings be
made to have the fame identical quality. In Scripture we
nowhere read of the a&ions of one man being imputed to
another. “ Abraham (we are told) believed in God, and
it was counted to him for righteoufntfsbut it was his
own faith, and not the faith of another man, that was fo
counted. “ To him that worketh not, but believeth, his
faith (not another’s) is imputed for righteoufnefs.” And
of our faith in h*m that raifed Chrift from the dead, it is
laid, that “ it fhall be imputed, not to our fathers or our
iai children, but to us for righteoufnefs.”
Meaning of When this phrafe is ufed with a negative, not only is the
that won. man’s own perfonal fin fpoken of, but the non-imputation
of that fin means nothing more but that it brings not upon
the finner condign punilhraent. Thus when Shemei “ laid
tax
The word
IMPUTA¬
TION re¬
moves no
difficulties
in icriji
ture.
LOGY. 451
unto David, Let not my lord impute iniquity unto me it
could not be his meaning that the king ftiould not think ^L.and
that he had offended ; for with the fame breath he a,dded, qatnces.
“ Neither do thou remember that which thy fervant did per-
verfely, the day that my lord the king went out of Jerufa-
1cm, that the king fhould take it to his heart. For thy
fervant doth know that / have fmned.,’ Here he plainly
confeffes hia fin, and declares, that by intreating the king
not to impute it to him, he vvifhed only that it fhould not be
fo remembered as that the king fhould take it to heart, and
punifh him as his perverfenefs deferved. When therefore it
is faid *, that “ God was in Chrift reconciling the world to * 3 £or> v>
himfelf, not imputing to them their iniquities, the meaning 19.
is only that for Chrift’s fake he was pleafed to exempt them
from the punifhment due to their fins. In like manner,
when the prophet, foretelling the fufferings of the Meffiah,
fays, that “ the Lord laid on him the iniquity of us all,”
his meaning cannot be, that the Lord by imputation, made his
immaculate Son guilty of all the fins that men have ever
committed ; for in that cafe it would not be true that the
“juft fuffered for the unjuft,” as the apoftle exprefsly
teaches $ : but the fenfe of the verfe muft be as Biftiop Co-jj peterui'
verdale tranflated it, “ ihrougb him the Lord pardoneth all 18.
our fins.” This interpretation is countenanced by the an¬
cient verfion of the Seventy, Kup/or rapsJ'axtv «.uhv ?«ic
duaptcfi; fi/xav ; words which exprefs a notion very different
from that of imputed guilt. The Meffiah was, without a
breach ofjuftice, delivered for fins of which he had volunta¬
rily offered to pay the penalty ; and St Paul might have
been juftly charged by Philemon with the debts of Onefi-
mus, which he had defired might be placed to his account.
Plad the apoflle, however, expreffed no fuch defire, furely
Philemon could by no deed of his have made him liable for
debts contra&ed by another ; far lefs could he by imputation,
whatever that word may mean, have made him virtually
concur in the contra&ing of thofe debts. Juft fo it feems to
be with refpe& to the lufferings of Chrift for the fins of
men : He could not have been juftly fubje&ed to fuffer-
ing without his pwn confent; and he could not poffibly
have been made guilty of the fins of thofe for whom he fuf¬
fered.
The do&rine of imputed guilt therefore, as tinderftood
by the Calvinifts, is, in the opinion of their opponents, with¬
out foundation in Sci'ipture, and contrary to the nature of
things. It is an impious abfurdity (fay they), to which the
mind can never be reconciled by the hypothefis, that all men
were in Adam both feminally and federally, and finned in
him, as Levi paid tithes to Melchizedeck in the loins of A-
braham. The apoftle, when he employs that argument to
leffen in the minds of bis countrymen the pride of birth and
the lofty opinions entertained of their priefthood, plainly in¬
timates, that he was ufing a bold figure, and that Levi’s
paying tithes is not to be under flood in a ftri& and literal
fenfe. “ Now confider (fays he) how great this man was,
unto whom even the patriarch Abraham gave the tenth
of the fpoils. And, as / may fo fay, Levi alfo, who
receiveth tithes, paid tithes in Abraham : for he was yet
in the loins of his father when Melchizedeck met him.”
This is a very good argument to prove that the Leviticai
priefthood wras inferior in dignity to that of Melchizedeck ;
and by the apoftle it is employed for no other purpofe.
Levi could not be greater than Abraham, and yet Abra¬
ham was inferior to Melchizedeck. This is the whole of St
Paul’s reafoning, which lends no fupport to the do&rine of 123
original fin, unlefs it can be fhown that Levi and all his de-^raLui'E
feendants contra&ed from this circumftance fuch a ffrongtran^mit|2cj
propenfity to the paying of tithes, as made it a matter offrom fajier
extreme difficulty for them, in every fubfequent generation, to fon.
3 L z 'to
45*
T H E O
Fall of A- to comply with that part of the divine law which conflitu-
dam, and ted them receivers of tithes. That all men were feminaliy
in Adam, is granted ; and it is likewife granted that they
may have derived from him, by ordinary generation, difeafed
and enfeebled bodies : but it is as impoffible to believe that
moral guilt can be tranfnfitted from father to fon by the
phylical aft of generation, as to conceive a fcarlet colour to
be a cube of marble, or the found of a trumpet a cannon
ball. That Adam was as fit a perfon as any other to be
entrufted with the good and happinefs of his poflerity, may
be true ; but there is no fitnefs whatever, according to the
Arminians, in making the everlafiing happinefs or mifery of
a whole race depend upon the conduct of any fallible indi¬
vidual. 4,1 That any man fh-ould fo reprefent me (fays Dr
* Vo&rine Taylor '*), that when he is guilty, I am to be reputed
ef Original guilty ; when he tran!grefies, I {hall be accountable and pu-
*S/«, pai, iii. nifhable for his tranfgreffion ; and this before I am born,
and confequently before I am in any capacity of knowing,
helping, or hindering, what he doth : all this every one who
ufeth his underftanding mult clearly fee to be falfe, unrea-
fonable, and altogether inconfiitent with the truth and
goodnefs of God.” And that no fuch appointment ever
had place, he endeavours to prove, by (bowing that the
texts of Scripture upon which is built the doftrine of the
Calvmifts rdpeftmg original fin, will each admit of a very
,54 different interpretation,
The feveral One of the ftrongefb of thefe texts is Romans v. 19.
ti.xts on which we have already quoted, and which our author thus
w, ,cu tins eXp|ajnSi ]-jc obferves, that the apoftle was a Tew, famili-
built cana- any acquainted with the Hebrew tongue; that ne wrote
He of adif-his epiftle as well for the uie of his own countrymen refi-
ferent in- ding in Rome, as for the benefit of the Gentile converts ;
and that though he made ufe of the Greek language, as
molt generally underftcod, he frequently employed Hebrew
idioms. Now it is certain that the Hebrew words nxan
and bib “ fin and iniquity,” are frequently ufed in the Old
Tdlament to fignify fujfering, by a figure of fpeech which
puts the effedt for the caufe'; and it isfurely more probable,
that in the verfe under confideration, the apoftle ufed the
correlponding Greek word H the fame Hebrew
fenie, than that he meant to contradid: what he had laid
in the former verfe, by teaching that all men were made
guilty of an ad of difobedience committed thouiands of
years before the majority of them had any being. In the
preceding verfe he lays, “ that by the offence of one,, judge¬
ment came upon all men to condemnation.” But this can¬
not be true, it by that offence all men were made finners ;
for then judgment mull have come upon each for his own
ihare in the original difobedience. “ Any one may fee
(fays our author) that there is a vaft difference between a
man’s making himfelf a finner by his own wicked ad, and
his being made a finner by the wicked ad of anoll-r. In
the latter cale, he can be a finner in no other fenfe but as
he is a fufferer ; juft as Lot would have been made a finner
with the Sodomites, had he been confumed in the iniquity
ox the city $ ; and as the fubjeds of Abimelech would have
been made finners, had he, in the integrity of his heart,
committed adultery with Abraham’s wife *. That the
people iff Gerar could have contradsd any real gilt from the
ierpreta-
tio«.
Cer. xix
15.
* Gen. xx.
LOGY. Partli
adultery of their fovereign, or that he, by lying with a woman fail of A-
whom he had reafon to believe to be not the wile but the dam, and
fitter of another man, would have incurred all the moral tur¬
pitude of that crime, are pofitions ^which cannot be main¬
tained. Yet he fays, that Abraham had brought upon him
and on his kingdom a great fin ; though it appears, from
comparing the 6th verfe with the 1 7th and j Sth, that he
had not been brought under fin in any other fenfe than as
he was made to fuffer for taking Sarah into his houfe. In
this fenfe, “ Chrift, though we are lure that he knew no
fin, was made fin for us, and numbered with the tranfgref-
fors,” becaufe he fuffered death for us on the crols ; and in
this fenfe it is true, that by the difobedience of Adam all
mankind were made linners, becaufe, in conlequence of
his oft'ence, they wrere by the judgment of God made fub-
jedfi to death.
But it may be thought that this interpretation of the
words fin and Jinntrs, though it might perhaps be admitted
in the 19th verfe, cannot be fuppoled to give the apoftle’s
real meaning, as it would piake him employ in the 12th
verfe an abfurd argument, which lias been already noticed.
But it may perhaps be poffible to get quit of the abfurdity,
by examining the original text inltead of our tranflation.
The Words are, x-*1 ovla; UC 3-ct»?aj avSpaTouf 0 S'avajof ijwxbf*,
tp d iravhf Hfcxploi. In order to afcertain the real fenfe of
thele words, the firft thing to be done is to difcover the an¬
tecedent to the relative a. Our tranflators feem to con-
fider it as ufed abfolutely without any antecedent ; but this
is inaccurate, as it may be queftioned whether the relative
was ever uled in any language without an antecedent either
expreffed or underffood. Accordingly, the Calvinilt critics,
and even many Remonftrants, conlider «vof avfyajr&v in the
beginning of the verfe as the antecedent to ? in the end of it,
and tranllate the claufe under confideration thus : <s And lo
death hath palled upon all men, in whom (viz. Adam) all
have finned.” bavzioc, however, Hands much nearer to ?
than avSpoTrov ; and being of the lame gender, ought, we
think, to be conlidered as its real antecedent: but if lo, the
claufe under confideration Ihould be thus tranllated : “ and
fo death hath palled upon all men, unto which (^o) all have
finned, or, as the Arminians explain it, have fuffered. If this
criticifm be admitted as juft, >f> u mull be confidered as
Handing here under a particular emphafis, denoting the utv
molt length of the confequences ot Adam’s fin (p) ; as if
the apoftle had faid, “ fo far have the confequences of A-
dam’s fin extended, and fpread their influence among man¬
kind, introducing not only a curfe upon the earth, and fur¬
row and toil upon its inhabitants, but even death, uni vex,-
sal death, in every part, and in all ages of the world.”
His words (fay the Remonftrants) will unqueftionably bear
tins fenie j and it is furely much more probable that it is
their true lenfe, than that an infpired writer Ihould have
taught a dodlrine fubverfive ol all our notions of right and
wrong, and which, if really embraced, mint make us inca¬
pable of judging when we are innocent and when guilty.
When the. apoftle fays that there is none righteous, no
not one, he gives us plainly to underftand that he is quo¬
ting from the 14th Pfaim ; and the queltion to be firft an-
fwtrcd is, In what fenfe were thefe words ufed by the Pub
milt ?
<(°)!*1’ wlien conftrued with a dative cafe, often fignifies to or unto, is known to every Greek fcholar. Thus
,ir the way to fame, (Lucian.) Kax.oupyoc. cxi tu Sravalai, a criminal unto death, (Demofth.) rv\Ka.£uy,
to carry to death or execution, (Xfoc.) TV-t<r f*- iKtuitpia t*.*-*bv)Tiy ye have been called to liberty, (Gal. v. 13.) KrtcrSi,1t; e» Xp«r?u,
Wou tTi tpyoic created in Lhrijl Jefus unto good works,. (Ephef. ii.„ lo.) See alio i Thef. xv. 7. ; 2 Tim. ii, 14. ;
and many other places of the New Teftament.
(pj i.p a lias likewife this import, denoting the terminus ad quern in, Phil. iii. 12. and xv. 10.
Part Hi T H E O
Fall of A- mj$ ? That they were not meant to include all the men and
dam, and wornen then Jiving', far lefs all that have ever lived, is plain
quench"- frorri the h'th verfe of the fame Pfalm, where we are told
bJ—v—• that thofe wicked perfon, “ were in great fear, becaufe God
was in the congregation of the righteous.” There was then,
it feems, a congregation of righteous perfons, in onpofition
to thofe called the children of men, of whom alone it is laid
that there was none that did good, no not one. '1 he truth
is, that the perfons of whom David generally complains in.
the book of Pfalms, conllituted a ftrong party dilaffefted to
his perfon and government. That faftion he ddcribes as
proud and oppreflive, as deviling mifchief againft him, as
violent men continually getting together for war. He ftyles
them his enetn'es; and fometimes characterizes them by the
appellation which was given to the apoitate defeendants of
Cain before the deluge. Thus in the 57th Pfalm, which
was compoled when he fled from Saul to the cave in which
be fpared that tyrant’s life, he complains, “ I lie among
them that are fet on fire, even the sons of mfn, whole
teeth are fpears,” &c. ; and again, in the 58th Pialm, he
fays, “ Do ye indeed fpeak righteoufnefs, O congregation ?
Do ye judge uprightly, O ye ions of men ?” Ey comparing
thefe texts with 1 Sam. xxvi. 19. it will appear evident be-
vond difpute, that by the sons of men mentioned in them,
be meant to charafterize thofe enemies who exafperated Saul
againft him. Now it is well known, that there was a party
adhering to the interefts of the houfe of Saul which con¬
tinued its enmity to David during the 40 years of his reign,
and joined with Abfalom in rebellion againft him only eight
years before his death. But it is the opinion of the moft ju-
5 Hammond Aicious commentators $, that the 14th Pfalm was compoicd
®4C’ during the rebellion of Abfalom ; and therefore it is furely
much more probable, that by the children of men, of whom it
is faid there is “ none that doth good, no not one,” the
infpired poet meant to characterize the rebels,, than that he
fhould have direCtly contradicted himfelf in the compafs of
two fentences fucceediag each other. Had he indeed known
that all the children of men, as defeending from Adam,
“ are utterly indifpofed, difabltd, and made oppofite to all
that is fpiritually good, and wholly and-continually inclined,
to all evil,” he could not, with the leaft degree of conliiten-
cy, have reprefented the Lord as looking down from heaven
upon them, to fee if there were any that did underitand and
leek after God but if by the children of men was meant
only the rebel faction, this fcenical reprefentation is perfect¬
ly coniiftent, as it was natural to fuppofe that there might
be in that faCtion feme men of good principles miftedby the
arts of the rebel chiefs.
Having thus afeertained the fenfe of the words as,ongir
nally ufed by the i falmift, the Arminian proceeds to inquire
for what purpofe they were quoted by the apoftie ; and iu
this inquiry be feems to find nothing difficult. The aver-
fion of the Jews from the admiffion of the Gentiles to the
privileges of the gofpel, the high opinion which they enter¬
tained of their own worth and fuperiority to all other na¬
tions, and the ftrong perfuafion which they had that a ftridt
obedience, to their own law was fufficient tojuflify them be¬
fore God, are fads univerfally known ; but it v/as the pur¬
pofe of the apoftie to prove that all men flood in need of a
Redeemer, that Jews as well as Gentiles had been under the
dominion of fin,, and that the one could not ia that refpeCf
claim any fuperiority over the other. He,begins his epitlle,
therefore, with fhowing the extreme depravity of the Hea¬
then world ; and having made good that point, he proceeds
to prove, by quotations from the book of Pfalms, Proverbs,
and Ilaiah, that the Jews were in nowife better than they,
that, every mouth might, be flopped, and all the world ber
LOGY.
453
Fall of A'¬
dam, and
its confe-
quences.
come guilty, orinfuffieient for their own juftification before
God.
The next proof brought by the Calvinifts in fupport of
their opinion, that all men derive guilt from Adam by or- -
dinary generation, is that text in which St Paul fays that
the Ephefians “ were by nature children of wrath even as
others.” To this their opponents reply, that the doClrine
of original fin is in this verfe, as in the lafl quoted, counte¬
nanced only by our tranfiation, and not by the original
Greek as underftood by the ancient fathers of the Chriftian
church, who were greater mafters of that language than we.
The words are two. pumi opyn;; in which it is ob¬
vious, that Ttxya, though in its original fenfe it fignifies the
genuine children of parents by natural generation, cannot
be fo underftood here ; becaufe no man was ever begotten
by, or born of, the abftraft notion wrath. It muft there¬
fore be ufed figuratively ; and in other places of feripture
it often denotes a clofe. relation to any perfon or thing. Thus -
we read of the children of God, of the kingdom, the refur-
rtftion, luiflom, light, obedience, and peace ; whence it is con¬
cluded, that by the children of wrath are meant thofe who
are liable to punifhment or rejection. And becaufe there
were in thofe days fome children, in a lower and lefs pro¬
per fenfe, by adoption, and others, in a higher and more
proper fenfe, by natural generation, of whom the relation
of the latter to their parents was much defer than that
of the former ; the apoftie tells the Ephefians, that they
were by nature children of wrath, to convince them that
they were really liable to'it by the flrifteft and clofeil rela¬
tion pofllble. That the word here is of the fame im¬
port with or i'n/jJ', and that it does not fignify what
we mean by nature in the proper fenfe of that word, the
ancient fathers are generally agreed * ; and that the mo- * See ILot--
dern Greeks, who ilill fpeak a.dialed of the noble l?.n-and
g uage of their a.ncdlors, under hand the word in the fame
fenfe, is apparent from their verfion of the text before us. anc| guidat.
In the moft correct and elegant edition of the New Tefla-on theword
rnent in their vernacular tongue, the words under confiderar?v°K“
tien are thus rendered; rfv.v« aVav xtr»
o'( xourot, where it is impoffible that fvo-ixa can figrify natural,
otherwife the apoftie will be made to fay, not that we are
by the nature derived from Adam liable to wrath, but that
we were naturally begotten by wrath rn the abflradt! For
taking the word in the fenfe of really or truly, both
the ancient and modern Greeks appear indeed to have
the authority of St Paul himfelf; who, writing to Timothy,
calls him y»r7i^ -n-xvov “ Ifis true or genuine ion not to
fignify that he was the child of the apoftie by natural gene¬
ration, hut that he was clofely related to him in the faith
to which St Paul had converted, him. That the words
rfxva yuo-si opyxff can fignily nothing, but truly or really rela¬
tions to .wrath, is, ftill farther evident from the ground af-
figned of that, relation. It is not the fin of Adam, or the
impurity of natural generation, “ but the trefpaftes and fins
in which the Ephefians in time paft walked, according to
the courfe of the world, according to the prince of the
power of the air,” the fpirit that at the timeoi the apoftle’i-
writing “ worked in the children of difobedience.” Surely
no man. can fuppofe that the Ephefians at any paft time
walked in Adam’s trefpafs and fin, or that the prince of
the power of the air tempted thm to eat the tor bidden
fruit.
Having tlms commented on the principal texts which are
cited from the New Teftament to prove the doflrine of
original fin, the Arminians ’treat thole which are quoted
from the Old Tellament, in iuppoi't of the fame doftrincq
with much Ids ceremony. Thus, when Job lays, “who
can. -t
454
Fall of A-
tlam. r.n;l
its confe-
quer.ces.
DoEirine,
part ii.
T H E O
can bring a clean thing out of an unclean? Not one,” he
is ipeaking, fay they, not of the pravity of our nature, but
of its frailty and weaknefs, of the fhortnefs and mifery of
      human life. The fentence is proverbial; and as it is ufed
cnlv to {'unify, that nothing can be more perfect than its
Original, if mult, whenever it occurs, be untierftood accord-
in fto the fubjedt to which it is applied. That in the place
under confideration it refers to our mortality, they think
* Scripture plain from the context ; and Dr Taylor adds*, with fome
plaufibility, that if the words refer to the guilt which we
are fuppofed to derive from Adam, they will prove too
much to ferve «the common feheme of original fin. They
will prove that our natural and inherent pravity, fo far
far from rendering us fit fubjedb; of wrath, may be urged
as a reafon why God fhould not even bring us into judge¬
ment ; for the patriarch’s whole expoftulation runs thus,
“Doll thou open thine eyes upon fuch a one, and bringeft
me into judgment with thee ? Who can bring a clean thing
out of an unclean 1”
The other text, quoted from the fame book, they think
{fill lefs to the purpofe ; for Eliphaz is evidently contrafling
the creature with the Creator; in ccmparifon with whom,
he might well fay, without alluding to origtnad guilt, “ what
is man that be fhould be clean ? and he who is born of
a woman that he fhould be righteous ? Behold he put-
teth no trull in his faints ; yea the heavens are not clean
in his fight. How much more abominable and filthy is
man, who drinketh iniquity like water r” He does not fay,
who derives by birth an iniquitous nature ; for he knew
well, that as we are born, we are the pure workma.nfhip of
God, “ whofe hands have fafhioned and formed every one of
us but “ who drinketh iniquity like water,” who maketh
himfelf iniquitous by running headlong into every vicious
practice.
Of the text quoted from the fifty-firfl pfalm in fupport
of the do&rine of original fin, Dr Taylor labours f, by a
long and ingenious criticifm, to prove that our-tranflators
have mi (taken the fenfe. The word which they have ren¬
dered jhapen, he (hews to be ufed once by Ifaiah, and twice
in the book of Proverbs, to fignify brought forth ; and that
which is rendered conceived me, is never, he fays, employed
in feripture to denote human conception. In this lafl re¬
mark, however, he is contradidted by a great authority, no
lefs indeed than that of Mr Parkhurft J, who fays, that
the I,XX ccnliantly render it by or ty*.nr<rao, and
the Vulgate generally by concipio. Without taking upon us
to decide between thefe two eminent Hebrew fcholars, we
!! Gen. xrx. fhall only obferve, that upon one occafion |) it certainly de-
38,39,40. notes ideas much groffer than thofe which the Pfaknift mufl
compared ]iave ]iaq Gf pjg mother’s conception ; and that there, at
lead, Dr Taylor properly tranflates it inealefeebant, adding,
“ de hoc vero inealefeendi genere loqui Davidem nemo fa-
nus exiftimare potefl. Matrem enim incaluifle, aut ipfum
calefecifce eo modo quo inealefeerent Jacobi pecudes Regem
dicere, prorfus indecorum et abfurdum.” He contends,
however, that the original force of the word is to he hot,
and that it is applied to conception, to refentment, to 'warmth
by which the body is nourifhed, to idolaters in love with
idols, and to the heat of metals. The heat of idolaters,
of refentment, and of metals, are evidently foreign to the
Pialmilt’s pulpofe ; and the idea’ conveyed by the word
inralefcere being fet afide for the reafons already affigned,
there remains only the warmth by which the body is nou¬
rifhed, and of that warmth our author is confident that
D avid fooke.
If this criticifm be admitted, the whole verfe will then
run thus; “ Behold I was born in iniquity, and in fin did my
•V XILi Su-
fra-
% See his
J.exicon on
the word
tan'.
with xxxi.
ZQ.
LOGY. Part II.
mother nurfe mewhich hath no reference to the ori- Fall 0f A-
ginal formation of his conilitution, but is ?. periphrafis of ^m> a,|d
his being a /inner from the avomb, and means nothing more lt8COn(e-
than that he was a great /inner, or had contracted early habits i ^
of fin. He no more defigned to fignify in this vetfe, that
by ordinary generation he had a nature conveyed to him
which was “ utterly indilpofed, difabled, and oppofite to
all that is fpiritually good, and wholly and continually
inclined to evil,” than he meant in another J to fignify f Pf. Iviii.
ftriftly and properly that “the wicked are eftranged iromd-
the womb, and tell lies as foon as they are born or
than Job meant to fignky ||, that from the moment he || Job xxxi.
came from his mother’s womb he had been a guide to thel8‘
widow and a fuccour to the fatherlefs. All thele are hy¬
perbolical forms of expreffion ; which, though they appear
drained, and perhaps extravagant, to the phlegmatic inha¬
bitants of Europe, are perfectly fuited to the warm imagi¬
nations of the orientals, and to the genius of eaflern lan¬
guages. They mean not that Job w'as born with habits of
virtue, that the wicked aCtually walked, and /poke, and fpoke
lies from the inftant of their birth, or that the Pfalmifl was
really Jhapen in fm and conceived in iniquity. This lafl fen¬
tence, if interpreted literally, would indeed be grofsiy im¬
pious : it would make the infpired penman throw the whole
load of his iniquity and fin from off himfelf upon him who
flraped and upon her who conceived him ; even upon that
God “ whofe hands had made him and fafhioned him, and
whom he declares that he will praife for having made him fear¬
fully and wonderfully,” and upon that parent who conceived
him with forrow, and brought him forth with pain, and
to whom the divine law commanded him to render honour
and gratitude. “ But if, after all (fays Dr Taylor*), you* ?cr;pturi
will adhere to the literal fenfe of the text for the common noadne,
doClrine of original fin, fhew me any good reafon why you part ii.
ought not to admit the literal fenfe of the text, this is my
body, for tran/uhjlantiation ? If you fay, it is abfurd to fuppofe
that Chrifl fpeaks of his real natural body; I fay, it is like-
wife abfurd to iuppole that the Pfalmiff fpeaks of his being
really and properly fhapen in iniquity, and conceived in fin.
If you fay, that the ienfe of the words this is my body may¬
be clearly explained by other texts of feripture where the
like forms of fpeech are ufed; I fay, and have fhewn, that
the Pfa.lmill’s fenfe may as clearly and evidently be made
out by parallel texts, where you have the like kind of ex-
preflion. If you fay that tranfubflantiation is attended with
confequences hurtful to piety, I fay that the common doc¬
trine of original fin is attended with confequences equally
hurtful ; for it is a principle apparently leading to all man¬
ner of iniquity to believe that fin is natural to us, that it
is interwoven and ingrafted into our very conflitution from
our conception and formation in the womb.”
The Armfiiians having thus, as they think, proved thatConfeqnen-
the poflerity of Adam are not in any fenfe rendered guilty ces of eat-
by his fin, contend, that the death threatened againfl his("ff d16*01'
eating of the forbidden fruit, and which, in confequence off,.,) A ac¬
ids tranfgreffion, came upon all men, can mean nothingcorc]ing to
more than the lofs of that vital principle which he received the Armi-
when God breathed into his noflrils the breath of life, and11*4118'
he became a living foul. Every thing beyond this is pure
conjecture, which has no foundation in the feriptures of
truth, and is diredly contrary to all the notions of right
and wrong which we have been able to acquire from the
fludy of thofe very feriptures. It is not conceivable from
any thing in the hiftory, that Adam could underfland it of
the lofs of any other life than that which he had lately
received, for no other life is fpoken of to which the threat¬
ened death can be oppofed; and in fuch circumflances it was
ftrange
Part If. T H E O
Fall of A- ftran^e indeed, if by the word r/e-s/o he underftood either
dam, arid eterna] life in mifery, ora neceHity of continuing in fm.
quencesT Tbe fenfe therefore of the threatening, fay they, is this ;
 (T— “ I have formed thee of the dufl of the ground, and breathed
into thy noftrils the breath of life ; and thus thou art be¬
come a living foul. But if thou eateil of the fruit of the
tree of knowledge of good and evil, thou (Irak ceaie to be
a living foul ; for I will take from thee the breath of
life, and thou ihalt return to the dull of which thou wail
formed.”
Pome of Thus far the Arminians of the prefent day (q.') are agreed
them admifin oppofing the doferine of the rigid Calvinifts, and in
the depra- their own notions of the confequences of Adam's
mail na^U" ^ ’ ^ut ^rom ^iat event tbeir adverfaries deduce one con-
turc, fequence, which feme of them admit and others deny. It
is faid, that though we cannot poffibly be partakers in
Adam’s guilt, we yet derive from him a moral tamt and
infedlion, by which we have a natural propenfity to fin ;
that having loft the image of God, in which he was created,
Adam begat fons in his own image ; and in one word, that
the fenfual appetites of human nature were inflamed, and
its moral and intelledlual powers greatly weakened by the
, eating of the forbidden fruit. The heathens themfelves ac¬
knowledged and lampnted tin's depravity, though they were
ignorant of the fource from which it fprung. The lerip- ,
turea affert it, affirming that no man can be born pure and
clean ; that whatever is born of the fiefh, or comes into the
world by ordinary generation, is flefh, carnal and corrupt ;
that the imagination of the thoughts of man’s heart is only
evil continually; that the heart is deceitful above all things
and defperately wicked ; and that out of it proceeds all that
|J Job xiv. is vile and finful [|.
4. John iii. This depravity of human nature, thus clearly deducible
° Gen v'1 ^r0m fcriPture’ ar,d confirmed by the teftimony of ages, an
5' Jaaxvli'.ingenious writer of the moderate Arminian fchool under-
9. Mat. xv. takes to illuftrate upon the principles of natural knowledge.
19. “ \Ve know (fays hef), that there are feveral fruits in
ArVillu ^evera^ pans of the world of fo noxious a nature as to
Urate it deflroy the beft human conftitution upon earth. We
upon prin- aifo know that there are fome fruits in the world which
ciples of na- inflame the blood into fevers and frenzies ; and we are
led^n0W'^°ld t^ie Ilians are acquainted with a certain
|Delany's juice> which immediately turns tire perfon who drinks it
Revelation into an idiot, leaving him at the fame time in the enjoyment
examined 0f 1jJs health and all the powers of this body. Now I afk,
lour Dif Whether it is not poffible, nay whether it is not rational, to
fcrt.'i. and believe, that the fame fruit, which, in the prefent infirmity
J, of nature, would utterly deftroy the human conftitution,
might, in its higheft perfection, at lead difturb, impair, and
difeafe it ? and whether the fame fruit, which would now in-
LOGY.
flame any man living into a fever or a frenzy, might not in¬
flame Adam into a turbulence and irregularity of pafiion
and appetite ? and whether the fame fluids, which inflame
the blood into irregularity of pafiion and appetite, may not
naturally produce infection and impair the conftitution?
That the forbidden fruit had the efftCl to produce iiregula¬
rity of appetite, appears as from other proofs, fo I think
fully and clearly from the covering which Adam and Eve
made ufe of foon alter their offence ; for there is no imagin¬
able reafon for that covering but one, and that one fufficient-
ly demonftrates, that irregularity and violence of appetite, in¬
dependent of the dominion of reafon, was the effedl of their
offence. But the fruit which inflamed the fenfual appetite
might likewile debafe their rational powers; for I alk,
whether the fame juice, which now affeCts the brain of an
ordinary man fo as to make him an idiot, might not affedt
the brain of Adam fo as to bring his underftanding down
to the prefent ftandard of ordinary men ? And if this be
poffible, and not abfurd to be fuppofed, it is evident that the
fubfequent ignorance and corruption of human nature may
be clearly accounted for upon thefe fuppofitions ; nay, I had
almoft faid upon any one of them. For it is univerjr.lly
known, that the infedlions and infirmities of the father affedl
the children yet in his loins ; and if the mother be equally
infedled, muft, unlefs removed by proper remedies, affedt
their pofterity to the end of the world, or at leaft till the race
become extincl. Therefore why all mankind might not by
their firft father’s fin be reduced to the lame condition of
infirmity and corruption with himfelf, efpecially when the
mother was equally infirm and infedl&d,. I believe no man
any way {killed in the knowledge of nature wall fo much as
pretend to lay.”
This account of the corruption of human nature feems to
be generally adopted by moderate divines, as well among the
Calvinifts as among the Arminians; but by the hinh-fliers
in both fchools it is rejefted, upon different principles in¬
deed, with great indignation. The zealous Calvmift con¬
tends, that this hereditary corruntion is not to be accounted
for or attempted to be explained by any principle of pliy-
fical fcience, fince it is part of that punifhment which was
infli&ed on the race for their original fin. If we were not
partrkers of Adam’s guilt, fay they* we fhould not have
been partakers of his corruption. The one is previous to
the other, and the foundation of it. The depravity of hu¬
man nature is a punifhment for fin ; and fo it was threaten¬
ed to Adam, and came upon him as fueh, and fo to all his
j fterity, by tha ordination and appointment of God; for
which there can be no other foundation but the imputation
of Adam’s difobedience to them, nor can any thing elfe
vindicate the righteoufnefs of God. For if the law of na¬
ture
(qJ We fay the Arminians of the prefent day; becaufe in the beginning of this century many of them having imbibed
the fcholaftic notion of the natural and ejfeniial immortality of the foul, feem to have been at a lofs to conceive how-it
was to have been diipofed of, had there been no redemption from Adam’s curfe. They were perfuaded, that for his
fin the fouls of his pefterity did not deferve eternal punifhment ; and as eternal life is everywhere in the New feftament
reprefented as the gift of God through Jefus Chrift, they thus expreffed themfelves concerning the death incurred by
the fall of Adam. “ It is well to be obferved, that the death wherewith God threatened man as his jmnifhment if he
broke the covenant, is not in reafon to be underftood of eternal death, any farther than as by eternal death may be figni-
fied only the eternal ftfaration of the foul from the body, and alfo the eternal exclufivn of the foul from God, or heavenly
blefs” That the death threatened implied the annihilation of the foul, feems never to have occurred to them', though
the apoftle exprefsly fays, that if there be no refurreclion, “ then they who are fallen afleep in Chrift are perifhed,' a™*™™
“ are loft.” They fuppofed that the fin of Adam would have feparated the foul from the body, and excluded the former
botn from heaven and from hell; but what would have become of it in that ftate of exclufion, both from future hap-
pmefs and future mifery, we do not remember at prefent that any one of them has hazarded a conjefture. See Dr
Wells's Help for the Right Underfanding of the Several Divine Laws and Covenants; and bifhop Bull’s Harmonica Hpoj-
tolica, with its feveral defences.
459
Fall of A-
dam, and
its conle-
quences,-
T H E O
Fa f A- ture was fufficient, wliy fhould tKis original taint infect men
(1am, and rat},er the fins of their immediate parents f?”
U 0 ,e" The more violent Arminians, on the other hand, deny that
we inherit any moral taint whatever from Adam, or that
f Gill's Bo- the rational powers of our minds are naturally weaker than
dy of Di’ui- kjs wcre> Of that wonderful degree of perfedion which is
tifually attributed to the firll pair, they find no evidence
n. and 13.in fcripture. All that wre learn of them, fay they, is, that
128 they fell from a date of exquifite happinefs by yielding to a
Whilft o- temptation lefs powerful by far than fome others which
th<Aot-6 many of their degenerate fons have fuccefsfully refilled,
nine. ‘‘Heave you to judge (fays Dr Tiiylor J), whether Joleph,
t Scripture when he refilled the folicitations of his millrefs, and Mofes
Bofirtne, wjien }1C refufe(] to be called the fon of Pharaoh’s daughter,
&C° ' choofing rather to fuffer afflidion with the peoole of God
than to enjoy the pleafures of fin for a feafon, efteeming the
reproach of true religion greater riches than the treafures of
' Egypt, did not exhibit proofs of regularity of paffions and
appetites equal at leall to what Adam difplayed in the gar-
, den of Eden. When the three young men mentioned in
the book of Daniel fubmitted to be burnt alive in a fiery
furnace rather than worfhip Nebuchadnezzar’s golden
image ; when Daniel himfelf refolved, rather than conceal
the worfhip of God for one month only of his life, to be
torn in pieces by hungry lions ; and, to come nearer to our
own times, wdren numbers ,of meq and women, during the
reign of Mary Queen of England, chofe rather to be burnt
at a (lake than renounce the reformed religion and embrace
the errors of popery—furely all thefe perfons exhibited a
virtue, a faith in God, and a Heady adherence to what they
believed to be the truth, far fuperior to what Adam difplayed,
when his wife gave himofthe forbidden fruit, andhedid eat.’’
If it be faid that thefe perfons were fupported under their
trials by the grace of God ftrengthening them, the fame will
be faid of Adam. He was undoubtedly fupplied wu'th every
aid from the fpirit of grace which was necefiary to enable
him to fulfil his duty; for being defigned for more than mere
animal life, even for the refined enjoyments of heaven, there
is every reafon to believe, as we have already obferved, that
‘ he was put under the guidance of the Holy Gholl, to train
him for that lupernatural Hate of felicity. Thefe communica¬
tions of the fpirit would of courfe be withdrawn when he
forfeited his right to thofe privileges, on account of which
they were orignally vouchfafed to him; but that any po-
fitive malignity or taint wras infufed into his nature, that his
mere rational powers were weakened, or his appetites in¬
flamed by the forbidden fruit, there is no evidence to be
found in fcripture, or in the known conftitution of things.
The attributing of this fuppoled hereditary taint to the
noxious qualities of the forbidden fruit, isawhimfical hypo-
thefis, which receives no countenance from any well authen-
And”deem ^cate(l *n natural hiftory. After the numberlefs falfe-
thephyficalkoods that have been told of the poifon tree of Java (tee Poi-
iiiuttration son Tree), fomething more would be requifite than the
ci it whim-common evidence of a lying voyager to give credit to the
qualities of the Indian tree, of which the fruit inftantly turns
LOGY. Part ir.
the wifeft man into an idiot: and yet for this (irgular (lory -11 of a.
our ingenious author vouchfafes not even that evidence,
flight as it generally is. The inference drawn from the
covering ufed by our firtl parents is contradi&ed' by every
thing that we know' of human nature; forfurely no man, infla¬
med to the utmoft wuth the fire of animal love, ever turned his
eyes from a naked beauty ready and eager to receive him to
her embrace. Yet this, it feems, was the behaviour of Adam
and Eve in fuch a Hate ! According to our author, the juice
of the forbidden fruit had rendered their carnal appetites
violent and independent of reafon; according to the fcripture,
they were both naked ; and as they were hufband and wife,
there was no law prohibiting them from gratifying thefe
inflamed appetites. In inch circumftances, how did they
conduft themfidves ? One would naturally imagine that they
immediately retired to fome fhady grove, and pleafed them-
felves in all the foft dalliancies of wedded love. Their con-
duft, however, was very different. We are told, that “ they
fewed fig-leaves together, and made themfelves aprons to
cover their nakednefs And this tranfa&ion is brought
as a proof of the impetuofity of their carnal appetites (r).
The truth is, that the carnal appetite appears not to be
naturally more violent than is neceflary to anfvver the end
for which it was implanted in the human conflitution.
Among favages the defires of animal love are generally
very moderate ; and even in fociety they have not often,
unlefs inflamed by the luxurious arts of civil life, great¬
er ftrength than is requiflte to make mankind attend to the
continuation of their fpecies. In the decline of empires
highly polifhed, where the difference of rank and opulence is
great, and where every man is ambitious of emulating the
expence of his immediate fuperiors, early marriajes are pre-
vented by the inability of mofl people to provide for a fami¬
ly in a way fuitable to what each is pleafed to confider as
his proper ftation ; and in that {late of tilings the violence of
animal love will indeed frequently produce great irregulari¬
ties. But for that Hate of things, as it was not intended
by the Author of nature, it is perhaps unreafonable to iup-
pofe that provifion fliould be made ; and yet we believe it
will be found, upon due confideration, that if the defires of
animal love were lefs violent than they are, the general con-
fequences would be more pernicious to fociety than all the
irregularities and vices which thefe defires -now accidentally
produce ; for there would then be no intercourle between
the fexes whatever except in the very higheft flations of life.
That bur conftitution is attended with many fenfual appe¬
tites and paffions, which, if fuffered to grow excefiive or irre¬
gular, become finful, is true; and that there is great
danger of their becoming exceffive and irregular in a world
fo full of temptation as ours is, is alio true ; but there is no
evidence that all this is the confequence of Adam’s fall, and
far lefs that it amounts to a natural propenfity to fin. “ For
I prefume (fays Dr Taylor), that by a natural propenfity is;n(y thatwe
meant a neceflary inclination to fin, or that we are need-have no ua-
farily finful from the original bent and bias of our natural rural pro-
powers. But this mull be fall'e ; ior then we fhould not t0
be
(r) We have never met with a fatisfaiflory reafon for the expedient of theie fig-leave coverings, do us the ollowing
has fometimes occurred as an account of the matter, at leall more plaufible than that which has been afligned by Dr De-
lany. Perfons under the agonies of remorfe, or with the profpedt of immediate death before them, have no reliflr for the
pleaiures of love ; and as our firll parents, upon eating the forbidden fruit, mull have been in the one or other of thefe
fituations, they might think of fewing fig-leaves together, and making themfelves aprons, as a mean of fiibduing an appetite,
of which, at that inflant, they mull have abhorred the gratification. If they had any hope of a reprieve from death, and
yet knew all the confequence of their fin, their mofl ardent wifh would be to have no children ; and not being acquaint¬
ed as we are with the effedds of drefs, they would naturally imagine that their propofed coverings would dimmifh the force
of the fexual appetite.
r
Part If, T H E O
pal! of -v- be finfu! at all ficpa'afe that which k recdTary, or which we
dam, aiidit=icannot help/is not fi"; That we are weak and liable to
fionf^uea temptation, ib the will of God holy and good, and for glori-
ous purpofes to ourftlveg ; but if we are wicked, it mult
be throiigh our own fault, and cannot proceed from any
conftraint, or neceffity, or taint in our con^^:itution.’,
Thus have we given as full and comprehenlive a view as
our limits will permit of the different opinions of the Calvinhts
and Arminians refpedling the confequences of Adam's fall.
If we have dwelt longer upon the fcheme of the latter than
of the former, it is becaufe every Arminiari argument is built
upon criticifm, and appeals to the original text ; whild the
r,j Calvinifts reft their faith upon the plain words of fcripture
The opini- as read in our tranflation. If we might hazard our own
ons of mo- opinion, we fhould fay that the truth lies between them,
and that it has been found by the moderate men of both
CalviniUs parties, who, while they make ufe of different language, feem
and At mi- to us to have the fame fentiments. That all mankind really
rianstho finned in Adam, and are on that account liable ta molt
counte^1 Rricv0lls torments in foul and body, without intermiflion,
nanced by 'n fire f°r ever> is a doftrine which cannot be reconciled
genetal ua-to our natural notions of God. On the other hand, if hu-
ihtion, rnan nature was not fomehow debafed by the fall of our
firft partents, it is not eafy to account for the numberlefs
phrafes in fcripture which certainly feem to fpeak that
language, or for. the very general opinion of the Pagan
philofophers and poets refpe&ing the golden age and the
.degeneracy of man. Cicero, in a quotation preferved by
St Au ruftine from a work that is now loft, has thefe re¬
markable words, “ ITorno non ut a matre fed ut a noverca
natura editus eft in vitam corpore nudo, et fragili, et in-
firmo : animo autem anxio ad moleftias, humili ad timores,
molli ad labores, prono ad libidines; ia<7«o tamcn ineji tanquam
obrutus quulcim divinus ignis ingenu et mentis fNor do we
readily perceive what fhould induce the more zealous Armi-
nians to oppofe fo vehemently this general opinion of the
I Vide D.
Aug. lib,
iv. contra
J’elag'mm.
Vde e iamcorruption of human nature. Their defire to vindicate
Vee^cL thC juftice. and goodne{s of God does them honour ; but
the doTrine of inherent corruption militates not againft
thefe attributes; for what we have loft in the firft Adam
has been amply fupplied to us in the fecond ; and we know
from the higheft authority that the duties required of us
are in proportion to our ability, fince we are told, that
“ unto whomfoever much is given, of him (hall much be re¬
quired.”
Sect. IV. Fiezv of Theology from the fall of Adam to
the coming of Chrjl.
We have dwelt long on the original ftate of man, his in-
troduttion into the terreftrial paradife, the privileges to
which he was there admitted, his forfeiture of thofe privi¬
leges, and the ftate to which he was reduced by tranfgrcf-
fino the law of his Maker; but the importance of thefe
events renders them worthy of all the attention that we
have^ paid to them. I hey paved the way for the coming
of Chrift and the preaching of the gofpel ; and unlefs we
thoroughly underftand the origin of the" gofpel, we cannot
have “an adequate conception of its defigm By contrafting
the fn if with the fecond Adam, St Paul pives us clearly to
tmderftand, that one purpoie for which Chrift came into the
world and fuffered death upon the crofs, was to reftore to
mankind that life which they had loft by the fall of their ori¬
ginal progenitor. The preaching of the gofpel therefore
commenced with the firfl hint of fuch a reftoration ; and
the pro mile given to Adam and Eve, that “ the feed of the
" O '* an /k°llld bruiie the head of the ferpent,” was as truly
■€i?.ngt 'cal as thefe words of the apoftle, by which we aic
Vot, XVIII. Part II.
L O G Y, 457
taught, that “ this is a faithful faying and worthy of all ac- Theology
ceptation, that Chriil Jefus came into the world to fave fin-
ners *.” The former text taken by itfelf is indeed oblcu. e>(i,im
and the latter is explicit ; but both belong to the fame cqjnimr of
fyflem, for the feriptures contain but two covenants or thrift.
difoenfations of God to man, in which the whole race is in- VT J
1 j , * 1 1 im. 1.
eluded. j.
Chriftianity therefore is indeed very near as old as the ’ 131
creation ; but its principles were at firft obfeurely revealed, ChdfiTni-
and afterwards gradually developed under different forms a'WaiU^hav«
mankind became able to receive them, (fee Prophecy, n'Vnin.enceci
5, &c.). All that appears to have been at firft revealed towiththe
Adam and Eve was, that by fome means or other one offoll.
their pofterity fhould in time redeem the whole race from
the. curfe of the fall ; or if they had a cUftimft view of the
means by w'hich that redemption was to be wrought, it was
probably communicated to them at the inftitution of fa.cri-
fices, (lee Sacrifice). This promife of a future deliverer
ferved to comfort them under their heavy fentence ; and the
inftitution of facrifices, whilft it irnpreffed upon their minds
lively ideas of the punifhment due to their tranfgreffion, was
admirably calculated to prepare both them and their pofte¬
rity for the great atonement which, in due time, was to take
away the fins of the world. 133 _
Our firft parents, after their fall, were fo far from beingj*eve*atI0.ns
left to fabricate a mode of worfhip for themlelves by thofe
innate powers of the human mind of which we daily hear age* of the'
fo much and feel fo little, that God was gracioufly pleafedwarld,
to manifeft himfelt to their fenfety and vifibly to conduct
them by the angel of his prefence in all the rites and duties
of religion. This is evident from the different difeourfes
which he held with Cain, as well as from the complaint of
that murderer of being hid from his face, and from its being
faid, that “ he went out from the pretence of the Lord and
dwelt on the eaft of Eden.” Nor does it appear that God
wh.-lly withdrew his vifible prefence, and left mankind to
their own inventions, till their wickednefs became fo very
great that his fpirit could no longer drive with them. The
infant ftate oi the world ftood in conftant need of his fu-
pernatural guidance and proteftion. The early inhabitants
of this globe cannot be fuppofed to have been able, with
Mofes *, to look up to him who is invi/ih/e, and perform a * Heb. xi»
worfhip purely rational and fpiritual. They were all tillers 7<3*
of the ground, or keepers of cattle ; employed in cultivating
and replenifhing this new world ; and, through the curie
brought upon it by their forefather, forced, with him, to
eat their bread “ in the fweat of their brow.” Man in
fuch circumftances could have little leiture for {peculation ;
nor has mere {peculation, unleis furnhhed wuth principles
from another fource, ever generated in the human mind
adequate notions of God’s nature or providence, or of the
means by which he can be acceptably wor(hipped. Fre¬
quent manifeftations, there ore, of his prefence would be
neceffary to keep up a tolerable fenfe of religion among
them, and fecure obedience to the divine inftitutions; and
that the Almighty did not exhibit fuch manifeftations, can¬
not be inferred from the filence of that very flrort luftory
which we have of thofe early ages. Adam himielf conti¬
nued 930 years a living monument of the juftice and mercy
of God ; of his extreme hatred and abhorrence of fin, as well
as of his love and long-fuffering towards the finner. He
was very leufible how lin had entered into the world, and he
could not but apprife his children of its author. He would
at the lame time inform them of the unity of God, and
his dominion over the evil one ; of the means by which he
had appointed himfelf to be worfhipped ; and of his promife
of future deliverance from the curfe of the fall. Such in¬
formation would produce a tolerable idea of the Divine Be-
3 M ing*
45®
Chrift.
134
Yef vice,
valent.
T H E O
Theology |n<-% and afford fufficlcnt motlveg to obey his will. The
from the e{fe(fts Gf it accordingly were apparent in the righteous
dam to the °f Seth, who foon dillinguiflied themfelves from the
coming of pofterity of Cain, and for their eminent piety were honour¬
ed with the appellation of the fans of God. Of this family
fpran:? a oerfon fo remarkable for virtue and devotion, as to
be exempted from Adam s fentence and the common lot of
his fons ; for after he had walked with God 300 years,
and prophecied to his brethren, he was tranflated that he
fhould not fee death. Of this miraculous event there can
be no doubt but that his contemporaries had fome vifible de-
monftration; and as the fate of Abel was an argument to their
reafon, fo the tranflation of Enoch was a proof to their
fenfes of another ftate of life after the prefent. To Adam
himfelf, if he was then alive (s), it mult have been a lively
and affecting inftance of what he might have enjoyed, had
he kept his innocence; it muft have been a comfortable
earneft of the promifed victory over the evil one ; and have
confirmed his hope, that when the head of the ferpent
fhould be completely bruifed, he and his pofterity would be
reftored to the favour of their Maker, and behold his pre¬
fence in blefs and immortality.
Nothwithflar.ding this watchful care of God over his fal-
aud proba- len creature man, vice, and probably idolatry, fpread through
foon bir17’1116 W°rld Wfth 3 rapid pace. The family of Seth married
came p e- lnt0 t^at Cain, and adopted the manners of their new
relations. Rapine and violence, unbounded lufl and im¬
purity of every kind, prevailed univerfally ; and when thofe
giants in wickednefs had filled the earth with tyranny, in-
juftice, and oppreflion ; when the whole race was become
entirely carnal—God, after x'aiiing up another prophet to
give them frequent warnings of their fate for the fpace of
120 years, was at length obliged, in mercy to themfelves as
well as to the fucceeding generations of men, to cut them
eff by a general deluge. See Deluge.
Thus did God, by the fpirit of prophecy, which is by
fome fuppofed to have been hereditary in the heads of fami¬
lies ; by frequent manifeftations of his own prefence ; and
by uninterrupted tradition—make ample provifion for the
inftruftion and improvement of the world for the firft 1600
years. After the deluge he was pleafed to converfe again
with Noah, and make in his perion a new and extenfive co¬
venant with mankind, (fee Prophecy, n° 11.). Of his
power, julfice, and goodnefs ; -of his fupreme dominion over
the earth and the heavens ; of his abhorrence of Irn, and
Iris determination not to let it go unpunifhed—that patriarch
and his family had been moft awfully convinced ; nor could
they or their children, for fome time, want any other argu¬
ment to enforce obedience, fear, and worfhip. The fons of
Noah were an iqo years old when the deluge overwhelm¬
ed the earth. They had long converfed with their anceftors
of the old world, had frequented the religious affemblies,
obferved every Ssbbath day, and been inftru&ed by thofe
who had feen Adam. It is therefore impoflible that they
could be ignorant of the creation of the world, of the fall
of man, or of the promife of future deliverance from the
confequences ©f that fail j or that they could offer their
facrihces, and perform the other rites of the inftituted
worfhip, without looking forward with’ the eye of faith to
that deliverance feen, perhaps obfeurely, through, their typi¬
cal oblations.
In this Hate of things, with the awful remembrance of
the deluge continually prefent to their minds, religion might
i35 .
Pure reli¬
gion for
fome time
after the
£ood j
LOGY, Part If,
for fome time be fafely propagated by tradition. But when Theory
by deegrees mankind corrupted that tradition in its moft ef- ^rom He
fential parts ; when, in Head of the one Supreme God, they c( ^ ^‘‘j*
fet up feveral orders of inferior deities, and worfhipped all coming'^
the holt of heaven ; when, at the fame time they were uni- Chrift.
ting under one head, and forming a univerfal empire under —
the patronage of the Sun their chief divinity (fee Babel)—
God faw it neceffary to difperfe them into diflind colonies,hpwevTr
by caufing fuch difeord among them as rendered it impoi-the caufe’of
fible for any one fpecies of idolatry to be at once univerlallytlle
eftablifhed. f™oa‘
After this difperfion, there is reafon to believe that par¬
ticular revelations were vouchfafed wherever men were difpo-
fed to regard them. Peleg had his name prophetically gi¬
ven him from the diiperhon which was to happen in his
days ; and not only his father Eber, but all the heads of fa¬
milies mentioned from Noah to Abraham, are with much
plaufibility fuppofed to have had the ipirit of prophecy on
many occafions. Noah was undoubtedly both prieft and
prophet; and living till within two years of the birth of A-
braham, or, according to others, till that patriarch was near
60 years old, he would furely be able to keep up a tole¬
rable fenfe of true religion among fuch of his deicendants as
fojourned within the influence of his dodfrine and example.
His religious fon Shem, who lived till after the birth of
Ifaac, could not but preferve in tolerable purity the faith and
worfhip of the true God among fuch of his own defeendants
as lived in his neighbourhood.
But though the remains of true religion were thus pre-
ferved among a few righteous men, idolatry, with its info-
parable attendants, unnatural lufts and cruel fuperftition (t),
had in a fhort time prevailed fo far among the fons of
Noah, that God, in his infinite wifdom, faw it expedient not
only to fhorten the lives of men, but alfo to withdraw his
prefence from the generality, who had thus rendered them¬
felves unworthy of fuch communications; and to feledf a
particular family, in which his worfhip might be preferved
pure amidft the various corruptions that were overfpread-
ing the world. With this view Abraham was called ; and rh/cailof
after many remarkable trials of his faith and conftancy, admit- Abraham
ted to a particular intimacy and friendfhip with his-Maker, was
God entered into a peculiar covenant with him, engaging
to be his prefent guide, protector, and defender ; to bellow
all temporal bleflings upon him and his feed ; and to make
fome of thofe feed the inftruments of conveying bleflings of
a higher kind to all the nations of the earth.
It was doubtlefs for his Angular piety that Abraham was To prerart
fixed upon to be the parent of that people, who fhould pre the univer-
ferve the knowledge of the unity of God in the midft of an^
idolatrous and polytheiilic world; but we are not to ima-]”^
gine that it was for his fake only that all this was done, cr
that his lefs worthy defeendants were by the equal Lord of
all treated with partial fondnefs for the virtues of their an-
ceftor ; it was for the benefit of mankind in general that'
he was called from his country, and from his father’s houfe,.
that he might prelerve the do&rine of the Divine unity in
his own family, and be an inftrument in the hand of Provi¬
dence (and a fit one he was) tfl convey the fame faith to the 1
nations around him. Accordingly, we find him diltinguifh-
ed among the neighbouring princes, and kings reproved for?
his fake; who being made acquainted with his prophetic cha¬
racter, defire his interceflion with God. Hiflory tells us of
his converfing on the fubjedt of religion with the molt learn¬
ed*
^E) According to the Samaritan chronology, he was alive ; according to the Hebrew, he had been dead 57 years<
£ G oee tke effeCts of idolatry well deferibed in the Apocryphal book of Wifdom, chap, xiv-
3
Part II, T H E O
Theology cd Egyptians, who appear to have derived from him or
from the fome 0f his defcendants the rite of circumcifion, and to
dam w th"e have been f°r a while ftopt in their progrefs towards the
toming of laft ftage of that degrading idolatry which afterwards ren-
Chrift. dered their national worfhip the opprobrium of the whole
u—"v 'earth, (fee Polytheism, n^ 28). We are informed
that his name was had in the greateft veneration- all over
the Eaft ; that the Magians, Sabians, Perfians, and Indians,
all glory in him as the great reformer of their refpeftive re,
ligions : and to us it appears extremely probable, that not
•* See Afi- only the Brachmans, but likewifethe Hindoo god Brahma*,
aiuRe- derive their names from the father of the faithful. As
LOGY. 4<9
them : and to ftrengthen and confirm their Faith, to fix and Theology
Jcarcbes and
Newt.
Gbrcn,
139
he was let into the various counfels of the Almighty, and
taught to reafon and reflect upon.them ; as he was fully ap-
prifed of the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah, with the
particular circumftances of that miraculous event; and as
he had frequent revelations of the promifed Redeemer,
■whole day he longed earneftly to fee, and feeing it was
glad—there can be no doubt but that he and his family
took care to propagate thefe important doctrines in every
nation which they vifited ; for the only reafon which we
can conceive for his being made to wander from place to
place was, that different people might be induced to inquire
after his profeflion, his religion, and his hopes.
But though the Supreme Being was pleafed to manifefl
himlelf in a more frequent and familiar manner to Abra¬
ham, he by no means left the left of the world without iuf-
ficient light. Lot profefled the true religion in the midft
of Sodom. In Canaan we meet with Melchizedeck, king and
pried of the mod high God, who bleffed Abraham, and to
whom that patriarch himfelf did homage. Abimelech king
©ccalional of Gerar receiving an admonition from the Lord, immedi-
gtvento11' atel}r PaId a ^ue regard to it; and the fame feme of religion
other pious and virtue defcended to his fon. Laban and Bethuel ac-
meu. knowledged the Lord, and the former of them was even
favoured with a vifion. In Arabia, we find Job and his
three friends, all men of high rank, entering into the deepeft
difquifitions in theology ; agreeing about the unity, omni¬
potence, and fpirituality of God ; the juftice of his provi¬
dence, with other fundamental articles of true religion ; and
mentioning divine inipiration or revelation as a thing not
* Job iv. uncommon in their are and country* (u). Balaam ap-
ia, 15,16, pears to have been a true prophet ; and as he was unque-
«iiiV1iz°’ tti°nably a rnan morals, the natural inference is,
that the gift of prophecy was then, as afterwards, bettowed
on individuals, not for their own fakes, but for the fake of
the public ; and that, as in “ every nation, he who feareth
God and worketh righteoufnefs is accepted of him fo in
thofe early ages of the world, when mankind were but chil¬
dren in religious knowledge, they were blefled with the
light of divine revelation wherever they were difpofed to
make a proper ufe of it.
A fecond ^‘y ^ew’ bowever> appear to have had this difpofition ;
pnrpofe for an^ therefore God was pleafed to adopt Abraham and part
which A- of his pofterity as the race from which the great Redeemer
brahamwafwas to fpring, to train them up by degrees in fuitable no-
^ e 1 tions of their Creator, and gradually to open up to them,
as they were able to receive it, the nature of that difpenfa-
tion under which “ all the nations of the earth were to be
blefled in the patriarch’s feed, (fee Prophecy, n° 13).
Lor this purpofe, he held frequent correfpondenee with
preferve their dependence on the one God of heaven and
earth, he daily gave them new promifes, each more magnifi-^,^ ‘(i (jJ.
cent than that which preceded it. He blefled Ifaac, mira- coming of
culoufly increafed his fubflance, and loon made him the en- Chrift.
vy o! the neighbouring princes. He foretold the condition
or his two fons, renewed the promife made to Abraham,
and blefled the adopted fon Jacob, with whom he conse-
fcended to converte as he had converfed with Abraham and
Ifaac ; renewing to him the great promife ; bellowing upon
him all kinds of riches; and impreffing fuch terror upon all
the cities which were round about him as prevented them
from hurting either him or his family.
All this was indeed little enough to keep alive even in
the mind of Jacob a tolerable fenfe of duty and dependence
on his Creator. After the firft vifion he is furprifed, and
hefitates, feeming inclined to make a kind of ftipulation with
his Maker. “ If (fays he) God will be with me, and will
keep me in this way that I go, and will give me bread to eat,
and raiment to put on, fo that I come again to my father’s
houfe in peace, then ihall the Lord be my God ||.” It ap-1[ Gen.
pears not to have been till after many fuch revelations, blef-xxv“** 2(?»
lings, and deliverances, and being reminded of the vow21'
which on this occafion he had vowed, that he let himfelf in
good earneft to reform the religion of his own family, and
to drive out from it all ftrange gods*. So little able, in*‘Gen.
that age, were the boailed powers of the human mind toxxxv- ia
preferve in the world juft notions of the unity of the God¬
head, that we fee there was a neceffity for very frequent re¬
velations, to prevent even the belt men trom running head¬
long into polytheilm and idolatry.
'1 hus was God obliged to treat even with the patriarchs
themfelves, by way of politive covenant and exprefs com-
padt; to promiie to be their God if they would be his peo¬
ple ; to give them a portion of temporal bleffings.as intro-
dudtory to future and fpiritual ones ; and to engage them in
his fervice by immediate rewards, till they could be led on
to higher views, and prepared by the bringing in or a better
hope to worfhip him in fpirit and in truth. With regard
to what may be called the theory of religion, mankind were
yet Icarcely got out of their childhood. Some extraordinary
perfons indeed occaiionally appeared in different countries,
luch as Enoch, Noah, Abraham, and Job, with many others,
who had a more enlarged profpedf of things, and entertain¬
ed more worthy lentiments of the divine difpenfations and
of the ultimate end of man ; but thele were fat fuperior to
the times in which they lived, and appear to have been pro¬
videntially raifed up to prevent the favage date and favage
idolatry from becoming univerfal among men. See Sa¬
vage.
The worfhip which was pra&ifed by thofe holy men The patri-
appears to have confided principally of the three kinds ofarc^aLvor«
facrifice mentioned elfewhere (fee Sacrifice) ; to which
were doubtlels added prayers and praifes, with the more va- acre^pe^-^
luable oblation of pure hands and devout hearts. Such of formed in
them as looked forward .to a future redemption, and hadtaitk
any tolerable notion of the means by which it was to be ef-
fefted, as Abraham certainly had, mud have been fenflble
that the blood of bulls and of goats could never take away
fln, and that their facrifices were therefore valuable only when
they were offered in faith of that great promife, “ which they,
3 M 2
(u) There are great difputes among the learned refpefting the antiquity and the author of the booh of Job, and whe-
ther it be a hidory of events, or a poem which has its foundation in hidory. All fober men, however, are agreed, that
there really was fuch a perfon as Job, eminent for patience under uncommon fufferings; and that he was of very remote
■antiquity. The LXX. give us the names of his father and mother, and fay that he was the fifth from Abraham.
4.6 o
T H E O
Theology having Teen It afar off, were perfuaded of, and embraced ;
from thfe an(j confeflcd that they were Grangers and pilgiims upon
fal: ot A- , „
conuny ( f That fuch perfons looked for “ a better country, even a
Chrifh lieavenly one,” in a future ftate, cannot be queftioncd ; for
--v—~ they knew well how fin and death had entered into the
world, and they mud have underftood the promise made to
their original progenitor, and repeatedly renewed to them- ,
fclves, to include in it a deliverance at forne period from eve¬
ry confequence of the firft tranfgrefiion. They were to all
intents and purpofes Chriftians as well as we. i hey in-
f e^eec^ placed their confidence in a Redeemer, who in the ful-
Kedeemer*!nefis of time was to appear upon earth, while we place ours
'in a Redeemer that has been already manifefted ; they ex-
preffed that confidence by one mode of worfhip, we exp^efs
it by another ; but the patriarchal worfhip had the fame end
in view with the Chriftian—the attainment of everlafting life
143 in heaven.
Such faith, The generality of men, however, appear not, in the early
however, ^ age 0£ we now write, to have extended their views
,u t geKera"beyond the prefent life. From the confufed remains o: an¬
cient tradition, they acknowledged indeed fome fupeiior
power or powers, to whom they frequently applied for di-
redlion in their affairs ; but in all probability it was only for
direftion in temporal affairs, fuch as the cultivation of the
ground, or their tranfaftions with each other. In the then
ffate of things, when no part of the world was overftocked
with inhabitants, and when luxury with its confequences
were everywhere unknown, virtue and vice muft have pro¬
duced their natural e’ffefts ; and the good maw being happy
here, and the wicked man miferable, reafon had no data from
which to infer the reality of a future ftate of rewards and
punifhments. Thofe who were bleffed with the light re¬
velation undoubtedly looked forward to that ftate with a
holy joy ; but the reft worfhipped fuperior powers from
worldly motives. How many of thofe powers there might
be, or how far their influence might reach, they knew not.
Uncertain whether there be one Supreme Governor of the
whole world, or many co-ordinate powers prefiding each
over a particular country, climate, or place—gods of the
hills and of the valleys, as they were afterwards diftinguifh-
ed—they thought that the more of thefe they could engage
in their interefi the better. Like the Samaritans therefore,
in after times, they fought, wherever they came, the “ man¬
ners of the god of the land,” and ferved him, together with
their own gods.
Thus was the world ready to lofe all knowledge of the
true God and his worfhip, had not he been graciouOy plea
fed to interpofe, and take effeftu?.! care to prefervethat know¬
ledge in one nation, from which it might be conveyed to the
reft of mankind at different times, and in greater or lets de¬
grees, as they fhould be capable of receiving it. To this
purpofe he rrft.de way for the removal of Jacob and his fa¬
mily to one of the moft improved and polifhed countries of
the world ; and introduced them into it in a manner fo advan¬
tageous, as to give them an opportunity of imparting much
religious knowledge to the natives. The natives, however,
were grofs idolaters; and that his chofen people might be
as far as poflible from the contagion of their example,
he placed them upon the borders of Egypt, where, though
they multiplied exceedingly, they were by their very oc-
f Gen. xlvi.cupation f itill kept a leparate people, and muft have been
3o»34- rendered, by a long and fevere oppreflion, in a great degree
averle from the manners and religion of their neighbours.
This averfion, however, feems to have gradually become lefs
and lefs ; and before they were miraculoufly redeemed from
their houfe of bondage, they had certainly loft all correct
notions of the unity of God, and the nature of his worffiip,
144
The pur¬
pofe for
which the
Ifraelites
were made'
to fojinirn
in Egypt.
LO GY. Partlf.
and had adopted the greater part of the fuperftitions of Theo’ogy
their talk-mafters. Of this we need no other proof than ^ ||ni tae
what is implied in the words of Mofes *, when he laid unto ^ ^
God, “ Behold, when I come unto the children of Ifrael, comin.- (,f
and fay unto them, the God of your fathers hath fent me Chi jft.
unto you ; and they {hall fay unto me, What is His name? ~v—^
what fhall I lay unto them ?” Had not the deftined lawgiver Xw*’
of the Hebrews been aware that his countrymen had adop- M5
ted a plurality of gods, this difficulty could not have occur-
red to him ; for names are never thought of but to diftinguifh
fiom each other beings of the lame kind ; and he muft have
remembered, that in Egypt, where the multitude of gods
was marftialled into various clafles, the knowledge of their
names was deemed of great importance. This we learn
likewife from Herodotus, who informs us #, that the Pelaf- * j ^ ..
gi, after fettling in Greece, thought it neceffary to conlultcap. ^
the oracle of Dodona, whether it would be proper to give53.
to their own gods the names of the Egyptian divinities ?
and that the oracle, as might have been fuppofed, afiured
them that it would. Indeed the Hebrews during their re-
fidence in Egypt had acquired fuch an attachment to the
idolatrous worffiip of the country, that it appears never to
have left them entirely till many ages afterwards, when they
were carried captive into Babylon, and feverely puniffied for
their repeated apoftacies ; and fo completely were they in¬
fatuated by thele fupeiftitions at the era of their exodus,
that, as the prophet Ezekiel informs us*, they tebelled* H(
againft God, and would not call away their abomina¬
tions, or fovfake the idols of Egypt, even in the iwy clay
that the hand of Omnipotence was lifted up to bring them
forth of that land in which they had been fo long and fo
cruelly oppreffed. In fuch a ftate of things, to have luffer-
ed them to remain longer in Egypt, could have ferved no
good purpofe ; and therefore to tuliil the premife which he
had given to Abraham, God determined to deliver them out
of the ftend of the Egyptians by means which ffiould con¬
vince both them and their offspring of his own fupremacy
ovec heaven and earth. ^
As Moles was the perfon appointed to deliver God’s mef- Mofes ap-
fage to Pharaoh, and to demand of him leave for the Ilrael-pointed to
ites to go three days journey into the wildernefs to ferve^™1^^®
the God of their fathers, it was neceffary that he ffiould be°at 0
endowed with the power of making miracles to e,vince the"
reality of his divine miffion. Without a conviftion that
his claims were well-founded, neither Pharaoh nor his own
countrymen could reafonably have been expedled to liften to
the propofals of a man who, though blefled in his youth
with a princely education, had come diredtly on his embafiy
from the humble employment of a ffiepherd, which he had
for many years exercifed in the country of Midian. To
prove that he was really fent by God, any vilible and un¬
doubted controul of the laws of nature would have been
abundantly fufficient; but he was to prove not only this
truth, but alfo the unity of the Divine nature ; and the mi¬
racles which he was diredled to work were executions of
judgments againft the very gods of Egypt*. *Exod,xii.
When Pharaoh firll turned a deat ear to his requeft, tbo’ I2i
enforced by the converfion of a lod into a ferpent, at the
command of Jehovah he fmote with the fame rod upon the ^
waters in the river, which were inftantly converted into phe pro¬
blood, and occalioned the death of all the fiffies that fwam grirty of
in them. To any people this miracle would have been aj)1
proof of Divine agency ; but it was in a particular manner wroUght.
calculated to open the eyes of the blind and infatuated E-
gyniians, who confidered the Nile as one of their greateft
gods, and all the fifties that it contained as fubordmate di¬
vinities. They called that noble river fometimes Siriusr
fometimes OJins, iometimes Canobus (fee Canobus), and
not
X48
To evince
the vanity
ef idol
woribip.
Part II. T II E O
Thffio^y not unrrequent!y SUt*m (x) ; and adored it as the parent
from the 0f a}l their deities. What then mail the people have thought
fall of A-^ wj)£n t|iey founcJ their moil revered god, at the command
r of a fervant of Tehovah, converted into blood, and all his
Chrilt. facred offspring into ftinking carcafes ? To conceive their
conilernation, if it can be conceived, the reader mail re¬
member, that the Egyptian priefls held blood m the at moll
abhorrence, as a thing of which the very touch would deep¬
ly pollute them, and require immediate and folemn expia¬
tion. 'ihe lame facred river was a fecond time polluted,
when it fent forth frogs, which covered all the land of E-
gypt, and died in the houfes, in the villages, and in the
fields ; thus rendering it impolfible for the people to avoid
the touch of dead bodies, though from every Inch contaft
they believed themfelves to contrail an impurity, which, in
the cafe before us, mull have been the more grievous, that
in the whole country there was not left a pool of uninfeited
water to waih away the (lain.
The third plague inflicted upon the Egyptians was, the
converting of the duft of the land into lice, upon man and
upon bead, throughout the whole kingdom. To fee the
propriety of this miracle as a judgment upon their idolatry,
ve mult recolleil their utter abhorrence of all kinds of ver¬
min, and their extreme attention to external purity above
every other people perhaps that has hitherto exifled on the
face oi the earth. Upon this head they were more particu¬
larly folicitous when about to enter the temples of their
gods ; for Herodotus informs us, that their pnefls wore li¬
nen raiment only, and fhaved off every hair from their heads
and bodies, that there might be no loufe or other deteftable
objedt upon them when performing their duty to the gods.
This plague therefore, while it lafled, made it impoffible for
them to perf rm their idolatrous worfliip, without giving
fuch offence to their deities as they imagined could never
be forgiven. Hence we find, that on the produrioon of
the lice, the priefls and magicians perceived immediately
from what hand the miracle had come, and exclaimed,
ii This is the finger of God!” The fourth plague feems
to have been likewife acknowledged to he the finger of
God, if not by the magicians, at leafl by Pharaoh ; for in
a fit of terror he agreed that the Ifratlites fhould go and
ferve the Lord. That he was terrified at the iwarms of
flies which infefled the whole country, except the land of
Gofhen, will excite no w nder, when it is known that the
worfliip of the fly originated in Egypt; whence it was car¬
ried by the Caphtorim to Palefline ; by the Phoenicians to
Sidon, Tyre, and Babylon; and from thefe regions to other
parts of the world. The denunciation of this plague was
delivered to Pharaoh early in the morning, when he was on
the banks of the Nile, probably paying his accuflomed de¬
votion to his greateft god ; and when he found himieP and
bis people tormented by a fwarm of fubordina.te divinities,
who exe, uted the judgment of Jehovah in defiance of the
power of the fupreme numen of Egypt, he muit have been
convinced, had any candour remained in his mind, that the
whole fyflem of his luperflition was a maft of abfui dities,
and that his gods were only humble inttruments at the dtl-
pofal of a Superior Power. He was not, however, convin¬
ced ; he was only abrmtd, and quickly relapfed into his
wonted obllmacy. ! he r,fth plague therefore, the murrain
among the c ule, brought death and deitruftion upon his
moil revered gods themlelves. Neither Oiiris, nor Ills, nor
Ammon, nor Pan, had power to fave his brute reprefenta-
tives. i he lacred bull, and heifer, atid ram, and goat, were
LOGY. 461
carried off by the fame malady which fvvept away all the Theology
other herds of deities, thele dii Jiercorei, who lived on grals
and hay. The imprefiion of this punifhment mull have^J^ ct0 th"e
been awful upon the minds of the Egyptians, but perhaps coming of
not equal to that which fucceeded it. Chrift.
In Egypt there were feveral altars on which human fa-v'”—'
crifices v'ere offered ; and from the defeription of the per- ♦
fons qualified to be victims, it appears that thofe unhappy
beings mull have been foreigners, as they were required to
have bright hair and a particular complexion. The hair
of the Kraelites was much brighter than that of the Egyp¬
tians, and their complexions fairer ; and therefore there can ,
be little doubt hut that, during their refidence in Esgypt, they
%vere made to furnifh the victims demanded by the bloody
gods. Thefe vidtims being burnt alive on a high altar,
and thus facrificed for the good of the nation, their afhes
were gathered together by the prietts, and fcattered up¬
wards in the air, that a blefling might be entailed on every
place to which an atom of this dull fhould be wmfted. Mo¬
les too, by the diredtion of the true God, took afhes of
the furnace, probably of one of thofe very furnaces in which
fome of his countrymen had been burnt, and fprinkling
them towards heaven in the fight of Pharaoh, brought
boils and blains upon all the people, of lo malignant a na¬
ture, that the magicians and the other miniflers of the medi¬
cal gods, with which Egypt abounded beyond all other coun¬
tries, could not themfelves efcape the infedlion.
The powers of darknefs were thus foiled; but the heart of
the monarch was Hill hardened. Heflrudlion was therefore
next brought upon him and his country by the elements, which
were among the earhell idol deities not only of the Egyptians,
but of every other polytheiflic nation. “ i he Lord rain¬
ed hail upon the land of Egypt ; fo that there was hail*,
and fire mingled with the hail, luch as there was none like
it in all the land of Egypt tinee it became a nation. And
the hail imote throughout all the land of Egypt all that was
in the field, both man and beafl; and the hail fmote every
heib of the field, and broke every tree of the field.” This
was a dreadful calamity in itfelf; and the horror which it
excited in the minds of the people muft have been greatly
aggravated by the well known fa£l, that Egypt is blefled
with a fley uncommonly ferene ; that in the greatell part of
it rain has never been leen at any other time fince the crea¬
tion of the world; and that a flight and tranfient {bower is
the utmofl that in the ordinary courle of nature falls any¬
where throughout the country. The fmall quantity of ve¬
getables which was left undeilroyed by the fire and the hail
was afterwards devoured by loculls, which by a llrong eail
wind were brought in fuch numbers from Arabia, where
they abound at all times, that they covered the whole face
of the earth, and did eat every herb of the land, and all
the truit of the trees, lo that there remained not any green-
thing in the trees or in the herbs of the field through ail the
land of Egypt.
The ninth plague which the obflinacy of Pharoah brought
upon his country, whilft it feverelypunifhed theEuyptians for
their cruelty to the Hebrews, flruck-at the very foundation
of all idolatry. We have elfewhere fir own, that the firff ob-
jedls oi idolatrous worfhip were the contending powers of
light and darknefs (fee Polytheism) ; and that the bene¬
volent principle, or the power of light, was everywhere be¬
lieved to maintain a conflant luperiority over the power of
darknefs. Such was the faith of the ancient Perfians ; and
fuch, as a very learned writer has lately proved, was like--
wife-
(x) Whence came the Greek word waver, the ocean.
4
«n 2
THEOLOGY.
Theology wlfe tlie faith of tlie earlier Egyptians. It was therefore
W’t^ wifdom truly divine, that God, to (how the vanity of
•dam to the their imaginations, brought upon thofe votaries of light,
coming of who fancied themfelves the offapring of the fun, a preter-
Chriit. natural darknefs, which, for three days, all the powers of
1 their fupreme deity and his fubordinate agents could not
vdifpel.
The tenth and laft plague brought upon this idolatrous
■people was more univerially and feverely felt than any which
had preceded it. It was likewife, in fome fenfe, an inftance
of the lex talionis, which requires an eye for an eye, and a
tooth for a tooth, &c. Mofes was commanded, at his firfl
interview with Pharaoh, to fay, “ Thus faith the Lord, If-
rael is my fon, even my firft-born. Let my fon go that he
may ferve me : and if thou refufe to let him go, behold, I
will flay thy fon, even thy firft-born.” Before this threat
was put in execution, every attempt was made to foften the
hardened heart of the obftinate tyrant. The waters of his
facred river were turned into blood, and all the fifties that it.
contained fiain ; frogs were brought over all the land to pol¬
lute the people ; the minifters of religion were rendered fo
impure by vermin, that they could not difeharge their wont¬
ed offices ; the animals moll revered as gods, or emblems of
gods, were cut off by a murrain ; the elements, that were
everywhere worfliipped as divinities, earned through the
land a devaftation, which was completed by fwarms of lo-
cutts; the afhes from the facred furnace, which were
thought to convey' blefifings whitherfoever they were wafted,
were made to communicate incurable difeafes; a thick and
preternatural darknefs was fpread over the kingdom, in de¬
fiance of the power of the great Ofiris ; and when the hearts
of the people and their fovereign continued ftill obdurate,
the eldeft: Ion in each family was {lain, becaufe they refufed
to let go Tfrael, God’s firft-born. From this univerfal pefti-
lence the Ifraelites were preferved byr fprinkling the door-
pofts of their houfes with the blood of one of the animals
adored in Egypt; a fail which, as it could not be unknown
to Pharaoh or his fubjedts, ought to have convinced that
people of the extreme abfurdity of their impious fuperfti-
tions. 'Phis effect it feems not to have had; but the death
of the firfl-born produced the deliverance of the Hebrews ;
for when it was found that there was not a houfe where
there was not one dead, “ Pharaoh called for Mofes and
Aaron by night, and faid, Rife up, and get you forth from
among my people, both you and the children of Ifrael; and
blefs me alfo. And the Egyptians were urgent upon the
people, that they might fend them out of the land in hafte;
for they faid, We be all dead men (y).” The wonted ob-
flinacy of the monarch indeed very foon returned ; and his
fubje&s, forgetting the lofs of their children, joined with
him in a vain attempt to bring back to bondage the very
people whom they had been thus urgent to fend out of the
land; but their attempt was defeated by Jehovah, and all
who engaged in it drowned in the Red Sea.
The God of Ifrael having thus magnified himfelf over the
Egyptians and their gods, and refeued his people from bon¬
dage by fuch means as muff not only have flruck terror and
aftonifhment into the whole land, but alfo have fpread his
jiiame through all the countries which had any communica-
Partll,
tion with that far-famed nation, proceeded to mflruft and Theolog.
exercife the Hebrews for many years in the v/ildernefs. from the
He inculcated upon them the unity of the Godhead ; gave A,
them ftatutes and judgments more righteous than thofe of th'
any other nation ; and by every method confiftent with the chrift
fieedom of moral agency guarded them againft. the conta- ’■“—■v—
gion of idolatry and polytheiim. He fent his angel before T49
them to keep them in the way, took upon himfelf the of- Jf“f(’n of
fice of their fupreme civil governor, and by his prefence di-the Wad.
ruffed them in all their undertakings. Pie led them withitesfolong
repeated figns and wonders through the neighbouring na-in the
tions, continued to try and difcipline them till they weredernef8,
tolerably attached to his government and eftablifhed in his
worftrip, and introduced them into the Promifed Land when
its inhabitants were ripe for deftrudfion. At their entrance
into it, he gave them a fummary repetition of their former
laws, with more fuch ordinances, both of a ceremonial and
moral kind, as were both fuited to their temper and cir-
cumftances, as well as to prefigure, and by degrees to
prepare them for, a more perfed difpenfation under the
Meffiah.
The Jewifh law had two great obje&s in view ; of which I'J0,
the firft was to preferve among them the knowledge of the th'e
true God, a rational worfhip fpringing from that know-jewifh law.
ledge, and the regular pra&ice of moral virtue ; and the fe-
cond was to fit them for receiving the accomplifhment of
the great promife made to their anceftors, by means analo¬
gous to thofe which a fchoolmafter employs to fit his pupils
for difeharging the duties of maturer "years. Everything
in that law peculiar to itfelf, its various ceremonies, modes
of facrificing, the fan&ions by which it was enforced, and
the theocratic government by which it was adminiftered,
had a direft tendency to promote one or other of thefe ends;
and keeping thefe ends in view, even the minuteft laws, at
which impious ignorance has affe&ed to make itfelf merry,
will be difeovered by thofe who fhall ftudy the whole lyftem,
and are at the fame time acquainted with the genuis of an¬
cient polytheiim, to have been ena&ed with the molt con-
fummate wifdom.
It is not eafy for us, who have been long bleffed with
the light of revelation, and who have cultivated our minds
by the ftudy of the fciences, to conceive the propenlity of
all nations, in that early age of the world, to the worfhip of
falfe gods, of which they were daily adding to the number.
It is indeed probable, from many paffages of Scripture, as
well as from profane authors of the greateft antiquity, that
one fupreme numen was everywhere acknowledged ; but he
was confidered as an extramundane being, too highly exalt¬
ed to concern himfelf with the affairs of this world, the go¬
vernment of which, it was believed, he had delegated to va¬
rious orders of fubordinate deities. Of thofe deitiep, fome
were fuppofed to have the charge of one nation and fome
of another. Hence it is, that we read of the gods of Egypt,
the gods of the Amorites, and the gods of the different na¬
tions round about Paleftine. None of thofe nations denied
the exiftence of their neighbour’s gods ; but all agreed, that
while the Egyptians were the peculiar care of Ofiris and
Ifis, the Amorites might be the favourites of Moloch, the
Phoenicians of Cronus, and the Philiftines of Dagon ; and
they
(y) For this account of the plagues of Egypt, we are indebted to the very valuable Olfervations on the fubjeeft lately
jmblifhed by Mr bryant. We have not quoted the authorities by which the learned and pious author fupports his opi¬
nions ; becaufe it is to be hoped, that for a fuller account of thefe important tranfadfions the reader will have recourfe to
his work, of which we have given only a very brief abftradt. For much of the preceding parts of this fedlion,
we acknowledge our obligations to the late Bifhop Law’s admirable difeourfe on the Several Dtfpenjaiions of Revealed
Meligion.
Part If. T H E O
Theology they had no ohje&Ion oeeafionally to join with each other
from the jn Worfhtp of their refpe&ive tutelary deities. Nay, it
fi.lof A- wag ,'mpiety in foreigners, while they fojourned in
coming of a fttange country, not to facrifice to the gods of the place,
t hrift. Thus Sophocles makes Antigone fay to her father, that a
u—~v ftranger Ihould both venerate and abhor thofe things which
are venerated and abhorred in the city where he refides ;
* Celfut a. and another author *, who, though comparatively late, drew
(ud Aug' much of his inforrrlation from ancient writings, which are
now loft, affures us, that this complaifance proceeded from
the belief that the “ feveral parts of the world were from
the beginning diftributed to feveral powers, of which each
had his peculiar allotment and refidence.”
From this notion of local divinities, whofe power or par¬
tial fondnefs was confined to one people, the Ifraelites. at
their exodus from Egypt, appear not to have been free (z).
Hence it is, that when the true God firft tells them, by
# Exod. their leader Mofes*, that if they would ohey his voice in-
lix, j. deed and keep his covenant, then they Ihould be a pecu¬
liar treasure to him above all people : to prevent them
from fuppofing- that he fhared the earth with the idols of
the heathen, and had from partial fondnefs chofen them for
his portion, he immediately adds, for all the earth is
mine. By this addition he gave them plainly to under-
I5I j (land that they were chofen to be his peculiar treafure for
their fepa- fome purpofe of general importance ; and the very firft ar-
ration from tide of the covenant which they were to keep was, that
other
people.
f i Sam.
sxvi. 19.
| Exod.
xxxiii. 16.
15*
Of their
theocratic
govern¬
ment.
they fhoiiM have no other gods but him. So inveterate,
however, was the principle which led to an intercommunity
of the objedfs of worfhip, that they could not have kept
this article of the covenant but in a ftate of feparation from
the reft of mankind -J- ; and that feparation could neither
have been effe&ed nor continued without the vifible provi¬
dence of the Almighty watching over them as his peculiar
treafure. This we learn from Moles himfdf, who. when
interceding for the people after their idolatrous worfhip of
the golden calf, and intreating that the prefence ot God
would ftill accompany them, adds theie words $ : “ For
wherein fhall it be known here that I and thy people have
found grace in thy fight? Is it not in that thou goest
with us ? So fhall we be separated, I and thy people,
from all the people that are upon the face of the earth.”
Upon this feparation every thing depended ; and therefore
to render it the more fecure, Jehovah, who in compliance
with their prejudices had already affumed the appellation
of their tutelary God, was gracioufly pleafed to become
likewife their fupreme Magiftrate, making them a “ king¬
dom of priefts and a holy nation,” and delivering to them a
digeft as well of their civil as of their religious laws.
The Almighty thus becoming their King, the govern¬
ment of the li'raelites was properly a theocracy, in which
the two focieties,. civil and religious, were of courie incor¬
porated. They had indeed after their fettlement in the
Fromifed Land, at firft, temporaryoccaficnally raifed
up ; and afterwards permanent magiftrates called kings, to
LOGY. 463
lead their armies in war, and to give vigour to the adminr- Theology
ftration of juftice in peace : but neither thofe judges nor
thofe kinqs could abrogate a fingle law of the original code, cjam totjie
or make the fmalleft addition to it but by the fpirit of pro- coming o£
phecy. They cannot therefore be confidered as fupreme Chrift.
magiftrates, by whatever title they may have been known ; *
for they were to go out and come in at the word of the
priefts, who were to afk counfel for them of the Lord, and
with whom they were even affociated in all judicial proceed¬
ings, as well of a civil as of a fpiritual nature *. Under* Num,
any other than a theocratic government the Hebrews couldxx^1£)ai’
not have been kept feparate from the nations around them
or if they could, that feparation would not have anfwered
the great purpofe for which it was eftablifhed. w The peo¬
ple, on their leaving Egypt, were funk into the loweft prac¬
tices of idolatry. To recover them by the difeipline of a
feparation, it was neceftary that the idea of God and his-
attributes fhould be imprefted upon them in the moft ftnjible.
manner. But this could not be commodioufly done under*
his eharadler of God of the univerfe : under his charadler of-
King of Ifrael, it well might. Hence it is, that we find him
in the Old Teltament fo frequently reprefented with affec¬
tions analogous to human paffxons. The civil relation in
which he flood to the Tfraelites made fuch a reprefentation
natural ; the groffnefs of their conceptions made the re-
prelentation neceflary ; and the guarded manner in which it
was always qualified prevented it from being mifehievous*.” * Warbur-
Hence too it is, that under the Mofaic difpenfation, ido
latry was a crime .of ftate, punifhable by the civil magi-b’^
ftrate. It was indeed high treafon, againft which laws were
enadled upon the jufteft principles,, and carried into effedl
without danger of error. Nothing lefs indeed than penal
laws of the fevereft kind could have reltrained the violent
propenfity of that headftrong people to worfhip, together
with their own God, the gods of the Heathen. But penal
laws enafted by human authority for errorsrin religion are
manifeftly unjuft; and therefore a theocratic government
feems to have been abfolutely neceffary to obtain the end
for which the Ifraelites were fepavated from the lurround-
ing nations.
It was for the fame ptirpofe of guarding them againft ido- Ami of ths
latry, and preventing all undue communications with theirritual iaw”
Heathen neighbours, that the ritual law was given, after
their prefumptuous rebellions-in the wildernefs4 Before the
bulinefs. of the golden calf, and their frequent attempts to
return into Egypt, it feems not to have been the Divine in¬
tention to lay upon them a yoke of ordinances ; but to -
make his covenant depend entirely upon their duly pra&i-
fing the rite of cireumcifion ; obferving the feftivals inftitu-
ted in commemoration of their deliverance from bondage,.
and other fignal fervices vouchfafed them ; and keeping in¬
violate all the precepts of the decalogue (a), which, if they
had done, they fhould have even lived in them*. But af-*
ter their repeated apoftacies, and impious wilhes to mix.
with the fur rounding nations, it was neceffary to f ubje&tec! 6.
them.
(z) It is not indeed evident that they had got entirely quit of this abfurd opinion at a much later period. Jephtha,
one. of their judges, who, though half paganized (as Warburton obterves) by a bad education, had probably as combi
notions of religion as an ordinary, Ifraelite, certainly talked to the king of Ammon as if he had believed the different
nations of the earth to be under the immediate protection of different deities: “ Wilt not thou (fays he) poffefs that
poffefs ? So whomfoever the Lord our God fhall drive out from before us.
which Chemofh thy god iriveth thee to
them will we poffefs. (Judges xi. 24.).
(a) Of thefe precepts we think it not neceffary, in an abftrabt fo fhort as this, to wafte the reader’s time with a for¬
mal and laboured defence. To the de-calopue no obje&ion can be made by any man who admits the obligations of na*
tural religion ; for, except the observation or the Sabbath-day, it enjoins not a fingle duty which does not by the. coa-
xduon.of all men refult from our relations, to God, ourfelves, and our iellow-creatures.
T H E O
Theology them to a multifarious ritual, of which the ceremoninl parts
^ were folemn and fplendid, fitted to enga ge and fix the at-
d9m to the tendon of a people whofe hearts were grofs ; to infpire them
coming of with awful reverence, and to withdraw their affc&ions from
Chnft. the pomp and pageantry of thofe idle iuperftitions which
they had fo long witneffed in the land of Egypt. To keep
them warmly attached to their public worfhip, that worffiip
was loaded with operofe and magnificent rites, and fo com¬
pletely incorporated with' their civil polity as to make the
fame things at once duties of religion and a6ts of ftate. I he
lervice of God was indeed fo ordered as to be tlfe eonflant
bufmefs as well as entertainment of their lives, fupplying the
place of all other entertainments ; and the facrifices which
they were commanded to offer on the moft folemn occa-
fions, were of fuch animals as the Egyptians and other Hea-
ij4 thens deemed facred.
Inftanced Thus a heifer without blemifh was in Egypt held facred
facrifices to t^ie goddefs His, and adlually worfhipped as the repre-
fentative of that divinity ; but the fame kind of heirer was
by the ritual law of the Hebrews commanded to be burnt
f Num xix w‘t^out the camp, as the vilefi animal, and the water of fe-
'paration to be prepared from her afliesf. The goat washy
the Egyptians held in great veneration as emblematical of
their ancient god Pan, and facrifices of the moft abominable
kind were offered to the impure animal (fee Pan) ; but
God, by his fervant Mofes, enjoined the Iliaelites to offer
goats themfelves as facritices for fin, and on one occaiion to
difmifs the live animal loaded with malediftions into the
Levit. wildernefs *. The Egyptians, with fm. ulat zeal, worfhip¬
ped a calf without blemifh as the fymbol of Apis, or the
god of fertility ; and it appears from the book of Exodus,
that the Ifraelites themfelves had been infedted with that
fuperflition. They were, however, fo tar from being per¬
mitted by their Divine lawgiver to confuler that animal as
in any refpe£t facred, that their priefts were commanded to
[j Lev. ix. offer for themfelves a young calf as a fin offering ||. No
animal was in Egypt held in greater veneration than the
ram, the fymbol of their god Ammon, one of the heavenly
conftellations. It was therefore with wildom truly divine,
that Jehovah, at the inflitution of the paffover, ordered his
people to kill and eat a young ram on the very day that
1 S£enc.‘,r Egyptians began their annual folemnities $ in honour of
JHeb SRit animal a3 one of their greatefl gods ; and that he en-
lib. ii. cap. joined the blood of this divinity to be fprinkled as a fign
4* upon the two fide polls and upper door poll of the he life in
which he was eaten. Surely it is not in the power of ima¬
gination to conceive a ritual better calculated to cure the
liraelites of their propenfity to idol worfhip, or to keep
them feparate from the people who had firft^given them that
propenfity, than one which enjoined them to offer in facri
fice the very creatures which their fuperftitious mailers had
worfhipped as gods. “ Shall we ffaid Motes) facrifice the
abominations of the Egyptians before their eyes, and wall
they not {lore us ?”
But it was not againfl Egyptian idolatry only that the
ritual law was framed : the nations of Syria, in the midfl
of whom the Ifraelites were to dwell, were addidted to ma¬
ny cruel and abfurd fuperflitions, againfl which it was as ne-
ceffary to guard the people of God as againfl the brute-
worfhip of Egypt. We need not inform any reader of the
books of Mofes that thofe nations worfhipped the fun and
moon and all the holt of heaven ; or that it was part or their
religion to propitiate their offended gods by occafionally fa-
crilicing their fons and their daughters. From fuch wor-
fhip and fuch facrihces the Ifraelites were prohibited under
the fevered penalties ; but we cannot confider that prohibi¬
tion as making part of ritual law, fince it relates to prac¬
tices impious aad immoral in themfelves, and therefore de-
L o g y. Parc!r_
dared to be abominations to the Lord. The Pheenielans, Theology
however,, and the Cariaanites, entertained an opinion that ^om
every child came into the world with a fio/Zutu/ nature, anddLllof
that this pollution could be removed only by a lujlralfire. coniinJcf
Hence they took their new born infants, and with particu- Chrift,
lar ceremonies made them pafs through the flame of a pile
facied to Baal or Moloch, the fymbols of their great god !T
the fun. Sometimes this purgation was delayed till "the law nl?
children had arrived at their tenth or twelfth year, when'ing cat,,,'
they were made either to leap through the flame, or run fe- :111 drink.’
veral times backwards and forwards between two contiguous"^-’and
facred fires ; and this luflration was fuppofed to free^them ° ^ ^
from every natural pollution, and to make them through
life the peculiar care of the deity in whofe honour it was
performed *. The true God, however, who would have no* y
feliowfhip with idols, forbade all fuch purgations among hislf]).
people, whether done by fires confecrated to himfelf or to 13.
the bloody deities of the Syrian nations. “ There fhall not
be found (lays he) among you any one that maketh his fon
or his daughter to pafs through the fire ff Deut.
There are, in the Jewifh law, few precepts more fre-xv!i-‘o-xii,
quently repeated than that which prohibits the feething of2'" .‘tnd
a kid in its mother’s milk ||; and there being no moral fit-2 Xt
nefs in this precept when confidered abfolutely and without , p .
regard to the circumftances under which it was given, in-f
fidel ignorance has frequently thought fit to make it the Dtu*.’
fubjeft of profane ridicule. But the ridicule will be for-dv. ii.
borne by thofe who know that, among the nations round
Judea, the fealling upon a kid boiled in its mother’s milk
was an effential part of the impious and magical ceremonies
celebrated in honour of one of their gods, who was fup-
poied to have been fuckled by a fhe-goat. Blence, in the
Samaritan Pentateuch, the text runs thus ; “ Thou fhalt
not leeth a kid in its mother’s milk ; tor whoever does
fo, is as one who lacrifices an abominable thing, which of¬
fends the God ot Jacob Another precept, apparently j Spmar,
of very little importance, is given in thefe words : “ YelE-‘i-“p
fhall not round the corners of your heads, neither fhalt thou9*
mar the corners of thy beard But its wildom is feen at* Levit.
once, when we know that at funerals it was the pra&ice of six. 27.
many or the heathens, in that early period, to round the cor¬
nets of their heads, and mar their beards, that by throwing
the hairs they had cut off upon the dead body, or the funeral
pile, they might propitiate the fhade of the departed hero;
and that in other nations, particularly in Phoenicia, it was
cuftomary to cut off all the hair of their heads except what
grew upon the crown, which, with great folemnity, was
confecrated either to the fun or to Saturn f. The un-f
learned Chriftian, if he be a man of rtfiedlion, mufl read ‘l’ caP'
with fome degree of wonder fuch laws as thefe: “Thou fhaltl8’
not fow thy vineyard with divers feeds, left the fruit of
thy feed which thou haft lown and the fruits of thy vine¬
yard be dehled. f hou fhalt not plow with an ox and an
afs together. i hou fhalt not wear a garment of divers
forts, or ot woollen and linen together J.” But his wonder P [)eu?.
will ceaie when he knows that all thefe were practices fromxxii.
which the Sabian idolaters of the eaft expefted the greateft^) I0>n*
advantages. Their beliet in magic and judicial aflrology
led them to imagine, that by fowing different kinds of corn
among their vines they fhould propitiate the gods which
were afterwards known in Rome by the names of Bacchus
and Ceres ; that, by yoking animals fo heterogeneous as
the ox and the afs in the fame plough, they fhould by a
charm fecure the favour of the deities who prelided over the
affairs of hufbandry ; and that a garment compofed or linen
and woollen, worn under* certain conjundtions of the flars,
would protedl its owner, his flocks, his herds, and his field,
from all malign influences, and render him in the higheft
2 degree
$ Spcltfrr,
Ji;>. ii cap.
3C-, 3l> 33'
156
The iVlo-
faic laws
enforced
by tempi
l al fanc-
tiuns.
part If, T H E O
Theoi.gy degree pnoiferous through the whole courfe of his life 5.
f'uf'a' ^ut ma^!ca* cere-monies, of which the very effence feems
dim to the to ^ave cpnfifted in uniting in one group or jumble things
c.imuig of never brought together by nature, were always performed
Ch ih. in order to render propitious good or evil demons (fee Ma¬
gic) ; and therefore fuch ceremonies, however unimportant
in themfelves, were in that age molt wifely prohibited in
the Mofaic law, ns tney naturally led thofe who were ad-
dnfted to them to the worfhip of idols and impure fpirits.
I', the whole ritual of the Jewifh economy be examined
in this manner, every precept in it will be found to be di¬
rected againft fome idolatrous praCtice of the age in which
it was given. It was therefore admirably calculated to
keep the liraelites a ieparafe people, and to prevent too
clofe an inlercourfe between them and their Gentile neigh¬
bours. And their civil infhtutes, even thofe which appear
the moft trifling, were all contrived with the moft confum-
mate wifdom to promote the fame end. The diftin&ion
made by their law between clean and unclean animals (fee
Slavery, n° 33.) rendered it impofflble tor them, without
a breach of that law, to eat and drink with their idolatrous
neighbours ; their facred and civil ceremonies being dire&ly
levelled agai'nft the Egyptian, Zabian, and Canaanitilh fu-
perftions, had a tendency to generate in their minds a keen
contempt of thofe fuperftitions ; and that contempt muft
have been greatly iwereafed by their yearly, monthly, and
daily iacrifices, of the very animals which their Egyptian
matters had worfliipped as gods.
T. hat thefe laws might have the fuller effeCf upon minds
grofs and carnal, they wTere all enforced by temporal fanc-
tions. d his was indeed the natural and even neceflary con-
tli f!nc-°' fefluence the theocratic government eftablilhed in Ifrael;
for when God condefcended to become their fupreme civil
magiftrate, he of courfe engaged to execute, either imme¬
diately by himielf, or by the medium of his vicegerents the
judges and the kings, all the offices included in fuch ma-
giflracy. ffence it is that Mofes aflured them, that if they
would hearken to God’s judgments, and keep them, and do
them, they fhould be blefled above all people; threatening
them at the fame time with utter dettru&ion if they,fhould
at all walk after other gods, and ferve them, and wovfhip
them Nor were thefe temporal rewards and punifhments
held out only to the nation as a colledfive body j they were
promifed and threatened to every individual in his private
capacity as the certain coniequences of his obedience or
ddobedience.. Every particular Hebrew was commanded
to. honour his father and mother, that it might go well
w nh him, and that his days might be prolonged ; whilft he
who curfed his father or his mother was furely to be put
to death. Againft every idolater, and even againft the
wilful tranfgreffor of the ceremonial law, God repeatedly
declared that he would fet his face, and would cut off that
man bom among his people: and that individuals, as well
as the nation, were in this life actually rewarded and pu-
nifhed according to their deferts, has been proved by bifliop
arhurton with a force of evidence ^ which muft cany
book conviaion to every mind which his lordfhip’s rude railings
4 at fome favourite fyftem have not filled with prejudices
againft all his works. Indeed the Mofaic law, taken in its
litetal fenfe, holds out no other proipeas to the Ifraelites
than temporal happinefs; fuch as, health, long life, peace,
plent), and dominion, if they fhould keep the covenant; and
temporal mifery, viz. dileafcs, immature death, war, famine,
want, fubjeftion, and captivity, if they fhould break it.
" j 0ays Moles), I have let before thee this day life and
g°o -, death and evil j in that I command thee this day to
o\e tie Lord thy God, to walk in his ways, and to keep
ns commandments, and his ftatutes, and his judgments, that
Vox,, AV III. Part II, _
$ Deut.
§ Dk
LOGY. 465
thou mayeft live and multiply ; and the Lord thy God Theology
fhall blefs thee irx the land whither thou goett to poflefs it.
But if thine heart turn away, fo that thou wilt not hear, j..m t() t|^
but fhalt be drawn away, and vvovfliip other gods, and lerve ci ming ojf
them ; I denounce unto you this day, that ye fhall furely Chrift.
perifh, and that ye fhall not prolong your days upon the v " t
land whither thou pafTeft over Jordan to pofTefs it.” And
elfewhere, having informed them that, upon their apoftacy,
their land fhould be rendered like Sodom and Gomorrah,
he adds, that all men fhould know the reafon ot inch bar-
rennefs being brought upon it, and fhould fay, “ Becaufe
they have forfaken the covenant of the Lord God of their
fathers, which he made with them whea he brought them
forth out of the land of Egypt, the anger of the Lord
was kindled againft this land, to bring upon it all the curfes
that are written in this book J.” t Peut.
From this notorious fadt, which hardly any man of let-xxx- Ti¬
ters will now dare to deny, fome divines have concluded, XXX1X*
we think rafhly, that the ancient Ifraelites had no hope 157
whatever beyond the grave ; and that in the whole Old Whence it
Teflament there is not a Jingle intimation of a future ftate.
That many of the loweft vulgar, who could neither read £ej.r£^
nor write, were in this ftate of darknefs, may be true ; but that the
it is impoflible that fuch of them as underftood the book of ancient
Genefis could be ignorant that death came into the world ^e^rcw*
by the tranfgreflion of their firft parents, and that God had^J^g.
repeatedly promifed to redeem mankind f rom every confe-yon f ths
quence of that tranfgreflion. They muft likewife have known grave,
that, before the deluge, Enoch was tranflated into heaven
without tailing death ; that afterwards Elijah had the fame
exemption from the common lot of humanity ; and that,
as God is no refpedfter of perfons, every one who ferved
him with the zeal and fidelity of thefe two prophets would,
by fome means or other, be made capable of enjoying the
fame rewards. The God of Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob,
was not the God of the dead, but of the living.
In the earlieft periods of their commonwealth, the If¬
raelites could, indeed, only infer, from different paffages of
their iacred books, that there would be a general refurrec-
tion of the dead, and a future ftate of rewards and punifli-
ments; but from the writings of the prophets it appears,
that before the Babylonifh captivity that do£lrine muft have
been very generally received. We fliall not, in fupport of
our opinion, quote the famous paffage in the book of Job J,' Cbap,
becaufe it is not determined at what period that beautifulxix. verfc
and fublime poem was admitted into the Jewifh canon ; but 2^* ^cc-
in the Pfalms, and in the prophecies of Ilaiah, Daniel, ami
Ezekiel, there are feveral texts which feem to us to prove,
incontrovertibly, that, at the time when thefe infpired books
were written, every liraelite who could read the feriptures
mutt have had fome hopes of a refurredlion from the dead.
We fhall conuder two of thefe texts, becaufe they have
been quoted by a very learned and valuable writer in fup¬
port of an opinion the reverfe of ours.
In a fublime fong, compofed with a view to incite the-phis "^pi-
people to confidence in God, the prophet Ifaiah lias thefe nion coni
remarkable words j 44 Lhy dead men fliall live j together
with my dead body fliall they ariie. Awake spd fmg, ye
that dwell in the dull; for thy dew is as the dew of herbs,
and the earth fhall call out the dead J.” We agree with f Chap,
bifliop Warburton that thefe words are figurative,' and thatxxvi>
they were uttered to give the Ifraelites confolation in very
uialtrous times. The purpofe of the prophet was to affure
them, that though their community fhould, in Babylon, be
as completely diffolved as a dead body reduced to duft, yet
God would reflore them to their own land, and raife that
community again to life. This was indeed a prophecy only
of a temporal deliverance; but as it is. expreffed in terms
3 N relating
* Div.
Leg. book
vj. fecft. 2
466 T H E O
Theolonry relating to the death and refurre&ion of man, the do&rine of
fri’ni£t^e a refurreftion mud then have been well known, and generally
dain 'to therece^vec^ or langua^e would have been altogether un¬
co ning of intelligible. No (fays the bifhop) ; that the language might
Chrft. be intelligible, it was only neceflary that the Ifraelites (hould
u—^  have diftinft ideas of a refurre6tion from the dead, with¬
out knowing that the natural body is indeed to rife again ;
and as he thinks that fuch metaphorical expreffions as this
would have the greateft force where the doctrine of the re-
furredtion was unknown, he concludes that it mull have been
unknown among the Ifraelites in the days of Ifaiah*.
Had there been no lacred books among the Ifraelites
before this prophecy was uttered, his lordfhip’s reafoning
would have been at lead plaufrble, if not concludve ; but
that a people who knew how death had entered into the
world, who believed that they were by fome means or other
to be freed from its ding, who, it is natural to fuppofe,
often meditated upon the bruifing of the ferpent’s head,
and the nature of the bleffing which all nations were to
derive from the feed of Abraham, fhould form didinft ideas
of a refurredtion, and read this prophecy without believing
that the natural body is indeed to rife again, we cannot pol-
fibly conceive. The very fuppodtion is one of his lord¬
fhip’s mod irreconcileable paradoxes; and it is a paradox
which his fydem did not require him to fupport.
The prophet Ezekiel, when the date of things was mod
defperate, is carried by the Spiiit into a valley full of dry
bones, and afked this quedion ; “ Son of man, can thefe
bones live ?” To which he anfwers ; “ O Lord God, thou
knowed f an anfwer which the fame learned prelate
thinks the prophet could not have made, had he been
brought up in the knowledge and belief of a refurredfion
from the dead. Our opinion is diredtly the reverfe of that
of his lordfhip, who feems to have midaken the nature of
this fcenical reprefentation. The prophet was not alked
if a// the dead would rife at the lad day ; but only if the
particular bones tAen prefented to him could live at t/jat time,
and while other bones were mouldering in corruption : and
to fuch a quedion we cannot conceive any anfw'er that a
man brought up in the belief of a genera! refurredlion could
have given, but—“ O Lord God, thou knowed.” Had
Ezekiel been a dranger to the dodlrine of a general refur-
redtion, or had he not believed that dodfrine, he would
doubtlefs have anfwered the quedion that was put to him
in the negative ; but convinced that all men are at fome pe¬
riod to rife from the dead, “ that every one may receive
the things done in his body, according to that he hath
done, whether it be good or bad,” he very naturally faid,
that God alone knew whether the bones then exhibited
to him in the valley would me before the general refur-
redtion.
Chap,
auxvii. 3
LOGY. Part II.
But though the more intelligent and righteous Ifraelitcs Theology
certainly “ all died in faith, and not having received the ^r,l'rn tlle
promifes, but having feen them afar off, were perfuaded of dam'to^the
them and embraced them, confeffing that they were drangers coming ef
and pilgrims on earthj who deiired a better country,' that thrift.
is, a heavenly one-f,” we are not to fuppofe that this hea-  
venly defire arofe from any thing taught in the law of The ho
Mofes. That law, when taken by itfelf, as unconnedbeduf the He-
with prior^and fubfequent revelations, makes no mention brew?,
whatever of a heavenly inheritance, which St Paul affuresh'’wever>
us X was given 430 years before to Abraham by a promife"hei^owir
which may be traced back to the fird ray of comfort vouch-law.
fafed to fallen man in the fentence paffed on the originalt tleb. xi,
deceiver. “ Wherefore then ferved the law ? It was added
(fays the apodle), becaufe of tranfgreffions, till the feed^^j'
diould come to whom the promife was made.” The tranf-
greflions here alluded to wTere polytheitm and idolatry,
which, with their never failing train of cruel and detedable
vices, had overfpread the whole world; and the primary
intention of the law was to dem the torrent of thefe cor¬
ruptions, for which we have feen it was admirably calcu¬
lated; and, like a fchoolmader, to indrudb the Ifraelites in
the unity and worfirip of Jehovah, and thus by degrees bring
them to Chrid.
But though it is apparent that a future date of rewards
and punidrments made no part of the Mofaic difpenfation,
yet the law had certainly a fpiritual meaning to be under-
dood when the fulnefs of time fhould come. Every Chri-
dian fees a linking refemblance between the facrifice of the
pafchal lamb, which delivered the Ifraelites from the de-
droying angel in Egypt, and the facrifice of the Lamb of
God, which taketh away the fin of the' world. Indeed the
whole ritual of facrifice mud have kd the more intelligent
of them to faith in a future facrifice ; by which, while the
heel of the feed of the woman fhould be bruifed, the head
of the ferpent fhould be completely crufhed (fee Sacri¬
fice) ; and as prophets were raifed up from time to time,
to prepare them for the coming of the Mtffiah, and to
foretel the nature of his kingdom, there can be no doubt
but that thofe infpired teachers would lay open to them, as
tar as was expedient, the temporary duration of the Mofaic
law, and convince them that it was only the fhadow of
better things to come. From the nature of their ritual, uSo
and the different prophecies vouchfafed them, which be-wlly cbe
came more and more explicit as the time approached forUw w,a5
their accomplifhment, they mud furely have been led to ; ^
expedl redemption from the curfe of the fall by the fuffer-
ings of their Mefllah ; but that any one of them knew
precifely the manner in which they were to be redeemed,
and the nature of that religion which was to fuperfede their
own, is wholly incredible (b). Such knowledge would
have
(b) l his doftrine is dated in fo clear a light by bifhop Bull, whom, as a divine, we think the glory of the church
of England, and who has had few fuperiors in any church, that the learned reader will be pleafed to have his opinions
in his ovvn words. “ An igitur, inquies, fuerunt fub kge, qui vitam jeternam fperarent ? Refp. Qui meliores erant et
peripicaciores in pcpulo Judaico, verofimile ed eos feu generalium promiflionum vi, feu temporalium bonorum levi asdi-
matione, feu divime bonitatis intuitu, feu animae fuos, melioris quam caduci boni appetentis, confideratione, feu Enochi
exereplo (cui fequiori tevo acccffit Elias raptus) feu Patriarcharum traditione, (quibus Deus multis indreifs fpem futuro-
rum bonorum fecerat, in quorum indiciorum gencre non minimum erat et illud, quod multi eximie boni terredris fe-
licitatis expertes vixerint, quod argumentum late exequitur Scriptor ad Hebrasos cap. x 1.) feu aliis rationibus adduftos
credidifie, Deum, piaster fpecialia ida bona ad banc vitam pertinentia, et legibus Mofaicis eomprehenfa, etiam alia pod
mortem cultoribus fuis fidis largiri velle. Tmo datuendum illud omnino ed, ne viros fandlos eximiofque in populo
Lei fuurn indar turn vixiffe, turn devixiffe credatur. Nec referc, quod hujus fidei vix ac ne vix quidem ulla in Cano-
nicis V. r. Scripturis mentio fiat. Nam certum ed, Abrahamum filium promiffionis, madlare juffum non recufaffe, hac
ratiocinatione fudentatum, Deum potentia tanta praeditum effe, ut filium jam mortuum in vitam revocare, eumque et
redivivum redituere poffet. Certujn, inquam, illud ed, quia divinue Autor Epidolse ad Hebrseos id diferte tedatur,
cap.
Part If. T H E O
Theology have made them impatient under the yoke of ordinances
from the to which they were iubjedled ; for after the Chriftian faith
fall of A- came jRto fu]i fplendour, mankind could be no longer under
coming of tuition of fuch a fchoolmafter as the law, which “ had
Chrift. only afiado<w of good things; and fo far from their-reality,
not even the very image o1, them -l-Through thefe fha-
f dows, however, the Jews, aided by the clearer light of
prophecy, though it too (hone in a dark place, might have
feen enough of God’s plan of redemption to make them ac¬
knowledge Jefus of Nazareth, when he came among them
working miracles of mercy, for the Meffiah lo long pro-
mifed to their forefathers, and in whom it was repeatedly
faid, that all the nations of the earth fhould be blefled.
Means ufed While fuch care was taken to prepare the defcendants
to prepare of Abraham for the coming of the Prince of Peace, we
the world muft not fuppofe that God was a refpedfer of perfons, and
nf/^of0" t^e reft of the world was totally neglefted. The dif-
ChrdL° perfion of the ten tribes certainly contributed to fpread
the knowledge of the true God among the eaftern nations.
The fubfequent captivity of the tribes of Judah and Ben¬
jamin muft have confirmed that knowledge in the great em¬
pires of Babylon and Perfia ; and that particular providence
of God which afterwards led Ptolemy Philadelphus to have
the Jtwifh feriptures tranflated into the Greek language,
laid the divine oracles open to the ftudy of every accom-
pldhed fcholar. At laft, when the arms of Rome had con¬
quered the civilized world, and rendered Judea a province
of the empire ; when Auguftus had given peace to that
empire, and men were at leifure to cultivate the arts and
fciences ; when the different fe&s of philolophers had by
their deputations whetted each others underftandings fo
that none of them was difpoied to lubmit to an impof-
ture ; and when the police of the Roman government wras
fuch that intelligence of every thing important was quickly
tranfmitted from the moft diftant provinces to the capital
of the empire ; “ when that fulnefs of time was come,
God fent forth his Son made of a woman, made under the
law, to redeem them that were under the law, that we
might receive the adoption of fons,” and be reftored to that
inheritance of which the forfeiture introduced the feveral
difpenfations of revealed religion into the world.
Sect. V. Fzew of Theology, more peculiarly Chri-
Jiian.
Mankind being trained by various difpenfations of pro¬
vidence for the reception of that feed @f Abraham, in whom
all the nations of the earth were to be bleffed, and the time
fixed by thejewdlh prophets for his coming being arrived, “ a
meffengcr was fent before his face to prepare his way before
him by preaching the baptifm of repentance for the remifiion
LOGY. 467
of fms.’, This mefienger was John the Baptrft, a very ex- The lojry,
traordinary man, and the greateft of all the prophets. Hisjl"10^ PfjCU*
birth was miraculous, the feene of his miniftry the wilder- ia t( jan_1 1
nefs, his manners auftere, and h:s preaching upright, with- f
out reipedt of perfons. He frankly told his audience that
he was not the Meffiah, that the Meffiah would foon appear
among them, that “he was mightier than himfelf, and that
he would baptife them with the Holy Ghoft and with fire.” ^
Mightier indeed he was ; for though born of a woman thrift the
the Mefllah was not the fon of a human father ; and though divine
living for the firft thirty years of his life in obfeurity andvvoVcl m-
poverty, he was the lineal defeendant of David, and heir t0carnaCe’
the throne of lirael. But the dignity of his human defeent,
great as it was, vanifhes from confideration when compared
with the glory which he had with his Father before the
world was. The Jewifh difpenfation was given by the mi¬
niftry of Moles, and illuftrated by fubfequent revelations
vouchfafed .to the prophets ; the immediate author of the
Chriftian I’eligion Is the xoyo,- or fecond perfon of the bleffed
Trinity, of whom St John declares, that “ he was in the
beginning with God, and was God ; that all things were
made by him ; and that without him was not any thing
made that was made.” We have already proved that in
the one Godhead there is a Trinity of perfons ; and that
the is one of the three, is apparent from thefe words
of the apoftle, and from many other paffages of facred
feripture. Thus he is called the Lord of hojls himfelf; the
JirJl and the lajl, befdes whom there is no God; the mojl high
God; God bleffed for ever ; the mighty God, the everlajling
Father, ffehovah our righteoufnefs ; and the only wife God our
Saviour (c). This great Being, as the fame apoftle affures
us, was made flefh, and dwelt among men ; not that the
divine nature was or could be changed into humanity, for
God is immutable, the fame Almighty and incomprehen-
fible Spirit yefterday, to-day, and forever ; but the word or
fecond perfon in the godhead, affuming a human foul and
body into a perfonal union with himfelf, dwelt upon earth
as a man, veiling his divinity under mortal flefh. Hence he
is faid elfewhere to have been manifefted in the flefh,”
and “ to have taken upon him the nature of man phrafes
of the fame import with that which afferts “ the Word to
have been made flefh.” ^
This incarnation of the Son of God is perhaps the greateft ObjeSions
myftery of the Chriftian faith, and that to which ancientt0 the m-
and modern heretics have urged the moft plauilble objec-^1^100
tions. The dodkrine of the Trinity is indeed equally in-wor(|
comprehenfible ; but the nature of God and the mode of
his fubfiftence, as revealed in feripture, no man, who thinks,
can be furprifed that he does not comprehend ; for a reve¬
lation which fhould teach nothing myfterious on fuch a fub-
jc£! would be as incredible and as ufelefs as another which
3 N 2 contained
cap. 11. 19. Hujus tamen vere admirandae fidei, atque Evangelicae fupparis, in hiftoria Abraharni nec volapi, nec vefti-
gium reperias. Praeterea floruerunt fingulis faeculis in populo Judaico Viri Dei ac Prophetas caelitus edodfi, quos, inter
tot arcana ipfis patefafta, myfticum hunc leg is fenfum penitus ignoraffe, nihilque de futura vita mtellexiiTe} nemo pru-
dens fufpicabitur. Cum autem nefas fit vel cogitafle, Vitos optimos fapientiam, qua ipfi pollebant, aliis invidiffe, cre-
denclum omnino eft, eos, ftcubi idoneos invenerint Auditores, evolviffe iis obtefta in lege myfteria, fingultfque tantum ape-
ruiffe, quantum captus iplorum et utilitatis ratio ferebat. In publicis autem concionibus Prophet te ac Sapientes ita
loquebantar, ut nec in contemptum adducerent arcana fan&ioris difeiplinie, et tamen Auditorem attentum ad invefti-
pandi follicitudinem excitarent. Atque hinc natum arbitratur maximus Grotius diferimen antiquitus inter Judteos celc-
bratum, feriptas legis, et legis oralis, quam et tibap i. e. feu Traditwnem vocant; utramque dicentes a Mofe
profedtam : non quod res aliae fuerint in tiaditione quam in lege feripta ; fed quod ea quae in lege feripta occultius con-
tinebantur, ftudiofis indagatoribus enodaret accuratior interpretatio. Harmonia Apojlolica, Differt. poft. cap. 10.
(c) Ifaiah viii. 13, 14. compared with 1 Peter ii. 7, 8 ; Ifaiah vi. 5. compared with John xii. 41.; Ifaiah xfiv. 6. com¬
pared with Revelation xxii. 13.; Pfalm Ixxviii. 56. compared with 1 Corinthians x. 9. Romans ix. 5. Ifaiah ix. 6. Jere¬
miah xxiii. 6. Jude.
468
Theology
more pecu
liarly Chri
flian.
J64
Obviated
* Eph. i.
10 Col. i
*9, 2.0,
jj Col. ii.
| Heb.
i- 3*
T H E O
contained no tiling' but viyjlery. The difficulty refpe&ing
the incarnation, Avhich forces itfelf upon the mind, is not
how two natures fo different as the divine and human can
^ be fo intimately united as to become one perfon ; for this
union in itfelf is not more inconceivable than that of the
foul and body in one man : but that which at firft is apt
to flagger the faith of the refkdling Chriflian is the infi¬
nite diftance between the two natures in Chrift, and the
comparatively fmall importance of the objeft, for the attain¬
ment of which the eternal Son of God is laid to have taken
upon him our nature.
Upon mature reflection, however, much of this difficulty
will vanifh to him who confiders the ways of Providence, and
attends to the meaning of the words in which this myflery
is taught. '1 he importance of the objeft for which the
word condefcended to be made flefh, we cannot adequately
know. The oracles of truth indeed inform us, that Chrill
Jefus came into the world to lave fmners ; but there are
paflages fcattered through the New Teftament * which in¬
dicate, not obfeurely, that the influence of his fufferings ex¬
tends to other worlds betides this : and if fo, who can take
upon him to fay, that the quantity of good which they
may have produced was not offufficient importance to move
even to tin's condetcenfion a Being who is emphatically
ftyled love ?
But let us fuppofe that every thing which he did and taught
and fuffered was intended only for the benefit of man, we
fhall, in the daily adminillration of providence, find other in-
ftances of the divine condefcenfion ; which, though they
cannot be compared with the incarnation of the fecond per¬
fon in the blefl'ed Trinity, are yet fufficient to reconcile our
underflandings to that myftery when revealed to us by the
Spirit of God. That in Chrift there fhould have dwelt on
earth “ ail the fulnefs of the Godhead bodily |],” is indeed
a truth by which the devout mind is overwhelmed with
aftonifhment ; but it is little lefs aftonifhing that the omni¬
potent Creator fhould be intimately prefent at every inftant
of time to the meaneft of his creatures, “ upholding all
things, the vileft reptile as well as the moft glorious angel,
by the word, of his power J.” Yet it is a truth felf-evi-
dent, that without this conftant prefence of the Creator,
nothing which had a beginning could continue one moment
m being ; that the vifible univerfe would not only crumble
into chaos, but vanifh into nothing ; and that the foals of
men, and even the moft exalted fpirits of creation, wmuld
inftantly lofe that exiftence, which, as it was not of itfelf,
and is not neceflary, muft depend wholly on the will of him
from whom it was originally derived. See Metaphysics,
nJ 272—276, and Providence, n° 3.
In what particular way God is prefent to his works, we
cannot know. He is not diffufed through the univerfe like
the anima mundi of the ancient Platonifts, or that modern
idol termed the fuljlratum of/pace (Metaphysics, n° 309,
310.); but that he is in power as intimately prefent now
to every atom of matter as when he firft brought it into
exiftence, is equally the didlate of found philofophy and of
divine revelation ; for “ in him we live and move and have
our being and power without fubftance is inconceivable.
If then the divine nature be not debafed, if it cannot be
debafed by,being conftantly prefent with the vileft reptile
on which we tread, why fhould our minds recoil fi rom the
idea of a ftill clofer union between the fecond perfon of the
ever blefied Trinity and the body and foul of Jefus Chrift ?
The one union is indeed different from the other, but we
are in truth equally ignorant of the nature of both. Rea-
fon and revelation affure us that God muft be prefent to
his works to preferve them in exiftence ; and revelation in¬
forms us farther, that one of the perfons in the Godhead
LOGY. Part IT,
aflumed human nature into a perfonai union with himfelf. Theology,
to redeem myriads of rational creatures from the miferablemore Pecu-
confequences of their own folly and wickednefs. The im-liarj^hri*
portance oi this objeft is fuch, that, for the attainment of ^ j
it, we may eafily conceive that he who condefcends to be
potentially prefent with the worms of the earth and the
grafs of the field, would condefcend ftill farther to be per-
lonally prefent with the fpotlefs foul and body of a man.
Jefus Chrift lived indeed a life of poverty and fufferino-
upon earth, but his divine nature was not affe&ed by his
fufferings. At the very time when, as a man, he had not a
place where to lay his head; as God, he was in heaven as well
as upon earth*, dwelling in light inacceffible ; and while,* John iii.
as a man, he was increafing in wifdom and ftature, his di-U-
vinity was the fulnefs of him who filleth all in all, and from
whom nothing can be hid.
Perhaps the very improper appellation of mother of God,
which at an early period of the church was given to the
Virgin Mary, may have been one caufe of the reluctance
with which the incarnation has been admitted ; for as we
have elfewhere'obferved (fee Nestorius), fuch language,
in the proper fenfe of the words, implies what thofe, by
whom it is ufed, cannot poffibly believe'to be true; but it
is not the language of feripture. We are there taught, that.
“ Chrift being in the form of God, thought it no robbery
to be equal with God ; but made himfelf of no reputation,
and took upon him the form of a fervant, and was made in
the likenefs of manf that “ God lent forth his Son made! Philip if'
of a woman, made under the law, to redeem them that 6> 7*
were under the law, that we might receive the adoption of
fons i| and that “ the word who vras in the beginning [j Gal. iv,
with God, and was God, by whom all things were made, 4, j.
was made fleflr, and dwelt among men (who beheld his
glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father), full
of grace and truth J but we are nowhere taught that, f Jehn i.
as God, he had a mother! It was indeed the doftrine of
the primitive church ||, that the very principle of perfonality \\ Horjley’s
and individual exiftence in Mary’s fon, was union with theSermon °n
uncreated word ; and this dodfrine is thought to imply the^ J’,carni‘‘
miraculous conception, which is recorded in the plaineft
terms by two of the evangelifts ; f or he was conceived by His divine
the Holy Ghoft and born of a virgin § ; but, as God, henKture
had been begotten from all eternity of the Father, and in |j^rt^n.^r
order of nature was prior to the Holy Ghoft. This is evi- j eSt a
dent from the appellation of ® given to him by St John;jvktth. i.
for the term being ufed in that age, both by the Jewifh1^,
Rabbies and the heathen philoiophcrs, to denote the fecond u a7’
divine fubfiftence, which they confidered as an eternal and
neceffary emanation from the firft, fometimes called r’acyaS v
and fometimes T0 £v; and the apoftle giving no intimation
of his ufing the word in any uncommon fenfe, we muft
neceffarily conclude, that he meant to inform us that the di¬
vinity of Chrift is of eternal generation. That the term
was ufed in this fenfe by the later Platonifts, and in
all probability by Plato himfelf, we have fufficiently (hewn
in another place (fee Platonism) ; and that a fimilar mode
of expreffion prevailed among the Jews in the time of St
John, is apparent from the Chaldee paraphrafe; which, in
the x 1 oth pialm, inftead of the words “ the Lord faid unto
my Lord,” has, “the Lord faid unto his word.” Again,
where we are told in the Hebrew that Jehovah faid to
Abraham “ I am thy (hield and thy exceeding great re-§ Gen. xvi
ward,” we read in the Chaldee, “ my word is thy {hield,,1*
and thy exceeding great reward.” Where it is faid, “your
new moons and your appointed feafts my foul hateth*,”* ifaiahL
the paraphraft hath it, “ my word hateth ;” and where it I4*
is faid, that “ Ifrael {hall be faved in the Lord with an,
everlafting falvation tj’' ic the fame paiaphrafe it is, “ If-i;.**1
3 rael
Part IF. T H E O
Theology, rael fliall be faved by the word of the Lord with everlaft-
11 re i ecu jng ^'alvation.,, But there is a paffage in the Jeruialem
jar^'a^iln*Targum which puts it beyond a doubt, that by the
_ y ’ . the Jews underflood a divine perfon begotten of his Father
before all worlds ; for commenting on Genefis iii. 22. the
authors ot that work thus exprefs themfelves : “ The word
of the Lord faid, behold Adam, whom I created, is the only
begotten upon earth, as I am the only begotten in
: T)e Agri* heaven i5’ in conformity with which, Philo introduces J
ult. lib. ii- the Logos fpeaking thus of himfelf; y*? ouh a.y^n'loi as
foos »u?£ yiwuhs as v^us, / am neither unhegotteny as God,
nor begotten after the fame manner as you are.
}rthcdoxy From thefe quotations we may juftly conclude, that the
lif the Ni- Nicene fathers exprefied themfelves properly when they de*
euecitec.. clarej that the only begotten Son of God was begotten of
his Father before all worlds, and is God of God ; for if
St John had believed the >°v r or word to be unbegotten,
contrary to the belief of all who made ufe of the phrafe
at the time when he wrote, he would furely have exprefied
his defeent ftom the generally received opinion. This how¬
ever he is fo far from doing, that he gives the amplell con¬
firmation of that opinion, by declaring, that “ he beheld
tiie glory of the word incarnate as the glory of the only
begotten of the Father;” for this declaration is true only
ot the divinity of Chrift, his human nature not being be¬
gotten of the Father, but conceived by the Floly Ghofl
of the Virgin Mary. Hence our blefl’ed Lord affures us,
that “as the Father hath life in himself, fo hath he
given the Son to have lite in himfelf;” that “the Son
can do nothing of himfelf but what he feeth the Father
do ||;” and that “ he knew the Father, becauie he was
from him and fent by him f.” We mull therefore aofree
St John
. 26. 19.
John vii. with bilhop Peaifon (d), that “though the Father and
V' Son are both truly God, and therefore equal in refpeft of
nature, yet the one is greater than the other, as being the
fountain of the Godhead. The Father is God, but not of
God; Light, but net of Light. Chrift is God, but of God;
Light, but oj Light. There is no difference or inequality
in the nature or effence, becaufe the fame in both ; but the
Father of our Lord Jefus Chrift hath that efience of him-
felf, from none ; Chrift hath the fame cfience, not or him¬
felf, but from him.”
The great purpofe for which this divine perfon was fent
into the world, and born of a woman, was to bruife the
head of the ferpent, and reftore mankind to the inheritance
which had been forfeited by Adam’s tranfgrefiion. Every
diipenfation of Providence from the fall had been prepara¬
tory to this relloration. Prophets had been raifed from
time to time to preferve in the early ages of the world the
knowledge and worfhip of the true God : the children of
Abraham, as we have feen, had been feparated from the
furrounding nations for the fame purpofe ; and by the dif-
perfion of the ten tribes, the captivity of the other two in
167
Pitrpofe
or which
Jhrift was
ent into
he world.
L O G Y. 469
Babylon, and the tranfiation of the Hebrew feriptures into Theolugy*
the Greek language, much of the knowledge which had
been revealed to the Ifraelites was gradually diffufed over ‘ ^ian
the eallern world. w—y—
But while the Jews were thus rendered the inftruments
of enlightening the heathen nations of antiquity, their in-
tercourfe with thofe Jations made them almoft unavoidably
acquainted with the philofophy which was cultivated among
the Chaldeans, the Perfians, and the Egyptian Greeks ;
and ingrafting many of the opinions derived tram thofe
fchools upon the dodlrines of Mofes and the prophets, they
corrupted their own religion while they improved that of
their neighbours. Hence, by the time that Chrift came orruption
among them, they had made the word of God of none°f the Jews
effeft through a number of idle fancies which they inculca-^.
ted on the people as the traditions of the elders; and as theymjugi
had attached themfelves to different mafters in philofophy,
their nnauthoriled opinions were of courfe different accord¬
ing to the different iources whence they were drawn. The
peculiar tenets of the Essenes feem to have been a fpecies
of myftic Platonifm. The Pharisees are thought to have
derived their origin from a Jewifli philofopher ot the Pe¬
ripatetic fchool; and the refemblance between the doftrines
of the Sadducees and the philofophy of Epicurus has
efcaped no man’s obfervation.
Though thefe fe£ls maintained mutual communion in
public worfhip, they abhored each other’s diftinguifhing te¬
nets ; and their eternal wranglings had well nigh banifhed
from them every fentiment of true religion. They agreed,
however, in the general expectation of the Meffiah pro-
mifed to their fathers ; but, unhappily for themfelves, ex-
pefted him as a great and temporal prince. To this mil-
take feveral circumltances contributed : feme of their pro¬
phets had foretold his coming in lofty terms, borrowed from
the ritual law, and the fplendour of earthly monarchs. The
necefiky of cafting this veil over thofe living oracles we have
fhewn in another place (fee Prophecy, n° 17.). At the
time when the predictions were made, the Mofaic fyftem
had not run out half its courfe, and was therefore not to
be expoled to popular contempt by an information that it
was only the harfii rudiment of one more eafy and perfeCt.
To prevent, however, all miifakes in the candid and im¬
partial, when the Mefilah fhould arrive with the credentials
of miraculous powers, other prophets had deferibed him in
the cleareft terms as having no form nor comelinefs, as a
fheep dumb before his (hearers, and as a lamb brought to
the (laughter ; but the Jews had fuffered fo much from the
Chaldeans, the Greeks, and other nations by whom they
had been conquered, and were then fuffering fo much from
their rnafters the Romans, that their carnal minds could
think of no deliverance greater than that which fiiould refeue
their nation from every foreign yoke.
What men eanaeftly wifh to be true, they very readily
believe.
(d) We beg leave to recommend to our readers this author’s excellent expofition of the apoftle’s creed, as a work
which will render them great affiflance in acquiring juft notions of the fundamental articles of the Chriffian faith. They
wid find it, we think, a complete antidote againft the poilon of modern Unitarians and modern Trithrifts; of whom the
former teach that Jefus Chritl was a mere man, the fon of Jofeph as well as of Mary ; while the latter, running to the
other extreme, maintain, that, with refped to his divinity, he is in no fenfe fubordinate to the Father, but might
have been the bather, the Son, or the Holy Ghoft, according to the good pleafure of the eternal three. We have
been at iome pains to prove his divinity, and likewise his eternal generation; but in fuch a fhort compend as we mutt,
give, it feems not to be worth while to prove his miraculous conception. That miracle is plainly afferted in the New
i eftament in words void of all ambiguity; and as it is (Surely as eafy for God to make a man of the fufeftance of a
|.*\ **? ^ duff of the ec.rtb, we cannot conceive what fhould have induced any perfon profeffin r Chnftianity
it in queft.on. ihe natural generation of Chrift is a groundlefs fancy, which can ferve no purpofe whatever,
even to the Unitarians. 1 r
4/0
Theology,
mo’ e pscu
liarly Chri-
ftian.
16g
The ob-
jeds of his
preaching.
THEOLOGY.
{j St Luke
S. 25—38.
f Jeremiah
>xxi. 31,
&c.
t John iv.
25—27.
believe. Hence that people, lofing fight of the yoke under
which they and the whole human race were brou rht by
the fall of Adam, miftaking the fenfe of the bleffin r promil'ed
to all nations through the feed of Abraham, and devoting
their whole attention to the molt magnificent defcriptions
of the Meffiah’s kingdom, expetted in him a pnnce who
fhould conquer the Romans, and eftnblilh on earth a uni-
verfal monarchy, of which Jerufalem was to be the metro¬
polis.
As our Saviour came for a very different purpofe, the
firft object ot his million was to reftifv the notions of his
erring countrymen, in order to fit them for the deliverance
which they were to obtain through him. Accordingly,
when he entered upon his office as a preacher of righteouf-
nefs, he embraced every opportunity of inveighing with be¬
coming firmnefs againii the falle do&rines taught as tradi¬
tions of the elders ; and by his knowledge of the fecrets of
all hearts, he expofed the vile hypocrify of thofe who made
a gain of godiinefs. The Jews had been led, by their repa¬
ration from the reft of the world, to confider themfelves as
the peculiar favourites of Jehovah ; and the confequence
was, that, contrary to the fpirit of their own law, and the
explicit do&rines of fome of their prophets, they looked
upon all other nations with abhorrence, as upon people
phyhcally impure. Thefe prejudices the bleffed Jefus la¬
boured to eradicate. Having defired a lawyer, by whom
he was tempted, to read that part of the law ot Mofes which
commanded the Ifraelites to love their neighbours as them¬
felves, be compelled him, by means of a parabolical account
of a compalfionate Samaritan, to acknowledge, that under
the denomination of neighbour the divine lawgiver had com¬
prehended all mankind as the objects of love ||. The im¬
portance in which Mofes held the ritual law, and to which,
as the means of preferving its votaries from the contagion
of idolatry, it was juftly intitled, had led the Jews to con¬
fider every ceremony of it as of intrinfic value and perpe-
petual obligation : but Jelus brought to their recollection
God’s declared preference of mercy to facrifice ; (hewed
them that the weightier matters of the law, judgment, mer¬
cy, and faith, claimed their regard in the firft place, and its
ceremonial obfervances only in the fecond ; and taught
them, in conformity with the predictions of their own pro¬
phets f, that the hour was about to come when the wor-
fhip of God fhould not be confined to Jerulalem, but that.
“ true worfhippers (hould everywhere worfhip the Father in
fpirit and in truth. J”
It being the defign of Chrift’s coming into the world to
break down the middle wall of partition between the Jews
and Gentiles, and to introduce a new difpenfation of religion
which fhould unite all mankind as brethren in the worfhip
of the true God, and fit them for the enjoyment of heaven ;
he did not content himfelf with merely reftoring the moral
part of the Molaic law to its primitive purity, difencumber-
ed of the corrupt gloffes of the Scribes and Pharifees, but
added to it many refined and fpiritual precepts, which, till
they were taught by him, had never occurred either to Jew
or Gentile. ’Lhe Hebrew' lawgiver had prohibited murder
under the penalty of death ; but Chrift extended the prohibi¬
tion to caufelefs anger, and to contemptuous treatment of
our brethren, commanding his followers, as they valued their
everlafting falvation, to forgive their enemies, and to love all
mankind. Adultery was forbidden by the law of Mofes as
a crime of the deepeft dye ; but Jefus faid to his difciples,
“ that whofoever looketh on a woman to luft after her, hath
committed adultery with her already in his heart,and is
of courfe liable to tire Divine vengeance. The /ex talionis
was in force among the Jews, fo that the man who had de¬
prived his neighbour of an eye or a tooth, was to fuffer the
Part II,
lofs of an eye or a tooth himfelf; but this mode of punifh- Theology,
meat, which inflidted for blemijh, though fuited to jnore Pyu-
the hardnefs of Jewifh hearts, being inconfiftent with the liarj^ ^r‘*
mild fpirit of Chriftianity, was abolifhed by our bleffed
Lord, who feverely prohibited the indulgence of revenge,
and commanded his followers to love even their enemies.
Perjury lias in every civilized nation been juftly confidered
as a crime of the higheft atrocity, and the Mofaic law doom¬
ed the falie wutnefs to bear the punifhment, whatever it
might be, which he intended by {wearing falfely to bring
upon his brother ; but the Author of the Chriftian religion
forbade not only falfe {wearing, but fwearing at all, except
on folemn occaiions, and wdien an oath (hould be required by
legal authority. See Oath. 170 ''
Py thus reftoring the law to its original purity, and in |n which
many cafes extending its feefe, the blefled Jefus executed foe execu-
the office of a Prophet to the loft (heep of the houfe of^dtheof*
Ifrael; but had he not been more than an ordinary prophet,^ ^
he could not have abrogated the molt trivial ceremony or
it, nor even extended the (enfe of any of its moral precepts;
for their great lawgiver had told them, that “ the Lord their
God would raife up unto them but one Prophet, like unto
him, to whom they fhould hearken J.” That Prophet was t Leut.
by themfelves underftood to be the Meffiah, whom they ex-xv‘11, ^
pefted to tell them all things. It was neceffary therefore
that Jefus, as he taught fome new doftrines, and plainly in¬
dicated that greater changes would foon be introduced, (hould
vindicate his claim to that exalted character which alone could
authorife him to propole innovations. This he did in the
ampleft manner, by fulfilling prophecies and working mira¬
cles (fee Miracle and Prophecy) ; fo that the unpreju¬
diced part ot the people readily acknowledged him to be of
a truth “ that prophet which (hould come into the world—
the Son of God, and the King of Ifrael.” He did not,
however, make any change in the national worfhip, or af- ^
fume to himfelf the fmalleft civil authority. He had fub-Hisftri<$
mitted to the rite of circumcifion, and (triftly performed obedience
every duty, ceremonial as well as moral, which that cove-t0 t^e*aW'
nant made incumbent upon other Jews; thus fulfilling all
righteoufnefs. Though the religion which he came to pro¬
pagate was in many refpeifts contrary to the ritual law, it
could not be eftabliihed, or that law abrogated, but in con¬
fequence o; his death, which the fyftein of facrifices was ap¬
pointed to prefigure ; and as his kingdom, which was not
of this world, could not commence till after his refurredlion,
he yielded during the whole courfe of his life a cheerful obe¬
dience to the civil magiftrate, and wrought a miracle to ob¬
tain money to pay the tribute that was exafted of him. Be¬
ing thus circumftanced, he chofe from the lowed and lead
corrupted of the people certain followers, whom he treated
with the mod endearing familiarity for three years, and
commiffioned at his departure to promulgate inch doArines
as, confidently with the order of the divine difpeniations,
he could not personally preach himfelf. With thefe men,
during the courfe of his miniitry on earth, he went about
continually doing good, healing the lick, cafting out devils,
raifing the dead, reproving vice, preaching righteoufnefs,
and inftrufting his countrymen, by the mod perfect example
which was ever exhibited in the world, of whatfoever things
are true, or honed, or juft, or pure, or lovely, or of good
report. The Scribes and Pharilees, however, finding him
not that conqueror whom they vainly expe&ed, becoming
envious of his reputation among the people, and being filled
with rancour againft him for detecting their hypocritical
arts, delivered him up to the Roman governor, who, though
convinced of his innocence, yielded to the popular cla¬
mour, and crucified him between two thieves, as an enemy
to Csfar.
4
f Chap
liii.
Part II. T H E O
Theology, Juft before he expired, he faid, It is liHifhed, intimating
Imre peco- that the purpofe was now fiilfilled for which he had come
liarly chri‘into the world, and which, as he had formerly told his dil-
ciples, “ was not toXbe miniftered unto but to minifter, and
|| st to give his life a raniom for many H.” For his blood, as
iviatth. jx. he afi'ured them at the inilitution of the Eucharift, “ was
2i5, to be Ihed for the remiftion of lins.,, That Chrift died vo-
U I7\,n luntarily for us, the juft for the unjuft, and that “ there
tarily died "is none other name under heaven given among men where-
for us. ’ by we muft be faved is the uniform doftrine of the pro¬
phets who foretold his coming, of John the Baptift who
was his immediate harbinger, and of the apoftles and evan-
gelifts who preached the gofpel after his afcenfion into hea¬
ven. Thus Ifaiah fays of the Mefliah f, that “ he was
wounded for our tranfgreffions, and bruited for our iniqui-
ties ; that the chaftifement of our peace was upon him, and
that with his ftripes we are healed ; that we had all like
fheep gone affray, turning every one to his own way, and
that the Lord laid on him the iniquity of us all; that he
was cut off out of the land of the living, and ftricken for
the tranfgreffion of God’s people; that his foul oi life was
made an offering for fin ; and that he bore the fin of many,
and made interceffion for the tranfgreffors.” The Baptift,
“ when he faw Jefus coming unto him, faid to the ptople,
Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the fin of the
world plainly intimating that his death was to be a facri-
fice, fince it it was only as a facrifice that the Jews could
form any conception of a lamb taking away fin. The
epiftles of St Paul are fo full of the dodfrine of Chrifl’s fatis-
faftion, that it is needlefs from his writings to quote parti¬
cular texts in proof of it. He tells the Romans, that Jefus
Chrift was let forth to be a propitiation through faith in
his blood ; that he was delivered for our offences, and “ rai¬
led again for our jollification ; that he died for the ungodly;
and that God commendeth his love towards us, in that
while we were yet finners Chrift died lor us.” He affures
the Corinthians that Chrift died for all ; that they who live
fhould not henceforth live unto themfelves, but to him who
died for them and rofe again ; and that God made him to
be fin for us who knew no fin, that we might be made the
righteoufnefs of God in him.” He informs the Galatians,
that Chrilt “ gave himfelf for our fins, that he might deli¬
ver us from this preient evil world, according to the will of
God and our Father ; and that he redeemed us from the
curfe of the law, being made a eurfe for us.” St Peter and
6t John talk the very fame language ; the former teaching
us, that “ Chritt fuffered for us, and bare our fins in his
own body on the tree f ; the latter, that the blood of Jefus
j Chrift cleanfeth us from all fin, and that he is the piepiti
14. ation for our fins 4 and not ror our’s only, but alio for
f 1 John i. the fins of the whole world J.” That he came into the
world lor the purpofe of luffering, appears fi om his own
words : for “ no man (laid he $) taketh my life from me,
but f lay it down of myfelf: I have power to lay it down,
and I have power to take it again. This commandment
have I received from my Father.” And that he volunta-
rily laid it down for mankind, is evident from his calling
hirnfelf the Good Shepherd, and adding, that “ the Good
Shepherd giveth-his life tor the fheep*.”
That Chrift died for the benefit of the human race, is a
truth fo apparent from thefe texts, and from many others
which might be quoted, that no man profidling Chriftianity
fias hitherto called it in queftion. Very different opinions
the nrwure nave been formed indeed concerning the nature and extent
amt 1 revn of that benefit, and the means by which it is applied ; but
nefit reap- t^at ^ Pft^011 and death of the bleffed Jefus were effential
eh from parts of his miniftry on earth, has never been controverted,
kis death, unleis perhaps by thofe modern Unitarians who have cor-
f 1 Peter
7 »•
§ St John
x. 18.
* Ibid,
ver. 11.
173
Differ
opini n-
refped:
L Q C y. 47r
re<fted the errors of the apoftles and evangelifts, and with rheology,
whofe writings we acknowledge ourfelves to be very little (IhiL
acquainted. That on the crofs he made iatisiadion to his
Father for the fins of the world, is the general belief of w—~y——j
Chriftians ; but prefumptuous men, aiming at being wite
beyond what is written, have ftarted a thoufand idle queitions
concerning the neceffity offuch fatisfadion, and the manner
in which it was made. Some limiting the power and mer¬
cy of the Omnipotent, have dared to affirm that God could
not have pardoned man without receiving full fatisfac-
tion for his offences ; that nothing but the Ihedding of
the blood of Chrift could make that fatisfa&ion ; that, his
death was indeed fufficient to atone for a thoufand worlds ;
that, however, he did not die tor all mankind, but only for
a choien few, ordained to eternal life by a fccret decree be¬
fore the foundation of the world ; and that the reft of the
race are paffed by, and doomed to eternal perdition, for the
glory of God's juftice. Others, convinced by every thing
around them that the Creator and Governor of the univerfs
is a being of infinite benevolence, whofe only end in giving
life muft have been to communicate happinels, have contend¬
ed, that no atonement whatever could be neceffary to obtaio
from him the forgivenefs of fin upon fincere repentance ;
that it is contrary to all our notions of juftice to punifh the
innocent for the guilty ; and that therefore the death of
Chrift, though an effential part of his miniftry, could not be
neceffary, but at the moft expedient.
We enter not into thefe impious debates. The Scrip¬
tures have nowhere laid what God could or could not do ;
and on this fubjedl we can know nothing but what they
have taught us. That “ we are reconciled to God by the
death of his Son,” is the principal doSrine of the New Te-
flamerit; and without prefuming to limit the power, the
mercy, or the wifdom, of him who created and iuftains the
univerfe, we fhall endeavour to fhow that it is a doflrine
worthy of all acceptation. In doing this, we fhall flate im¬
partially the opinions which men really pious have held re-
fpe&ing the form or manner in which Chrift by his death
made fatishuftion to God for the fins of the world ; and we
hope that our readers, difregarding what may be prejudices
in us, will embrace that’ opinion which fhall appear to
them moft confouant to the general fenfe of iacred Scrip¬
ture. 174
The ftrifteft adherents to the theological fyftem of CaI-fy’>nioris
vin, interpreting literally Inch texts of Scripture as fpeak3j^e Ca*'*
of his being made Jin for us, of his bearing our Jins in bis own
body on the tree, and of the Lord’s laying on h m the iniquity
of us all, contend, that the fins of the cleft were li ted off
from them and laid upon Chrift by imputation, much in the
fame way as they think the fin of Adam is imputed to his
poflerity. “ By bearing the fins of his people (fays Dr
Gill *), he took them off from them, and took them upon * Body of
himfelf, bearing or carrying them as. a man bears or carries Divinity,
a bunden on his fhoulders. There was no fin in him inhe-vo1,
rently, for if there had, he would not have been a fit perlon °,lc m‘
to make fatis'aftion for it ; but fin was put upon him by his J 4. ’
Divine Father, as the fins of the Ifraelites were put upon
the fcape-goat by Aaron. No creature (continues he)
could have done this; but the Lord hath laid on him, or
made to meet on him, the iniquity of us all, not a fingle ini¬
quity, but a whole mafs and lump ©f fins collefted together,
and laid as a common burden upon him ; even the fins of all
the cleft of God. This phrafe of laying fin on Chrift is
expreffive of the imputation of it to him ; for it was the will
of God not to impute the tranfgreffions of his eleft to them-
felves, but to Chrift, which was done by an aft of his own 4.
for he hath made him to be fin for us ; that is, by imputation,
in which way we are made the righteoufnefs of God in him;
that
>:
4?2
Theology,
more gecu-
liarly C'iri
ilian.
t Chap.
viri. 17.
J 75
Objected
T H E O
that being' imputed to us by him as our Hns were to Chrift.
The fenfe (fays our author) is, a charge of fin was brought
againft him as the furety of his people. lie was numbered
' with the tranfarefTors ; iov bearing the fins of many, he was
reckoned as if he had been a finner himfelf, fm being impu-
t, d to him j and was dealt with as luch. Sin being- found
upon him by imputation, a demand of fatisfadtion for fin was
made, and he anfwered it to the full. All this was with his
ownconfent. He agreed\o have fin laid upon him, and im¬
puted to him, and a charge of it brought againft him, to
which he engaged to be refponfible ; yea, he himfelf took
the fins or his people upon him ; io the evangelift Mat¬
thew has it, ‘ liiniielf took our infirmities, and bore our
ficknefTes'j-.’ As he took the nature of men, fo he took
their fnis, which made his fkfh to have the likenefs of Jinful
Jitjl, though it really was not finful. What Chrift bore be¬
ing laH upon him, and imputed to him, were Jins of all
forts, original and adlual ; fins of every kind, open and fe-
cret, of heart, lip, and life; all adfs of fm committed by his
people, for he has redeemed them from all their iniquities ;
and God, for Chrift’s fake, forgives all trefpafl'es, his blood
cleanfes from all fm, and his righteoufnefs juftifies from all ;
nil being imputed to him as that is to them. Bearing fin
fuppofes it to be a burden ; and indeed it is a burden too
heavy 10 bear by a fenhble finner (e). dVhen fin is char-
ged home upon the confcience, and a faint groans, being
burdened with it, what mufl that burden be, and how hea¬
vy the load which Chrift bore, confiding of all the fins of
all the eleft from the beginning of the world to the end of
it ? and yet he funk not, but flood up under it; failed not,
nor was he difeouraged, being the mighty God, and the
Man of God’s right-hand, made ftrong for himfelf.”
do the Arminians or Remonflrants, this doftrine of the
imputation of the fins ®f men to the Son of God appears
as abfurd as the limilar dodfrine of the imputation of the fin
of Adam to his unborn pofterity ; and it is certainly attend¬
ed with confequences which have alarmed ferious Chriilians
of other denominations.
_ ^ ere it poffible in the nature of things, fays the Armi.
nian, to transfer the guilt of one perfon to another, and to
lay it upon him as a burden, it could not be done without
violating thofe laws of equity which are eftablifhed in the
feripture and engraven on the human heart. But this is not
poffible. To talk of lifting lumps of fin or transferring
them like burdens from the guilty to the innocent, is to
utter jargon, lays he, which has no meaning ; and we might
with as much propriety fpeak of lifting a fcarlet colour from
a piece of cloth and laying it on the found of a trumpet, as
of literally lifting the fins of the eledl from them and laying
them on Ohrift. Guilt is feated in the mind ; and no man
can become a finner but by an a& of volition. If Chrift
there' ore really took upon him the fins of his people, he
muft have deliberately formed a wifh to have adfually com¬
mitted all thofe fins ; but fuch a wifh, though it would have
made him inherently guilty, and therefore incapable of fatis-
fying for fin, could not have cancelled deeds that were done
before he was born, or have made thofe innocent who had
really been finners. A deed once done cannot be undone ;
a volition which has been formed cannot be annihilated. By
fincere repentance, the habitual difpofitions are indeed chan¬
ged, and thofe who have been finners become obje&s of mercy;
but no power can recal the hours that are paft, or make
thofe adtions which have been performed to have been not
L O G Y. Pan Jll
performs^ To remove guilt from the finner and lay it
upon the innocent may therefore be fafely pronounced im- fno|e Pf
poffible even for Omnipotence itfelf, for it implies that auar-^ ^
thing may be and not be at die fame inftant of time ; arid
the dodtnne which teaches that this removal was made from
the eledl to Chfift, is an imagination o'yefterday, which has
no countenance Irom feripture, and is contrary to the efta-
bhfhed conftitution of things. Thofe who imagine that guilt
may be propagated from father to ion, have fomething like
an argument to urge for the imputation of Adam’s fin to
his rmmberlefs poflerity ; for all the men and women who
have by ordinary generation been introduced into the world,
have undoubtedly derived their nature from the primeval
pair. But Limit did not derive his nature from the eleci,
that their fins fhould be communicated to him ; no.r, as he
was miraculouflv conceived by the Holy Ghoft, can we at¬
tribute to him any degree of that taint which is fuppofed
to have been conveyed from Adam to all the other genera¬
tions of men. 175
Nothing more, therefore, can be meant by “ Chrifl’s be-/Teysnn
ing made fin for us,” and “ bearing our fins in his own jre'bulk ^
body on the tree,” or by God’s “ laying upon him the in-explained,
iquity of us all,” than that by his fufferings we are freed
from the punifhment of our fins ; it being in feripture a com¬
mon figure of fpeech, as even Dr Gill has fomewhere ac¬
knowledged, to denote by the wordJin the confequsnces of fin.
That this figure is ufed in thofe texts from which he in¬
fers that Chrift took the fins of the eledl upon himfelf, is
evident from the verfe which he quotes from the gofpel of
St Matthew ; in which it is faid, that “ himfelf took our
infirmities and bore our ficknefies.” The fickneffes and in¬
firmities there alluded to are the leprofy, thepalfy, the fever,
and demoniacal pofTeflions ; but when our bleffed Lord cured
thefe difeafes, furely he did not by his omnipotent word
lift them off from the patients and take them on himfelf,
fo as adfually to become a leper, a paralytic, and a dsemo-
niac, or even to be reckoned as f uch either by the multitude,
or by the priefts whofe duty it was to take cognizance of
every legal uncleannefs *. And if his inveterate enemies* Levi:
did not impute to him the leprofy when he removed that*i“-
plague from others, why ihould it be fuppofed that his own
Father, to whom he was at all times well-pleafing, imputed
to him thofe fins of which, by his fufferings, he removed
the punifhment from thofe who were guilty ? To impute to
a perfon any a&ion, whether virtuous or vicious, which he
did not perform, can proceed only from ignorance, or malice,
or partiality ; but God is no refpetter of perfons, and from
ignorance and malice he is removed to an infinite diftance.
It is indeed an undoubted truth, that “ the Lord Jefus, by
his perfect obedience and facrifice of himfelf, which he
through the eternal fpirit once offered up unto God, hath
fully latisfied the juftice of his Father; and purchafed not
only reconciliation, but an everlafting inheritance in the
kingdom of heaven for all thofe whom the Father hath
given him f ;” but that he aftually took upon himftlf thef O#*
fins of mankind, or that thofe fins were imputed to him by
God, who punifhed him as a perfon whom he confidered ast^.'
guilty, is a doftrine equally injurious to the juftice of the^
Father and to the immaculate purity of the Son. 177
The earneftnefs with which this dodtrine was inculcated They !jl?!
by fomeofthe earlieft reformers, and the impoffibility of ad-
mitting it, which every refleiffing and unprejudiced mindtomake
muft feel, was probably one of the caufes which drove So-iociniu*
cinusdc"ytfa! t
sdo&nM°J
        redenif-
(E Ey pH are a Jnfible fmner, the learned author means a finner who is not oaft feeling, but has a confcience alive
to the feme of remorfe.
Part II. , TK E O
Theology, cinv.S andhis followers to the other! extreme or denying Chnft’s
■more Pec'''-fitisfacdion altogether, and confidering his death as nothing
^ftlan ^motc t^an t^at an ord’nary martyr, permitted tor the
u—vpurpofe of atteitingthe truth of his dcdtrine, and paving the
way For his refurre&ion, to conhrm the great promite of im¬
mortality. According to thefe men, forgivenefs is freely
difpenied to thofe who repent, by the eflential goodnefs of
God, without regard to the merit or fufferings of any other
being ; and the gofpel is faid to lave from fin, becaufe it is
the moil perfedl leffon ot righteoufnefs. 1’he great objec¬
tion of Crelliui to the dodtrine of the fatisfaftion is, that it is
a hinderance to piety; for if Chrift has paid the whole debt,
he thinks that we muft have nothing to do, as nothing more
Can be required of us. And if it were indeed true that our
tins are imputed to Chrift, and his righteoufnefs imputed to
us, this objection would be infurmountable ; for God could
not juftly exatl a double puniftiment for the fame fin, or inflift
inifery upon thofe to whom he imputes perfedl righteouf-
neis. But as to this imaginary transferring of virtues and
vices from one perfon to another, the Chriftian fcriptures
give no countenance ; fo they nowhere call the death of
Chrift a fafi.faction for the firis ©f men. The term has indeed
been long in ufe among divines, and when properly explain¬
ed it may be retained without any danger ; but in treating
of this fubjedt, it would perhaps be more prudent to reftridl
ourfelves to the ufe of fcripture language, as the word fatis-
fatlion carries in it the ideas of a debt paid and accepted ;
whereas it is faid by St Paul, that “ eternal life is the gift
of God through Jefus Chrift our Lord; and that we are
juftified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in
Jefus Chrift, whom God hath fet forth to be a propitiation
through faith in his blood.”
r^,° cdear UP this matter, mid attain adequate notions of
reftored to redemption and juftification, it will be neceftary to look
mankind back to the fall of our firft parents; for the great purpofe
what they for which Chrift was premifed, and for which he came into
Ad'^ wor^d’ was’ by bruiling the head of the ferpent, to re-
ilore mankind to the inheritance which they had loft
through the tranfgreffion of Adam. This is apparent not
only from the original promife made to the woman, but alfo
from different paffages in the epillles of St Paul, who ex-
prefsly calls Chrifl the fecond Adam, and fays, that, “ as
by the offence of one, judgment came upon all men to con¬
demnation ; even fo by the righteoufnefs of one, the free-
gift came upon all men unto juftification of life that “ as
by one man’s difobedience many were made finners, fo by
the obedience of one ftiall many be made righteousand
that, “ as in Adam all die, even fo in Chrift fiiall all be
made alive.” Hence it was that John the Baptift, when
l Ch.i.ver.he faw Jefus coming to him, faid to his difciples J, “ Be-
23* hold the Lamb of God which taketh away, not the Jtns,
but the fin of the world,” evidently alluding to Adam’s
fin and its confequences, fmee no other fin was ever com¬
mitted of which the confequences extend to the whole
world.
This being the cafe, it is undeniable, that whatever we loft
in the firft Adam is reftored to us by the fecond; and
therefore they who believe that the punifhment denc-unced
againft eating the forbidden fruit was death corporal, fpiri-
ritual, and eternal, muft believe that we are redeemed from all
thefe by Chrift ; who having “ appeared once in the end
of the world to put away fin by the facrifice of himfelf, died
for us, that whether we wake or fleep we fhould live to-
9 Hqb. be. gether with him If the image of God in which man
a6.1 Theff. was created was loft by the breach of the firft covenant, it is
v» 10. more than reftored to us “ by the Mediator of a better
■covenant, which is eftabliftied upon better promifes ;” if
by the fin of Adam we were utterly indifpofed, calabled,
Vox.. XVIII. Part II.
L ° G y. 473
and made oppofite to all that is fpiritually good, and wholly Theology,
inclined to all evil, and that continually, we are freed fromj^H
that dreadful curfe by “ our Saviour Jefus Chiift, who gave g;an,
himfelf for us, that he might redeem us from all inquity, and -—
purify to himfelf a peculiar people zealous of good worksf ;”f Titus ii»
and if for our fhare in the firft tranfgreffion we be juftly li- X4*
able to all punifhments in this world and in that which is to
come, the apoftle aft'ures us, that “ when we were enemies
we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son, becaufe
that God was in Chrill reconciling the world to himfelf,
not imputing their trefpaffes unto them j:.” As Jefus isfBcm.v.
“ the Lamb flain In the divine decree from the’ foundation l0* a t~cr>
of the world,” thefe beneficial confequenccs of his death'’15"
have been extended by a retrofpedlive view to all in every
age whofe names are written in the book of life, though it
is abfurd to fuppofe that he literally took their fins upon
him, and impious to imagine that he fuffered under the im¬
putation of fin.
Such is the general doctrine or redemption, as it is taught Moderate
by the more moderate Calvinifts and more moderate Remon- Cafvinifls
ftrants; for moderate Chriftians of all denominations, though an<' ^e~ ^
they exprefs themfelves differently, have nearly the rke faint-
views of the fundamental articles of their common faith.opinion.
It muft not, however, be concealed, that many divines of
great learning and piety, though removed to an infinite di-
ftance from the fchool of Socinus, contend ftrenuoufly
againft the dodlrine of vicarious atonement for atftual tranf-
greflions of the moral law. Thefe are the more zealous
Arminians, who deny that we inherit any moral taint or in-
telledlual weaknefs from our firil parents, whom they be¬
lieve never to have been in a ftate of greater perfection than
many of their pofterity who are called Accord- Tgo
ing to them, we loft nothing by the fall of Adam but ourDo&rine of
title to eternal life or perpetual exiftence, together with the more
thofe graces of the Holy Spirit which were beftowed under zea^us A-r'“
the firft covenant to train mankind for the feciety of hea¬
ven ; and as eternal life and fupernatural grace conftituted
one free-gift, not due to the nature of man, or indeed of
any created being, they might, when forfeited, be reflored
by any means or upon any condition which fhould feem ex¬
pedient to the all-wife Donor. Thefe means, and that con¬
dition, human reafon cannot indeed difeover ; but it feems
very fit that they fhould be different from the means by
which moral agents under the daw of nature can fecure to
themfelves the tavour of their Creator, or recover it when
occafionally loft. The former depends on arbitrary will
and pleafure, or at leaft upon no other principles difeover-
able by us; while the latter arifeth out of the eftablilhed
and well-known conftitution of things. Thus moral virtue,
comprehending piety, was the condition of that favour and
prote&ion which the creature man, in his original flatc,
could claim from hfs Maker ; but obedience to a pofitive
command was the condition of the free gift of immortality
conferred upon Adam on his introduction into paradife. The
claim an'fing from the relation between the creature and the
Creator is indiffoluble, becaufe that relation cannot be dif-
folved: lo that the man who, by a tranfgreffion of the
moral law, or of any part of that fyftem which is called the
religion of nature, has forfeited the favour of God, may rea-
fonably hope to recover it by fincere repentance and a re¬
turn to his duty : and nothing but fuch repentance and re¬
formation can recover it; becaufe, in a moral agent, nothing
can be agreeable to God but moral difpolitions, which can¬
not be transferred from one perfon to another, and for the
want of which nothing can atone. Our virtues are not re¬
quired nor our vices prohibited, as if the one could profit
and the other injure him who created us; for “ is it any
pleafure to the Almighty that we arc righteous i1 or is it
3 O gain
471- T H E O
Theology, ga‘m to him that vve make our ways perfeft ? Will he re-
IrVriv Chri"PrGve US ^or fear us •” No! He commands us to be
ftian. virtuous, and forbids us to be vicious, only becaufe virtue is
v——' necefiary to our own happinefs, and vice prcduftive of ever-
lafting mifery.
Were an immoral man to be introduced into the fociety
of angels and juft men made perlefi, he would not experi¬
ence in that fociety what we are taught to expert from the
H joys of heaven ; becauie to fuch joys his Required difpofi-
tions would be wholly repugnant. Nor could the fufferings of
any perfon whatever, or the imputation of any extrinfic righte-
oufnefs, make that mind which had long been immerfed in
the groffeft fenfuality reliilt the intellectual and refined en¬
joyments of heaven ; or the man who had been the habitual
flave of envy, malice, and duplicity, a fit inhabitant of that
place where all are actuated by mutual love. On the other
hand, fay tne divines whofe doCtrine we are now detailing,
it is impoflible to fuppofe that the Father of mercies, who
knows whereof we are made, Ihould have doomed to qtemal
mifery any moral agent who had laboured through life to
ferve him in fincerity and in truth ; or that any atonement
could be neceflary to redeem from the pains of hell the man
whole pious and virtuous difpofrtions have through peni¬
tence and prayer become fuited to the ibciety of heaven.
Unfinning perfection never was nor ever could be expeCted
in man. He is brought into the world free indeed from
vice, but equally deftitute of virtue ; and the great buBnefs
of his life is to guard his mind from being polluted by the
former, and to acquire difpofitions habitually leading to the
practice of the latter. Till thefe habits be fairly formed,
it feems impoffible that he fhould not fometimes deviate from
the paths of reClitude, and thereby incur a temporary for¬
feiture of the divine favour; but the very eonftitution of his
mind, and the purpofe for which he is placed in a ftate of
probation, fhow that the divine favour thus forfeited can
be recovered only by repentance and reformation.
Widely different, however, is the cafe with refpe&to the
forfeiture and recovery of a free gift, to which man has no
^ natural claim. When the condition is broken on which
ThatChriftfuch a gift was bellowed, repentance can be of no avail;
died to re- it muft be either irrecoverably loft, or reftored by the mere
deem us good pleafure of the giver. Immortality or perpetual exif-
^ower of tence ,s a S'ft which upon certain terms was freely bellowed
the grave. uPon ^ h11™311 race, and forfeited by the tranfgreffion of
their firll parent violating thofe terms. It was rellored by
the free grace of God, who was pleafed to ordain, that
“ fince by man came death, by man Ihould alio come the
refurreftion of the dead ; for as in Adam all die, even fo in
Chrill {hall all be made alive. “ Hence the apollle, writing
to the Romans of the benefits of being the children of God,
and joint-heirs with Chrill, fummeth up thofe benefits with
the refurreClion from the dead.” For the creature, /. e.
* Rom. vJij.mankind, was made fubjedl (fays he *) to vanity or death,
ac—S4. nQt willingly, but by reafon of him who hath lubjefted the
fame in hope : becaufe the creature itfelf alfo lhall be deli¬
vered from the bondage of corruptien into the glorious li¬
berty of the children of God. For we know that the
whole creation groaneth, and travaileth in pain together
until now : and not only they, but curfelves alfo, who have
LOGY. Part If,
the firft fruits of the fpirit, even we ourfelves, groan within Theology,
ourfelves, waiting for the adoption, viz. the redemption of our*}0™ Pfc»-
hody (f). That this redemption of our body is the con-
fequence of the facrifice of Chrift, is taught in the moll ex- -,
piicit terms in the epiftle to the Hebrews; of which the in-
fpired author informs.us, that “ forafmuch as the children are
partakers of fiefh and blood, he alfo himfelf likewife took part
of the lame ; that through death he might dellroy him that
had the power of death, that is the devil ; and deliver
them, who through fear of death were all their life-time
fubjedt to bondage j;.” A vicarious atonement made with { Heb. ft,
this view, the divines, whofe theory we are now confider-14>
ing, acknowledge to be perfectly rational and coniiftent with
the ftridleft jkilice.' “ The law of nature (fay they $) ah § Warlur.
lows not of vicarious atonements; but ordains that thcton's
man who tranfgreffeth fhall himfelf bear the punifhment of7'^' iX;
his iniquity ; a puniftiment which no man deferves for the‘clp^r'a ‘ I
faults of another, unlefs he be partaker of the guilt by join-i/W on the |
ing in the tranfgrefiion.” And in proof of this their opinion, TWy of
they appeal to the words of God himfelf, declaring to Mofes, Klli£ion>
■—“ Whofoever hath finned againft me, him will I blot out* dn 1U’
of my book But when the free gift of immortality was* Kx0(j
loft, it was with great wifdom, fay they, that God reftored xxjrii. 31—
it through a Mediator who ihould make atonement by his 34-
blood for the breach of tlm firft covenant; fince fuch a me¬
diation implies that the gift reftored is merely of grace, to
the attainment of which man could no further co-operate
than by his hopes and wifhes. l3„
To this view of redemption, and indeed to every view ofAnobjeo
it which we hive yet taken, an objection forces itfelf upon don.
the mind. Throughout the New Teftament life and
immortality arciconfidered as a free gift, and called fo in
exprefs words by St Paul*. To the fcheme under confi-* R0m.v,
deration it is effential to confider them as fuch; and yet we ij.
know that a large price was paid for them, as St Paul like¬
wife acknowledged, when he twice tells the Corinthians that
they were bought with a price §. § j cor, vi,|
“ To clear up this matter (fays biftiop Warburton), and 2c. vii. 13.
to reconcile the apoftle to himfelf, who certainly was not ^3
defeflive either in natural fenfe or artificial logic, let us once
again remind the reader, that life and immortality beftowed
on Adam in paradiie was a free gift, as appears from the
hiftory of his creation. As a free gift, it was taken back by
the Donor when Adam fell; to which refumption our origi¬
nal natural rights are not fubjedl, fince natural religion
teacheth, that fincere repentance alone will reinftate ns in
the poffeffion of thofe rights which our crimes had fufpend-
ed. So that when this free gift, forfeited by the fitjl Adam,
was recovered by the fecond, its nature continuing the fame,
it muft ftill remain ajfi-rc gift—a gift to which man, by and
at his creation, had no claim ; a gift which natural religion
did not bellow. But if milled by meafuring this revealed
myjtery of human redemption by the fcant idea of human
tranfadtions, where a free gift and purebafed benefit are com¬
monly oppofed to one another, yet even here we may be
able to fet ourfelves right, fince, with regard to man, the
charadler of a free gift remains to immortality rejlored. For
the price paid by forfeited man was not paid by him, but
by a Redeemer of divine extraction, who was pleafed, by par¬
ticipating
(f) That by the words creature and creation the apoftle here means all mankind, and by vanity and corruption, death,
the reader will find proved by Dr Whitby, in his note on the place, with a ftrength of argument which cannot be fhaken;
and that the whole creation, the Gentiles as well as the Jews, groaned and travailed in pain together under the apprehen-
fion of death, is apparent from the writings of Cicero, who always feems doubtful whether death be a good or an evil; and
from the lamentation of Hezekiah, whjen delired by the prophet to* fet his houfe in order becaufe he Ihould die and not
live.
Ipart II. T H E O
Theology, tvclpating' of man’s nature, to Hand in his Head. Hence the
|nore Pecu'facred writers feeing, in this cafe, the perfect agreement be-
ia:ly tvyeen a mre gift and a purchased possession, call it fome-
times by the one and fometimes by the other name
* Din. Leg. A reftoration to life and immortality from that ftate of
>oolt 9. ch. unconfcioufnefs or extindlion as living agents, to which all
l' mankind v/ere doomed in confequence of the fall of Adam,
■1 1 death IS t^at Sreac ^alvat‘on which we have obtained through the
uChrift blood of our Redeemer ; and according to the theologians
in atone- whofe theory we are now confidering, it was the only thing
ment only in the divine intention when the promife was given to the
■nr a&ual mo^er t^at t^ie woman fhould bruife the
-°r a head of the fcrpent. But though they contend thus earneftly
that the death of Chrift does not operate direEily as an atone¬
ment for the aEtuai fias of men, they admit that it does fo in-
direclly and by neceffary confequence, fince it gives opportuni¬
ties for repentance and newnefs of life, which under the firfl:
covenant they did not enjoy. Had a man under that cove¬
nant tranfgreffed any moral precept, he would of courfe have
forfeited the favour of his God, and either been fubje&ed
to punifhment or to a long courfe of repentance ; but fup-
poiing the efficacy of repentance under the law of nature to
be what they fuppofe it to be, he might before it was per¬
fected have loft his exiftence by the eating of the forbidden
fruit; and thus his penitence or punifhment have ended in
everlafting death. This can never be the ifiue of things
under the new covenant, which, by the death of Chrift, fe-
cures immortality to man, and gives to him opportunities,
as long as he (hall be in a ilate of probation, of recovering
the divine favour when forfeited, whether by a moral tranf-
grefiion or a temporary violation of the peculiar condition
of the covenant. Hence they admit the truth of the
apoftle’s doftrine, that we are gainers by the fall of Adam
and the redemption wrought by Chrift ; which will appear
when we come to confider their notions of Chriftian junifi¬
cation. In the mean time it may be proper to obferve, that
they coniider it as no fmall confirmation of their opinion,
that it tends to put an end to the long agitated difputes
concerning tixz extent of redemption, and to reconcile paffages
of icripture which, on the commonly received theories
both of Calvinifls and Arminians, feem to be at variance
with each other.
(Vcording ^ 18 we^ ^nown to be one the fundamental do&rines of
the- Cal- the Calviniitic fchool, that “ none are redeemed by Chrift,
vinifts effe&ually called, juftified, adopted, fanftifitd, and laved,
kut the only f and if the notions of redemption,
•l A °rt e which, in the end of the laft century, were very generally
f Confejfion embraced, be admitted as juft, it will not be eafy to over-
vf Faith of turn the arguments by which that dodtrine is fupported.
the Church Such of them as are connected with the great queftion of
rhfid^Td. €^e<^-*on and reprobation, and enter into the deciiion of it,
we have ftated in another place (fee Predestination, n°
| Gill's M) J hut it is farther argued jl, that the dodfrine of uni-ver-
MiJy ofDi.fal redemption refledts on the wifdom, the juftice, and the
yj.vity, vol, power of God, and robs him of his glory.
000k 3. The fcriptures allure us that all "men fhall not be faved ;
but how can this be, u Chrift died for all, and the fcheme
of falvation by his death was formed by infinite wifdom ?
The Arminiar.s indeed fay, that thofe who fail of falvation,
fail through their own fault in net performing the conditions
required of them ; but God either knew or knew not that
luch men would not perform thofe conditions. If he knew
it not, his knowledge is limited ; if he did know it, where
was his wifdom in providing a fcheme of redemption for
men to whom he was aware that it would be of no bene-
nt ? “ God, we are told, is righteous in all his ways and
holy, in all his worksbut there is no righteoufnefs in
niaking Chrift bear the ftn? of* a// men, and futfer the puuifh-
ch. 3
LOGY. 475
men due to them, if any one of thofe men lhall be afterwards Theology,
puniflied everlaftingly. If Chrift has already paid the debts ffd"'
of the whole world, it cannot be juft to caft a fingle inhabi- ' *
tant of the uforld into the prifon of hell, there to be de-1 
tained till he fhall again have paid the uttermoft farthing,
“ The Lord’s hand is not fhortened that it cannot fave
for he is and always wall be the fame Almighty power that
he was from eternity; but if by the divine decree Chrift
died for all men, and yet all men fhall not be faved, it would
appear that man is mightier than his Maker ! The ultimate
end of God in the redemption of man is admitted to have
been his own glory ; but if any individual of the human
race, who was redeemed by Chrift, fhalt not be faved, ,God.
will fo far lofe his end, and be deprived of his glory. For,
if this were the cafe, where would be the glory of God the
Father in forming a fcheme which, with refpeft to multi¬
tudes, does not fucceed ? and where would be the glory of
the Son of God, the Redeemer, in working out the redemp¬
tion of men who are yet not to be faved by him ? and where
would be the glory of the fpirit of God, if redemption were
not by him effeAually applied to every individual for whom
it was wrought ? By fuch arguments as thefe do the Cal-
vinifts oppole the fcheme of univeral redemption, and con¬
tend that Chrift died only for the eh cl, or iuch as fhall be
placed on his right hand at the day of judgment. This
notion of a limited redemption, as they think it more worthy
of the fovereignty of God, they believe to be taught by our
Saviour himfelf, when he faith*, “All that the Father * jojin vj
giveth me fhall come to me ; and him that com^th to me, 137 
will in nowife caft out. For I came down from heaven, not
to do mine own will, but the will of him that fent me.
And this is the Father’s will who hath fent me, that of all
which he hath given me I fhould lofe nothing, but fhould
raife it up again at the laft day.” igg
The Arminians, on the other hand, contend, that it is im-According
pious to limit the effedts of Chrift’s death to a chofen few, to the Ar-
fince it appears from feripture, that by the dedree and in-m>nians he 1
tention of his Father he tailed death for every man, that all, Lrall
without exception, might through him obtain remiffion of
their fins. Thus our Lord himfelf told Nicodemus f, that| j0hn Hi.
“ as Mofes lifted up the ferpent in the wildernefs, even loi4—18.
mull the Son of Man be lifted up; that whofoever believeth in
him, fhould not perifh, but have everlafting life. For God
fo loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that
whofoever believeth in him fhould not perifh, but have ever¬
lafting life. For God fent not his Son into the world to con¬
demn the world, but that the world through him might be
faved.” In perfedt conformity with the dodlrine of his di¬
vine Mailer, St Paul teaches |, that “ Chrift died for all it 1 Cor. v.
that God was in Chrift reconciling the world to himfelf, not Idp720..
imputing their trefpaffes unto them ;” that “ he will have4 ^
all men to be faved, and to come unto the knowledge of theii.a.
truth;” that “ Chrift gave himfelf a ranfom for «//,-” and
that “ Jefus was made a little lower than the angels, that
by the grace of God he fhould tafte death for every man.,y
The very fame thing is taught by St Peter and St John,
when the former fays that “ the Lord is not willing that§ ^ Peter
any fhould perifh,Tut that all fhould come to repentance ;” 1,‘- 9-
and the latter [j, that “ Jefus Chrift the righteous is the y j John ii.
propitiation for eur fins ; and not for our’s only, but fora.
the whole world.'*
Upon thefe texts, without any commentary, the Armi¬
nians are willing to reft their dodlrine of univerfal redemp- *LimlorcL's
tion ; though they think that a very flrong additional argu- Lhcologia
ment for its truth arifes from the numberlefs abfurdities Lhrijhana,
which flow from the contrary opinion. Thus, fay they *> ^ch
the apoftles were commanded bv our Saviour f to “ go in-
to all the world and preach the gofpel to every crealuref ^ St Mark
3O3 ' and *vi- l6*
476 T H E O
Theology, and all who hear it preached are required to believe it: but
tnorept-cu- no raan? as -J-c CalviniHs themfelves coufef^, can believe the
iiari^3^hn*gofpeI as a Chriftian, without believing that Chrift died for
t. 1—■ Itim ; and therefore, if it be true that Chi ill died only for
the elect, a great part of mankind are required to believe a
lie, and a faliity is made the object of divine faith ! Again,
if Chrift did not die for all, then no man can be bare that he
is bound to believe in Chrift when preached to him ; nor
can any man be juftly condemned for infidelity: which is not
only abfurd in itfelf, but dire&ly contrary to what we are
« St John taught by our blefted Lord, who aftures us *, that unbelief is
hi. 18, ip, the caufe of condemnation. Laftly, if Chrift died not for
and 36. aii> t^en js j* certain that he cannot claim dominion over all
in confequence of his death and refur re Sion ; but St Paul fays
f Rom. xiv. exprefsly f, tint “ to this end Ciirift both died, and rofe, and
9. revived, that he might be the Lord both of the dead and
living” The Arminians acknowledge, that though Chrift
died for all, there are many who will not be faved ; for, fay
i Wells's they the death of Chrift did not literally pay the debts
Din. Laws incurred by fitmers, but only obtained for them the graci-
natf!'0™'t 0118 covenanto^ tlie gplpel> by which all who believe in him,
a. ch. 3. and fmcerely endeavour to work out their own falvation
with fear and trembling, are entitled to forgivenefs of fins
lS^ and eternal life.
Difficulties Such is the ftate of this controverfy as it was agitated
removed by between the Calvinifts and Afminians of the laft century ;
she modern|jut the prefent leaders of this latter fchool are of opinion,
11 1£Bs' that it never could have been ftarted, had not both parties
miftaken the purpofe for winch Chrift died. It is not con¬
ceivable, lay they, that any thing for which the eternal Son
of God took upon him human nature, and in that nature
buffered a cruel and ignominious death, (hall not be fully
accompltfhed ; and therefore, if in the divine intention he
died to make atonement for the fins of man adlual as well
as original, we muft of neceffity conclude that thofe for
whom he died fhall certainly be faved. Yet we learn from
feripture that many fhall go away into everlafting punifh-
ment, though the fame feripture repeatedly affures us that
Chrift gave his life a ranfom for a//, and that he is the pro¬
pitiation for the whole world. To reconcile thefe different
puffages of feripture is impoffible, if we fuppofe that he laid
down his life to atone for the actual tranfgreffions of men ;
but if the dire61 purpofe of the Godhead in forming this
ftupendous plan of redemption was, that the death of Chrift
fhould be the ranfom of all from the grave or utter extinc¬
tion, every difficulty is removed; for we know that all, the
wicked as well as the righteous, fhall through him be railed
to life at the laft day. That this was the purpofe for which
he died, they think apparent from the very words quoted
by the Calvinifts to prove that redemption was not univerfal;
for he declares that it was his Lather’s will, “ that of all
which had been given him he fhould lofe nothing,” not
that he fhould fave it ell from future punjfJjment, but only
that he “ fhould raiie it up at the laft day.” When St
John calls him a propitiation for our fins, which, as we have
feen, the divines whofe doftrine we are now ftating hold him
to be indire&ly, he does not add, as in our ttanflation, for the
Jins of the whole world, but *■£/>* Aou row *.oc,uovi for the whole
world, which, by his death, he redeemed frem that vanity
LOGY. Parc IT,
and corruption under which, according to St Paul, it had Theology,
groaned from the fall till the preaching of the go 1 pel. Hence Tote !;«“•
it is that our bleffed Lord calls himielf “the refurredion
and the Ire,'’ and always promiles to thofe who fhould j
believe in him that though they were dead, yet fhould they
live, and that he would raife them up at the laft day.
Among thefe various opinions rdpeding the deftination
of the death of Chrift, it belongs not to us to decide. The
ferious reader, divefting himfelfof prejudice in favour of the
fyftem in which he has been educated, will fearch the ferip-
tures, and adopt the theory which he fhall find moft expli¬
citly taught in that facrcd volume ; but as in every fyftem
it is admitted, that one purpofe for which Chrift died was to jgg
redeem mankind from the everlafting power of the ;jrave,One pur.
and bring to light life and immortality, it is of the utmoftP0^ for
importance to know whether that purpofe has been fully^
attained. Death we fee flill triumphing over all the gene-wus to
rations of men ; and as the feriptures give us no hopes ofLitgto
being refeued from its dominion but through the medium T^thfc
of a refurredion, fome fenfible evidence feeiris neceffary to?.^™1110^
evince that a general refurredbion fhall afhially take place. *
This we are promiled as one great benefit purchafei for us
by the fufferings of Chrift facrificed on the crofs. And
fince the price has been paid, and paid thus vifib/y, the na¬
ture of the covenant requires that the benefit fhould be as
vfibly enjoyed by the perton whofe fufferings obtained it for
his brethren. “ If the Redeemer himfelf had not been feen
to enjoy the fruits of the redemption procured, what hopes
could have remained for the reft of mankind ? Would not
the natural conclufien have been, that the expedient of re¬
demption, by the death and facrifice of Jefus, had proved in-
effedbual ?” This is the conclufion which St Paul himfelf
draws: “ If Chrifl be not rifen (fays he*), then is our* 1 Cor.
preaching vain, and your faith is alfo vain ; ye are yet inxv,I5—
your fins. Then they alfo, who are fallen afleep in Chrift,
are perifhed—K*a\erfo—are loft, as if they had never exift-
ed. But now (adds he) is Chrift rifen from the dead, and
become the firft fruits of them that Jlept. For fince by man
came death, by man came alfo the refurre8ion of the dead :
For as in Adam all die, even fo in Chrift fhall all be made
alive”—So neceftarily connedted, in the opinion of the
apoftle, is the refurredlion of Chrift with the very effence of
Chriftianity f. f UJadur-
Though we have in another place (fee Resurrection/,
n° 50.) fiated fuch arguments for the truth of this funda-
mental article of our common faith, as muft carry convic¬
tion to every mind capable of eftimating the force of evh
dence ; yet as attempts are daily made, fometimes openly
and fometimes with the moft infidious art, to propagate in
this nation the French doftrine concerning the eternal fleep
of death (g), we truft that we fhall not trefpafs on the
ferious reader’s patience if we here refume the lubjedb, and
endeavour to fhow that it was abfolutely impoffible for the
apoflles to perfuade the world, or to think of perfuading the
world, that their Mafter i-ofe from the dead, if his refurrec-
tion was not real.
In the article Miracle *, we have faid, that “ the very # yob Xlh
refolution of the apoftles to propagate the belief of falfe mi-p. 173.
racks in fupport of fuch a religion as that which is taught
in
(g) Once we intended (fee Vol. XVI. page 140. note a) to notice in this place fome of the moft recent of thofe
attempts, and to expofe them to that indignation with which, we truft, the good fenie of «ur countrymen fhall alway treat
fuch fophiitical teafonings as have no other objedt than to diminifh the fum of human happinefs. On maturer reflection,
however, it feems more expedient to ftate one decifive argument for the refurredtion of Chrift, which may be fafely
oppofed to any new lophiims of our minute philofophers, when thofe which are at prefent in fafhion fhall have funic
through their own weaknefs into obliviorij or quietly retired with their authors to that place “ Where 'JL indal dictates and-
Silenus fnores.” Dunciad.
Part If. ' T H E O
Theology, Jn the New Teflament, is itfelf as great a miracle as human
more F^.'imafnnaticm'can eafiiy conceive.” We (hall illuilrate this
liarjy c*in'p0f:tjon by the refurreftion of Jefus, which we are to fup-
(. “^n‘ p0fe the apoltles refolving to publiih as an unqueftionable
faft, whilif they were conicious that they themlelves hole
tlie body from the fepulchre, and faw it in their cullody
under the dominion of death. On fuch an enterprife they
could not enter without much deliberation; and we may
conceive him, to whom the thought of propagating this fable
firft occurred, addreffmg his companions in fome fuch terms
as the following —
The trufh “ The Mafter whom we ferved is now no more, and the
ef Msrtfur-magnificent hopes which we had formed with refpedttohim
region tie- an(j to ourfelves are blafted by his death. The time which
mop ate" be fixed tor his refurredHon is. pafled ; and it is folly to
cherifh any expeclation of that event, as we fee his body
which we flole a prey to corruption. We muft therefore
either feparate and return to our former profeffions, the
©bfcurity of which will fcreen us from the difgrace of having
been deceived ; or, remaining united, take the generous refo-
lution of fupporting our glory, by faying to every body^that
our Mafter is rilen from the dead, and is the true Meffiah
expedted by our nation, and foretold by the prophets. To
return to our profeffions would be cowardly and mean ; to
propagate the ffory of the reiurredtion will be attended with
infinite difficulty and danger ; but to defpife danger and to
conquer difficulties, is worthy of great fouls fuch as ours ;
and therefore I take it for granted that this is the part which
you have all refolved to adt.
“ To fucceed in our glorious enterprife, it will be abfohrte-
ly neceffary to admit into our mofl fecret counfels, not only
the feventy dirciples whom our Lord fent before him, in
pairs, into every city and place which he vifited *, but alio
that crowd of women J who followed him from Galilee, were
prefent at his crucifixion, and vifited his fepnlchre ; for all
56 St ifukeperfons are fo intimately acquainted with every circum-
xxiii. ss, fiance of his life and death, that they have it in their power
56. xxiv. 1 completely to defeat our projedl in fpite of our utmoft art;
and that power, it cannot be doubted, they will exert, unlefs
admitted to fhare with us the glory of deceiving the world.
The talk which they and we have to perform is no ordinary
one ; for we mull all fpeak the fame things, and things
which each of us knows to be falfe. Yet we muft advance
them with an air fo intrepid as to remove fufpicion, and be
able to bury in profound fecrecy the refolutions which in
concert we take to-day.
“ No truth can be io deeply impreffied upon our minds as
that our Mafter continues under the dominion of death ; and
we all know that truth Hands fo ready at the door of the
lips, that the greateft liar among us has hitherto uttered a
thouiand truths for one fallehood (h) ; but hencelorth, on
this moft interelling fubjeft, we muft never let a fingle
truth efcaoe us either in our moft unguarded moments or
when put to the torture ; for all will be loft, if any one per-
ion in whom we may place confidence fhall reveal to our
enemies what fhoukL be known to ourfelves alone. It is
therefore neceffary to forefee all that is capable of extorting
fecrets from Inch perfons as are not like us proof againft
every thing. We fhall be expofed to much bad treatment,
to prifons, to fevere examinations, to death itielf, and even
to the moft cruel and lingering kinds ot death, fufficient to
(hake any but the moft invincible refolutions. All this
& St Luke
x. 1—18.
LOG Y. 477
fliould be forefeen, and muft be defpifed by every perfon Theology,
i 1 more r ecu-
among us, man and woman t j.,,
“ But I muft forewarn you, that under the greateft tortures ^an.
we are not to hope for the fmalleft fupport from the tefti-
mony of a good confcience and the proipedl of a future re¬
ward ; for the very cruelleft of our fufferings will arife from
the remorfe of confcience, unlefs we fortify ourielves againft
it by the moft determined refolution. Others have indeed
been wonderfully fupported under violent and tedious fuf-
ferings, by the internal perfuafion that they fuffered for
truth and righteoufnefs fake ; but as we are called upon to
give new proofs of courage by fuffering for what we know
to be an impious falfehood, every reflection which tended to
fupport them will torment us, and tempt us, in the moft
forcible manner, to betray our caufe. From him, for whom
we are to fuffer and be facrificed, wc have nothing to ex-
pe£t ; for fince he could neither refeue hhafelf from the
violence of bis enemies, nor fulfil his promife of rifing from
the dead, it would be madnefs to fuppofe that he will de¬
liver us from our perfecutors, or afford us the fmalleft con-
folation when finking under the cruelleft tortures which ma¬
licious ingenuity can invent. He was a deceiver, and has
deceived us. He promifed, a few hours before he was
taken, that he would rife from the dead and go before us
into Galilee; but God has ordered things otherwife ; and as
he is fupreme Lord, we are not to found his judgments, or
even to think too much of them.
“ You feem aftonilhed at this counfel! It is new indeed,
but neceffary; and neceffary to fuch a degree, that all our
defigns will prove abortive if we fuffer the fear of God to
get poffeffion of our minds, and make us timid and pufilla-
nimous in the teftimony which we are determined to give
againft him, by maintaining that he taifed from the dead a
man whom he has without doubt condemned as an ufurper
of the glory which was not his due. Such affertiong in
favour of falfehood will no doubt coft us fomething in the
beginning ; but we muft endeavour to make ourfelves as ea-
fy as we can, by imprinting ftrongly on our minds how glo¬
rious and difinterefted it will be to fuffer without hope ei¬
ther from God or man, and even with the certainty of be¬
ing punifhed both by God and man, not only in this life,
but eternally in the next, if there be another. For let me
not attempt to conceal from you, that prefent and future
mifery muft be our inevitable portion; and that we muii
therefore become inacceffible to fear, even to fuch fear as
religion itfelf ought to infpire, or return ignobly to our
nets and boats ; there is abfolutely no other alternative. He
whom we lament has not only affumed openly the charac¬
ter of the Meffiah, but has dared even to call himfelf the
Son of God ; and though we have feen him ready to be
ftoned for thefe pretenlions, and cannot doubt but that God
was highly provoked at them, we muft, in defiance of the
divine vengeance, undertake to make them good, or at leaft
caule him to be worfhipped as the Son ot God ; whom to
our own knowledge God has exprefsly difavowed. This
might frighten timid and vulgar fouls ; but we muft have
none fuch among us. All the men and women of our com¬
pany muft be capable of braving Omnipotence, and of de¬
riving new vigour and refolution from the prolpedt of unim-
terrupted mifery.
“ Let us now confider how this great defign is-to be carried
into execution ; for it would be the excefs of folly to enter
upon
(h) To the moft illiterate fifherman of Galilee this muft have been known as a; for no man can fpeak an intelli¬
gible fentence without uttering a truth or a fallehood, and furely every man fpeaks a thoufand fentences for one in which,
he either utters or intends to utter a falfebood. How he muft neceftkrily do fo, we have iuown in another place. See
Metaphysics, n° 135, Sec.
478 T H E O
Theology, upon it without preparing' the means of fuccefs. Firft of
™0IJC ^cu'all, we will draw up together a hiftory of the pretended
llirftyian r1’apparitions of our common Mailer. Thofe who have the
u. t— hell inventions fhall be employed in it; the reft of us lhall re¬
vile and correct the work; and all mull ilrongly imprint on
their memories the pretended fafts and difeoveries which
fhall be agreed upon ; becaufe we mull nevei think of re¬
tracting, and the leaft contradiftioh in our evidence would
be of fatal confequence (i). To this labour we mull join
another, which requires more knowledge of the Scriptures
than we pofiefs ; but we will fupply our deficiencies by ftu-
dy. Our rulers, and indeed our countrymen in general, ex-
pe£l that the Mefliah fir all be a great and invincible hero ;
that he lhall deliver his country from the dominion of the
Romans ; that he (hall conquer all nations, and eftablifh on
earth an univerfal monarchy, of which Jerufalem is to be the
capital. As fuch (they fay / he is foretold by the prophets;
but the perfon whom we mean to impofe upon them as the
Mefliah, exprefsly declaimed all worldly greatnefs, and made
the fufferings of himfelf and his followers one tell of the
truth of bis pretenfions to the character -which he affirmed.
Some of the moft fob tile among us therefore mull carefully
examine the books of Mofes, the Pfalms, and the Proohets,
and wreft all the prophecies of the true Meffiah in favour of
him whom we know to be an impoftor. The enterprife,
as it is direcfftly oppofed, not only by truth, but alfo by ail
the prejudices and hopes of the nation, is indeed bold :
but what is the whole of our defign but the excefs of bold-
nefs ?
LOGY, Part II,
“ We have hitherto believed that the religion of onr fore- Theology,
fathers is true, and was given by God to Mofes. It is cer- ffore
tainly the moft ancient, the moft authorized, the pureft re-^^A^'’
ligion in the world ; and the only one founded on divine re- ^ |
velation, or that boafts offucha toundation. But if we are
to preach to the whole world, that our Mafter, whom we
know to be an impoftor, is the true and only Meffiah ; and
tf we ate to apply to him prophecies which have another
objedl, we mull neceffarily defpife this moft ancient religion,
which osr fathers and we have hitherto deemed divine and
incontrovertible ; and this is the ultimate point to which it
has been my aim to bring you. I defire not that you fhould
content immediately, lor to abandon one’s religion is a thing
which fhould not be done without maturely weighing the
confequences ; but what I defrre is, that you will diligently
compare all the parts of the plan which I have fuggefted to
you, examine their ftrift and neceffary union, and fatisfy
yourfelves completely, that we mull adopt the whole or re-
jed the whole ; for it is obvious that modifications and ex¬
ceptions are here abfolutely impoffible.
“ I hope you will not deliberate long on my propofal j
for we fhall hate much to do after your refolution is form¬
ed, and the time in which I propofe to concert and finilb
the whole fcherne is very fhort. We have but the interval
betwixt the prefent moment and the feall of Pentecoft in
which to prepare the order of falfe apparitions, and fix it
in the memories of our numerous coadjutors, male and fe¬
male ; to ftudy in the Scripture all that relates to the Mef¬
fiah ; to form the plan and adjuft the parts of a new reli¬
gion »
(i) Deiftical writers have laboured ftrenuoufly, though in vain, to find fuch contradictions in the different accounts
t>f the circumflances attending the refurreftion as may discredit the evidence of the evangeliils to the principal faft.  
This gave occafion to Mr Weft’s admirable Obfervations on the Refurredion ; and were there any candour or modefty
among our minute philofophers, the appearance of that book would have filenced them for ever. This, however, it
has not done. The old cavils have, without the leaft notice of Mr Weft, been again brought forward by Thomas
Paine, and again obviated by the Bifhop of Landaff in his mafter ly Apology for the Bible. “ If the writers of the Go-
ipels (fays Paine) had gone into any court of juftice to prove an alibi (for it is of the nature of an alibi that is here at¬
tempted to be proved, namely, the abfence of a dead body by fupernatural means), and had given their evidence in the
fame contradnftory manner as it is here given, they would have been in danger of having their ears cropt for perjury, and
would have juftly deferved it.” In reply to this impious farcafm, the right reverend apologift thus addreffes its author:
“ As we cannot have this -viva voce examination of all the witneffes, let us call up and queftion the evangelifts aswitneffes
to a fupernatural alibi.—Did you find the fepulchre of Jefus empty ? One of us actually faw it empty, and the reft heard
from eye-witneffes that it was empty.—Did you, or any of the followers of Jefus, take away the dead body from the fe-
pulchre ? All aniwer, No.—Did the foldiers, or the Jews, take away the body ? No.—How are you certain of that ? Be¬
caufe we faw the body when it was dead, and we faw it afterwards when it was alive.—How do you know that what
you faw was the body of Jefus ? We had been long and intimately acquainted with Jefus, and knew his perfon perfedly.
W ere you not affrighted, and miftook a fpirit for a body ? No ; the body had flefh and bones; we are lure that it
was the very body which hung upon the crofs, for we faw the wound in the fide, and the print of the nails in the hands
and feet.—And all this you are ready to iwear ? We are; and we are ready to die alio, fooner than we will deny any
part of it.-—This is the tettimony which all the evangelifts would give, in whatever cobrt of juftice they were examined ;
and this, I apprehend, would fufficiently eftablifh the alibi of the dead body irom the fepulchre bv fupernatural means.”
“ The book of Matthew (fays Paine) continues its account, that at the end of the Sabbath, as it began to dawn, to-
wards the firft day of the week, came Mary Magdalene and the other Mary to fee the fepulchre. Mark fays it was
fun rifing, and John fays it was dark. Luke fays it was Mary Magdalene, and Joanna, and Mary the mother of James,
and other women, that came to the fepulchre. And John fays that Mary Magdalene came alone. So well do they agree
.iboirt: their firft evidence ! they all appear, however, to have known moft about Mary Magdalene ; {he was a woman of a
large acquaintance ; and it was not an ill conjedlure that Ihe might be upon the ftroll.”
1 his (replies the Biftiop) is a long paragraph, and I will anfwer it diftindlly : Firft, There is no difagreement of
evidence with refpedt to the time when the women went to the iepulchre ; all the evangelifts agree as to the day on
which they went; and as to the time of the day, it was early in the morning : what court of jullice in the world would
let alide tins evidence as infufficient to fubllantiate the fail of the womens having gone to the fepulchre, becaufe the
witneffes differed as to the degree of twilight which lighted them on their way ? Secondly, There is no difagreement of
■evidence with refpedl to the perfons who went to the fepulchre. John ftates that Mary Magdalene went to the fepul-
chve ; but he does not ftate, as you make himJlate, that Mary Magdalene went alone ; file might, for any thing you have
•proved or can prove to the contrary, have been accompanied by all the women mentioned by Luke. Is it an unufual
£hiug to diftiiiguilh by name a principal perfon going on a vifit or an embaffy, without mentioning his fubordinate atten-
6 dants ?
Part If. T H E O
Theology, gion ; to efface in our mind all traces and ideas of the an-
more p«u-c!ent one ; and to fortify ourfelves ?,gainfl our prejudices,
liarly Chn-our ^arg^ anfj our worldly intereffs : for we mull get quit
Jeofail thefe, fince we are going moft generoufly to renounce
all the goods of this life, and all the hopes of the next,—
What makes me choofe the feaft of Pentecoft for our firft
public appearance in our new capacity, is the great con-
courle of people from all nations which will be then at Je-
rulalem ; for it will be a favourable opportunity to preach
to them the refuvreftion of him whom our rulers have cru-
cined, and by their means to fpread the news quickly over
the whole world. We are ignorant indeed of foreign
tongues, and we are without interpreters ; but our pretence
will fuifice. Some will comprehend by figns what we would
lay to them, and others, who hear and underftand our lan¬
guage, will affift them. We cannot, it is true, work a mi¬
racle ; but was there ever fuch a miracle thought of as our
dming to relift all that is mighty and refpedlable in our na¬
tion ? There would perhaps be more prudence in not ap¬
pearing altogether; and as we have nothing extraordinary or
divine to command refpecft, nor any protection to hope from
God or man, in not eXpoiing durfelves in a body on the
fir ft day of our enterprize; but in a defign like ours, fn-
gular in its whole nature, and contrary to common rules,
of what ufe would prudence be ? I am fure that with our
Galilean pronunciation, and with the goodly appearance
that we ihatl make in our fifhetmens garments, we fhall
perfuade a multitude of people. Nay, fo confident am I of
our fucceis, that I include in my delign not only Judea but
all the nations upon earth. Nor fhall I be difcouraged by
the diverfity of religions, manners, and tongues, which pte-
vail in the world ; be affrighted by the hoftile power of all
mankind ; or have my zeal in the leaft abated for him who
hath deceived us, by the improbability of being able to
make the Gentiles, who know nothing of the Scriptures or
the Mefliah, adore as the Son of God the man whom the
Jews have crucified as an impoftor.
“ In the mean time, it will be proper t© accuftom our¬
felves to the moil inhuman fpeCtacles, in order to arrive by
degrees at fuch a hardnefs of heart as nothing can be fup-
LOGY. 479
pofed to move. You may depend upon it, that we fhali fee Theology,,
multitudes of people, feductd by our difcourfes, profcribed,*:^^
banifhed, thrown into dark prifons, torn in pieces by en- {Han.
gines of torture, condemned to wild beads, to the fire, and J
to the moft fhameful and infupportable pumfhments, for
preaching with us the refurreCtion of Jelus. Now, as v/e are
all by nature inclined to compaffion, we might be tempted
to relieve them from fuch exqniflte mifery, fince we could
effectually do it by a fingle v/ord; but this word, which
would difcover the whole myftery, muft never flip from our
mouths. There muft not be fo much as one figh or one
groan to betray us. Inflead of unfeafonably reproaching
onrfelves with our impofture by which we deceived them,
we muft applaud ouvfelves for their feduCtion ; we muft place
our own joy in their wretchednefs; and we muft not be
afraid to honour, and caufe them to be honoured, as illuftri-
ous witnelfes of the truth, though we know them to be on¬
ly martyrs to our hypocrify, and to their own facility in be¬
lieving falfehood * See the
This is a faithful view of the outlines of that plan which Principles,
mvjl have been formed by the apoftles, if they intended to de-^T^^Y^
ceive the world with reipeCt to the refuneClion of their Ma Jtrsinflatedby
fter. It is of no confequence to the argument whether it Mr Laily,
grow gradually out of the joint deliberations of the whole
body, or was completely digelted, as we have fuppofed, by
one of the number, and implicitly adopted by the reft : it
is enough that every circumftance which we have mention¬
ed muft have occurred to them, and that every refolution
muft have been unanimoufly adopted which we have made
to flow from the mouth of this daring orator. But furely
the bare recital of fuch an oration is fufficient to fhow the
impoffibility of carrying into effeft fo abfurd, fo horrible,
and fo impious a meafure—a meafure diametrically oppo-
fite to all the principles and motives of human aCtions.
Archbifhop King has fuppofed '*, that the human will is* Origin of
a faculty diftinCt from the underftanding and the appetites; ^1'^’^
that aftivity is effential to it; and that previous to an elec-^j^'^
tion formed, it is equally indifferent to all objcCts. Pie thence {eCt, j. and
infers, that a man may choofe, and even take delight in,4.
what is not naturally agreeable to any of his appetites ; be-
caufe
dants ? Thirdly, In oppofition to your infinuation, that Mary Magdalene was a common woman, I wifh it to be confi-
dered whether there is any fcriptural authority for that imputation ; and whether there he or not, I muft contend, that
a repentant and reformed woman ought not to be efteemed an improper witnefs of a faft. The conje<ftu*e which you
adopt concerning her is nothing leis than an illiberal, indecent, unfounded calumny, not excufable in the mouth of a li¬
bertine, and intolerable in yotir’s.
“ The hook of Matthew (continues Paine) goes on to fay : ‘And behold there was an earthquake, for the angel of
the Lord defeended from heaven, and came and rolled back the ftone from the door, and fat upon it; -but the other
books fay nothing about any earthquake.’—What then ? does their filence prove that there was none —‘ Nor about the
angel rolling back the ftone and fitting upon it.’—What then ? does their filence prove that the ftone was not rolled back
by an angel, and that he did .not fit upon it ?—‘ And according to their accounts there was. no angel fitting there.’—This
conclufion (fays his Lordlhip) I muft deny ; their accounts do not fay there was no angel fitting there at the time
that Matthew fays he fat upon the ftone. They do not deny the fad, they limply omit tire mention of it ; and they all
take notice that the women, when they arrived at the fepulchre, found the ftone rolled away : hence it is evident that the
ftone was rolled away before the women arrived at the iepulcbre ; and the other evangeliits, giving an account of what
happened to the women token they reached the fepulchre, have merely omitted giving an account of a trailfaflion previous
to their arrival. Where is the contradidtion ? What fpace of time intervened between the rolling away the ftone and
the arrival of the women at the fepulchre, is nowhere mentioned ; but it certainly was long enough for the an el to have
changed his polition; from fitting on the outfide he might have entered into the fepulchre ; and another angel mgiht have
made his appearance, or, from the firft, there might have been two, one on the outfide rolling away the ftone, and the
other within. Luke, you tell us, ‘ lays there were two, and they were both Handing ; and John fays there were two,
and both fitting.’—It is impoffible, I grant, even for an angel to be fitting and ftandin ? at the fame inftant of time ; but
Luke and John do not fpeak of the fame inftant, nor of the fame appearance.—Luke {peaks of the appearance to all the
women ; and John of the appearance to Mary Magdalene alone, who tarried weeping at the fepulchre after Peter and
John had left it. But I forbear making any more minute remarks on ftill minuter objedtions, all of which are '
F™.un^ecj t&s miftake—that the angels were feen at one particular time, in one particular place, and by the fame.
48o T H E O
Theology, caufe wlien the choice is made, a relation is formed between
irore ptcu-wj|j an(j the ohjefb of choice, which, from bein^ origi-
,d oiannn*nally indifferent, now becomes a favourite objeft. But nei-
w-; iher his Grace, nor any other afferter of human liberty, has
ever affirmed or fuppofed, that any man or body of men
•could deliberately choofe evil for its ow« fahe, or enter zea*
ioufly upon a tedious and difficult enterprife, from which
tio j'ooJ could prffioly a rife) and from which unmixed mifery
•was clearly forefcn as the necejfary ref alt of every flep of the
prcgrsfs. Such, however, muft have been the choice and
the conduct of the apoftles, when they refolved to preach a
new religion founded on the refurrediion of Jefus, if they
did not certainly know that jefus had rifen from the dead.
And this condutl muft have been adapted, and in oppohtion
to every motive which can influence the human mind; have
been perievered in by a great number of men and women,
without the fmalleft c6ntradi<?cion having ever appeared in
the various teftimonies, which at different times, and under
the crueileil tortures, they all gave to a variety of circum-
ftances, of which not one had its foundation in truth. He
who can admit this fuppofition, will not furely objedl to the
incredibility of miracles. The refurreftion of a man from
the dead is an evert fo different indeed from the common
7 courfe of things, that nothing but the mofl complete evi¬
dence can make it an objeft of rational belief; but as the
refurredlion of Jefus has always been faid to have had God
for its Author, it is an effect which does not exceed the,
power of the caufe affigned, and is therefore an event pof-
fible in itftlf and capable of proof. It is a deviation from
the laws of nature, but it is not contradictory to any one of
thofe laws.
That a great number of men and women ffiould delibe¬
rately form a plan of ruin and mifery to themfelves, with¬
out a profpeft of the fmalleft advantage either in this world
or in the next, is as different from the common courfe of
things as the refun eft ion from the dead ; and therefore in
itfelf at leaft as great a miracle : but that they fhould per-
flft in profecuting this plan in the midft of torments ; that
they ftiould fpread themfelves over the whole world, and
everywhere publiih a number of falfehoods, without any
one of them contradifting the reft ; that truth fhould never
efcape them either in an unguarded moment, or when ling¬
ering on the rack, jand yet that all their lies fhould be in
•perfeft agreement with each other ; that they fhould every
one of them court fufferings for a perfon whom they knew
to be an impoftor ; that not one of the number—not even
a Angle woman—fhould have fo much compaffion for a fel¬
low-creature, as to refeue him from the flames by confeffing
a truth which could injure nobody— not even the fuffering
deceivers themfelves ;—all this is not only different from the
common courfe of things, but direftly contrary to the moft
known laws of nature, and is therefore not miraculous, but
may be pronounced impoffible. Yet this impoffibility we
muft admit, or acknowledge, that as “ Chrift died for our
fins, according to the Scriptures, and was buried; io he rofe
again the third day according to the Scriptures ; that he
was feen of Cephas, then of the twelve ; after that of above
five hundred brethren at ones ; after that of James ; then of
all the apoftles ; and that he was laft of all feen of St
* i Ccr ^>au^ wh° vvas converted by the vilion to preach the
xv. 3_c* faith which till then he had periecuted.
190 Thus are we affured, that “ thofe who have fallen afleep
Hence we |n Chrift are not loft, finee he is rifen from the dead, and
cfour^own kecome t^ie ^ruits them that flept. For fmee by man
ysfuredUon.ca!r-e ^7 maT! carne aho the refurreftion of the dead.
For as in Adam all die, even io in Chrift (hail ail be made
ab\x. But every man in hia own order: Chrift the firft-
fruits, afterwards they that are.Chrift’s at his coming ; for
S '
l o g y. v par|.
all that are in the graves lhali hear his voice, and fhall come Theology |
forth; they that have done good unto the refurreftion ofm°re pt-cj
life, and they that have done evil to the refurreftion of dain-llar‘y Cllri*
nation
Our bleffed Lord having converfed familiarly with the* 1 Cor.
eleven apoftles for forty days after his refurreftion, inftruc-xv-20—q,
ting them in the tilings pertaining to the kingdom of God;andSi;Ma
having extended their authority as his minifters, by giving'" zS,lr>,•
them a commiffion to teach all nations, and make them hia
difciples, by baptizing them in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft; and having promifed
them power from on high to enable them to diicharge the
duties of fo laborious an office—led them out as far as Be¬
thany, that they might be witneffes of his afeenfion into
heaven. “ When they therefore were come together, they
afited of him, faying, Lord, wilt thou at this time reftore
again the kingdom to Ifrael ? And he faid, it is not for you
to know the times and the feafons, which the Father hath
put in his own power. But ye ihall receive power after that
the Holy Ghoft is come upon you ; and ye Ihall be witneffes
unto me, both in Jerufalem, and in all Judea, and in Sama¬
ria, and unto the uttermoft parts of the earth. But tarry ye
in the city of Jerufalem, until ye be endued with power from
on high ; and he lift up his hands and bleffed them ; and it
came to pafs while he bleffed them, he was parted from them,
and a cloud received him out of their fight. And while
they looked ftedfaftly towards heaven, as he went up, be¬
hold, two men flood by them in white apparel ; who alio
faid, ye men of Galilee, why ftand ye gazing up into hea¬
ven ? This fame Jefus, who is taken up from you into hea¬
ven, fhall fo come, in like manner as ye have feen him go
into heaven. And they wer{hipped him, and returned to
Jerufalem with great joy ^St Luke
That our bleffed .Lord afeended into heaven, wall hardlyxxiv.49—
be denied in the prefent age by any one who admits that he S3- and
rofe from the dead. The afeenfion was indeed the natural Al^s‘‘<’“
confequence of the refuneftion ; for we cannot fuppofethat ' j.,
a man would be called back from the grave to live for ever Proofs of
in a world where all other men fall in lucceffion a prey toChrift'saf'
death. The purpofe for which he died was to recover for
the defeendants of Adam every privilege which they had
forfeited through his tranfgreffiou; and if, as has been ge¬
nerally believed, mankind were by the terms of the firft co¬
venant to enjoy eternal life in heaven, fome proof was necef-
fary that Chrift by his death and refurreftiop had opened
the kingdom of heaven to all faithful obfervers of the terms
of the fecond. Flence it was prophefied $ of the Meffiah,,
in whom all the nations of the earth were to be bleffed, that j
“ he (hould afeend on high, lead captivity captive, and fitMicahii.
on the right hand of God until his enemies fhould be made1^*,
his footftool.” -It was therefore of the greateft importance
to the apoftles to have fufficient proof of their Mailer’s ex¬
altation to the right hand of the Majefty on high ; for other-
wife they could neither have looked for an entrance intoheaven
themfeives, by a new and living way', as the author of the
epiftle to the Hebrews expreffts it, nor have preached Jeius
as the Meffiah promifed to their fathers, fince they could
-not have known that in him theie prophecies were fulfilled.
But the proof vouchfafed them was the mofl complete that
the nature of the thing would bear. The fpeftators of the
afeenfion were many; for, according to the hiltory of St
Luke'*, thofe who returned from the Mount of Olives to* ASbi.
Jerufalem, and prepared themlelves for the coming of the 12—
Holy Ghoft, were in number about fix (core ; arid to fuch
a cloud of witneffes the evangelift would not have appealed,
had not the faft he was recording been very generally
known. Yet thefe were perhaps out part of the witnefies;
for fince Chrift had told to his diicipks tnat he was to af¬
eend
Pf. Irvifi.
-15. cx. 1.
194
In heaven
our Savi¬
our exe¬
cutes the
office of a
prieft
24
Part 1 f. ' T II E O
Theobry, cend to his Father and their Father, to his God and their
more pecu Q0f}> an(j that he was going to prepare a place for them,
that where he is there they might be likewife ; we can hard-
t,, ly doubt but that all who believed in him as the Redeemer
of the world would take care to be prefent, not only to
view their Mafter’s triumph over all his enemies, but alfo
to have a fight of that glory which awaited themfelves. It
was on this occafion probably that he was feen after his re-
furre&ion by above five hundred brethren at once, of whom
the greater part were alive at the writing of St Paul’s firfl
cpiltle to the Corinthians.
Rut though fuch multitudes of people faw Jefus lifted up
from the mo-ynt, and gradually vanifh out of their fight,
feme other evidence feemed neceffary to certify them of the
place to which he had gone. Two angels therefore ap¬
pear, and atteft what human eyes could not fee, but what
was indeed the confequence of what they had feen. They
atteft that Chrift had afeended to heaven, not to defeend
again till the laft day ; and furely, with refpect to this point,
the citizens of heaven were the moft unexceptionable wit-
neffes. We muft therefore acknowledge and confefs, againft
all the wild herefies of old (k), that Jefus Chrift the Son of
God, y/ho died and rofe again, did with the fame body and
foul with which he had lived upon earth afeend up “ into
heaven, there to appear in the prefence of God for us
Having in the outward tabernacle of this world once offer¬
ed up himfelf a pure and perfeA facrifice for the expiation
Heb. ix. 0f our finS) he entered within the veil into the moft holy
place, there to prefent his blood before God himfelf, in or¬
der to obtain mercy for us, and reftore us to the Divine fa-
vour. So that, “ if any man fin, we have an advocate with
the Father, Jefus Chrift the righteous, who is the propitia.
tion for our fins, and not for ours only, but alfo for the
fins of the whole world ; and he is able te fave to the utter-
moll thofe that come to God by him, feeing he ever liveth
to make interceffion for us.” “ Seeing then that we have
a great high-prieft, who is paffed into the heavens, Jefus the
Son of God, we may through him come boldly unto the
throne of grace, that we may obtain mercy, and find grace
to help in time of need.”
. But it is not the office of a prieft only that our Lord
difeharges in heaven ; he is reprefented as fitting on the
right hand of God, to denote that regal authority with
which he is now veiled ; “ angels, and authorities, and
powers, being made fubjedl to him J.” Hence it is, that
after his refurre&ion, he faid of himfelf f, « all power is
given unto me in heaven and in earth ;” for, as St Paul in-
foims us J, “ becaufe he humbled himfelf and became obe¬
dient unto death, even the death of the crofs, therefore
God hauh highly exalted him, and given him a name which
is aDove everv name ; that at the name of Jefus every knee
fhomd bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and
tilings under the earth.” And this fubmiffion is due to
him, became “ God railed him from the dead, and fet him
at his own right hand in the heavenly places, far above all
principalities and powers, and might, and dominion, and
eveiy name that is named, not only in this world, but alfo
in that which is to come ; and hath put all things under
his feet, and gave him to be head over all things to the
Vol. XVIII. Pait II.
19.^
And a king
1 1 Peter
iii. it.
t St
Mat-h.
ixviii. 18.
t Phil. ii.
s> 9,10.
LOGY. 481
church As God, Chrift poffeffed a kingdom, which, Theology,
as it had not a beginning, can never have an end : but the !'.10jS_
dominion, of which the apoftle is here treating, was con-iUr^;an rt
ferred upon him as the mediator of the new covenant, and •■v-— >
will no longer continue than till his enemies ffiall be fub- * E1h-
dued ; for we are told, that “he muft reign till he hathL a°J &c‘
put all enemies under his feet; and that the laft enemy
which fhall be deftroyed is death.” “ He will ranfom his
fubje61s from the power of the grave; he will redeem them
from death. O death, he will be thy plague ; O grave, he
will be thy deftrudion J.” The trumpet fhall found, the Hofea
graves fhall be opened, all the fons and daughters of Adamx*11-
fhall return to life, and death fhall be fwallovved up in vic¬
tory. “ L hen cometh the end, when the office of mediator
ceafing, he fhall have delivered up the kingdom to God,
even the father, when he fhall have put down all rule and
all authority and power. For when all things fhall be fub-
dued unto him, then {hall the Son alfo himfelf be fubjeft
unto him that put all things under him, that God may be
all in all |[.” ll 1 Cor. ^
The firft confpicueus proof which our bleffed Lord gavels’ 24
of being veiled with fupreme power, and made head over 194
all things to the church, was on the day of Pentecoft. ^efeent of
He had told the apoflles that he would pray the Father to
give them another comforter, who fhould abide with them the^Do-11
for ever, even the Spirit of truth, which fhould teach them (ties.1
all things, and bring all things to their remembrance which
he had faid unto them. Fie had affured them, that it was
expedient for them that he himfelf fhould go away ; “ for
if I go not away (faid he J), the Comforter will not comet J°hn xvi,
unto you ; but if I depart, I will fend him unto you.” At7’
his laft interview with them, juft before his afeenfion, he
had defired them to tarry at Jerufalem till they fhould be
endued with power from on high, before they entered
upon their great work of converting the nations. Thefe
promifes were amply fulfilled ; for “when the day of Pen¬
tecoft was fully come, they were f.11 with one accord in
one place. And fuddenly there came a found from hea¬
ven as of a rufhing mighty winjd, and it filled all the houfe
where they were fitting. And there appeared unto them
cloven tongues, like as of fire, and it fat upon each of them.
And they were all filled with the Holy Ghoft, and began
to fpeak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them ut¬
terance. Ar.d there were dwelling at Jerufalem Jews, de-
vont men, out of every nation under heaven. Now when
this was noifed abroad, the multitude came together, and
were confounded, becaufe that every man heard them fpeak
in his own language. And they were all amazed, and mar¬
velled, faying one* to another, Behold, are not all thefe
who fpeak Galileans ? And how hear we every man in our
own tongue, wherein we were born ? Parthians, and Medes,
and Elanites, and the dwellers in Mefopotamia, and in Ju¬
dea, and Cappadocia, in Pontus and Afia, Phrygia and
Pamphylia, in Egypt and in the parts of Libya about
Gyrene, and ft rangers of Rome, Jews and profelytes, Cretes
and Arabians—we do hear them fpeak in our tongues the
wonderful works of God. And they were all amazed, and
were in doubt, faying one to another, What meaneth this* ? ’ * Ads a.
That thoie who heard the apoflles fpeak fo c.any dif-l~J3"
. 3 P ferent
JKJrrT^e]re, was on.e in tire primitive church, who was condemned as a heretic for teaching that Chrift’s body
.Tdat'wefV rd 1?' h'!“ >•> h‘rn ^ T* W o. .hi. ««„ and his flaf
Ions notions 4ertuLlan.: Gregory Na^an/en and Epiphanius ; and the reader who th.nk§ fuch ridicu-
tion of the Creed 7 P a ^ ^ faidof them ,n l.he Notes to the ^th article of Pearfon’s Exoofi-
0f the evanSlifts’hl d P H' ^ ^ “ Not€s’ that our gfeat modern corredfor
upon earth, ^ drfcorcied, if it le indeed tiue that he pretends to have difcovcred, that Jefus Chrii't is ftiil
4^2
T H E O
Tht ology,
•inore pecu-
liarly Chri-
fiian.
ferent languages were amazed, is what we fl)©uld naturally
fuppofe ; hut.that a Tingle individu?.! among them remained
unconvinced, is aftonifhing : for the gift of tongues on the
day of Pentecoft is one ol the moil palpable miracles t hat
was ever wrought. It is likewiie one ot the belt authen¬
ticated miracles ; for the book entitled the Acts of the Apof-
t/es was written not more than 30 years after the event
took place (fee Scripture, n° 168.) ; and it \s not con¬
ceivable that, within fo fhort a period, St Luke, or any
man of common fenfe, would have appealed for the truth
of what he recorded to fo many inveterate enemies of the
Chriftian name, had he not been aware that the miracu¬
lous gift of tongues was a faft incontrovertible. We all
know how defrrous the Jewifh rulers were to ftop the pro-
grefs of the faith, by whatever means, whether of fraud
or force ; but ii this miracle was not really performed, they
had now an opportunity of doing it effedtually by means
to which truth and honour would give their approbation.
Thoufands mult have been alive in the city of Jerufalem
who were men and women at the time when the apoftles
w'ere laid to have been thus fuddenly infpired with the
tongues of the Parthians, Medes, and Elanites, &c. ; and
as thefe foreigners were themfelves either Jews by defcent,
or at leaft profelytes to the Jewiih religion, furely the chief-
priefts would have found multitudes ready, both at home
and abroad, to contradidt this confident appeal of St Luke’s,
if contradidtion had been poffible. We read however of
no objedtion whatever being made to this miracle. Some
of the audience, indeed, when the apoftles addrefled people
of fo many ^rations in a.ll their refpedlive languages, not
tmderftanding what was f?.id, and taking it for jargon which
had no meaning, concluded, not unnaturally, that the
196
The gift
cf tongues
permanent
with the
apoftles.
% Dr Mid-
dleton and
Lord Shaf-
tfoury.
T97_
Objections.
* M Jd e-
ton s
on the Gift
cf 'Tongues.
fpeakers were full of new wane, and mocked them for being
drunk fo early in the day ; but this is a circumftance which,
fo far from rendering the miracle doubtful, adds much to
the credit of the hiftorian, as it would hardly have occur¬
red to the writer of a narrative wholly falfe, and would
certainly not have been mentioned, had he known that the
apoftles really attempted to impofe upon the multitude un¬
meaning founds for foreign languages.
As it is thus certain that the apoftles were miraculouny
furnifhed with the gift of tongues, fo the elegance and
propriety of that miracle to atteft the re?.l defcent of the
Spirit of truth, who was to 'teach them all things, and en¬
due them with power from on high to convert the nations,
can never be enough admired by the pious Chriftian ; for
wor^s being the vehicle of knowledge, an ability to ipeak
the different languages of the earth was abfolutely necef-
fary to enable thofe who had' been originally fifhermen to
go into all the world and preach the gofpel to every crea¬
ture. Yet there have been writers t, who, though unable
to call in queftion the reality of the gift of tongues on the
day of Pentecoft, have contended, that it was a girt “ not
lafting, but inflantaneous and tranfitory r not beftowed upon
them for the conftant work of the miniftry, but as an oc-
cafionai fign only, that the perfon endowed with it was a
chofen minifter of the gofpel; which fign, according to
them, ceafed and totally vanifhed as foon as it had ferved
that particular purpofe.” The chief argument upon which
this opinion is attempted to be built, is drawn from the
fenpture Greek, which is faid to be “ utterly rude and
barbarous, and abounding with every fault which can pof-
fibly deform a language; whereas we fhould naturally ex-
peft to find an infpired language pure, clear, noble, and
affedliag, even beyond the force of common fpeech ; fince
nothing can come from God but what is perfect in its kind.
In fhort, we fhould expeff, fays the onjedter, the purity of
Plato and the eloquence of Cicero *.’3
L - O G Y. Part II
In reply to this objedion, it has been well obferved f, Theology,
that it fuppofes what is called the purity, elegance, and j?oie P«u
fublimity, of language, to be fomething natural and effential
to human fpeech, and inherent in the conftitution of things. .fY.L.
“ But the matter is far otherwife. Thefe qualities are ac-f tVarkf
cidental and arbitrary, and depend on cuftom and fafhion ; ton's Doc
modes of humanity as various as the differing climes
the earth; and as inconftant as the tempers, genius, and ^'8
circumftances, of its inhabitants. For what is purity, but Anfwered.
the ufe of fuch terms and their combinations as the caprice
of a writer or fpeaker of authority hath preferred to their
equals ? what is elegance, but fuch a turn of idiom as a
fafhionable fancy hath brought into credit ? and what is
fublimity, but the application of fuch images as arbitrary
and cafual connections, rather than their own native gran¬
deur, have dignified and ennobled ? The confequence of this
is, that the mode of compofition which is a model of per¬
fection to one nation or people, has always appeared either
extravagant or mean to another. Afiatic and Indian elo¬
quence was efteemed hyperbolical and unnatural by the
Greeks and Romans, ana is fo efteemed by us ; whilfl the
Greek and Roman eloquence in its turn appeared cold and
infipid to the warm inhabitants of the eaft ; and ours would
appear perhaps ftill colder. But the New Teftament was
deligned for the rule of life to all mankind. Such a rule
required infpiration ; and infpiration, fay the objeCters, im¬
plies the molt perfeCt eloquence. What human model then
was the Holy Ghoft to follow ? for a human model it mull
have been, becanfe there was no other; and if there had,
no other would have anfwered the purpofe, which was to
make a due impreffion on the mind and affeCtions. Should
the eaftern eloquence have been employee! ? But it would
have been too fwelling and animated for the weft. Should
the weflern ? This would have been too Hill and inactive
for the eaft. Or fuppofe us only felicitous for what we
befl underftand ; which fpecies of this latter genus fhould
the facred writers have preferred ? The diffolute foftnefs of
the Afiatic Greeks, or the dry concifenefs of the Spartans ?
The flowing exuberances of Attic eloquence, or the grave
feverity of the Roman ?
“But are there not fome general principles of eloquence
in common to all the fpecies ? 1 here are. Why then ihould
not thefe have been employed to credit the apoftolic infpira¬
tion ? Becaufe the end even of thefe (replies our author) is
to miflead reafon, and inflame the paffions ; which being
abhorrent to the truth and purity of our holy religion, were
very fitly 1 ejeCted by the inlplred penman. Befides, it
might eafily be known to have been the purpofe of Provi¬
dence, though fuch purpofe had not been exprefsly decla¬
red, that the gofpel flrould bear all pofiible marks of its
divine original, as well in the courfe of its progrefs as in
the circumftances of its promulgation. H’o this end, the
human inftruments of its conveyance were mean and illite¬
rate, and chofen from among the loweft of the people, that
when the world faw itleh converted by the fool'ifhnefs of
preaching, as the only learned apoftle thinks fit, to call it,
unfcel evers might have no pretence to aferibe its faccefs la
the parts, or fiations, or authority, of the preachers. Now .
had the language infpired into thefe illiterate men been
the eloquence of Plato or Tally, Providence would have
appeared to counteract its own meafures, and to de'eat the
purpofe beft calculated to advance its glory. But God is
wile, though man is a fool. The courfe of Providence was
uniform and conftant : It not only chofe the weakeft inftru¬
ments, but caiefully kept out of their hands that powerful
weapon of words which their adverfaries might fo eafily
have wrefted to the difhonour of the gofpel. Common
fenfe tells us, that the ftyle of an univcrfal law fhould re¬
tain
>art II, T H E O
Theology, tain what is common to all languages, and negleft what is
nore pecu- pecui;ar to each. It fhould retain nothing but clearness
“'ll' nIin*an^ precision» which the mind' and fentiments of the
^ writer are intelligibly conveyed to the reader. This quality
is effehtial, invariably the fame, and independent of cuftom
and lalhion. It is the confequence of fyntax, the very thing
in language which is lealt pofitive, as being formed on the
principles of philofophy and logic : whereas all befides, from
the very power of the elements and fignification of the terms
to the tropes and figures in compofition, are arbitrary ; and,
as deviating from thefe principles, frequently vicious. But
this quality of clearnefs and precifion eminently diftinguifhes
the writings of the New Teftamemt; infomuch that it may
be eafily fhown, that whatever difficulties occur in the fa-
cred books do not arife from any imperfeft information
caufed by this local or nominal barbarity of ftyle; but either
from the fublime or obfeure nature of the things treated
©f, or from the intentional concifenefs of the writers; who,
in the cafual mention of any thing not effenti?.! to the dif-
penfation, always obferve a ftudied brevity.”
After much ingenious and found reafoning on the nature
of language in general, our author concludes, that the style
of the New Teflament, even on the fuppofition of the truth
of what has been faid to its diferedit, is fo far from proving
the language not to be divinely infpired, that it bears one
certain mark of that original. “ Every language confifts
of two difiindl parts, the lingle terms, and the phrafes and
idioms. Suppofe now a foreign language to be inflanta-
neoufiy introduced into the minds of illiterate men like the
apoftles; the impreflion muft be made either by fixing in
the memory the terms and fingle words only with their figni¬
fication, as, for inftance, Greek words correfponding to fuch
or fuch Syriac or Hebrew words; or elfe, together with
that fimple impreffion, by enriching the mind with all the
phrafes and idioms o" the language fo infpired. But to
enrich the mind with the peculiar phrafes and idiom of a
foreign language, would require a pievious impreffion to be
made of the manners, notions, falhions, and opinions, of the
people to whom that language is native ; becaufe the idiom
and phrafes arife from and are dependent on thefe manners.
But this would be a wafte of miracles without iufficient
caufe or occaiion; for the Syriac or Hebrew idiom, to
which the Jews were of themfelves enabled to adapt the
Greek or any other words, abundantly ferved the ufeful
purpofes of the gift of tongues, which all centered in thofe
tongues, being fo fpoken and written as to be clearly
understood. Hence it follows, that if the ftyle of the
New Teftament were indeed derived from that language
which was miraculoufly imprefled upon the apoftles on the
day of Pentecoft, it muft be juft fuch a one as in reality
we find it to be ; that is, it muft confift of Greek words in
199 the Syriac or Plebrew idiom.”
'th'1 H r^e ^rame^‘ate auth°r of this gift, fo neceftary to the
Ghoft * ProPaga,;'on °f the gofpel, was the Spirit of truth, or the
Comforter, who is the Holy Ghoft and the third perfon
in the blefled Trinity. That there are three perfons in the
one Godhead, has been {hewn at. large in a former fedfion
of this article; and that the Holy Ghoft is one of theie
three, might be fafely concluded from the form of baptifm
inftituted by Chrift himfelf. But as more plaufible objec¬
tions have been urged againft his divinity than any that we
have met with againft the divinity of Chrift, it may not
be improper to confider thefe before we proceed to give
an account of the graces which he imparted to the infant
church, and of the apoftles preaching under his influence.
By the Arians the Holy Ghoft is copftdered a* a creature ;
by the Socinians and modern Unitarians, as they call them-
fdves, the words J/o/y Ghoji are fuppofed to exprefs, not a
ttian.
LOGY. 4S3
perfon or fpiritual fubfiftence, but merely an energy or ope- Theftogy,
ration, a quality or power, of the Father, whom alone theyj^e ^’l*
acknowledge to be God. If this dodtrine can be confuted,
the Arian hypothefis will fall to the ground of icfelf ; for
it is not conceivable that any infpired teacher ffiould command
his followers to be baptised in the name of the ielf-exiftent
God and two creatures. 200
It is admitted by the Socinians themfelves, that in the Objections,
feriptures many things are fpoken of the Ploly Ghoft which
can be properly predicated only of a perfon ; but the in¬
ference drawn from this conceffion they endeavour to in¬
validate by obferving, that in feripture there are likewife
exureffions in which things are predicated of abftradl virtues,
which can be literally true only of fuch perfons as pradtile
thefe virtues. Thus when St Paul fays*, that <£ charity ^ » Cor,
fufFereth long and is kind, charity envieth not, charity xlIh 4 8*’
vaunteth not itfelf, is not puffed up, &c.” we cannot fup-
pofe his meaning to be, thaf thefe adtions are performed by
charity in the abftradl, but that every charitable perfon, in
confequence of that one Chriftian grace, fuffereth long and
is kind, envieth not, vaunteth not himielf, and is not puffed
up, &c. In like manner, fay they, perfonal adlions are at¬
tributed to the Holy Ghoft:, which ittelf is no perfon, but
only the virtue, power, or efficacy, of God the Father ;
becaufe God the Father, who is a perfon, performs fuch
adfions by that power, virtue, or efficacy, in himfelf, which
is denominated the Holy Ghoft. 1 hus when we read J f A&s x.
that “the Spirit faid unto Peter, Behold three men feek1?#*0-
thee; arife therefore and get thee down, and go with them,
doubting nothing, for I have lent them ;” we muft under-
ftand that God the Father was the perfon who (poke thefe
words and fent the three men ; but becaufe he did fo by
that virtue in him which is called the Spirit, therefore the
Spirit is faid to have ipoken the words and fent the men.
Again, when “the Holy Ghoft faid J] to thole at Antioch,
Separate me Barnabas and Saul for the work whereunto T
have called them ;” we are to conceive that it was God the
Father who commanded the two apoftles to be ieparated
for the work to which he had called them ; but becaufe he
had done all this by that power within him which is called
the Holy Ghoft, therefore his words and aftions are attri¬
buted to the Holy Ghoft, juft as long-fuffering in men is
attributed to charity. 10i
This reafoning has a plaufible appearance, and would be Anfwered.
of much force were all the actions which in feripture are
attributed to the Holy Ghoft of fuch a nature as that they
could be fuppofed to have proceeded from the perfon of
God the Father in confequence of any particular power
or virtue in him ; but this is far from being the cafe. Thus
“ the Spirit is faid f to make interceffion for us;” but withf Rom.
whom can vve fuppofe God the Father, the fountain of di-v'11,
vinity, to intercede ? Our Saviour affured j his difciples,
that the Father would, in his name, fend to them the Holyx;v. nj.
Ghoft, who is the Comforter; that he would himfelf fendxv. a6.
the Comforter unto them from the Father; that the Com-xvl- I3>
forter fhould not fpeak of himfelf, but fpeak only what he1^’
ffiould hear ; and that he fhould receive of Chrift’s, and
fhew it unto them. But we cannot, without blafphemy
and abfuidity, fuppofe that the Father would, in the name
of Chrift, fend himielf; that the Son would fend the Fa¬
ther from the Father ; that the Father would not fpeak
of himfelf, but fpeak only what he heard ; or that either
the Father in perfon, or a quality of the Father, fhould
receive any thing of Chrift to fhew unto the apoftles.
The fagacity of Socinus perceived the force of fuch ob¬
jections as thefe to his notion of the Floly Ghoft, being
nothing more than the power of the Father perfonified ;
and therefore he invented another profopopeia to ferve his
3 P a purpofe
A As
- xiii. a.
484
T H E O
Theol >«?y, purpofe tn the inferpretation of thofe texts to which this
more p'. cu t 1 r j ic
v 1, . one cannot he applied, “ i
liarly \,hri
ft an.
Sotinus in
Befp. ad
IVi;kaKt,
sap. IQ.
applied, ** i he Spirit of God (fays he §)
may be confidered either as a property or power in God*
or as the things on which that power is working. When
taken in the former fenfe, the Spirit, where any perfonal
attribute is given to it, means God the Father ; when taken
in the latter fenfe, it means the man on whom the power
of the Father is working ; who, as long as he is afte&ed
by that power, is therefore called the Spirit of God and
he quotes, we think mofl abfurdly, the tenth verfe of the
fecond chapter of the firft epiftle to the Corinthians, as a
text in which by the Spirit is meant an jnfpired man who
could fearch all things, yea, even the deep things of
God.
How his modern followers, who deny the plenary infpi-
ration even of Chrifl, will relifh fuch a degree of infpiration
as this, which raiies mere man to a temporary equality
with God, we know not ; but leaving them to fettle the
ddpule with their mailer as they heft can, we fhall produce
one cr two paffages in which perfonal attributes are given
to the Spirit of God, when it is impoffible to conceive that
Spirit either as a power inherent in the Divine Father, or
as the perfon on whom that power is operating. We need
not bring new texts into view, as fonie of thofe already
quoted will ferve our purpofe. When our Saviour pro-
mifes that the Ho/y Ghojl, the Comforter, the Spirit of truth,
fhould be fent by the Father and the Son to the apoftles,
we have feen, that by this Spirit he could not mean the
Father or a property of the Father ; neither could he pof-
ftbly mean the apoftles themfelves, unlefs we are to fuppofe
that the Father and the Son fent St Peter to St Peter, and
that St Peter, fo fent, came to St Peter ! Again, when Chrifl
faith of the Holy Ghofl, “ he fhall receive of mine, and fhall
fhew it unto you,’' he could not, for the reafon already
alfigned, mean by the Holy Ghofl the Father or the power
of the Father ; and furely his meaning was not, that f*.e
apoflles, under the influence of the power of the Father,
fhould receive fomething and fhew it each to himfelf! The
Holy Ghofl therefore is unquefl ion ably a perfon ; for tho’
there are many paffages of feripture in which the gifts of
the Holy Ghcfl are called the Holy Ghojl, they are fo cal¬
led by a very common figure of fpeech, in which the effedl
receives the name of its caufe: and fince this perfon is joined
with the Father and the Son in the formula of Chriflian
f A<fts v. baptlfm; fir.ee they who lied to the Holy Ghofl are faid f
to have lied unto God ; fince biafphemy againfl him is a
. jj^more heinous offence than the fame fin againll even the Fa-
28, 251. l^er or S°n t’ and fince it was by the operation of the
Holy Ghofl that Jefus Chrifl; was conceived of the Virgin
Mary, and even on that account f called the Son of God—
it follows undeniably, that the Holy Ghofl is God, of the
fame fubftance with the Father and Son.
It was this divine Spirit which, on the day of Pentecoft,
infpired the apoftles with the knowledge of different lan-
ihudlcd m gliages; and as thefe were given only to enable them to
the prirci- preach the gofpel to every creature, it can admit of no
pits of reli-
fciom
l I .uke i.
36-
201
The apy-
ftu s mira-
culeufly in-
LOGY. Part.ll,
doubt but that he, who fo amply provided the means of The .1
preaching, would take care that the gofpel fhould be preachedrnnre pecir
in purity. Our Saviour had told his apoftles that the Com-i,aly Cll,i*
forter -w ould guide them into all the truth ( a; Tratrou tkv t 
axn.F.av j, and bring all things to their remembrance, whatfoever
he had laid unto them; but it they had not comprehended
the meaning of what he faid, the bare remembrance of his
fayings would have been of little importance. That before
this miraculous fhedding abroad of the Spirit they had but
a very imperfea knowledge of his dodrines, and of the
purpofe for which he had come into the world, is apparent
from that unfeafonable queflion which they put to him
when afiembled to witnefs his glorious afeenfion ; “ Lord,
wilt thou at this time reftore again the kingdom to Ifrael?”
Their minds ftill cherifhed with fondnefs the vain pro-Their*
fpedl of temporal power; but after the day of Pentecoft great need
they were dire&ed to nobler objeds. From the fame Spiritof fuc!lk«
they received diverfities of gifts befides that of language ; ftruftl<'n'
for wre are affured by St Paul *, when fpeaking of the early * > Cor.
converts to Chriflianity in general, that “ to one was given11'1 S~I!-
by the Spirit the word of wisdom; to another the word
of knowledge by the fame Spirit; to another faith by
the fame Spirit ; to another the gifts of healing by the
fame Spirit; to another the working of miracles; to
another prophecy ; to another discerning of Spirits ;
to another divers kinds of tongues ; to another the in¬
terpretation of tonguesand thefe gifts, which w^ere
feverally divided either among private Chriftians or among
the inferior orders of minifters in the church, we have rea¬
fon to believe were all beftovved in a greater or lefs degree
upon each of the apoftles.
Men thus endowed were well qualified to declare unto
the woild ah the council of God. Ty the word of lulfdotn
they communicated to the Gentile nations a pure fyftem
of what is called natural religion; turning them from the
vanity of idols to the worfhip of the living G©d : by the
word of knowledge, they preached the great dodrines of
revelation both to Jews and Gentiles, (hewing them that
there is none other name under heaven given unto men
whereby they may be faved than the name of Jefus Chrift (l);
and by their gifts of healing and of miracles, &c. they were
enabled to prove unanfwerably that their dodrines were
divine. They .taught everywhere the unity of God, the
creation of the world, the fall of man, the necefiity of re¬
demption, the divinity of the Redeemer, his facrifice on the
crofs to reftore mankind to their forfeited immortality, and
the terms of the new covenant into which they had through
him been gracioufly admitted by God.
Such a view as our limits would admit of we have given
of all thefe dodrines, except that which refpeds the terms
of the gofpel covenant ; but thefc being explicitly ftated
only by St Paul and St James, we could not till now inve-
ftigate them, without violating the hiftorual order into
which, for the fake of perfpicuity, we have digefted the fc-
veral parts of this flrort fyftem. Our Saviour himfelf has
indeed taught with great plainnefs the neceflity of faith and
baptifm
(l) It is not perhaps eafy to determine what is here meant by the word of wisdom and the word of knowledge,
as diftinguiihed from each other. By the former (xoyof o-opiacf bifhop Warburton underftands all the great principles of
natural religion. “ i’he ancients (fays he) ufed the word o-^ia ln this peculiar fenfe ; it is ufed in the fame feme by
St Paul in Col. iv. 5. ; and we can hardly give it any other in the place before us, where we fee the word of wifdom
diilinguifhed from the word of knowledge (*»>/®s- yvaa-mtif which evidently means all the great principles of revelation ;
the term yvanc being as peculiarly applied by Chr iflian writers to revealed religion as is by the Gentiles to the natu¬
ral. St Paul ufes the word in this fenfe in 2 Cor. xi. 6. where he fays, to *«< iSiuim tv \t>yy o-j t« ywa-u j and St
Peter in his firft epiftle, chap. iii. verfe 7. Hence thole early heretics, who fo much deformed the fimplicity and purity
o‘ the Chriiliau faith by vifionary pretences to fuperior knowledge of revelation, took from this word the name of
Gnoj-tios. See tl/aixurton s Sermon oh the Office and Operation of the Holy Ghojl.
ftian.
t St
Afetfh, v.
ao. vii. a i,
-24.
Part II. T H E O
Thto.'ogy, baptifm to the falvstion of thofe who have an opportunity
more I«cu-0f‘heatiiyr the gofpel preached with power (fee Bap-
lurly Chn T1SM) . aRlj ^ his fermon on the mount, which is fuch a
ledture ethics founded on religion as the Son of God on¬
ly could have delivered, we learn, that “ unkfs our righte-
oufnefs /hall exceed the righteoufnefs of the vScribes and
Pharifees, we /hall in no cafe enter into the kingdom of
heaven ; that not every one who faith unto Chrift, Lord,
Lord, /hall enter into the kingdom of heaven, but he who
doth the will of hie Father who is in heaven ; and that ma¬
ny will fay to him at the day of judgment, Lord, Lord, have
v'e not prophefied in thy name ? and in thy name done ma¬
ny wonderful works ?” which could not be done without
faith ; “ to whom he will, notvvithftanding, fay, Depart from
me, ye that work iniquity j;.” St Paul, however, feems to
attribute our juftification to the bare act of believing; for he
repeatedly affures us, “ that a man is ju/lified by faith with¬
out the deeds of the law while St James, on the other
hand, affirms, “ tliat by works a man is juftihed, and not by
faith onJy.,,
This apparent difference in the language of the two
spoilleg, for we hope to fhow that it is only apparent, has
produced among divines opinions really different refpedting
the juftification of Chriftians ; and the principal of theie
opinions it is our duty to ftate. But previous .to this, it
will be neceffary to afeertain the meaning of the word
Jication ; for we are lorry to fay, that for want of accurate
defnitioos, many theological controveriies are nothing bet¬
ter than empty logomachies; and perhaps againft no contro-
verfy can this charge be brought with greater truth than
againft that which, in the end of the laft century and in the
beginning of the prefent, was fo violently agitated concern¬
ing the caufts, the irjlrumcnts, and the conchilons, of juftifica¬
tion .
Between per den of fin and jvfiijlcatwn there is fo clofe a
of juilifica- connedtion, that many writers feem to conuder the terms as
fynonymous, and to infer, that lie who is pardoned is ipfo
jatto juftified. That every ChriSian, who /hall be pardoned
at the judgment of the great day, wall likewife be juftified,
is indeed true ; but in oiopriety ot fpeech, jujhjication is a
word of very different import from pardon, and will entitle
the Chriftian to what mere pardon could not lead him to
expedt. An innocent perfon, when falfely accufed and ac¬
quitted, is jlifttfied hut wot pardoned ; and a criminal may be
pardoned, though he cannot be jujlrfied or declared innocent.
A man whofe fins are pardoned is free from puniftiment;
but the juftified Chriftian is entitled to everlafting life, hap-
pinefs, and glory. If we were only pardoned through
Chrift, we fhould indeed efcape the pains of hell, but could
have no claim to the enjoyments of heaven ; for thefe, being
more than the moft perfedf human virtue can merit, mult
be, what in the Scriptures they are always faid to be, “ the
gift of God through Jefus Chrift our Lord.5” Hence it
is that St Paul, diftingui/hing, as wre have done upon his au¬
thority, between mere remiffion of fins and juftification of
t Romans fife, declares J, that “ jefus our Lord was delivered for our
1V’ 25' tjfenies, and raifed again for our jujlijicaUond’
The word juftification, as ufed both by St Paul and St
James, has been very generally coniidered as a forenfic term
expreffing the fentence of a judge. The moft eminent te-
* Vim- formed divines of 5II denominations *, and even many of the
torch, Butl, Romanifts themfelves, have ftrenuou/ly contended, that this
tfVWrln ^ *ts £eau*ne fenfe, when it is diftingui/hed from mere re-
Bcveridpe, ’ miffi°n of bus, regeneration, and ian&iiication ; and if fo,
it will fignify God’s pronouncing a perfon jujl, either as be¬
ing perfe&ly blamelefs, or as having fulfilled certain condi¬
tions required ot him in the Chriftian covenant. But that
14 there is not a juft man upon earth, who doth good and
204
Meamnor
rida,
Yitringi,
Gill, <5cc.
LOGY. 485
finneth not,” is made known to ns by the moft complete Theology,
evidence poffible, the joint di&ates of our own confidences
and of divine revelation ; and therefore whofoever is pro- ft;an.
nounced juft by the Judge of all the earth, muft be fo, ei- ——y—
ther becaufe, though not abfolutely blamelefs, he has per¬
formed the conditions required of him in the covenant of
grace, or becaufe Chrift has fulfilled all righteoufnefs in his
Head. aoy
If this be the Script ure notion of juftification, it muft be It is a fo*
wholly the aft of God, and cannot be the effeft either ofren('lc
©nr faith or of our virtue. Accordingly, wre are faid by
the apoftle to be juftified freely by his grace through the
redemption that is in Jefus Chrift ; whom God hath fet forth
to be a propitiation through faith in his blood j% The aft t Rom. iii,
of juftification therefore proceeds from the divine phikn-*4»
thropy, and cannot be performed by the inftrumentality of
faith ; for it is not God, but man, who believes; and man is
not the juftifier of himfelf. To talk of any kind of injlru-
merit of juftification befides the propitiation fet forth by
Go 1, is indeed to make ufe of very improper language :
“ Omnis caufa inftrumentaiis (fays Bifhop Bull jl), fuo mo- / Harmonia
do in effeftum influit, eique effefti produftio proprie attri- eipofdica^
bui poteft Jam vero, cum juftificatio nihil aliud fit quamca^' u' ^
gratiofus Dei aftus, quo peccata noftra nobis condonet, ac
nos ad falutem acceptet, valde abfurdutn effet diccre, vel fi-
dem, vel opera noftra, vel quidvis aliud noftri aut remittere
peccata noftra, ant perfonas noftras acceptare : quod tamen,
ii inftmmentalis caufa juftificationis fides fit, plane dicendum
effet.”
In this fentiment of the illuftrious Bifhop of St David’s,
fome of the moft eminent divines both among the Calvinifta
and Arminiaus agree ; and indeed it is not eafy to be con¬
ceived how any man can entertain a different fentiment,
when con/idering Juftification in its proper fenfe. Many,
however, have chofen to treat of juftification not only in the
aftive fenfe, as it is the aft of God, for all admit that it is
he who juftifies j but likewife in a paffive fenfe, as it means
our privilege-<n~ poffejfion hoi den of him, when we are faid to
be juftified by his grace. In this view of the fubjeft they
may talk, with fufficient propriety, of an inftrument of ju¬
ftification, not as the mean by which it is conveyed, but as
the medium through which it is received by the true Chri¬
ftian. And hence it follows, that the Doftors Waterland and
Wavburton, of whom the former was not a thorough Cal-
vinift, and the latter was a profeffed Arminian, flrenuoufly
maintain the doftrine of the Weftminfter Confefiion, that.
“ faith receiving and refting on Chrift is the alone inftru¬
ment of juftification ; though it cannot be alone in the per¬
fon juftified, but muft ever be accompanied with all other
faring graces, and be a faith which worketh by love.”
But notwithftanding this agreement between the leaders
of the rival fefts, they have found abundant matter of con-
troverfy refpefting faith and works, in deciding the great
queftion, “ Whether, when God juftifies man, he cor.fidero
him as abfolutely righteous on account of Chrift’s righte¬
oufnefs performed in his ftead; or only as juft, becaute he
has fulfilled the conditions of the covenant of grace, which
does not require of him perfeft righteoufnefsf” The former
is the doftrine of the more rigid Calvinifts, the latter that of
the Arminians or Remonftrants.
“ A notion (fays Dr Gill J) obtained fome yestvs ago,./ Body of
that a relaxation of the law and the feverities of it has been Divinityt
obtained by Chrift; and a new law, a remedial law, a law of^y1'.
milder terms, been introduced by him, which is the gofpel; L^
the terms of which are, faith, repentance, and new obedi-^ 5,
ence ; and though thefe be imperfect, yet, being fincere, they
are accepted by God in the room of a perfeft nghteoufnefs.
But every article of this fcheme (continues he) is wrong;
^ for.'
2C6
Doitrine
cf the Cal.
vinifls i e-
fpedlmg
$ See Ills
Private
The
t h e o
Theology, for the law 13 not relaxed, nor any of its feveritles abated ;
iTariy Chri-phrift came not to deftroy> but to fulfil it ; and therefore
Ilian/ 'it; squires the fame holy, juft, and good things, as ever.
1  _ Nor is the gofpel a new law. There is nothing in it (he
lays) which looks like a law ; for it has no commands in it,
but all p’-omifes, being a pure declaration of grace and fal-
vation by Chrift ; nor are faith, repentance, and new obe¬
dience, required by it as conditions of man's acceotance
with God. Faith and repentance are gefpel dodtrines, and
parts of the golpel miniftry ; they are graces, and not terms
required to be performed by men of themfelves. Faith is
the gift of God, and repentance is a grant from him. It is
not true (continues our author) that God will accept of an
imperfedl righteoufnefs in the room oi a perfedLone ; nor
can any thing more highly refleft upon the juftice and
truth of God, who is the judge of all the earth, than to
fuppofe that he can ever account that as a righteoufnefs
which is not one.”
Flaviqg thus proved by arguments which were almoft
in the fame words ftated long before by Biftiop Beveridge J,
Thoughts of t^at t^ie £°fPel is no relaxation of the law, he proceeds to
Religion. down his own notions of junification, of which (he fays)
the foie matter, or that for the fake of which a finner is
juftified before God, is the righteoufnefs of Chrift—that
which he did and fuffered on earth, in our nature, in our
ftead, and as our reprefentative. This is commonly called
his aeftive and paflive obedience ; and when the purity and
holinefs of his own nature was added to it, the whole
made up the too the righteoufnefs of the law,
which was fulfilled by him as the head and reprefentative of
his people * ; for whatever the law required is neceffary to a
finner’s juftification before God, and it required of linners
more than it did of man in innocence. Man was created
with a pure and holy nature, conformable to the pure and
holy law of God; and it was incumbent on him to continue
fo, and to yield in it perfeft and finlefs obedience; in the fai¬
lure whereof he was threatened with death. Man did fail;
by which his nature was vitiated and corrupted, and his obe¬
dience became faulty and imperfeft. He therefore became
liable to the penalty of the law, and ftill perfeft obedience
was required of him. To the juftification of a finner there¬
fore is required the moft complete obedience, aftive and paf-
five ; or, in other words, purity of nature, perfect obedi-
encef and the fufterings of death ; all which meet in Chrift,
the reprefentative of his people, in whom they are juftified.
1 here are indeed fome divines (continues our author) who
exclude the adtive obedience of Chrift from being any part
of the righteoulnefs by which men are juftified. They al¬
low it to have been a condition requifite in him as a Media¬
tor, qualifying him for his office ; but deny that it is the
matter of juftification, or reckoned for righteoulnefs to
man. But without the atftive obedience of Chrift the law
would not be fatisfied ; the language of which is, Do anti
live; and unlels its precepts be obeyed, as well as its pe¬
nalty endured, it cannot be fatisfied; and unlefs it be fatis¬
fied, there can be no juftification. if therefore men are ju¬
ftified by the righteouinefs of Chrift, it muft be by his ac¬
tive obedience imputed and made over to them, fo as to be¬
come theii s, even as L) v d deferibeth the bleffednefs of the
* Rom iv. man unl° whom God impute*h righteoufnefs 'without ‘worki *
*7 Krat thic ic    *  i ' 1 • n • r» i
# Rom.
sriii. 4.
a.
.that this is really the way in which men are juftified, our
author thinks evident, becaufe they muft be juftilied eiiher
by an inherent or by an imputed righteoufnefs; but they
cannot H juftified by their own inherent righteoufnefs, for
that is impertedf, and therefore not jufti ying. Hence the
apoftle ‘ counts all things but dung, that he may win Chrift
.and be lound in him ; not ^having his own righteouinefs,
V/hick is of the law, but that which is through the faith of
L ° GY.
Chrtji, the righteoufnefs which is of God by Faith §f But Theology
by luch a righteoufnefs as this a man cannot be juftified in more p, cu'
any other way than by an imputation or it to him. Whence1*3 Jhri-
it follows, that as by one man’s tiifobedience many 'were made ^ ,
finners by imputation, fo by the obedience of one fh dl many Philip
made righteous, by having that obedience placed to their ac-11*1 81 9.
count.”
As this author properly confiders juftification as the aft
of God, he does not approve of the language in which faith
is called the inftrument either of conferring or receivingr it.
“ baith (fays he*) is merely the evidence of juftification* .
to the perfon juftified; for ‘ faith is the evidence of things/)/Wy,
not feen.’ The righteoufnefs of God, of the God manvo1-'-
and Mediator Jefus Chrift, is revealed from faith to faith in^"0^"’
the everlafting golpel j; ; and therefore muft be before it isf gora ^
revealed, and before the faith to which it is revealed. Faith 17.
is that grace whereby a loul, having feen its guilt and its
want of righteoulnefs, beholds in the light of the Divine
Spirit a complete righteoufnefs in Chrift, renounces its
own, lays hold on that, puts it on as a garment, rejoices in
it, and glories of it ; the Spirit of God witneffing to his fpi-
rit that he is a juftified perfon : and lo he is evidently and
declaratively ‘ juftified in the name of the Lord Jefus, and
by the Spirit of our Godf’. Faith adds nothing to thef iCor.vi;
effe, only to the bene ejfe of juftification; which is a complete n.
abl 111 the eternal mind of God, without the being or con-
fideration of faith, or any forefight of it. In the account
ot God, a man is as much juftified before his faith as after
it; and after he does believe, his juftification depends not
on his adts of faith, for though vue believe not, yet God abides
faithful to his covenant-engagements with his Son, by whofe
furetyfhip-righteoufnefs the ele& are juftified ; but by faith
men have a comfortable fenfe, perception, and apprehenfion,
of their juftification, and enjoy that peace of foul which re-
fults from it. It is by that only, under the teftimony of the
Divine Spirit, that they know their intereft in it, and can
claim it, and io have the comfort of.it.”
'I hough this language differs from that of the Weftmin-
fter Confeffion, the author feems not to teach a different
dettrine ; for if faith be that grace by which a foul re¬
nounces its own righteoufnefs, and lays hold of Chrift’s,
which it puts on as a garment, it muft be that very thing
which the compilers of the Confeffion meant by their defini¬
tion of faith receiving and refting on Chnft and his righte-
oufneis, when they called it “ the alone inflrument of jufti¬
fication.” Accordingly our author elfewhere * teaches,*
that “ true faith in lenlible linners affents to Chrift and em- Praffical
braces him, not merely as a Saviour of man in general, but bhvimty,
as a fpecial irritable Saviour for them in particular. It pro-
ceeds upon Chrift’s being revealed in them aswellas^/ ^
them, by the fpirit of wifdom and revelation, in the know¬
ledge ot him as a Saviour that becomes them. It comes
not merely through external teachings by the hearing of the
word from men ; for no man, faith our bleffed Lord, can
come to me except the Father draw him ; but fuch fouls as
are thus drawn, having heard and learned of the Father, be¬
lieve not only in the dofdrine of Chrift, but alio in himfelf
trufting in him alone for everlafting life and falvation.” ^
Were it not that this author, in every thing that he And oftfis
writes, has an eye to the dodtrine of election and repi oba- nrort mo¬
tion, which he lerews up to a greater height than aln od dfT6 Ar*
any other divine with whole works we are acquainted, jie n-lilians‘
would differ little in his notions ot juftification from the
more moderate Arminians. “ Juftification (lays Limboich)
is the merciful and gracious act of God, whereby he hilly
ablolves !rom all guilt the truly penitent and believing ioul,
through and for the lake of Chrift apprehended by a true
faith ; or gratuitoufly remits fins upon the account of taith
in
T5 ^ IT 1 ri -EL. u
Thcolo-y, in Tefas Cbrlft, and gracioufly imputes that faith for ngh-
more P cu- teoufnefs.” Here indeed the imputation of Chnft’s righ-
liarly Chn teoufnefs ;s exprefsly denied ; but our countryman Dr VV a-
terland, who can hardly be confidered as a Calvinift, feems
" to contend for the imputation of that righteoufneis to the
firmer, as well as for faith being the inftiument by which it
is received. _ .
* Summary “ It cannot be for nothing (fays that able writer ■' ) that
View of gt paul [0 often and fo emphatically fpeaks of man’s being
JuJlifca- by fa;lbj or through faith in Chriil’s blood ; and
tm’ that he particularly notes it of Abraham, that he believed,
and that his faith was counted to him for jollification, when
he might as eafily have faid that Abraham, to whom the
gofpel was preached, was juftified by gofpel-faith and obe¬
dience, had he thought faith and obedience equally inltru-
ments of juftification. Befides, it is on all hands allowed,
that though St Paul did not dire&ly oppofe faith to evan-
208 gelical works, yet he comprehended the works of the moral
Faith the under thole which he excluded from the office oljujli-
inftrunient jylng^ in his fenfe of the word jollification. He even ufed inch
**Jt’ arguments as extended to all kinds of works* for Abraham’s
works wereexcluded, tho’ they were undoubtedly evangelical.
To prove that he interprets the apoltle's doflrine fairly,
our author quotes, Irom the genuine epillle of Clemens of
Rome, a palfage, in which it appears beyond a doubt
that this fellow-labourer of St Paul fo underilood the doc¬
trine of jultlfying faith as to oppofe it even to evangelical
works, however exalted. It is true (continues our author),
Clemens elfewhere, and St Paul almoll everywhere, infills
upon true holinefs of heart and obedience of life as indii'pen-
fable conditions of falvation or juftification ; and of that, one
would think, there could be no qucllion among men of any
judgment or probity. But the queltion aoout conditions is
very dillindl from the other queftion about inllruments ; and
therefore both parts may be true, viz. that faith and obedi¬
ence are equally conditions, and equally indilpenfable where
opportunities permit ; and yet faith over and above is em¬
phatically the inllrument both of receiving and holding ju-
ftification, or a title to falvation.
“ To explain this matter more diftinftly, let it be re¬
membered, that God may be confidered either as a party
contracting with man on very gracious terms, or as a Judge
to pronounce fentence on him. Man can enter into the co¬
venant, fuppofing him achilt, only by a {Tenting to it, and ac¬
cepting it, to have and to hold it on fuch kind of tenure as
God propofes : that is to fay, upon a lelf-denying tenure,
confidering himfelf as a guilty man Handing in need of par¬
don, and of borrowed merits, and at length refting upon
mercy. So here, the previous qutllion is, Whether a per-
fon fhail confent to hold a privilege upon this fubmiffive kind
of tenure or not ? Such alfent or confent, if he comes into
it, is the very thing which St Paul and St Clemens call
faith. And this previous and general quellion is the que-
ffion which both of them determine againll any proud clai¬
mants who • ould hold by a more felf-admiring tenure.
“ Or if we next confider God as fitting in judgment, and
man before the tribunal going to plead his caufe ; here the
quellion is, What kind of plea lhall a man refolve to trull
his falvation upon ? Shall he Hand upon his innocence, and
reft upon ItriCl lavv-f or lhall he plead guilty, and reft in an
aft of grace i If he choofes the former, he is proud, and fare
to be call : if he choofes the latter, he is fafe lo far in
throwing himfelf upon an aft of grace. Now this queftion
alfo, which St Paul has decided, is previous to the queftion,
What conditions even the aft of grace itfelf finally infills
upon ? A queftion which St James in particular, and the ge¬
neral tenure of the whole Scripture, has abundantly fatisfi-
ed; and which could never have been made a queftion by
LOG Y. 487
any conf-derate or impartial Chriilian. None of onr works
are good enough to lland by themfelves before him who 13,;ariy chri-
of purer eyes than to behold iniquity. Chrift only is pure ftian.
enough for it at firft hand, and they that are Chritl’s at fe- 1—
cond hand in and through him. Now becaufe it is^by
faith that we thus interpofe, as it were, Chrift between God
and us, in order to gain acceptance by him ; therefore faith
is emohatically the inllrument whereby we receive the grant
of juftification. Obedience is equally a condition or quali¬
fication, but not an inftrument, not being that aft of the
mind whereby we look up to God and Chnil, and whereby
we embrace the promifeS/, . l09
But though our author contends that faith is the inftm-J
ment of juftification, he does not, like the Antinomians,.^
teach that it will fave men without works. <£ the covenant
oi grace (fays he) has conditions annexed to it of great im¬
portance, lor without them no inllruments can avail, dhefe
are faith and obedience, as St James Hath particularly main¬
tained. St Paul had before determined the general and
previous queftion refpefting the plea by which we ought to
abide ; and when fome libertines, as is probable, had per¬
verted his doftrine of faith and grace, St James {bowed
that the very faith which refts in a covenant of grace im¬
plies a cordial fubmiffion to the conditions of that cove¬
nant, otherwife it would be nothing but an empty ceremo¬
ny. The perfeft agreement between St Paul and St James
in the article of jujlijication, appears very clear and certain.
St Paul declares, that in order to come at juftification, it is
neceffary to Hand upon grace, not upon merit; which St
James does not deny, but rather confirms, in what he fays
of the perfeft; law of liberty (James i. 29. ii. 12). St Paul
makes faith the inftrument of receiving that grace ; which
St James does not difpute, but approves by what he fays cf
Abraham (ii. 23.); only he maintains alfo, that, in the con-
ditionate fenfe, juftification depends equally upon faith and
good works ; which St Paul alfo teaches and inculcates in
efteft, or, in other words, through all his writings. If St
Paul had had precifely the fame queftion before him which St
James happened to have, he would have decided juft as St
James did ; and if St James had had precifely the fame que¬
ftion before him which St Paul had, lie would have deter¬
mined juft as St Paul did. Their principles were exaftly
the fame, but the queftions were diverte ; and they had dif¬
ferent adverfaries to deal with, and oppofite extremes to en¬
counter, which is a common cale.
“It may be noted, that that faith which is here called a
condition, is of much wider compafs than that particular kind
of faith which is precifely the inftrument or juftification*
For faith as a condition means the whole complex of Chri-
ftian belief, as exprefled in the creeds ; while faith as an in*
ftrument means only the laying hold on grace, and refting
in Chrift’s merits in oppohtion to our own defervings r
though this alfo, if it is a vital and operative principle (and
if it is not, it is nothing worth), mull of courfe draw after
it an. hearty fubmilhon to, and obfervance o , all the neceffa-
ry conditions of that covenant of grace wherein we repofe
our whole trull and confidence. So that St Paul might well
fay, “Do we then make void the law (the moral law)
through faith ? God forbid : Yea, we cftablilh the law Rom. 12;
We exempt no man from religious duties; which are duties d*
Hill, though they do not merit nor are prafticable to fuch
a degree as to be above the need of pardon : they are ne~
cefiary conditions in their meafure of Jullification, though
not fufiicient in thernfelves to juftify, nor perfeft enough to
Hand before God or to abide trial: therefore Chrift’s merits-
mull be taken in to fupply their defefts : and fo our refting
in Chrift’s atonement by an humble fcl -denying iaith is
our laid refort, our anchor of falvation both fare and fted^
1 fail,.
488 ^ H E O
'J’heo'.o^y, faft, nftcr we have otherwlfe done our utmoft towards the
more pccu- fuiftiijng 0f God’s facred laws, towards the per.orming of
'^fHan. ^ a^l conditions required.
L»».. v~... i “ That good works, internal and external, are according as
opportunities offer and circumftances permit, conditions pro¬
perly fo called, is clear from the whole tenor of Scrioture, as
hath been often and abundantly proved by our own divines
(m), and is admitted by the moft judicious among the fo¬
reign Reformed (n). Yet feme have been very fcrupulous
as to this innocent name, even while they allow’ the abfolute
neceffity of good works as indifpenfable qualifications for fu¬
ture bleffednefs. Why not conditions therefore as well as
qualifications ? Perhaps becaufe that name might appear to
ftrike at abfolute predeflination, or unconditional eledfion ;
and there may lie the fcruple: otherwife the difference ap¬
pears to lie rather in words than in things.
“ Some will have them called not conditions, but fruits or
confequents of junification. If they mean by juftification the
fame as the grace of the Holy Spirit, and the firlt erace 0f
faith fpringing from it, they fay true ; and then there is no¬
thing more in it than an improper ufe of the word jufifca-
tion, except that from abufe of words very frequently arifes
fome corruption of dodtrine. If they mean only, that out¬
ward adls of lighteoufnefs arc fruits of inward habits or dil-
pofitions; that alfo is undoubtedly true : but that is no rea-
fon why internal adls, virtues, graces (good wmrks of the
mind), (hould not be called conditions of juftification ; or
why the outward adls fhould not be juftly thought condi¬
tions of preferving it. But if they mean that juftification is
ordinarily given to adults, wnthout any preparative or pre¬
vious conditions of faith and repentance, that indeed is very
new doftrine and dangerous, and opens a wide door to car¬
nal fecurity and to all ungodlinefs.”
Such is the doiftrine of Chriftian juftification as it has been
taught by the followers of Calvin, and by fome of the moft
eminent Arminians who flourifhed in the end of the laft and
beginning of the prefent century. They appear not, from
this view of their opnions, to differ fo widely as fome of
them have wiftred the wmrld to believe. Ic is evident that
Hr Waterland, though he rejefts fome of the diftinguifhing
aio tenets of Calvinifm, lays greater ftrefs upon faith in his
Obje<5tions fcheme of juftification than Hr Gill himfelf; and that they
i>f the both confider it as the injlrument by which the adult Chri-
louTAr- ^ian mL’^' receive the imputed righteoufnefs of Chrift. The
minians to greater part of modern Arminians, however, exclaim againft
this flate the imputation of Chrift’s righteoufnefs, as a doctrine falfe in
^e^.°^theitfclf, and fraught with the moft pernicious confequences ;
"" :U‘(" and they would be ready to tell Hr Gill, in his own words,
that of his fcheme every article is wrong. It is not true
(fay they) that God exaftsot man, orever didexaft of him,
an obedience abfolutely perfeil ; for under every difpenfa-
tion man was in a ftate of difcipline. and had habits of vir¬
tue and piety to acquire; and it is probable that his pro-
grels in piety, virtue, and wifdom, will continue for ever, as
none but God is perfeft and ftationary, and incapable of de¬
viating from the line of redlitude. Moft; of them, after Bi-
fhop Bull, diflike the ufe of fuch unfcriptural phrafes as t/>e
injlrument ofjujificotwn, applied either to faith or to works ;
and think, that by confidering God as the foie juftifier of
man, upon certain conditions, they can more precifely afcer-
tain the diftindt provinces of faith and obedience in the
fcheme of juftification, thafi either their brethren of the old
fchool of Arminius, or their rivals of the Ichool of Calvin.
LOG Y. j.anlr
By the _ very conftttution of man, piety and virtue are Theolor,
duties which, it he do not fmcerely perform, he muft ofrnore ffcu.
courfe forfeit the favour of his Maker j but the moft per.liaiIft'. Chfi-
fe& performance of his natural duties would not entitle him
to a fupernatural and eternal reward. Eternal life is the TiT^
gift of God through Jefus Chrift ; and itisfurely reafonableTheir<"vn
that we firould acknowledge it to be fo, and not claim it asftfa.emerit
a debt due to our merits. The pious and virtuous man has^’
a natural claim to more happinefs than mifery during the
period of his exiftence, a claim founded on the attributes of
that God who called him into being ; but he has no natural
claim to a future life, and ftill lefs to a perpetuity of exift¬
ence. This is a truth not more clearly taught in the holy
fcripture than confonant to the foundeft philofophy : and
yet, by not attending to it, have St Paul and St James been
fet at variance, and the moft oppofite do&rines taught re-
fpefting the juftification of Chriltians.
Becaufe faith in Chrift cannot entitle a wicked man to
eternal happinefs, one clafs of divines feera to infer that fuch
faith is not neceffary to Chvi&hn jufljication, and that “ his
faith cannot be wrong whcfe life is in the right.” They
proceed upon the fuppofition. that man is natundly immor¬
tal ; that piety and virtue are entitled to reward ; and that
therefore the pious and virtuous man whatever be his be-
lief, muft undoubtedly inherit an eternal reward. But this
is very fallacious freafoning. That piety and virtue are
through the divine juftice and benevolence entitled to re¬
ward, is indeed a truth incontrovertible ; but that man who
is of yefterday is naturally immortal; that a being who be¬
gan to exift by the mere good will of his Maker, has in him-
feli a principle of perpetual exiftence independent of that
will—is a diredf contradiiftion. Whatever began to be, can
be continued in being only by the power, and according to
the pleafure, of the infinite Creator ; but it pleafed the
Creator of his free grace at firft to promiie mankind eternal
life, on the fingle condition of their firft father’s obferving
one pofitive precept. That precept was violated, and thfe
free gift loft: but the covenant was renewed in Chrift, who
“ by his death hath aboliftied death, and by his refurreftion
hath brought to light life and immortality.” The condi- 3Ij
tion annexed to the gift thus reflored was faith ; for “ being Faid> the
juftified by faith §, we have peace with God through our^? “ft'
Herd Jefus Chrift; by whom alfo we have accefs by faithih”miH.
into this grace wherein we (land, and rejoice in the hope of cation pe-
the Glory of God.’1 Faith therefore in the Son of Godcu*'ar'.!r
and Saviour of the world, is not only a condition, but the /c»/rChriftia"i
condition, of that juftification which is peculiarly Chriftian ; j ^om'T'
for fince Chrift, without any co operation of ours, Irfth
purchafed for us the free gift of eternal life, we fhall be
guilty of the groffeft ingratitude to our Hivine Benefatfor,
and impioufly claim an independer.ee on God, if we look
upon that gift either as a right inherent in our nature, or as
a debt due to our meritorious deeds. nj
But though faith be the condition of Chriftian juftifica-^ut ot
tion, as that implies the inheritance of eternal hj’, there are °t
other conditions to be performed before a man can be put inhappinefi.
peffeftion of eternalfeluity, By a law long prior to the pro¬
mulgation of the gofpel—a law interwoven with our very
being—no man can enjoy the favour of his Maker, who
does not make it his conitant endeavour “ to do juftly, to
love mercy, and to walk humbly with his God.” This law
was in force before man fell; it continues to be in force now
that he is redeemed ; and it will not be abrogated even at
that
(m) Bull. Op. Latin, p. 412, 414, 415, 430, 434, 514, ?|6, 544, 383, 645, 668. Edit.ult.—Stillingfleet’s Works,
'O - HI. p. 3^7, 393> — Fillotfon’s Pofthumous Sermons, vol. II. p. 484,48*7.
{n) Voflius de Bonis Operilus, Thef. x. p. 370.—Op. tom, VI. End. bpanbem.Jil. Op. tom. III. p. 141, 139,
214
The dif¬
ferent con
■diti'^of
divine fa-
Part IT. T II E O
Vheolofry, tj!3t period when £uth fcaU give place to vifion, and hope
jiwie re^ to enjoyment. By the grace of the Chriftian covenant, all
lwr^v.^,iin‘mankind are rendered immortal in confsquence of the deatli
and refur reel ion ofChrift, who is the Lamb {lain, in the di¬
vine decree, from the foundation oi the world ; but to ob¬
tain immortal happinefs, they mult oblerve the conditions
both of natural and of reverded religion, which are repen¬
tance from dead works, and faith in Chrift the Redeemer,
jyour and of The former is that condition upon which alone we can re-
etcruailife ^ain the Divine favour, and of courle enjoy either pre¬
sent or future hapoinefs; the latter is a moll equitable ac¬
knowledgment required of us, that perpetual confcious
exillence is neither a right inherent in our nature, nor a
debt due to our virtuous obedience, but merely the gift of
God through Jeius Chrift our Lord.
“ To make the diftinft provinces of faith and works in
the bufinefs of juftific?tion clear, let us fuppofe (faysbifhop
Warburton j-), that, at the publication of the gofpel, all to
itidTix^' wh°m the glad tidings of immortality were offered on the
chap. 3. condition of faith in Jefus had been moral or virtuous men,
and on that account entitle* (as natural religion teacheth)
to the favour of God and an abundant reward ; is it not
felf-evident, that faith alone, exclulive of the condition
of good works, would, in that cafe, have been the very
Illuftrated thing which jujlijied or entitled them to life everlajiing ?
by a fami- But are good works, therefore, of no ufe in the Chriftian
Jiareua*- fyftem ? So far from it, that thofe only who ferve God in
f'e’ fincerity and in truth are capable of the juftification which
faith alone embraces; for, to iiluftrate this matter by a fa¬
miliar inftance, fuppofe a Britifh monarch to bellow, in free
sift, a certain portion of his own domains, to which immor¬
tality may well be compared, upon fuch of his fubjefts as
fhould perform a certain fervice to which they were not
obliged by the laws of the kingdom ; it is evident that the
performance of this lall fervice only would be the thing
which entitled them to the tree gift. Yet it is obvious that
obedience to the laws, which gave them a claim to protec¬
tion as fubjedls, in the enjoyment of their own propep.ty
(to which the reward offered by natural religion may be
compared), would be a previous and neceffary qualification
to their enjoyment of their new poffdlion ; fmee it is abfurd
to fuppofe that fnch z. gift could be intended for rebels and
traitors, or indeed for any but good and faithful fervants of
their king and country.,, Well therefore might the apollle
reprove the ignorance or licentioufnefs of certain or his con¬
verts at Rome, in his queftion—“Do we then make void
the law through faith ? God forbid! yea, we establish
the law obedience to it being the previous qualilicalien
of all who are entitled to the fruits oi juttifying faith—life
and immortality.
Had proper attention been paid to this diftinftion, which
St Paul everywhere makes between Inch duties as are com¬
mon to all religions that are true, and thole which are pe¬
culiar to the Chriftian revelation, many ufelefs controverfies
might have been avoided refpefting the inftrument of julti-
fication and the conditions of the Chriftian covenant. By
not attending to it, the divines of one fchool, who perceive
that the mere belief of any truth whatever cannot entitle a
man to eternal felicity, have almqft dropt faith from their
fyftem of Chriltianity, and taught moral duties like Pagan
philolophers ; whilll another party, who err almoft asTar in
their interpretations of feripture, finding eternal life repre-
. fenced as the gift of God, and faith in Chrift as the inftru-
ment or means by which that gift mull be accepted, have
oura (,» expunged from their fyftem the neceffity of good works,
ChritHani- *orSett‘n2 Rrely that wicked believers, like believing devils,
ty. may be doomed to an eternity'nf torments. But the fum
of Chriftianity, as we are taught by the beloved dilcipie, is
You XVIII. Part II. ~
tib
Sum of
LOGY. 48;)
comprehended in this one commandment of God, “ that we TheoLgi,
fiiould believe on the name of his Son Jefus Chrift, and love^j^
one another as he gave us commandment.” Inperftdl har-’‘
mony with him, the great apollle of the Gentiles, from —y—-J
whofe miftaken words much empty noile has been raifed
about this queftion, affures us $, that “ in Chrift Jefus no § Oal. v. 6.
thing can avail to our eternal happinefs but faith which
worketh by love and he informs Titus |j, that it “ isU hi- 8.
a true faying, and what he wills to be conftantly affirmed,
that theyr who have believed in God be careful to maintain
good works.”
Indeed no man can have complete faith in Chrift, who
believes not the promifes of the gofpel; but all thole pro¬
miles, except the fingle one of a refurredtion from the dead
to perpetual confcious exift.ence, are made to us upon the ex-
prefs condition that we obey the law of the golpd ; “ for
God will render to every man according to his deeds : to
them that are contentious and do not obey the truth, but
obey unrighteoufnefs, indignation and wiath ; tribulation
and anguilh upon every foul of man that doth evil, of the
Jew firft and alfo of the Gentile ; but glory, honour, and
peace to every man that worketh good, to the Jew firit and
alfo to the Gentile *.” * Rom.
Such are the notions of juftification entertained by thofe 8, 9.
who in the prefent age have been confidered as the leaders ff Warbur-
of the le£t of Arminians. How far they are juft, the reader/o* and
mull decide for himfelf, as our bufinefs is little more than &c,
to coiled; into one point of view the fcattered opinions of
others ; but under every view of this doctrine which we
have taken, the Chriftian covenant appears much more gra¬
cious than that into which Adam was admitted in paradife ;
fince it affords room for repentance, even to that man, who
may be fo unhappy as to be withdrawn for a time into
apollacy from the terms of the covenant. Whether the,
death of Chrift therefore was a direft atonement for the cove_
a&ual fins of men, or only operated as fuch indiretlly by pro-nant more
curing for them repeated opportunities of repentance, it is gracious
an undoubted truth, that “ if through the offence of onetlian .
many be dead, much more the grace of God, and the gift
by grace, which is by otre man, Jefus Chrift, hath abounded
unto many. And not as it was by one that finned, fo is the
gift: for the judgment was of one offence to condemnation,
but the free gift is of many offence to jvf.ification ||.” ij Rom. v.
'Thus gracioufly has the divine goodnefs difplayed itfelf 16,17.
in the reftoration of our loll inheritance. But it ftopt not
here. The fame bountiful Lord of life, for its further fe-
curity, imparts to every'- true believer the ftrength and light
of his holy ipirit to fupport taxth in working out our own
lalvation. Our blefled Saviour, “ who gave himfelf for us,
that he might redeem us rot onty from death, but likewife
from all iniquity, and purify to himlelf a peculiar people
zealous of-good works (J,” promifed, before he left this ^ Titus
world, to fend to his followers the Holy Ghoft or Comfor- i^.
ter to abide with them for ever, to guide them into all
truth, to bring all things to their remembrance whatfoever
he had faid unto them, and, as we learn from other paffages
of feripture, to “ work in them both to will and to do of
his good pleafure.” How amply this promife was fulfilled
to the apoftles, we have already feen ; but we are not to
fuppofe that it was reftri&ed to them. As man is defigned chriftians
for a fupernatural ftate in heaven, he Hands in need of fuper-fa. dtihed
natural dire&ion to guide him to that ftate. “ No rnanbythe
(lays our Saviour) can come to me except the Father draw <J‘10L who
him ; for as no man knoweth the things of a man fave the
ipint ot a man which is in him, even fo none knoweth the
things of God but the Spirit of God.” This omnifeient Spi¬
rit indeed “ fearcheth all things, yea even the deep things of
God,” and revealeth them to the fons oi men, to enlighten
3 their
2r7
' The Chri-
* Luke i.
70.and
a Peter i.
14.
+ Heb. iv.
1
490 T H E O
Theology,'their undarflanding* and purify their hearts. The grace which
more pecu-^e abroad is either external and general, or internal
iiarly Cr.ri-^^^ particular. The former has been extended to the
r 'L '^r!' vvhole church of God under the patriarchal, Mofaic, and
Chriftian difpenfations, in fueh a revelation of the divine
will as was lufficient to infl.rued men unto eternal life, whe¬
ther they had a clear view or not of that ftupendous plan
of redemption, by which the kingdom of heaven was open¬
ed to them after the forfeiture of the terrellrial paradife;
for there have been “ holy prophets ever fmee the world
began ; and prophecy came not at any time by the will of
man, but holy men of God fpake as they were moved by
the Holy Ghoft Hence it is that all feripture was
given by infpiration of God to teach us every thing which
it is neceflary for us to know and believe ; and the ferip-
s** ture is that work of the fpirit which is extended to the uni-
verfal church.
But the fame fpirit which thus generally reveals the objedd
of faith to the church, does likewife particularly illuminate
the minds of individual believers, working in them an affent
to that which is taught them from the written word.. It
f Adds xvi. was thus that “ the Lord opened the heart of Lydia +,
' that fhe attended to the things which were fpoken of Paul
it is thus that “ the word preached doth not profit if it be
not mixed with faith in them who hear it f ; and it u
*• .. thus that “God deals to every man the meafure of faith fj
U Rom. xu-£or « grace aj.e wc £ave(j through faith, which is not of
| Eph.ii. S.ourfelves; it is the gift of God£.” This illumination of
the Spirit was conveyed to the apoftles “ in a found from
heaven as of a ruihing mighty wind,” becaufe it was meant
to teftify to the world that they were chofen minifters of
the golpel; but the ordinary Chriftian receives it “ in the
ft ill fmall voice,” becaule it is conveyed to him only to
“ open his underftanding that he may underhand the fenp-
tures.”
Retjene- Another operation of the Spirit on the minds of believers
rates them, is that which in feripture is called Regeneration ; foi
“ according to his mercy God faveth us by the wafhing of
regeneration and renewing of the Holy Ghoft which he
fheds on us abundantly through Jefus Chrift our Lord.”
To thole who believe that we derive from Adam a corrupt¬
ed nature, this particular grace muft appear fo abfolutely
neceffary, that without it we could have no reliflr for heaven
or heavenly things. “ The natural man (we are told) re-
ceiveth not the things ot the fpirit of God ; for they are
foolifhnefs to him ; neither can he know them, becaufe they
are fpiritually difeerned.” Indeed whatever be the powers
of our moral faculties, when compared with thofe of our firft
father, it is fo long before they be completely developed, that
we ftrould infallibly be loft, if we were not blefled by a fu-
pernatural guide, when reafon is incapable of diredling our
conduit. Our paffions and appetites are in their full
ftrength before experience has furnilhed the mind with ma¬
terials, by means of which motives may be weighed ; and
therefore it would be impoflible, during the giddy period of
youth, to keep them in due fubjeition, or to prevent vicious
habits from being formed, were we not influenced by divine
grace. So true is it, that “ except a man be born again of
water and of the Holy Ghoft, he cannot enter into the king¬
dom of God.” This change in our diipofitions, from an
immoderate attachment to earth to a relifh for the things oi
heaven, is in fenpture called “ a renewing of our minds, a
new creation, a new man in oppofition to our natural dif-
pofition, which is ca.lled “ the old man, corrupted accord-
inT to the deceitful lufts.” The ancient fathers of the
f Cfarie church, as well as fome very eminent modern divines f, ge-
and iVa/rr-ncrally fpeak of baptifm as the inftrument in God’s hand of
man’6 regeaeration j and for the truth of their opinion they
* Titus i.
5*6.
LOGY. Partly
appeal to John iii. 3, 5, Ephef, v. 2$, 26. an;! 1 Cor. vi. iheoingy,
11. in which great ftrefs is certainly laid upon the wafhing
of water, as w’ell as upon fandlification by the word. (lian. *
A third office of the Holy Spirit is to lead, dire<5t, and —v—u
govern us through all the periods of our lives. > Without pao
fuch a leader and guide, the temptations with which we are
furrounded wrould certainly overcome us, and we fhould .
long before we arrive at the end of our journey. By theiife>
very conftitution of our nature we a^e fubjefted in fome de¬
gree to the influence of fenfe, of which the obje&s are pre-
fent, whilft the enjoyments of heaven are future, and feen, as
at a diftance, only by the eye ot faith ; but “ the law of the
Spirit or life, in Chrift Jefus, hath made us free from the
law of liu and death for God worketh in us both to will
and to do of his good pleafure ; and as many as are thus led
by the fpirit of God, they are the fons of God; and while
they walk in the Spit it, they do not fulfil the lufts of the
flefti.” Without the aid of the fame Spirit, we could not even
make our prayers acceptable ; for fince “ our confidence in
God is, that he hearcth us only when we aflc any thing ac¬
cording to lus will ; and fince we know not what we fhould
pray for as we ought, the Spirit itfelf maketh the interceflion
for us with groanings which cannot be uttered ^Rom.viiiJ
A fourth operation of the Holy Ghoft, as he is the fanc-jg,
tifier of Chriftians, is to join them to Chrift, and make
them members of that one body of which he is the head.
“ For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body f ; | j Cor.
and as the body is one and hath many members, and all thexii. 12,13,
members of that one body being many are one body, fo alfo
is Chrift.” “ Hereby we know that God abideth in us, Unites
by the Spirit which he hath given us;” and as, in the or
dinary courfe of his dealings with Chriftians, this Spirit is 1 ’
firft given in baptifm, fo is it continued to the faithful by
the inftrumentality of the Lord’s flipper. That ordinance
we have elfewhere (fee Supper of the Lord) proved to be a
federal rite ; and furely. no time can be fuppoled fo highly
fandtified for the reception of the graces of the Holy Spirit,
as that in which we renew our federal union with our Lord
and Matter in the communion of his body and blood.
It is likewife the office of the Holy Ghoft to give its art
earneft of our everlafting inheritance, to create in us a fenfe
of the paternal love of God, and thereby to affure us of the
adoption of fons. “ As many as are led by the Spirit of
God, they are the sons of God ; and becaufe we are ions,
God hath lent forth the fpirit of his Son into our hearts. For
we have not received the fpirit of bondage again to fear ;
but we have received the Spirit of adoption, whereby we
cry Abba Father ; the Spirit itielf bearing witnefs with our
fpirit, that wc are the children of God J.” j ^
As the gifts of grace are generally annexed to means, toRom vj;j,
the proper ufe of the word and facraments, it is a fixth of-15,16.
fice of the fame Spirit to fan&ify fuch per tons as arc regu¬
larly fet apart for the wotk of the miniftry, and ordained
to offer up the public prayers of the people ; to blefs them ^
in the name of God ; to teach the do&rines of the golpcl; AncifanAil
to adminifter the facraments inflituted by Chrift ; and toges the ad<
perform all things neceffary “ for the perfecting of themimftra-
faints, for the work of the miniftry, for the edifying of the
body of Chrift The fame Spirit which illuminated ^0f the gcf-|
apoftles, and endowed them with power from above to per-pgi.
iorm perfonally their apoftolic functions, fitted them alfo^ ^
for fending others, as they were lent by their Divine Ma-13,t
fler ; and tor eftablifhing fuch a conftitution of the church
as was belt adapted for preserving Chnftians in the unity
of the Spirit and bond ot peace. I hey committed a hand¬
ing power to a fucceffive miniftry to be conveyed down
to the end of the world j and thofe who are vetted with
that power are obliged to “ take heed unto themielves, and
4
ics occa-
inned by
his doc-
riue
Part If. T II E O
Theology, to all the flock over'which the Holy Ghost hath made
nnre PdCU-them overfeers, to feed the church of God, ard to contend
lady ttin-earne^]y for t|ie vvhich v'as once delivered unto the
_ ftian‘ faints f.” See Episcopacy, Independents, PaESBYTE-
Adts xx. rians, Pope, and Quakers.
8. an! By thefe, and the like means, doth the Spirit of God
ude ver, fan£fify the fons oF men ; and in coniequence oi this fanftin-
’’ cation proceeding immediately From his office, he is called
the Holy Spirit and the Comforter. Fihis is luch a
provifion “ for renewing us in the fpirit of our minds, and
enabling us to put on the new man, which, after God, is
created in righteoufnefs and true holinefs,” as, when made
known by revelation appears to have been expedient, may
be conceived to have been even neceffary, and, though rea-
ai3 fon could hardly have hoped for it, is contradifted by none of
’ontrover, our natural notions either of God or of man. Many, however,
are the controverfies to which it has given rife in the church
of God ; fonae contending that it is given only unto the
cleft, upon whom it onerates with refifflefs efficaxy ; others
affirming that it is offered to all, but in fuch a manner as
that, by the abufe of their free will, it may be “ refifted,
grieved, and quenched and tome few, (till intoxicated with
the pride of Pelagic s, think it is not neceffary, and of
courfe is not bedowed.
The qneflions concerning eltSlion, the ejjlccv-y of grace, and
the final perfeverance of the faints, we have Hated elfewhere,
and given a fummary view of the arguments by which the
contending parlies maintain their relpeftive opinions (fee
Predestination); and the texts of Scripture which we
have juft quoted, under the different heads of fanftincation,
fhow fufficiently that the opinion of Ptlagius is direftly con-
dfewhere. trary to the doftrine of the apoftles. It may not be im¬
proper to inquire whether it be as agreeable to reafen and
experience as its proud patrons feem to imagine.
If it be unreafonable to expeft any affiftance from the
Spirit of God in carrying on the work of our own falva-
tion, how came fo many of the wifeft and beft of men in all
ages to believe, that he who fincerely endeavours to dif-
charge his duty is fupported in that endeavour by affiftance
from heaven ? That fuch was the popular belief of the ear¬
ly Greeks, is evident from the poems of Homer; in which
we everywhere find fome god calming the paffions of the
heroes, altering their determinations when improper, and in-
fpiring them with wifdom. Nor was this the fentiment of the
poets only. Socrates, it is well known, profeffed to believe
that his own conduft was under the direftion of a fuperior
fpirit, which he called a daemon; and Plutarch, as we find
him quoted by Wollafton, fpeaks of the gods affifting men.
224.
Difcufled
22.?
Opinions ofby “ exciting the powers or faculties ef the foul; by fug-
the hea- gelling fecret principles, imaginations, or thoughts ; or, on
the contrary, by diverting or flopping them.’> Of the
fame opinion mull Cicero have been, when he laid, “ ftabit
illud quidem, quod locum hunc coutinet, de quo agimus,
die Decs, et eorum providentia munduna adminillrari, eof-
demque confulere rebus humauis, nec fdlum univerfis, verum
* T)eDiv. etiam singulis for it is not conceivable that a particular
providence can be adminiftered without the influence of the
Deity on the minds of men. That the poets and philofo-
phers of the heathen world derived thefe notions from pri¬
meval tradition, cannot, we think, be queftioned ; but if
they were abfurd in themfelves, or apparently contradiftory
to the laws of nature, they would not furely have been io
univerfally embraced ; for it will hardly be denied, that So¬
crates and Cicero were men of as great natural fagacity as
Pelagius or any cf his followers. It is indeed fo far from
being incredible that the Father of fpirits occalionaily di-
thens con¬
cerning it.
L O G Y. 49*
refts the thoughts and aftions of men, that we believe there Theology,
are very few who have made obfervations upon ihernfclvesbjT®
and their ovvrtWs{fairs, who have not found, upon refleftion, r]-;an>
many inftances in which their ufual judgment and fenle of
things were over-ruled, they know not how or why ; and
that the aftions which they performed in thofe circumftances
have had conlequences very remarkable in their general hi-
flory. See Providence, n° 18, 19.
This being the cafe, why fhould the pride ofChriftians make
them hefitate to admit, upon the authority ol divine revelation,
what Socrates, and Plutarch, and Cicero, and all the virtuous
and wife men of antiquity, admitted in effeft, upon no bet¬
ter evidence than that of oral tradition, fupporttd by their
cwn meditations on their own thoughts, and the principles
of their own conduft ? Is it that they fee not fuch benefi¬
cial effefts of Chriftianity as to induce them to believe the
profeffors of that religion to be indeed “ cholen to falvation
through the fanftification of the Spirit |] ?” Let them|| Theff.ii,
ftudy the praftical precepts of the gofpel, confider the con-3*
fequences which they have had on the peace and happinefs
of fociety, and compare the general conduft of Chnftians
with that of the Jews, Pagans, and Mahometans (fee Re¬
ligion), and they will doubtlefs find reafon to alter their
opinion; and let thofe who embrace the truth, remember,
that as they are the temple of God, if the Spirit of God
dwell in them, “ it is their indifpenfable duty to cleanfe
themfelves from all filthineis of the flefti and fpirit; to fol¬
low peace with ail men, and holineis, without which no
man fhall fee the Lord ; and to work out their own falva¬
tion with fear and trembling, fince it is God who worketh
in t hem both to will and to do of his good pleafure.”
From this fhort view of the feveral dilpenfations of rc-Thegofpel
ver.led religion, it is evident that the gofpel is not only the the laft re-
beft but the laft gift of the kind which man has to expeftVtl ;tlon*
from his Maker ; that the fcheme of revelation is comple¬
ted ; and that the pretences of Mahomet and of more mo¬
dern enthufiafts to divine infpiration are not only falfe, but
fraught with contradiftions. All thefe men admit the di¬
vine origin of the Motaic and Chrittian religions; but it
appears from the feriptures, in which thofe religions are
taught, that the fyltem of revealed truths which conftitute
the Patriarchal, Mofaic, and Chriftian revelations, commen¬
ced with the fall of man, and that it muft therefore neceflarily
end with his reftoration to life and immortality by the fa-
crifice of Chrift upon the crofs A new revelation there¬
fore like that of Mahomet cannot be admitted without re¬
jecting the whole Bible, though the impoftor himfelf every¬
where acknowledges the inlpiration of Abraham, of Mofes,
and of Chrift. Nor is greater regard due to the claims of
Chriftian enthufiafts. Such of thefe men as pretend to have
been in heaven J-, and thence to have brought fpititual dif-^
coveries to the earth, have either forgotten or never under-^
flood, that in the feriptures of the Old and New Telia-others^
ments the great feene of Providence appears to be clofei
in the full completion of its one regular, entire, and eter¬
nal purpofe ; that St Paul has pronounced J a curfe upon! Ga^ *•
any man or angel from heaven who fhall preach another gof¬
pel than what has been already preached by the apoltles and
evangelifts; that in their writings we are taught every thing
which it is our duty to believe or to praftife in order to our
own falvation ; and that we have the promife of our bleffed
Lord himfelf, that the Spirit of truth ihall remain with us
to guide us into all neceffary truth, till that great day when
he ffiall come again to judge the world in righteoufnefs, and
render to every man according to his works.
3 0J*
THE-
T H E
[ 492 ]
THE
Theophraf- THEOPHRASTA, in botany ; a genus of plants be- To this clafs belonged Paracelfus, Robert Fludd, Jacob Therapeu*
Theofo-
phifts.
Enfield's
liiflory cfi
jP bilofopby
Ibid.
longing to the clals of fentandria and order of monogynia.
The corolla is campanulated, with divilioi** and fegments
obtufe; the capfule unilocular, globular, very large, and
- many-feeded. 1 here is only one ipecies, the americana.
THEOPHRASTUS, the philolopher, was born about
371 years before Chrift, and was fucceffively the difciple
ot Plato and of Ariftotle. Pie. fucceeded Ariftotle in
the Peripatetic fchool, and conduCfed the charge with fuch
high reputation that he had about 2000 fcholars. He is
highly celebrated for his induftry, learning, and eloquence ;
and lor his generofity and public Ipirit. He is faid to have
twice freed his country from the opprelfion of tyrants. He
contributed liberally towards defraying the expence attf cl¬
ing trie public meetings of philof iphers ; which were held,
not for the fake of ihcw, but for learned and ingenious con-
' verfation. In the public fchools he commonly appeared,
as Airillotle had done, in an elegant drefs, and was very
attentive to the graces of elocution. He lived to the ad¬
vanced age of 85 : Some fay of 107. Towards the clofe
of his life, he grew exceedingly infirm, and was carried to
the fchool on a couch. He expreffed great regret on ac¬
count of the fhortneis of life ; and complained that nature
had given long life to flags and crows, to whom it is of fo
little value, and had denied it to man, who, iff a longer
duration, might , have been able to attain the fummit of
fcience ; but now, as foon as he arrives within light of it,
is taken away. Plis lail advice to his difciples was, that,
iince it is the lot ot man to die as foon as he begins to live,
they would take more pains to enjoy life as it paffes, than7
to acquire pofthumous fame. Plis funeral was attended by
a large body of Athenians. He wrote many valuable works,
of which all that remain are, feveral treatifes on the Natural
Hiflory of Plants and Foffils; Of Winds, Of Fire, See. a
rhetorical work intitled “ Charadlers,” and a few Metaphy-
fical Fragments,
To Theophraftus we are indebted for preferving the works
of Ariftotle, See Aristotle.
THEOPOMPUS, a celebrated Greek orator and hif-
torian, was born in the ifland Chics, and flourifhed in the
reign of Alexander the Great. He was one of the molt
famous of all the difciples of Ifocrates, and won the prize
from all the panegytifts whom Artemifia invited to praife
Maufolus. He wrote feveral works, which are loft.
THEOREM, a propofition which terminates in theory,
and which conliders the properties of things already made
or done ; or it is a fpeculative propofition deduced from
comparing together feveral definitions. A theorem is fome-
thing to be proved, and a problem fomething to be done.
THEORE TIC, fomething relating to theory, or that
terminates in fpeculation.
THEORY, in general, denotes any dottrine which ter¬
minates in fpeculation, without confidering the pra&ical
ufes or application thereof.
THEOSOPHIS FS, a fed! of men who pretend to de¬
rive all their knowledge from divine illumination. They
boaft that, by means of this celeftial light, they are not
only admitted to the intimate knowledge of God, and of all
divine truth, but have accefs to the moft fublime fecrets of
nature. rPhey aferibe it to the fingular manifeftation of
divine benevolence, that they are able to make fuch a ufe
of the element of fire, in the chemical art, as enables them
to difeaver the eflential principles of bodies, and to difclofe
flupendous myfteries in the phyfical world. They even pre¬
tend to an acquaintance with thofe celeftial beings which form
the medium of intercourfe between God and man, and to
a power of obtaining from them, by the aid of magic, aftro-
logy, and other fimilar arts, various kinds ot information
and affiitance.
Boehmen, Van Helmont, Peter Poiret, and the Roficrucians.
I hey are alio called FiRE-PhiloJophers, which fee.
THERAPEU i YE, a term applied to thofe that are
wholly in the fervice of religion. This general term has
been applied to particular lefts of men, concerning whom
there have been great difputes among the learned.
FHERAPEU TICS, that part of medicine which ac¬
quaints us with the rules that are to be obferved, and the
medicines to be employed, in the cure of dileafes.
TFIERI AC A andromachi, a compound medicine
made in the form of an electuary. See Pharmacy, n° 605.
THERMiE, hot baths or bagnios. Luxury and extra¬
vagance were in nothing carried to fuch heights as in the
thermas of the Roman emperors. Ammian complains, that
they were built to fuch an extent as to equal whole pro¬
vinces ; from which Valefius would abate, by reading pifcnitK
inftead of pro-vinciez. And yet after all, the remains of
fome ft ill Handing are fufficient teftimonies for Ammian’s
cenlure ; and the accounts tranfmitted of their ornaments
and furniture, fuch as being laid with precious ftones (Se¬
neca), fet round with feats of folid filver (Pliny), with pipes
and cilerns of the fame metal (Statius), add to, rather
than take from, the cenfure. The molt remarkable bagnios
were thofe of Diocletian and Caracalla at Rome, great part
of which remains at this day ; the lotty arches, (lately pil¬
lars, variety of foreign marble, curious vaulting of the roofs*
great number of fpacious apartments, all attraft the curio-
iity of the traveller. They had alfo their fummer and win¬
ter baths.
THERMOMETER, an inftrument for meafuring the
degree of heat or cold m any body. *.
The thermometer was invented about the beginning of Invention I
the 17th century; but, like many other uieful inventions, °P he ther-j
it has been found impoflible to afeertain to whom the ho '(ion:eT 1
- - - - *■ JWartwe s 1
nour ©f it belongs. Boerhaave * aferibeg it to Cornelius
Drebbtl of Alcmar, his own countryman. Fulgenzio f at- *“cbem. f.
tributes it to his matter Paul Sarpi, the great oracle of theP-1S2>I^»|
Venetian republic; and Viviani gives the honour of it to *
Gahlaeo$. But all thefe are pofthurnous claims. Sanftorio ^ ’1 ’
claims this honour to himfelf; and his affertion is corxobo- fiyit. Ga.
rated by Borelli $ and Malpighi * of the Florentine aca-^- P-67-
demy, wdiofe partiality is not to be fufpefted in favour),'")"72'"'
of a member of the Patavinian fchool. 842.
Perhaps the bell way to reconcile thefe different claims ^ Be Ma. |
would be, to fuppofe that the thermometer was really in- himal. II. I
vented by different perfons about the fame time. We knowrI0P' I^*
that there are certain periods in the progrefs of the arts ^ j
when the ftream of human genius runs in the fame direc¬
tion, and moves towards the fame objeft. That part of
the current which reaches the objeft fit ft may poffefs the
title ; but the other parts follow fo rapidly and arrive fo
foon after, that it is impoflible for a fpeftator to decide
which is firft in point of time. ■
The firft. form of this inftrument for meafuring the de-The air
grees of heat and cold, was the air-thermometer. It is a thermoms-
well known faft that air expands with heat fo as to occupy ter,^e‘cri*
more fpace than it does when cold, and that it is condenfed
by cold fo as to occupy lefs fpace than when warmed, and
that this expanfion and condenfation is greater or lefs ac¬
cording to the degree of heat or cold applied. The prin¬
ciple then on which the air-thermometer was conftrufted
is very fimple. The air was confined in a tube by means
of fome coloured liquor; the liquor rofe or fell according
as the air became expanded or condenfed. What the firft;
form of the tube was, cannot now perhaps be well known;
but the following defeription of the air-thermometer will
fully explain its nature.
The air-thermometer confifts of a glafs tube BE, con-Plate DVh
uefted
3.
ts citicd-
4
Fhe )f)irit
f wine
hermcme
er.
Us defefls.
’Marline's
THE
nefted at one end with a large p’afs ball A,
other end irrmerfed in an open veffel, or terminating in a
ball DE, with a narrow orifice at D ; which veflel, or ball,
contains any coloured liquor that will not eafily, freeze.
quafortis tinged of a fine t ine colour with a folution of vi¬
triol or copper, or fpirit of wine Urged with cochineal, will
anfwer this'purpofe. But the ball A mull be fir-l mode¬
rately warmed fo that a part of the air .contained in it may
be expelled through the orifice 13 ; and then the liquor
prefled by the weight of the atrnofphere will enter the ball
JDE, and rile, h>r example, to the middle or the tube at
C, at a mean temperature of the weather ; and in this ilate
the liquor by its weight, and the air included in the ball
A, &c. by it elafticity, will counterbalance the weight of
the atmofphere. As the furrounding air becomes warmer,
the air in the ball and upper part of the tube, expanding
by heat, will drive the liquor into the lower ball, and con-
fequently its furface will defeend ; on the contrary, as the
ambient air becomes colder, that in the ball is condenled,
and the liquor prefled by the weight of the atmofphere will
afeend : fo that the liquor in the tube will afeend or defeend
more or lefs according to the Hate of the air contiguous to
the inftrument. To the tube is affixed a Icale of the fame
length, divided upwards and downwards from the middle C
into too equal parts, by means o- which the afeent and
defeent or the liquor in the tube, and confequently the va¬
riations in the cold or heat of the atmofphere, may be ob-
ferved.
This inftrument was extremely defeftive ; for the air in
the tube was not only atfedled by the heat and cold of the
atmofphere, but alfo by its weight.
The air being found improper for meafuring with accu¬
racy the variations of heat and cold according to the form
of the thermometer which was lirft adopted, another fluid
was propofed about the middle of the 17th century by the
Florentine academy, This fluid was fpirit of wine, or al¬
cohol, as it is now generally named. The alcohol being
coloured, was incloftd in a very fine cylindrical glafs tube
previoufly exhaufted of its air, having a hollow ball at one
end A, and hermetically fealed at the other end D. The
ball and tube are filled with reciified fpirit of wine to a
convenient height, as to C, when the weather is of a mean
temperature, which may be done by inverting the tube into
a veflel of flagnant coloured fpirit, under a receiver of the
air-pump, or in any other way. When the thermometer is
properly filled, the end D is heated red hot by a lamp, and
then hermetically fealed, leaving the included air of about ^
of its natural denfity, to prevent the air which is in the fpirit
from dividing it in its expanilon. To the tube is applied a
fcale, divided from the middle, into ico equal parts, up¬
wards and downwards.
As fpirit of wine is capable of a very conflderable degree
of rarefa&ion and condenfation by heat and cold, when the
heat of the atmpfphere increafes the fpirit dilates, and con¬
fequently rifes in the tube; and when the heat decreafes,
the fpirit defeends, and the degree or quantity of the motion
is fhown by a fcale. ,
The fpirit of wine thermometer was not fubjeft to fome
of the inconveniences which attended the air thermometer.
In particular, it-was.not affe&ed b-y variations n the weight
of the atmofphere : accordingly It foon came into general
ufe among philofophers. It was, at an early period, intro¬
duced into Britain by Mr Boyle. To this inftrument, as
then uftd, there are, however, many ohjeftion?. I he li¬
quor was of different degrees of ftrength,. and therefore di -
ferent tubes filled with it, w hen expofed to,the fame degree off
heat, would not conefpond. There was alfo another tlefedf:
The fcale which was adjufted to the thermometer did not
[ 403 1 THE
and at the jufted to the great funfhine heats of Florence, which are Thermo
too variable and undetermined; and frequently the work¬
man formed the fcale according to his own fancy. While
the thermometer laboured under inch difadvantages it could
not be of general ufe.
meter.
Y—-
To obtain fome fixed unalterable point by which a deter-o;flrerent
mined leak might be diicovered, to which all thermometers fixe i p- ints
might be accurately adjufted, rvas the fubjedl w'hich nextPj^^kdby
drew the attention of philofophers. Mr Boyle, who feems^A” °'
at an early period to have ftudied this fubj 6t with mUcli
anxiety, propofed the f reezing of the effential oil of annifeeds
as a convenient point for graduating thermometers; but
this opinion he fopn laid afide. Dr Halley next propokd
that thermometers fhould be graduated in a deep pit under
ground, where the temperature both in winter and fummer
is pretty uniform ; and that the point to which the ipirit of
wnre fhould rife in fuch a fubterraneous place ftrould be the
point from which the kale fhould commence. But this
propofal was evidently-attended with fuch inconveniences that
it was loon abandoned. Fie made experiments on the boil-
ing point of water, of mercury, and o fpiric of wine ; and
he kerns rather to give 2 preference to the ipirit of wine *.* Phi!.
Fie obje&ed to the freezing of water as a fixed point, be- TV'"/-
caufe he thought that it admitted confiderabie latitude ** 34-
It feems to have been referved to the all-conquering ge-s;r |^ac
nius of Sir Iiaac Newton to determine this important point, Newton’s
on which the accuracy and value of the thermometer de-ml the.-mo*
pends. He chofe, as fixed, thoie points at which watermeter*
freezes and boils ; the very points which the experiments of
fucceeding philofophers have determined to be the moft fix¬
ed and convenient. Senftbk of the difadvantages of fpirit of
wine, he tried another liquor which was homogeneous
enough, capable of a confiderabk rarefaction, about 15
times greater than fpirit of wine. This was linfeed oil.
It has not been obferved to freeze even in very great colds,
and it bears a heat about four times that oj water before it
boils. With thefe advantages it was made ufe of by Sir
Ifaac Newton, who diicovered by it the comparative de¬
gree of heat for boiling water, melting wax, boiling fpirit
of wine, and melting tin ; beyond which it does not appear
that this thermometer was applied. 1 he method he ufed
for adjufting the kale of this oil thermometer was as fol¬
lows : Suppofing the bulb, when immerged in thawing
fnow, to contain 10,000 parts, he found the oil expand by
the heat of the human body fo as to take up Tpth more
fpace, or 10,256 fuch parts ; and by the heat of water boil¬
ing ftrongly 10,725 ; and by the heat of melting tin 11,516..
So that reckoning the freezing point as a common limit be¬
tween heat and cold, he began his fcak there, marking it
o, and the heat of the human body he made 120 ; and confe-
quently, the degrees of heat being pioportionai to the de- nt»
grees of rarefaction, or 256 : 725 : : 12 : 34, this number or Ai,r
will exprefs the heat of boiling water; and by the famevol iv.part
rule, 72 that of melting tin This thermometer was con-a-
ftruCted in 1701. g
T o the application of oil as a meafure of heat and cold, Its imper-
there are iniuperabk objections. It is fo vifeid, that it adNei^ons*
heres too ftrongly to the fides of the tube. On this ac¬
count it alcends and defeends too flowly in cafe of a fudden
heat or cold. In a fudden cold, fo great a portion remains
adhering to the lides of the tube after the reft‘ha» fubfided, .
that the furface-appears lower than the correiponding tem¬
perature of the air requires. An oil thermometer is there-
lore not a proper meafuie of heat and cold.
All the thermometers hitherto propofed were liable to Reai)pV]r’s
many inconveniences, and could not be confidered as exa£lfp;rit 0f
ftandards for pointing oat the various degrees of tempera-wine ther-
ture. This led Reaumur to attempt a new one, an ac-n-0IKeter'
commence at any fixed point.
The higheft term was ad- count of which.-was publifhed in the year 1730111 the Me¬
moirs
r
JV'Tartine's
F.ffays on
the ijotijiruc'
tion of tier-
mtmeters.
T H E
moirs of the Academy of Sciences. This thermometer was
made with fpirit of wine. He took a large ball and tube,
the dimenfiens and capacities of which we^e known; he then
graduated the tube, fo that the fpace from one divifion to
another might contain 1000th part of the liquor; the li-
494 1 THE
That we may judge the more accurately of the propWe. Tl'srms,
ty of employing mercury, we will compare its qualities meteo
with thofe of the fluids already mentioned, air, alcohol,
and oil. n
Air is the mofl ex pan fib! e fluid, but it does not receive ^>roPerdci
quor containing 1000 pans when it flood at the freezing nor part with its heat fo quickly as mercury. Alcohol doesof a!1'’a^‘
point. He adjufted the thermometer to the freezing point not expand much by heat. In its ordinary ftate it does not^^
bear a much greater heat than 1750 of f ahrenhek ; but
10
Sts defects.
by an artificial congelation of water: then putting the ball
of his thermometer and part of the tube into boiling water,
he obferved whether it rofe 80 divifions: if ft exceeded
thefe, he changed his liquor, and by adding water lowered it,
till upon trial it fhould juft rife 80 divifions; or if the liquor,
being too low, fell fhort of So divifions, he railed it by add¬
ing leffified fpint to it. The liquor thus prepared fuited
his purpofe, and ferved for making a thermometer of any
fize, whofe fcale would agree with his flandard.
This thermometer was far from being perfect. As the
bulbs were three or four inches in diameter, the furround¬
ing ice would be melted before its temperature could be
propagated to the whole fpirits in the bulb, and confequent-
iy the freezing point would be marked higher than it fhould
be. Dr Martine accordingly found, that inftead of coinci-
ding with the 3 2d degree of Fahrenheit, it correfponded with
when highly rectified it can bear a greater degree of cold
than any other liquor hitherto employed as i meafure of
temperature. _ At Hudfon’s Bay,'Mr Macnab, by a mix¬
ture of vitriolic acid and fr>ow, made it to defeend to 69 be¬
low o of Fahrenheit. I here is an inconvenience, however,
attending the ule of this liquor; it is not pofiible to get it
always of the fame degree of ftrength. As to oil, its ex-
panfioh is about 15 times greater than that of alcohol; it fu-
Ifains a heat of 6000, and its freezing point is fo low that
it has not been determined ; but its vifcoiity renders it ute-
lefs.
Mercury is far fuperior to alcohol and oil, and is much more Thermo-
manageable than air. 1. As far as the experiments already nietrical I
made can determine, it is of all the fluids hitherto employed
in the conftruftion of thermometers, that which mrafm-ps 5
13
the 34th, or a point a little above it. Reaumur commit¬
ted a miftake alio relpefting the boiling point ; for he
thought that the fpirit of wine, whether weak or ftrong,
when immerged in boding water, received the fame deg :e
of heat with the boiling water. But it is well known that
highly re&ified fpirit of wine cannot be heated much be¬
yond the 175th degree of Fahrenheit, while boiling water
thermometers, that which meafures
moil exa&ly equal differences of heat by equal differences of
its bulk : its dilatations are in fadt very nearly proportional to
the augmentations of heat applied to it (a). 2. Of all liquids^Percies I
it is the moft eafily freed from air. 3. It is fitted to iv.eayj".^ M>\
fure high degrees of heat and cold. It fuflains a heat |
6oo° of Fahrenheit’s fcale, and does not congeal till it fall
39 or 40 degrees below o. 4. It is the moft fenfible of any
raifes the quickfilver 37 degrees higher. There is another fluid to heat and cold, even air not excepted, f 8ir Benia-. phi!
thermometer that goes by the name of Reaumur's, which min Thompfon, now Count Rumford, found that mercury r™*/:
11
Mercurial
thermome¬
ters.
* Phil.
‘Jranf. vol.
nvii. or
siir.xol. ii,
fhall be a’terwards deferibed.
At length a different fluid was propofed, by which ther¬
mometers could be made free from moft of the de^edls hi¬
therto mentioned. This fluid was mercury, and feems fir ft
to have occurred to Dr Halley in the laft century ; but
was not adopted by him on account of its having a fmaller
degree of expanfibility than the other fluids ufed at that
time *. Boerhaave fays that the mercurial thermomettr
was firft conftrufted by Olaus Roemer; but the honour of
this invention is generally given to Fahrenheit of Amfter-
dam, who prefented an account of it to the Royal Society
of London in 1724.
was heated from the freezing to the boiling point in i;8 fe-1786
conds, while water took two minutes 13 feconds, and com¬
mon air 10 minutes and 17 feconds. 5. Mercury is a ho¬
mogeneous fluid, and every portion of it is equally dilated
or contrafted by equal variations of heat. Any one ther¬
mometer made of pure mercury is, ceteris paribus, poffef-
fed of the fame properties with every other thermometer
made of pure mercury. Its power of expanfion is indeed
about fix times lefs than that of fpirit of wine, but it is great
enough to aniwer moft of the purpofes for which a thermo¬
meter is wanted.
for
14
The fixed points which are now univerfally chofen for Fixed
adj lifting Poims-
(a) We have affirmed that the expanfions of the bulk of quickfilver by heat are nearly (for they are not ftriiffly
fo) in a regular arithmetical progreffion, according to the quanth y of heat it is expofed to ; and Inch feems to be the cafe
according to the lable pubhftied by Mr de Luc, at page 309. of his firft volume on the Modifications of the At-
mofphere. The following extraft of this table (hows thefe variations : and the firft and fecond differences are added, in
order to render thefe irregularities more ienfible. They are fuch as can hardly be conceived from the nature of any fub- VoL if ^
flance, without the influence of extraneous and accidental caufes, which may have efcaped the attention of the obferver ;
neither have they been found exaftly true by Dr Crawford. Mr de Luc fuppofes the whole heat from melting ice to
that of boiling w'ater to be divided into 80 parts ; by the fradlional fubdivifions of which he expreffes the abfolute quan¬
tities of heat, anfwering to each 5, or 10 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer ( — 22,5 of Fahrenheit’s fcale) ; lo that the
whole ium of thefe fractions amounts exadtly to the affumed number 80. rI. hey are as follow :
Reaumur’s
Thermometer.
Degrees
80
70
60
50
40
3°
20
10
o
Fahrenheit’s
Thermometer.
. . 212
• • 189,5
. . 167
. . 144,5
..122
• • 99*5
• • 77
• - 54>5
. . 32
Quantities
of heat.
Firft
differences.
Second
differences.
9»44
9,60
9>7°
9,86
»o,o8
10,20
10,38
10,74
’16
’jo
>i6
*22
*! 2
>} 8
>56
-f- ,06
.— ,06
-— ,06
-f-, i o
— ,06
— ,18
THE
F 495 1
T H E
Jfheiwe-
roe'er.
*.?
tu’e f<>f
ijuiUug
t.ctmome
ers to
tiefe.
Phil.
fratif. for
775 and
778,
16
Table
formed
torn the
rule..
adjufting thermometers to a fcale, and to one another, are
the boiling and freezing water points. The boiling water
' point, it is well known, is not an invariable point, but va¬
ries fome degrees according to the weight and temperature
of the atmofphere. In an exhaufted receiver, water will
boil with a heat of 98° or too0 ; whereas in Papin’s dige-
ifer it wilj acquire a heat of 412. Hence it appears that
water will boil at a lower point, according to its height in
the atmofphere, or to the weight of the column of ait which
preffes upon it. In order to eniure uniformity theretore in
the conftru&ion of thermometers, it is now agreed that the
bulb of the tube be plunged in the water when it boils vio¬
lently, the barometer Handing at 30 Englifh inches (which
is its mean height round London), and the temperature of the
atmoiphere 550. A thermometer made in this way, with its
boiling point at 212°, is called by Dr Horlley Bird's Fah¬
renheit, becaufe Mr Bird was the firil perlop who attended
to the ftate of the barometer in conitrufting thermometers.
As artifts may be often obliged to adjull thermometers
under very different preflures of the atmofphere, philofophers
■ have been at pains to difeover a general rule which might
be applied on all occahons. M. de Luc, in his Rscherches
fur ies Mod. de BAtmofphere from a feries of experiments,
has given an equation ror the allowance on account of this
difference, in Paris meafure, v/hich has been verified by Sir
George Schuckburgh | ; alfo Dr Horlley, Dr Mafkelyne,
and Sir George Schuckburgh, have adapted the equation
and rules to Englifh meafures, and have reduced the allow¬
ances into tables for the ufe of the artiff. Dr Horlley’s
rule, deduced from De Luc’s, is this :
——^ log, 2; — 92*804 = A.
8990000 * ^
where h denotes the height of a thermometer plunged in
boiling water, above the point of melting ice, in degrees of
Bird’s Fahrenheit, and z the height of the barometer in
.xoths of an inch. From this rule he has computed the fol¬
lowin'; table, for finding the heights, to which a good Bird’s
Fahrenheit will rile when plunged in boiling water, in all
ftates of the barometer,. from 27 to } 1 Englifh inches ;
which will ferve, among other ufes, to direft inftrument-
makers^ in making a true allowance for the effe£f of the va¬
riation of the barometer, il they fhould be obliged to finilh
a thermometer at a time when the barometer is above or
below 30 inches ; though it is belt to fix the boiling point
when the barometer is at that height.
Equation of the Boiling Point.
Barometer.
31'0
3°*5
20-0
29-5
29-0
28-5
28*0
27-5
27-0
Equation.
Jr 1'57
+ °‘79
0*00
— c 80
— 1 -62
— 2*45
— 3*31
— 4* 16
— 5-04
Difference.
0-78
079
crBo
0‘82
0-83
cr8 c
0*86
o-88
third column of differences of the equations. See Phil.
Tranf, Ixiv. art. 30.; alio Dr Malkelylie’s Paper, vol. Ixiv.
art. 20. j-j
In the following table we have the refult of 1 5 different Sir Gem ge
obfervations made by Sir George Schuckburgh comparedSAuA*
with the refult of M. de Luc’s rules. gelations *
compared
wuh De
Luc’s rules*
Height oi the!
dinnnetene-
duced to the
iametempeia-
cu.e oi jo-*
Mean boil
■■zM
by
vatiou.
Inch.
26,498
27,241
27>954
28,377
28,699
28,898
28,999
29»447
29,805
, . 1 Boiling Pc im
nt0,lat’»y De Luc’-
°bfcr* Rules.
207,07
208,64
209,87
210.50
211,27
211.50
2 X l ,60
2 12,55
2 12,95
208,54
208.84
2 10,03
2IO,8l
211,34
21 1,67
211.85
212,74
21 V 5
Height
of Baro¬
ne cer.
Boiling
Point by
Obferva
Inch.
30,008
30,207
3fo489
30,763
30,847
3->957
213,22
213,58
2 * 4,15
2i4,37
214,83
214,96
Boiling
Point by
De Luc’s
Rules.
213,47
213.79
2i4,23
2! 4,66
214.79
214,96
Sir George Schuckburgh has alfo fubjoined the following
general table for the ufe of artifts in confirudling the ther¬
mometer, both according to his own oblevvations and thofc
of M. de Luc.
Height of the
Barometer.
26,0
26.5
27,0
2 7,5
28,0
28.5
29,0
29>?
32,0
3°»5
3 Lo 7
The Royal
adjuiting the
.C rrect of the
boiling point
— 7,09
— 6,18
— 5,2?
— 4,37
— 3.48
— 3,59
— I,72
— 0,85
0,00
Hb 0,85
+ *,69
Difference
,91
>9l
,90
,89
,89
,87
>85
,85
,84
Correct accord. bifFeienc*.
tu M. de Luc
— 6,83
~ 5,93
— 5,04
— 4,16
— $’$l
— 2,45
— 1,62
— 0,80
0,00
+ Q,79
4- 1,57
,90
,89
,88
,S7
,86
,83
,82
,80
,79
,78
19
iociety, fully apprize'd of the importance of Obferva-
fixed points of thermometers, appointed a !:ons ina^e
r r * i r*i C i ^ \ fl ^ C(’>ni*«
committee of feven gentlemen to conhder of the belt me- mittee of
thod for this purpoie ; and their report is pubhihed in the the Loyal
Society for
u aojufth
The numbers in the firft column of this table exprefs
heights of the quickfilver in the barometer in Englifh inches
and decimal parts: the lecond column fhows the equation
to be applied, according to the fign prefixed, to 2i2/Jof
Bird’s Fahrenheit, to find the true boiling point for every
fuch Hate of the barometer. The boiling point for all in¬
termediate Hates of the barometer may be had with fuffici-
ent accuracy, by taking proportional parts, by means of the
Phil. Tranf vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37.
They obferved, that though the boiling point be placed the
fo much higher on fome of the thermometers now made than p0jatSi
on others, yet this does not produce any confiderable error in
the obfervations of the weather, at leaft in this climate; for
an error of t°v in the pofition of the boiling point, will
make an error only of half a degree in the pofition of 92^
and of not more than a quarter of a degree in the point of
62°. It is only in nice experiments, or in trying the heat
of hot liquors, that this error in the boiling point can be af
much importance.
In adjufiing the freezing as well as the boiling point, the
quickfilver in the tube ought to be kept of the fame heat as
that in the ball. When the freezing point is placed at a
confiderable diHance from the ball, the pounded ice fhould
be piled to fuch a height above the ball, that the error
which can arife from the quickfilver in the remaining part of
the tube not being heated equally with that in the ball, fhall
be very fmall, or the obferved point muH be corrected on
that account according to the following table ;
Heat
T H R
19
Table for
ro re<51ing
the freeze
big point.
Host of the
Air.
42s
52
62
72
82
Correction.
,0:087
,00174
,00261
,00448
,00435
ao
The quick-
lilver in
the tube
ougJit to 5
be heated
ar
The tubes
ought to
jj "Lecons de
Phyf. Exp.
tom. iv. p.
376*
The correction in this table is exprefied in t oooth parts
o1' the distance between the freezinp point and the furface oi
the ice : e. g. if the freezing point hands feven inches above
the furface of the ice, and the heat of the room is 61, the
point of 32° ihould be placed 7 X 00261, or ;oi8 of an
inch lower than the obferved point. A diagonal fcale
will facilitate this correction.
The committee obferve, that in trying the heat of liquors,
care fhculd be talien that the quickflver in the tube of the
thermometer be heated to the fame degree as that in the
ball; or if this cannot be done conveniently, the obferved
to the fame heat fhould be correCfed on that account ; for the manner
degree as of doing which, and a table calculated for this purpofe, we
ban Jn ^ mu^ re^er to excellent report in the Phil, i'ranf. vol.
Ixvii. part ii. art. 37. ' -
With regard to the choice of tubes, they ought to be ex-
_ . ^ . aftly cylindrical. But though the diameter fhould vary a
cd^nd'cn" ^ittle» ^ i3 eafy to ruanage that matter in the manner pro¬
pillary. pofed by the Abbe Nollet |j, by making a fmall portion of
the quickiilver, e. g. as much as fills up an inch or half an
inch, Aide backward and forward in the tube ; and thus
to nnd the proportions of all its inequalities, and from
thence to adjuft the divifions to a fcale of the moft perfeCt
equality. The capillary tubes are preferable to others, be-
caufe they require fmaiier bulbs, and they are alfo more fen-
fible, and lefs brittle. • The moft convenient fize for com¬
mon experiments has the internal diameter about the 40th
or 50th of an inch, about 9 inches long, and made of thin
glafs, that the rife and fall of the mercury may be better
feen.
The next thing to be comfidered, is of what number of
degrees or divifions the fcale ought to confift, and from
what point it ought to commence. As the number of the
icale ought divifions of the fcale is an arbitrary matter, the fealts which
to be divi- have been employed differ much from one another in this
circumllance. Fahrenheit has made 180 degrees between
the freezing and boiling water point. A.mcnton’s made 73,
and Sir Ifaac Newton only 34. There is, however, one
general maxim, which ought to be obferVed : That fuch an
arithmetical number jhould be chosen as can eafily be divided and
fubdtvided, and that the number of divifions Jhould he fo great
that ihoe jhallfeldom be ocajion for fratlions. The number
80 chofen by Reaumur anfwers extremely well in this re-
fpe&, becaufe it can be divided by feveral figures without
leaving a remainder ; but it is too fmall a number : the con-
fequence of which is, that the degrees are placed at too great
a diftance from one another, and fractions muft therefore be
often employed. We think, therefore, that 160 would have
been a mm e convenient number Fahrenheit’s number 180 is
large enough, but when divided its quotient foon becomes
an odd number.
As to the point at which the fcale ought to commence,
various opinions have been entertained. If we knew the
The num¬
ber of de¬
grees into
*.vhich th
(led.
5.3
At what
point the
fea!e ought beginning or loweft degree of heat, all philoiophers w'ould
to com- agree, that the loweft point of the thermometer ought to be
•uence. fixed there; but we know neither the loweft nor the higheft
degrees of heat ; we obferve only the intermediate parts.
AH that we can do, then, is to begin it at fome invariable
3
496 ] T H E
point, to which thermometers made in different places may Therm*,
eaiiiy he adjufted. It poffible too, it ought to be a point at
which a natural well known body receives fome remarkable "
change from the effea.3 of heat or cold. Fahrenheit he-,
pan ms fc?le at the point at which fnow and fait congeal.
RirWan propofes the freezing point of mercury. Sir ifaac
Newton, IT.ha, and Reaumur adopted the freezing point
o* water. The objection to Fahrenheit’s loweft point is,
that it commences at an aitificial cold never known in na¬
ture, and to which we cannot refer our feelings, for it is
what few can ever experience. There would be feveral
great advantages gained, we allow, by adopting the freezing
point of mercury. It is the loweft degree of cold to which
mercury can be applied as a meafure ; and it would render *
unneceffary the ufe of the figns plus and minus, and the
extenfion of the fcale below o. But we obje& to it, that it
is not a point well known; for few, comparatively fpeaking,
who ufe thermometers, can have an opportunity of feeing
mercury congealed. As to the other advantage to be
gained bv adopting the freezing point of mercury, namely,
the abolition of negative numbers, we do not think it would
counterbalance the advantage to be enjoyed by ufing a well-
known point. Beiides, it may be alked, Is there not a pro¬
priety in ufing negative numbers to exprefs the degree of
cold, which is a negative thing ? Heat and cold we can only
judge of by our feelings : the. point then at which the fcale
fhould commence, ought to be a point which can form to us
a ftandard of heat and cold ; a point familiar to us from be¬
ing one of the moft remarkable that occurs in nature, and
therefore a point to which we can with moft clearnefs and
precifion refer to in our minds on all occafions. This is the
freezing point of water chofen by Sir liaac Newton, which
of all the general changes produced in nature by cold is
the moft remarkable. It is therefore the moft convenient
point for the thermometers to be ufed in the temperate and
frigid zones; we may fay over the globe, for even in
the hotttft countries of the torrid zone many of the moun¬
tains are perpetually covered with fnow.
Having now explained the principles of the thermometer Only four
as fully as appears neceffary, in order to make it properly therm°®f
underftood, we will now fubjoin an account of thofe thermo-
meters which are at prefent in moft general ufe. Thefe are ^
Fahrenheit’s, De TIfle’s, Reaumur’s, and Celfius’s. Fahren¬
heit's is ufed in Britain, De ITfle s in Ruflia, Reaumur’s in
P ranee, and Celfius’s in Sweden. They are all mercurial
thermometers.
Fahrenheit’s thermometer confifts of a flender cylindrical FaW
tube and a Imall longitudinal bulb. To the fide of the tube^'Tsde-
is annexed a fcale which Fahrenheit divided into 600 parts,fcribeJ’
beginning with that of the fevere cold which he had obfer¬
ved in Iceland in 1709, or that produced by furrounding the
bulb of the thermometer with a mixture of inow or beaten
ice and fal ammoniac or fea fait. This he apprehended to
be the greateft degree of cold, and accordingly he marked
it, as the beginning of his fcale, with o; the point at
which mercury begins to boil, he conceived to (how the
greateft degree of heat, and this he made the limit of his
fcale. The diftance between thefe two points he divided
into 600 equal parts or degrees; and by trials,* he found
that the mercury flood at 32 of thefe diyifions, when wa¬
ter juft begins to freeze, or fnow or ice juft begins to
thaw ; it was therefore called the degree of the freez¬
ing point .When the tube was immerfed in boiling wa¬
ter, the mercury rofe to 212, which therefore is the boiling
point, and is juft 180 degrees above the former or freezing
point. But the prefent method of making the fcale of
thefe thermometers, which is the fort in moft common ufe,,
is firft to immerge the bulb of the thermometer in ice or
fnow
THE
C 497 ]
THE
2f>
De I’lfle’s
ihermome-
asr.
Plate
DVII.
„ *7 ,
Reaumur f,
«>r rather
'De Luc’s
tlieniiome-
ler.
fnow jail beginning to thaw, and mark the place where the
mercury Itands with a 32 ; then immerge it in boiling water,
and again mark the place where the mercury Itands in the
tube, which mark with the num. 212, exceeding the former
by 180; dividing therefore the intermediate fpace into
j 80 equal parts, will give the fcalc of the thermometer,
and which may afterwards be continued upwards and down¬
wards at pleafure.
Other thermometers of a fimilar conftruftion have been
accommodated to common ufe, having but a portion of the
above fcale. They have been made of a fmall fize and
portable form, and adapted with appendages to particular
purpofes ; and the tube with its annexed fcale has often
been enclofed in another thicker glafs tube, alfo hermeti¬
cally fealed, to preferve the thermometer from injury. And
all thefe are called Fahrenheit'1 s thermometers.
In 173 3, M. De 1’Ifle of Peterfburgh conllrufted a mer¬
curial thermometer on the principles of Reaumur’s fpirit
thermometer. In his thermometer, the whole bulk or
quickfrlver, when immerged in boiling water, is conceived
to be divided into 100,000 parts ; and from this one fixed
point the various degrees of heat, either above or below it,
are marked in thefe parts on the tube or fcale, by the va¬
rious expanfion or contradlion of the quickfilver, in all ima¬
ginable varieties of heat.—Dr Martine apprehends it would
have been better if De 1’Ifle had made the integer 100,000
parts, or fixed point, at freezing water, and from thence
computed the dilatations or condenfations of the quickfilver
in thole parts; as all the common obfervations of the weather,
&c. would have been expreffed by numbers increafing as
the heat increafed, inftead of decreafing, or counting the
contrary way. However, in praftice it will not be very
eafy to determine exaftly all the divifions from the altera¬
tion ot the bulk of the contained fluid. And befides, as
glafs itfelf is dilated by heat, though in a lefs proportion
than quickfilver, it is only the excefs of the dilatation of the
contained fluid above that of the glafs that is obferved ; and
therefore if different kinds of glafs be differently affe&ed by
a given degree of heat, this will make a feeming difference
in the dilatations of the quickfilver in the thermometers
conftrudled in the Newtonian method, either by Reaumur’s
rules or De ITfle’s. Accordingly it has been found, that
the quickfilver in De PIfle’s thermometers has flood at dif¬
ferent degrees of the fcale when immerged in thawing fnow:
having flood in fome at 1540, wdiile in others it has been at
1560 or even 158°.
, The thermometer prefently ufed in France is called Reau¬
mur’s; but it is very different from the one originally invent¬
ed by Reaumur in 1730, and defcribed in the Memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences. The one invented by Reaumur
was filled with fpirit of wine ; and tho’ its fcale was divided
by the author into 80 parts, of which o was the freezing
point and 80 the boiling water point, yet in fadt 80 was
only the boiling point of the fpirit of wine that he employ¬
ed, which, as Dr Martine computes, correfponded with 180
of hahrenheit. But the thermometer now in ufe in France
is filled with mercury ; and the boiling water point, which is
at 80, corre-'ponds with the 2 i?th degree of Fahrenheit.
The fcale indeed commences at the freezing point, as the old
one did. The new thermometer ought more properly to be
called De Luc’s thermometer, for it was fir ft made by De
Luc; and is in fadt as different from Reaumur’s as it is from
Sir Ifaac Newton’s. When De Luc had fixed the fcale,
and finifhed an account of it, he fliowed the manufcript to
M. De la Condamine. Condamine adviled him to change
tne number 80; remarking, that inch w-as the inattention
of phyficians, that they would probably confound it with
Reaumur s. De Luc’s modefty, as well as a prediiedtiou
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
for the number 80, founded, as he thought, on phiiofophical'Thertn^
reafons, made him decline following this advice. But he meter,
found by experience that the predidion of Condamine was
too woll founded.
The thermometer of Celfius, which is ufed in Sweden, CelfiuA
has a fcale of 100 degrees from the freezing to the boilingthern10*
water point. meter.
Thefe are the principal thermometers now ufed in Europe ;How to
and the temperatures indicated by any of them may be redu-compare
ced into the correfponding degrees on any of the others by tcge-
means of the following fimple canons ; in which R figni-£aer*
fies the degrees on the fcale of Reaumur, F thofe of Fah¬
renheit, and S thofe of the Swedifh thermometer.
1. To convert the degrees of Reaumur into thofe of Fah¬
renheit ;
RX9
+ 32 == F.
of
4. To convert Fahrenheit’s into Swedifh ;
2. To convert the degrees of Fahrenheit into thofe
Reaumur; _ R.
9 • - r
3. To convert the Swedifh degrees into thofe of Fahren-
. . S X o „ r ,
heit;  -4- 32 = F. Lwcfor*
3 ^ ^ Klements of
F—32X3_q. C/jemiJlrj.
9 ’
5. To convert Swedifh degrees into thofe of Reaumur ;
Ai = R.
5
• • R X c
6. To convert Reaumur’s degrees into Swedifh;  A
4
= S.
To fuch readers as are unacquainted with the algebraic
expreffion of arithmetical formulae, it will be fufficient to ex-
prefs one or two of thefe in words to explain their ufe.—
x. Multiply the degree of Reaumur by 9, divide the pro-
du6t by 4, and to the quotient add 32, the fum expreffes
the degree on the fcale of Fahrenheit.—2. From the degree
of Fahrenheit fubtradt 32, multiply the remainder by 4,
and divide the produd?c by 9, the quotient is the degree ac¬
cording to the fcale of Reaumur, &c. s
As many other thermometers have been ufed befides
tbefe, and confequently obfervations taken by them, it is of
importance to have them placed in inch a point of view’- that
they may be eaiily compared with any of thefe four now in
general ufe. We therefore give them in Plate DVII. in
the fame order as they were arranged by Dr Martine in his
valuable Effay on the Conftrudlion and Graduation of Ther¬
mometers, and at the fame time adding thofe of Celfius and
De I.uc. We call it by the name of De Luc for the fake
of diftinguilhing it from Reaumur’s fpirit of wine thermo¬
meter, which may be feen in the fame Plate.
It is unneceffary to defcribe any of thefe more minutely,
as they are no longer ufed. Thofe who wifh to read a more -
particular account of them may confult Dr Martine’s Ef-
iays. ... 30
As in meteorological obfervations it is neceffary to attend Account
to the greateff rife and fall of the thermometer, attempts of felf-regt-
have been made to conffrudl a thermometer which might
regifter the greateft degree of heat, or greateft degree ofters>
cold, which took phxce during the abfence of the obferver. In -t
1757 Lord Charles Caveudifh prefented to the Royal So-Lord
ciety of London a thermometer in two different forms ;
one contrived to mark the greateft degree of heat, and the thermome.
other tire greateft degree of cold. _ ter.
The firft confifts of a glafs tube AB, with a cylindrical piafe
bulb B at the lower end, and capillary at the top, over DVi.
v'hich there is fixed a glafs ball C. The bulb and part of lug. 3.
Ahe tube are filled with mercury, the top of which (hows the
a R degrees
T H E
■ L -
Thermo, degrees of lieat as ufual. T'he upper part of tke futie above
meter. tpe mercury Js filled with fpirit of w'ine ; the ball C is al¬
io filled with the fame liquor almoft to the top of the capillary
tube. When the mercury rifes the fpirit of wine is alfo
xaifed, and falls into the ball C, which is fo made that the
Hquor cannot return into the tube-when the mercury finks;
confequently the height of the fpirit of wine in the ball,
added to that in the tube, will give the greatell degree of
heat to which the thermometer has pointed fince laft obfer-
vation. When a new obfervation is to be made, the inllru-
ment mull be inclined till the liquor in the ball cover the
end of the capillary tube.
In this thermometer it is evident that the mercury mull
be affedled by the weight and elafticity of the fpiritof wine,
and therefore it will not correfpond to any of the common
mercurial thermometers.
The thermometer for /bowing the greateft degree of cold
is reprefented in fig. 4. by the crooked tube ABCD. This
inftrument is filled with fpirit of wine, with the addition of
as much mercury as is fufficient to fill both legs of the fy-
phon, and about a fourth or fifth part of the hollow ball
C. We are not told what the'proportion of mercury was
to that of fpirit of wine. The degrees of heat are fhown
by the rife or fall of the mercury in the leg AB. The ther¬
mometer marks the greateft fall by means of the hollow ball
C. When the mercury in the longer leg finks by cold, that
in the /horter will rife and run ovei into the ball C, from
which it cannot return when the mercury fubfides in the
fhorter and rifes in the longer leg. The upper part of the
friorter leg will therefore be filled with a column of fpi-
rits of a length, proportional to the increafe of heat; the
bottom or lower furface of which, by means of a proper
fcale, will fhow how much the mercury has been lower than
it is ; which being fubtradled from the prefent height will
give the lowcff point to which the mercury has fallen. That
the thermometer may be fitted for a new obfervation, the
mercury muft be made to run back from the ball into the
33 > fhorter leg, by inclining the tube and heating the ball.
Mr Six s In 1 <782 Mr Six propofed another felf-regifterimr ther-
t£r mometer. It is properly a ipint 01 wine thermometer,
Fig. 5. though mercury is alfo employed for fupporting an index.
is a thin tube of glafs 16 inches long, and -/g-ths of an
inch caliber : c d ? anJ /g h are fmaller tubes about ^th of
an inch caliber. Thefe three tubes are filled with highly rec¬
tified fpirit of wine, except the fpace between d and
which is filled with mercury. As the fpirit of wine con¬
tracts or expands in the middle tube, the mercury falls or
rifes in the outfide tubes. An index, fuch as that repre¬
fented in fig. 6. is placed on the furface, within each of
thefe tubes, fo light as to float upon it. i is a finall glafs
tube |ths of an inch long, hermetically fealed at each end,
and inclofing a piece of fteel wire nearly of its own length.
At each end /, m, of this fm&H tube, a fhort tube of black
glafs is fixed, of fuch a diameter as to pafs freely up and
down within either of the outfide tubes of the thermometer
ceav fh. From the upper end of the index is drawn a
ipring of glafs to the finenefs of a 'hair, and about -f-ths of
an inch long ; which being placed a little oblique, preffes
lightly againft the inner fur!ace of the tube, and prevents
the index from defeending when the mercury defeends.
Thefe indexes being inferred one into each of the outfide
tubes, it is ea-fy to underftand how they point out the great¬
eft heat or cold that has happened in the obferver’s abfence.
When the fpirit of wine in the middle tube expands, it pref¬
fes down the mercury in the tube h/, and confequently
raifes it in the tube ec ; confequently the index on the left
hand tube is left behind and marks the greateft cold, and
r 49® i
THE
the index in the right hand tube rifes and marks the great- Theme*
eft heat. meter.
In 1790 a paper was given into the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, deferibing two thermometers, newly invented,Ruther-
by Dr John Rutherford of Middle Baililh ; the one for re-ford’s ther.
giftering the higheft and the other for regiftering the low- rnotneter.
eft degree of heat to which the thermometer has rilen or
fallen during the abfence of the obferver. An account of
them may be found in the third volume of the TranfaClions
of the Society. 34
A new felf-regiftering thermometer has more lately been Mr Keith';
invented by Mr Keith of Ravelftone, which we confider asc^lirmoiU(:"
the moft ingenious, fimple, and perfesft, of any which has
hitherto appeared. Its fimplicity is fo great, that it
requires only a very fhort defeription to make it intelli¬
gible.
AB is a thin glafs tube about 14 inches long and ^ths of Fig. 7,
an inch caliber, clofe or hermetically fealed at top. To the
lower end, which is open, there is joined the crooked glafs
tube BE, feven inches long, and T%ths of an inch caliber,
and open at top. The tube AB is filled with the ftrongeft
fpirit of wine, and the tube BE with mercury. This is
properly a fpirit of wine thermometer, and the mercury is
ufed merely to fupport a piece of ivory or glafs, to which
is affixed a wire for raffing one index or depreffing another,
according as the mercury rifes or falls. E is a fmall coni¬
cal piece of ivory or glafs, of fuch a weight as to float on
the furface of the mercury. To the float is joined a wire
called the float-wire, which reaches upwards to H, where it
terminates in a knee bent at right angles. The float-wirej
by means of an eye at a, moves eafily along the fmall harp-
ficliord wire GK. LL are two indexes made of thin black
oiled filk, which Aide upwards or downwards w ith a force
not more than two grains. The one placed above the knee
points out the greateft rife, and the one placed below it
points out the greateft fall, of the thermometer.
When the inftrument is to be prepared for an obfervationj
both.indexes are to be brought clofe to the knee H. It is
evident, that when the mercury rifes, the float and float wire}
which can be moved with thefmalleft force, will be pufhed
upwards till the mercury become ftationary. As the knee
of the float-wire moves upwards it will carry along with it
the upper index L. When the mercury again fubfider, it
leaves the index at the hfgheft point to which it.was railed,
for it will not defeend by its own weight : As the mercury
falls the float-wire does the fame ; it therefore brings along
with it the lower index T, and continues to deprefs it till it
again become ftationary orafeend in the tube ; in which cafe
it leaves the lower index behind it as it had formerly left the
upper. The fcale to which the indexes point is placed pa¬
rallel to the /Tender harpfichord wire. It may be feen more
diftincftly in fig. 8. That the feale and indexes may not be
injured by the wind and rain, a cylindrical edafs cover, clofe
at top, and made fo as to exadlly fit the part FG, is placed
over it.
The ingenious inventor has another improvement in con¬
templation, which, if upon trial it be found to anfwer, will
make this thermometer as perfedl as can be defired, provi¬
ded there do not arife fome errors from the variable pre/fure
of the atmoiphere. Fie propofes to adopt clock-work ta
this thennorneter, in fuch a way as to regifter with the ut-
moft precifion the degrees of heat and cold for every month,
day, and minute in the year. The principles on which this
clockwork is to be formed we /hall forbear to deferibe,
hoping that the author himfelf, after his experiment has met-
with the fuccefs which we ardently wifh, wilt favour the
world with his own account of it>
Th«
35
M- De
Jjlic’s flip-
pofed im¬
prove¬
ments.
36
Mr Caval-
THE [ 499
Thtf fatte ingenious gentleman lias Invented a felf-regifter-
ing barofiieter, upon the fan e principles with his felf-regi-
ftering thermometer. We have had the pleaiure of feeing
both ; and are convinced that they will fully gratify the
whiles bf all who are engaged in meteorological tludies. He
is aifo in expectation of being foOn able to produce an air-
thermoYneter free from the defefts of thofe which were
formerly made, as he has found out a way of preventing
it from being'affected by the preffure of the atmofphere.
M. De Luc has defcribed the beft method of conftruCt-
ing a thermometer, fit for determining the temperature of
the air, in the menfuration of heights by the barometer.
He has aifo fhown how to divide the fcale of a thermometer,
fo as to adapt it for adronomical purpofes in the obfervation
t)f refractions.
1 ha - o C2^0’ *n I78tj propofed the conftruCtion of a
pofefi a™" barometer, w^hich, by means of boiling wa-
tiicrmome- ter, might indicate the various gravity of the atmofphere,
trical bare-or the height of the barometer. But as he does not fay
muer. t^at t|ie inftrument has been tried with the defired fuccefs,
wtc forbear to deferibe it. Thofe who wifh to know his
ideas refpeCting it may confult the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, vol. Ixxi. p. 524.
The thermometers hitherto defcribed are very limited in
their extent; they indeed point out to us the loweftdegrees
tof heat which are commonly obferved even in cold climates,
but they by no means reach to thofe degrees of heat which
are very familiar to us. The mercurial thermometer extends
no farther than to 600 of Fahrenheit’s fcale, the heat of boil¬
ing mercury ; but we are fare that the heat of folid bodies,
when heated to ignition, or till they emit light, far exceeds
the heat of boiling mercury.
In order to remedy this defeCt, Sir Ifaac Newton, whofe
I method of genius overcame thofe obftacles which ordinary minds could
<!Te'‘djn£ fiot approach, attempted by an ingenious experiment to ex-
e>iWTtLr-ten^ ^ t0 any degree requir ed. Having heated a
Urometer. rna^s *ron red-hot, and expofed it to the cold air, he ob¬
ferved the time which elapied till it became cold, or of the
fame temperature with the air; and when the heat fo far
decreafed that he could apply forne known meafure (as a
thermometer) to it, he obferved the degrees of heat loft in
given times ; and thence drew the general conclufion, that
the quantities of heat loft in given fmall fpaces are al¬
ways proportional to the heat remaining in the body,
reckoning the heat to be the excefs by which it is warmer
than the ambient air. So that taking the number of mi-
37
The ther¬
mometers
deferihed
above too
limited.
Sir Ifaac
Newton’s
nines which it took to cool after it came to a determined
Narfmc't Point ^ an ar‘t;limet'cal pronrefiion, the decrements of the
tjfays, heat of the iron would be continually proportional. Ha¬
ying by this proportion found out the decrements of heat
in a given time after it came to a known point, it was
eafy, by carrying upwards the fame proportion to the be¬
ginning of its cooling, to determine the greateft heat which
the body had acquired. This proportion of Sir Ifaac’s
was found by Dr Marline to be fomewhat inaccurate. The
heat of a cooling body does not decreafe exadfly in propor¬
tion to that which the body retains. As the refult of many
cbfervations, he found that two kinds of proportion took
place, an arithmetical as well as the geometrical propor¬
tion which Sir Ifaac Newton had adopted ; namely, that
the decrements of heat were partly proportional to the
times (that is, that quantities of heat are loft in equal
times), as well as partly in proportiqn to the remaining
heat ; and that if thefe two are added together the rule will
be fufficiently accurate. By the geometrical proportion
which Sir Ifaac Newton adopted he difeovered the heat of
metals red-hot or in fufion.
1 T H E
I his method, fo fuccefsfully purfued by Sir Ifaac, was Thermo-
fufficient to form a icale of high degrees of heat, but was nuter-
not convenient for practical purpoles. Accordingly the 1^ J
ingenious Mr Jofiah Wedg wood, who is well known for Mr ^
his great improvement in the art of pottery, applied himfelf Wechr-
in order to difeover a thermometer which might be eafilywood’s
managed. After many experiments recorded in the Phi-^'^”®’1’®'
lofophical Tranfaftions, but which it is unnecefiary to detail meafunng
in this place, he has invented a thermometer which marks high de-
with much preciiion the different degrees of ignition from^'rees ®*"
a dull red heat vifible in the dark to the heat of an air-111^
furnace. This thermometer is extremely fimple. It con-
fifts of two rulers fixed upon a fmooth fkt plate, a little
farther afunder at the one end thgn at the other, leaving an
open longitudinal fpace between them. Small pieces of alum
and clay mixed together are made ©f fuch a fize as juft to en¬
ter at the wide end ; they are then heated in the fire along
with the body whofe heat we wifh to determine. The fire, ac¬
cording to the degree of heat it contains, diminifhes or con-
trafts the earthy body, fo that when applied to the wide end
of the gage, it will Hide on towards the narrow end, lefs or
more according to the degree of heat to which it has been
expofed. _ _ 40
That this inftrument may be perfe&ly underftood, we Defcribed,
have given a reprefentation of it in Plate DVI. fig. 9.
ABCD is a fmooth flat plate; and EF and GH two
rulers or flat pieces, a quarter of an inch thick, fixed flat
upon the plate, with the fides that are towards one another
made perfefkly true, a little farther afunder at one end EG
than at the other end EH : thus they include between them
a long converging canal, which is divided on one fide into a
number of fmall equal parts, and which may be confidered as
performing the offices both oc the tube and fcale of the com¬
mon thermometer. It is obvious, that if a body, fo ad- -philofoM-
jufted as to fit exaftly at the wider end of this canal, be after-ca/ rfcanf-
wards diminifhed in its bulk by fire, as the thermometera,si<m> v°h
pieces are, it will then pafs further in the canal, and more'Xilv*
and more fo according as the diminution is greater ; and
converfely, that if a body, fo adjufted as to pafs on to the
narrow end, be afterwards expanded by fire, as is the cafe
with metals, and applied in that expanded ftate to the fcale,
it will not pafs fo far ; and that the divifions on the fide will
be the meafures of the expanfio.ns ©f the one, as of the con-
traftions of the other, reckoning in both cafes from that
point to which the body was adjufted at firft.
1 is the body whofe alteration of bulk is thus to be mea-
fured. This is to be gently pufhed or Aid along towards the
end FH, till it is flopped by the converging fides of the
canal.
Mr "W edgwood at firft ufed clay for his thermometer pieces JThernm-
but he foon found it impoffible to procure frefh fupplies of the ter piece'!,
fame quality. He«therefore had recoui'fe to.an artificial prepa-of w>lat
ration. As the earth of alum is the pure argillaceous earth tocomfoicc*>
which all clays owe their property o! diminifhing in the fire,
he mixed fome of this earth with the clay, and found it to
anfwer his wiflies completely, both in procuring the necef-
fary degree of diminution and of increafing its unvitrefeibi-
lity. The only way of afeertainiug the proportion of alum
earth to be added is by repeated trials. Mr Wedgwood
found that 10 hundred weight of the porcelain clay of Corn¬
wall required all the earth that was afforded bv five hundred
weight of alum. But as the clay or alum differs in quali¬
ty, the proportion will aifo differ. There can now, how¬
ever, be no difficulty in making thermometers of this kind, as
common clay anfwcrs the purpofe very well, and alum-earth
can eafily be procured. Thofe w ho wifh to fee a more par¬
ticular account of this fubjedf may perufe Mr Wedgwood's
3 R 2 ’ papers
THE
41
Scale of
heat.
THE [ 500
papers in the Philofophical Tranfadtions for 1782, 1784,
, and 1786.
As Mr Wedgwood’s thermometer begins at the loweft
degree of ignition, and Fahrenheit’s goes no higher than the
boiling point of mercury, Mr Wedgwood continued to fill
up the interval of the Icale by ufing a piece of filver inftead
of his common thermometer pieces ; and in this way he has
found out that 130 degrees of Fahrenheit are equal to one
or his. Fie has accordingly, by obferving this proportion,
continued Fahrenheit’s fcale to the top of his own. Wb
are now therefore enabled to give a fcale of heat from the
higheft degree of heat produced by an air-furnace to the
greateft degree of cold hitheito known, which was pro¬
duced at rludfon’s Bay in December 1784 by a mixture of
vitriolic acid and fnow. Of the remarkable degrees between
thefe extreme points we (hall now lay before our readers a
fcale.
]
Extremity of Wedgewood’s fcale
Greateft heat of his imail air-furnace
Cafl iron melts
Greatefl heatofajeommon fmith’s forge
Welding heat of iron, greatefl
 leait
Fine gold melts
Fine filver melts
Swedifh copper melts
Brais melts
Jtleat by which his enamel colours are
burnt on » ,
Red-heat fully vifible in day-light
Red-heat fully vifible in the dark
Mercury boils, alio lintfeed and other
exprefled oils
Oil of turpentine boils
Sulphuric acid boils
Lead melts ...
Bifmuth melts
Tin melts . .
Sulphur melts
Nitrous acid boils
Cows milk boils
Water Boils
Human urine boils
Brandy boils
Alcohol boils
fcale.
32277'
21877
17977
H327
13427
12777
5237
471?
4587
3^c7
1857
i°77
947
600
560
546
540
460
408
244
242
2I3
212
206
190
174
fcale.
240°
160
130
I2J
95
90
32
28
27
21
Serum of blood and white of eggs harden 156
Bees wax melts
Heat of the air near Senegal fometimes
Hens hatch eggs about
Heat of birds from
Heat of domeftic quadrupeds from
Heat of the human body
Heat of a Iwarm of bees
FRat of the ocean under the equator
Butter melts
Vitriolic acid of the fpecific gravity of 1780
freezes at - . ^
Oil of olives begins to congeal - 43
Heat of hedgehogs and marmots in a torpid
fiate - . . 394
Water freezes and fnow melts 32
Milk freezes - - 30
Urine and common vinegar freezes 28
Bluman blood freezes - - 23
Strong wines freeze « a 20
142
111
108
103 to nr
100 to 103
92 to 99
97
80
74
A mixture of one part of alcohol and three
.parts of water freezes
A mixture of fnow and fait freezes
Brandy, or a mixture of equal parts of alcohol
and water, freezes
Spirit of wine in Reaumur’s thermometer
froze at Torneo
Me RCURY FREEZES
Cold produced by Mr Macnab at Hudfon’s
Isay by a mixture of vitriolic acid and
fnow - _
Fahrenheit’s
fcale,
7
o to 4
— 7
Thermo^
pylas
Thefeus.
34
• 39 or 40
Fahrenheit’s Wedgwood’s
— 69
T HERMOPYLiE, (anc. geog.) ; a narrow pafs or
defile, between the walk of the Sinus Maliacns; on the
eafl and fteep mountains, reaching to Oeta, made dreadful
by unpaflable woods ; on the weft, leading from Theffaly
to Locn's and Bceotia. Thefe mountains divide Greece in
the middle, in the fame manner as the Apennine does Italy;
forming one continued ridge from Leucate on the weft to the
fea on the eait, with thickets and rocks interfperied ; that
perfons even prepared for travelling, much lefs an army en¬
cumbered with baggage, cannot eafily find a commodious
pafiage. hr the valley verging towards the Sinus Maliacus,
the road is only fixty paces broad ; the only military wav
for an army to pafs, if not obftruaed by an enemy ; and
therefore _ the place is called jRy/a, and by others, on ac¬
count of its hot water, TbermepyU. Ennobled by the brave
ftand made by X.eonidas and three hundred Spartans againft
the whole army of Periia; and by the bold refolution of
blind Euthycus, choofmg rather to fall there in fight, than
return to Sparta, and elcape the common danger. Famous
alfo for the Amphyctiones, the common council or ftates
general of Greece, afiembling there twice a year, fpring
and autumn. For an account of the battle of Thermopyla;
at which Leonidas with a handful of men engaged the Per-
fian army, fee Sparta.
_ THESEA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated by the Athe¬
nians in honour of Thefeus, confifting of fports and games,
with mirth and banquets ; fuch as were poor and unable
to contribute to them were entertained at the public ex¬
pence
i HESEUS, a famous hero of antiquity ranked among
the demi gods, whofe hiftory is fabulous. He was the re¬
puted fon of iEgeus king of Athens. He threw Sciron, a
cruel robber, down a precipice ; faftened Procruftes tyrant
of Attica to a bending pine, which being let loofe tore him
alunder; killed the Minotaur kept in the labyrinth by king
Minos, in Crete ; and by the affiftance of that prince’s
daughter, Ariadne, who gave him a clue, efcaped out of
that labyrinth, and failed with his deliverer to the ifle of
Naxos, where he had the ingratitude to leave her.
Thefeus afterwards overcame the Centaurs, fubdued the\
Thebans, and defeated the Amazons. He affilted his friend
Pirithous in his expedition to the infernal regions to cany
off Proferpine ; but was imprifoned by Pluto, till he was
releafed by Hercules. He is alfo faid to have eftablifhed
the Ifthmean games, in honour of Neptune ; to have united
the twelve cities of Attica ; and to have founded a re¬
public there, 1236 B. C. Some time after, taking a
voyage into Epirus, he was feized by Aidonius king, of the
Moloffians ; meanwhile Mendlheus rendered himfelf mafter
of Athens. But at length Thefeus being releafed from
prifon, retired to Scyros, where king Lycomedes caufed
him to be thrown from the top of a rock. Thefeus had fe-
veral wives ; the firft of whom was Helena the daughter
of Tyndarus ; the fecond, Hypolita queen of the Amazons;
and the laft, Phedra filler to Ariadne, who punilhed him
for
tM ti t < * DV1.
Thermo Mii t e r .
THE L 501 j T H T
Thefn for his infidelity to her filter, by her inceftuous pnffion for
11 his fon Hippolitus.
Thetis. THESIS, a general poftion which a perfon advances,
and offers to maintain. In taking degrees in univerfities, the
candidates are generally obliged to write a thefis, which they
muff afterwards defend,
THES1UM, base fluellin, hi botany ; a genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and order of mo~
nojynia. The calyx is monophyllous, with the ffamina in-
ferted into it: there is only one feed, which is inferior.
There are 17 fpecies ; one of which is a Britilh plant, the
Tmophyllum or baitard toad-flax. It has a foliaceous panicle
with linear leaves, and flowers in June and July.
THESPIS, a-famous Greek tragic poet, and the firff
reprefenter of tragedy at Athens. Pie carried his troop
from village to village in a waggon, from which they per¬
formed their pieces. Alceftis was the firft tragedy they
performed at Athens, 536 B. C. See Theatre.
Tup seal ian Chair, fo called from Theffaly, where chairs
of this figure were moil in ufe ; it is recommended by Hip-
* lib. de pocrates * in place of a machine for reducing a recent
A'*' luxation of the fhoulder bone. The back of this chair is
perpendicular to the feat, as Galen tells us ; by which con-
Ihudion it is diffinguiihed and accommodated to the ope¬
ration.
THESSALY, a country of Greece, whofe boundaries
have been different at different periods. Properly fpeaking,
Theffaly was bounded on the fouth by the fouthern parts
of Greece, or Gracia Propria ; call, by the iEgean ; north,
by Macedonia and Mygdonia ; and well, by Illyricum and
Itpirus. It was generally divided into four leparate pro¬
vinces, Theffaliotis, Pelafgiotis, Iftiasotis, and Phthiotis, to
which fome add Magnolia. It has been feverally called
JLmonta, Pelafgicum, Argos, Hellas, Argeia, JDryopis, Pelafgia,
Itmpnert s Pyrrh.ta, &c; The name of Theffaly is derived from Thef-
Diaionary. falus, one of its monatchs. Theflaly is famous for a deluge
which happened there in the age of Deucalion. Its moun¬
tains and cities are alfo celebrated, fuch as Olympus, Pelion,
Ofla, Larifla, &c. i he Argonauts were partly natives of
Theflaly. The inhabitants of the country paffed for a
treacherous nation, fo that falfe money was called Thejfalian
coin, and a perfidious a&ion a The/falian deceit. Theffaly
was originally governed by kings, till it became fubjeft to
the Macedonian monarchs. 'i he cavalry was univerfally
efteemed, and the people were fuperftitious and addi&ed to
the ftudy of magic and incantations. See Lucan. 6. v. 438,
&c. ; Dionyf. 219 ; Curt. 3- c. 2 ; JElian, V. H. p>. c. 1 ;
Pauf. 4. c. 36. 1. 10. c. 1 ; Mela. 2. c. 3 ; Jupn 7. c. 6 ;
Diod. 4,
iheffaly is now called Janm, a province of European
Turkey, bounded by Macedonia on the north, by the Archi¬
pelago on the eaft, by Achaia or Livadia on the fouth, and
by Epii us on the weft.
THETIS, in Pagan mythology’-, the wife of Oceanus,
ano the mother of Nereus and Dons, who were married to
each other; and from this marriage fprung the nymphs of
the earth and fea. Among the fea nymohs there was one
named Thetis the Younger, who excelled all the reft in beauty,
and for -whom Jupiter conceived fuch a paffion, that he re-
folved to efpoufe her : but being informed by the Deftinies
that fhe would bring forth a fon who would rife above his
father, he married her to Peleus. To their nuptials all the
gods and goddeffes were invited except Difcord, who, to
be revenged for this contempt, threw a golden apple into
the affembly, on which was engraven, For the fairejl'. Ju¬
no, Pallas, and Venus, dhputed for this apple; but Paris
it-mg chofen to decide the difference, adjudged it to Venus,
i-'rom tins marriage of Thetis and Peleus fprung Achilles.
THEURGY, &eevpyi<xf a name which the ancients gave Theurgy;
to that facred part of magic which we fometimes call ’isihite
magic, or the ’white art. x J "" .
The word is formed from ©fa?, “ Ged,” and f/>>av ‘‘work;”
q. d. the art of doing divine things, or things which God
alone can do : or the power of working extraordinary and
fupernatural things, by invoking the names of God, faints,
angels, &c. Accordingly, thole who have written of ma¬
gic in general, divide it into three parts; the firft where¬
of is called theurgy, as operating by divine or celeftial means;
the fecond, natural magic, performed by the powers of na¬
ture ; and the third, comprehending necromancy, forcery,,
and 'witchcraft or magic, performed by the affiftance of de¬
mons or departed men. See Magic.
THIBET. See Tibet.
THIGH, in anatomy. See Anatomv, n° 58.
THINKING, a general name for any adt or operation'
of the mind. See Metaphysics.
1 HI RE AGE. See Law, n0 clxx. 12—18.
THIRST, an uneafy fenfation arifing from a deficiency
of the faliva to moiften the inward parts of the mouth.
Hence arifes a ilrong deiire for drink ; and thirft is a fymp-
tom generally attending fevers of all kinds.—Thirft is beib
allayed by acids; water kept a while in the mouth, then
{pit out, and repeated as required ; a bit of bread chewed
with a little water, which latter may be gradually {wallow¬
ed ; if the perfon is very hot, brandy is the beft for holding
in the mouth, but fhould be ipit out again : except in fe¬
vers, large draughts of cold water are hurtful,
Prejtrvation againjl Hunger and Thirst. See Hun¬
ger.
THISTLE, a well known weed in corn-fields. In
Britain there are eight fpecies of thiftles according to the
vulgar arrangement; the card uus lanceolatus or fuear-thiftk,
the nutans or mulk thiftle, the paluftris or niarfli thiftle,
the marianus or milk-thiilie, acanthoides or welted-thiftk*,
crifpus or curled-thiftle, onopordum acanthium or cot-
ton-thiftle, ferratula arvenfis or corn-thiftle. All thefe, ex¬
cept the laft, are annual or biennial, and therefore may
be eaiily' dellroyed by cutting them down before their
feed ripens ; but the ferratula arvenfis is perennial, con¬
tinues in the earth increafing and throwing uo new fhooto
every year. Mr Curtis alcertained the annual increafe of
its root, by planting in a garden a piece of the root two
inches long and about the thicknefsof a goole’s quill, and a
fmall head of leaves. By the 2d of November the root
had extended itfelf eight feet, and when dug and wafhed it
weighed four pounds.
As to the ufes of the thiftle, they are not well known.
The corn-thiftle is eaten by the afs, and formerly was pull¬
ed with great care by the farmers in fame parts of Scotland
aw food for their horf’es. For a botanical defeription of the
different kinds of thiftle, fee Carduus, Cactus, Dipsaus,,
Onopordum, Serratula, Sonchus.
Order of the Thistle, or of St Andrew, a military order
of knighthood in Scotland, the rife and inftkution of which
is varioufly related by different authors. Lefley bilbo’s of
Rofs reports, that the night before the battle between
Athelftan king of Northumberland and Hunjue king of
the Piets, a bright crofs, in form of that whereon St
Andrew (the tutelar faint of Scotland) fuffered martyrdom,
appeared to Htingus ; who having gained the vidhory, ever
after bore the figure of that crofs on his banners. Others
affert, that Achaius king of Scotland firft inftituted this
order, after having made the famous league offe-nfive and
defenfiye with Charlemagne king of France. But although
the thiftle had been acknowledged as the fymbol of the
kingdom of Scotland from the reign of Achaius, yet
6 fome
T H O [ JC2 ] T H O N
Thlapfi fome refer tKe beginning of this order to Charles VTI. of
II France. Others place the foundation of it as low as the
Thomas.
l year 1500. 1
The chief and principal enfign is a gold collar compofed
of thiftles and fprigs of rue interlinked with amulets of
.gold, having pendent thereto the image of St Andrew
.with his crofs, and t?fe motto, Nemo ms impune laces-
- set. “ No body {hall provoke me with impunity.”
The ordinary-or common enfign worn by the knights is
, a liar of four iilver points, and over them a green circle,
-bordered and lettered with gold, containing the faid
-motto, and in the centre is a thiftle ; all which is em-
-broidered on their left bread, and worn with the collar,
with a green riband over the left {houlder, and brought
under the right anu ; pendent thereto is the image of
St Andrew, with his crofs, in a purple robe, within an oval
/of gold enamelled vert, with the former motto ; but fome-
times they wear, encirled in the fame manner, a thiftle
crowned.
About the time of the Reformation, this order was
dropped, till James II. of Great Britain refumed it, by crea¬
ting eight knights. The Revolution unfettled it again ;
. and it lay negledted, till queen Anne, in 1703, redo red it to
the primitive defign, of twelve knights of St Andrew.
THLAPSI, bastard-cress, or mithridate-mujlard, in
botany : A genus of plants belonging to the clafs of te-
tradynamicii and order o\filiculofa ; and in the natural fydem
-ranging under the 39th order, Siliquofa. The pod is emar-
ginated, obcordate, and polyfpermous; the valves are boat-
-ihaped and marginato-cariuated. There are I2fpecies; of
which fix only are natives of Britain, the arvenfe, hirtum-t
■campejire, montanum7 perfollatum, and lurfa pajlorh*
r. The arvenfe, treacle-mudard or penny-crefs, has orbi-
culate pods, and leaves oblong, fmooth, and fcalloped. It
fmells like garlic, and has a white flower. 2. The hirtum,
or perennial mithridate- mudard, has roundifh hairy pods ;
the cauline leaves are fagittate and villous. 3. 1 he cam-
pejlre, or mithridate-mudard, has roundifti pods, fagittate
leaves, dentated and hairy. 4. Montanum, or mountain mi-
thridate mudard, has obcordate pods, fmooth leaves; the
radical leaves fornewhat flefhy, obovate and entire; the cau¬
line embracing the dalk, and the corolla being larger than
the calyx. 5. The perfoliatum, or perfoliate treacle-mudard,
has obcordate pods ; the cauline leaves are fmooth and fub-
dentate ; the petals of the length of the calyx, and the
dalk branchy. 6. The burfa pajhris, or fliepherd’s purfe,
has obcordate pods ; the radical leaves are pinnatifid.
The feeds of fome of thefe fpecres have an acrid biting
tade, approaching to that of the common mudard ; with
Lcivh's which they agree nearly in their pharmaceutic properties.
Ijs'Udka r-f hey are rarely made ufe of any otherwrfe than as ingre-
vol. lip. dients in the compofitions whofe names they bear ; though
,4129. fome recommend them in different diforders, preferably to
the common mudard.
THOLOUSE. See Toulouse.
THOMiEANS., Thomists. See Christians of St
Thomas.
THOMAS Aquinas. See Aquinas.
St Thomas’s Day, a fedival of the Chridian church, ob-
ferved on December 2t. in commemoration of St 'Ihomas
the apodle.
St Thomas of Canterbury’s Day, a fedival of the Ro-
ruifh church, cbferved on December 29. in memory of Tho-
Thnnut,
Thomifni.
mas Becket archbifhop of Canterbury, who was murdered,
or, as the Romanids fay, martyred, in the reign of king
Henry II. ' *
Thomas the Reymour, called alfo Thomas Lermont, and
Thomas of Erceldor, was born at Erceldon, a village near
Melrofe in Tweedale, in what year is uncertain ; but he
was an okl man when Edward I. was carrying on war
in Scotland.
The character of Lermont as a prophet, and which was
common to him with Linus, Orpheus, and other early poets
in many countries, arofe, if we may believe Mackenyie in his
Lives of Scottifh Writers, from his having conferences with
Eliza, a nun and prophetefs at Haddington. Lermont put
her prediilions into verfe, and thus came in for his {hare of
the prophetic fpirit. None of thefe ancient prophecies now P!f,ifrtns
remain; bat the following, which pretends to be one of ^
them, is given from a manufeript of the time of Edward
or II. The countefs of Dunbar is the lady famous for the
defence of her cadle againd the Englilh. Her proper title
was Ccuntefs of March ; but it was common in thefe times
to dyle a nobleman from his chief refidence. Thus Gilbert
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, is called Earl of Strigull,
from his refidence at Striguil cadle, near Chepltow, Mon-
mo uthfh ire, &c.
La Countejfe de Donbar demands a Thomas de EJfedome,
quant la guere d’Efcoce prendreit fyn. E yl l’a repeundy, ct dyt*
When man as mad a kyng of a capped mon.
When mon is levere other rrtons thyng than is owen.
When londe thouys fored, and forelt ys felde.
When harts kendles othe herdon.
When Wyt and Wiile werres togedere.
When mon makes iiables of kyrkes; and deles cadles
wyth dyes.
When Rokefbourh nys no burgh; ant market is at For-
wyleye.
When the aide is gan, and the newe is come that doue
noht.
When Bambourne ys donged with dede men.
When men ledes men in ropes to buyen ant to fellen.
When a quarter of whaty whete is chaunged for a colt
of ten markes.
When prude ptikes, ant pees is leyd in prifoun.
V/hcn a Scot ne may hym hude afe hare in forme, that
the Englyfh ne flial hym fynde.
When ryht ant wrong adente the togedere.
When laddes weddeth lovedies.
When Scottes flen fo fade, that for faute of {hip, hy
drouneth hemfelve.
When dial this be ?
Nouther in thine tyme, ne in myne.
Ah comen, ant gone,
Withinne twenty wynter ant on.
In fa<?c, the prophecies of Lermont appear to have been
merely traditional; nay, it feems doubtful if he ever pre¬
tended to fuch folly, notwithdanding Mackenyie’s dory of
Eliza. The reverence of the people for a learned and re-
fpedtable charadler feems to have been the foie foundation
of Thomas’s claim to prophecy. But, in the 16th cen-
Tury, prophecies were made, and aferibed to him, as well
as others given to Bede, Merlin, &c. (a). They were
printed at Edinburgh, 1615, reprinted 1680, and I742*
THOMISM. See Aquinas.
THOMSON
(a) Sibilla and Banider Anglicus are mentioned in the time of Edward IV. (MSS Cot. Dom. A IX.) A long
Latin prophecy of Bridlington is there given. Waidhave and Eltraine feem alfo Engliflr prophets. In the whole tot*
.iediion, therefore, Thomas is the only Scottifh one.
T H O r 1 T H O
TVmfon. THOMSON (James), an excellent Brltifli poet, the fon
of a Scotch divine, was born in the (hire of Roxburgh in
1700, and was educated in the univerlity of Edinburgh
with a view to the miniftry. But his genius inclining him
to the ftudy of poetry, which he foon found would be in¬
compatible with that of theology, or at leail might prevent
his being provided for in that way in his own country, he
relinquifhed his views of engaging in the facred function,
and repaired to London in conic quence of fome encourage¬
ment wh'ch he had received from a lady of quality there, a
friend of his mother.
The reception he met with wherever he was introduced,
emboldened him to riilc the publication of his excellent
poem on Winter.—This piece was publilhed in 1726 ; and
from the univerfal applaufe it met with, Mr Thomfoids
acquaintance was courted by people of the firft taile and
falhion. But the chief advantage which it procured him
was the acquaintance of Dr Bundle, afterward bifhop of
Derry, who introduced him to the late lord chancellor Tal¬
bot ; and fome years after, when the eldeft fon of that no¬
bleman was to make his tour on the continent, Mr Thornfon
was chofen as a proper companion for him. The exoedta-
tions which his Winter had raifed, wrere fuky fatislied by the
fuccefiive publications of the'other feafons ; of Summer, in
the year 1727; of Spring, in the following year; and of
Autumn, in a quarto edition of his works, in 1730. Be-
fide the Seafons, and his tragedy of Sophonilba, written and
afted with applaufe in the year 1729, he had, in 1727,
publifhed his poem to the memory of Sir Ifaac Newton,
with an account of his chief dilcoveries ; in which he was
affifted by his friend Mr Gray, a gentleman well verfed in
the Newtonian philofophy. That fame year the refentment
of our merchants, for the interruption of their trade by the
Spaniards in America, running very high, Mr Thomfon
zealoufly took part in it, and wrote his Britannia, to roufe
the nation to revenge.
\\ ith the Honourable Charles Talbot, our author viirted
molt ot the courts in Europe, and returned with his views
greatly enlarged ; not only ot exterior nature and the works
oi art, but of human life and manners, and of the conlti-
tution and policy ot the feveral Hates, their connections*,
and their religious inftitutions. How particular and judi¬
cious his obfcrvations were, we fee in his poem on Liberty,
begun foon after his return to England. We fee at the
fame time to what a high pitch his care of his country was
railed, by tne comparifons he had all along been making
of our happy government with thofe of other nations. To
infpire his fellow-fubjecfts with the like fentiments, and Ihovv
them by what means the precious freedom we enjoy may be
preferved, and how it may be abufed or loft, he employed
two years in compofing that noble work, upon which he
valued himfclf more than upon all his other writings. On
his return to England with Mr Talbot (who foon after
died), the chancellor made him his fecretary of briefs ; a
place of little attendance, fuiting his retired indolent way
or liie, and equal to all his wants. From this office he was
removed, when death, not long after, deprived him of his
noble patron. He then found himfelf reduced to a Hate of
precarious dependence. In this fkuation, having created
iome few debts, and his creditors finding that he had no
longer any certain fupport, became inexorable; and imagi-
ned by confinement to force that from his friends, which
his rnodefty would not permit him to afk. One of tbefe
occanons furnifhed Quin, the celebrated actor, with an op-
porturmy of difplaying the natural goodnefs of his heart,
and the dilmtereftednefs of his friendfhip. Hearing that
ihomion was confined in a fpunging houfe for a debt of
a out 7c 1. he repaired to the plage.; and, having inquned
for him, was introduced to the bard. Thomfon was a good Thomfon,
deal difeoncerted at feeing Qiiin, as he had always taken ^
pains to conceal his wants ; and the more fo, as Quin told
him he was come to fup with him. His anxiety upon this
head was however removed, upon Quin’s informing him,
that, as he fuppofed it would have been inconvenient to-
have had the lupper dreffed in the place they were in, he
had ordered it from an adjacent tavern ; and, as a prelude,.
half a dozen of claret was introduced. Supper being over,
and the bottle circulating pretty brilkly, Quin faid, “ It is
time now we fhould balance accounts.” This aflonifhed
Thomfon, who imagined he had fome demand upon him; but
Quin perceiving it, continued, “ Mr Thomfon, the pleafure
1 have had in perufing your works I cannot eftimate at lefs
than a hundred pounds, and I infill upon now acquitting
the debt.” On faying this, he put down a note of that
value, and took his leave, without waiting for a reply.
The profits arifing from his works wrere not inconfider-
able; his tragedy of Agamemnon, afted in 1738, yielded
a good fum. But his chief dependence was upon the
prince of Wales, who fettled on him a handfome allowance,
and honoured him with many marks of particular favour,
Notwithftanding this, however, he was refufed a licence for
his tragedy of Edward and Eleanora, which he had pre¬
pared for the llage in the year 1736, for fome political rea-
fons. Mr Thomfon’s next performance was the Mafque of
Alfred, written in the year 1740 jointly with Mr Mallet,
by the command of the prince of Wales, for the entertain-
ment of his royal highnefs’s court at Clifden, his lummer
refidence,
Mr Thomfon’s poem, entitled the Caftle of Indolence,
v/as his laft work publifhed by himfelf; his tragedy of Co-
riolanus being only prepared for the theatre, when a fatal
accident robbed the woild of one of the bell of men and
beft of poets. He would commonly walk the diflance be-
tween London and Richmond (where he lived) with any
acquaintance that offered, with whom Ire might chat and
reft himfelf, or perhaps dine by the way. One fummer
evening being alone in his walk from town to Hammerimith,
he had over-heated himlelf, and in that condition impru¬
dently took a boat to carry him to Kew; apprehending no
bad confequence from the chill air on the river, which his
walk to his houfe, towards the upper end of Kew-lane, had
always hitherto prevented. But now the cold had fo feized.
mm, that the next day he was in a high fever. This,
however, by the ufe or proper medicines, was removed,
fo that he was thought Out ot danger; till the fine weather
having tempted him to expofe himfelf once more to the even¬
ing dews, his fever returned with violence, and with fuck
fymptoms as left no hopes of a cure. His death-happened -
on the 27th of Auguil 1748.
. Mi" 1 homforr had improved his tafle upon the fineft Ori¬
ginals, ancient and modern. The autumn was his-favourite
feafon Tor poetical composition, and the deep lilence of the
night he. commonly chofe for his itudies. The amufiement
of his leifure-hours were civil and natural hiftory, voyages,
&nd the.bell relations of travellers,, . Though he performed
on no inftrument, he was paffionately fond of mufic, and
would fometimes niten a furl hour at his window to the
nightingales in Richmond gardens; nor was his tafte lefs
exquifite in the arts of painting, fculpture, and architec¬
ture. As ter the more diftinguiffiing qualities of his mind
and. heait, they befh appear in his wikings. There his de¬
votion to the oupreme Being, his love of mankind, of his
country, and friends, fnine out in every page ; his tender
neis of heart was fo unbounded, that it took in even the
ouite creation. It is not known, that through his whole
Inc he ever gave any perfon a moment’s pain, either.by his
writings
T H O
[ 5°4 1
T H R
' Thomfon
II
Thornhill.
^fobnfm s
Liver oft! e
Poets.
Henry's Hi
fory of
Great Bri¬
tain, vol ii
part 4-
LyiPiionary
of Painters,
writings or otherwise. He took no part in the political
fquabbles of his time, and was therefore refpe&ed and left
undifturbed by both Tides. Thefe amiable virtues did not
fail of their due reward; the applaufe of the public attended
all his productions, and his friends loved him with an en-
thufiaflic ardour.
“As a writer (fays Dr Johnfon), he is intitled to one
t>raife of the higheft Jvind ; his mode of thinking, and of
expreffing his thoughts, is original. His blank verfe is no
more the\lank verfe of Milton, or of any other poet, than
the rhymes of Prior are the rhymes of Cowley. His num¬
bers, his paufes, his diftion, are of his own growth, with¬
out tranfcription, without imitation. He thinks in a pe¬
culiar train, and he thinks always as a man of genius ; he
looks round on Nature and on life with the eye which Nature
beftows only on a poet; the eye that diflinguilhes, in every
thing repreiented to its view, whatever there is on which inva¬
gination can delight to be detained, and with a mind that at
once comprehends the vaft, and attends to the minute.
The reader of the Seafons wonders that he never faw before
what Thornton (hews him, and that he never yet has felt
what Phomfon impreffes.”
His teftamentary executors were the lord Lyttelton, whofe
care of our poet’s fortune and fame ceafed not with his hie;
and Mr Mitchell, a gentleman equally noted for the truth and
condancy of his private fnendfhip, and for his addrefs and
foirit as a public minifter. By their united interefts, the or¬
phan play of Coriolanus was brought on the ftage to the bell
advantage ; from the profits of which, and the iale of ma-
nufcripts and other effedfs, a handfome ium was remitted
to his fitters. His remains were depofited in the church
of Richmond, under a plain ftone, without any infcription.
A handfome monument was eredled to him in Weftminfter
abbey in the year 1762, the charge of which was defrayed
by the profits arifing from a fplendid coition of all his works
in 4-to ; Mr Millar the bookfeller, who had purchafed all
Mr Thomfon’s copies, giving up his property on this grate¬
ful occafion. A monument has alio been eredfed to him
at the place of his birth.
THOR, the eldeft and braveft of the fons of Odin and
Frea, was, after his parents, the greatett god of the -Saxons
.and Danes while they continued heathens. hey believed,
that Thor reigned over all the aerial regions, which com-
pofed his immenle palace, confiding of 540 halls; that he
launched the thunder, pointed the lightening, and diredted
the meteors, winds, and ftorms. To him they add retted
their prayers for favourable winds, refrefhing rains, and
fruitful feafons; and to him the fifth day of the week,
which ftill bears his name, was confecrated.
THORAX. See Anatomy.
White or Hjtv THORN. See Crataegus.
Thorn, a town of Poland, in Regal Pruflia, and in the
palatinate of Culm. It was formerly a Hanleatic town, and
ftill enjoys great privileges; is large and well fortified ; but
part of the fortifications, and a great number of houfes, were
ruined by the Swedes in T703. It is feated on the Viftula,
and contains 10,000 inhabitants. E. Long. 18. 42. N.
Lat. 53.6.
THORNBACK, in ichthyology. See Raia.
THORNHILL (Sir James), an eminent Englifh paint¬
er, was born in Dorletfhire in 1676, of an ancient family ;
but was conttrained to apply to feme profeffion by the di-
ftrettes of his father, who had been reduced to the neceffity
of felling his family-eftate. Piis inclination diredled him to the
art of painting; and on his arrival at London he applied to
his uncle, the famous Dr Sydenham, who enabled him to
proceed in the ftudy of the art under the direftion of a
painter who was not very eminent. Plowever, the genius
of Thornhill made ample amends for the infufttciency of his
inftru&or, and by an happy' application of his talents he
made fo great a progrefs, that he gradually rofe to the high-
eft reputation.
Piis genius was well adapted to hiftorical and allegorical
compofitions ; he pofleffed a iertile and fine invention ; and
he fketched his thoughts with great eafe, freedom, and fpi-
rit. He excelled alfo equally in portrait, peripeftive, and
architecture ; fhewed an excellent tafte for defign, and had a
free and firm pencil. Had he been fo fortunate as to have
ftudied at Rome and Venice, to acquire greater corre&nefs
at the one, and a more exadt knowledge of the perfedtion
of colouring at the other, no artift among the moderns
might perhaps have been his fuperior. Neverthelefs, he
was fo eminent in many parts of his profeluon, that he mutt
for ever be ranked among the beft painters of his time ; and
his performances in the dome of St Paul’s church at Lon¬
don, in the hofpital at Greenwich, and at Hampton-court,
are fuch public proofs of his merit as will convey his name
to pofterity with great honour.
This painter lived in general efteem ; he enriched himfelf
by the excellence of his works ; was appointed ftate-painter
to Queen Anne, from whom he received the honour of
knighthood ; had the fingular fatisfadfion to repurchafe his
family eftate ; and was fo much diftinguiftied as to be elec¬
ted one of the members of parliament. He died in 1732.
THOROUGH-wax, in botany. See Buplkurum.
THOTH, or Theut, (called by the Phoenicians Taaut,
by the Greeks Hermes, and by the Romans Mercury),
was a Phoenician of very fuperior talents, and one of the
civilizers of mankind. He was prime minifter to Ofiris,
whom, after his death, he deified ; and he was himfelf dei¬
fied by his countrymen the Egyptians, for the benefits that
he had rendered to the human race. See Mercury, My¬
thology, n° 34, and Polytheism, n° 18.
THOUGHT, a general name for all the ideas confe-
quent on the operations of the mind, and even on the opera¬
tions themfelves. See Metaphysics.
Thought, in compofition. See Oratory, Part I. and II.
THOU INI A, in botany ; a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of diandria, and order of monogynia. The co¬
rolla is quadripetalous ; the calyx quadripartite, and the an¬
thers feflile. There is only one fpecies difeovered, the nu¬
tans.
THRACE, a country very frequently mentioned by the
Greek and Latin writers, deriving its name, according to
Jofephus, from Tiras one of the fons of Japhet. It wss
bounded on the north by mount Hsemus; on the fouth, by
the iEgean Sea; on the weft, by Macedon and the river
Strymon ; and on the eaft, by the Euxine Sea, the Hehe-
fpont, and the Propontis.—The Thracian Cherfonefus is a
peninlula inclofed on the fouth by the jEgean Sea, on the
weft by the gulf of Melas, and on the eaft by the Helle-
fpont ; being joined on the north to the continent by a neck
of land about 37 furlongs broad. The inland parts of
Thrace are very cold and barren, the fnow lying on the
mountains the greateft part of the year; but the maritime
provinces are produftive of all forts of ^rain and neceffaiies
for life ; and withal lo plealant, that Mela compares them
to the moft fruitful and agreeable countries of Alia.
The ancient Thracians were deemed a brave and warlike
nation, but of a cruel and favage temper ; being, accord¬
ing to the Greek writers, ftrangers to ail humanity and
good-nature. It was to the Thracians, however, that the
Greeks were chiefly indebted for the polite arts that flounfhed
among them ; for Orphseus, Linus, Mufeus, Thamyns, and
Euraolpus, all Thracians, were the firft, as Euftathms in¬
forms us, who charmed the inhabitants of Greece with their
eloquence
T H R • [ 505 ] T H R
ThraQiing. eloquence and melody, and perfmded them to exchange
‘-—v-— their fiercenefs for a fociable life and peaceful manners ; nay,
great part of Greece was anciently peopled by Thracians.
Tereus, a Thracian, governed at Daulis in Phocis, where
the tragical ftory of Philomela and Progne was afted.
From thence a body of Thracians paffed over to Euboea,
and pofM'ed themfelves of that ifland. Of the fame nation
Were the Aones, Tembices, and Hyanthians, who made
themfelves matters of Bosotia; and great part of Attica it-
felf was inhabited by Thracians, under the command of the
celebrated Eumolpus. It is not therefore without the ut-
1 moft ingratitude and injuftice that the Greeks ftyle them
Barbarians, fince to them chiefly they were indebted both
for the peopling and polifhing of their country.
Thrace was anciently divided into a number of petty
ftates, which were firft iubdued by Philip of Macedon. On
the decline of the Macedonian empire, the country fell un¬
der the power of the Romans. It con turned under fubjec-
tion to them till the irruption of the Turks, in whofe hands
it ft ill remains.
THRASHING, in agriculture, the operation by which
corn is feparated from the ftraw. This operation is per¬
formed in a variety of ways, fometimes by the feet of ani¬
mals, fometimes by a flail, and fometimes by a machine.
The moft ancient method of feparating the corn from the
ftraw was by the hoofs of cattle or horfes. This was prac-
tifed by the Ifraelites, as we find from the books of Mofes ;
it was alio common among the Greeks and Romans*.
Flails and thraihing machines were alio not uncommon
among thefe nations f. The flail which was ufed by the
131. CW. ii. Romans, called baculus, fujiis, or pertica, was probably no-
ax. Tibull. thing more than a cudgel or pole. The thraftung machine,
which was called tribu/a or tribu’um, and fometimes traha,
was a kind ot fledge made of boards joined together, and
loaded with {tone or iron. Horfes were yoked to this ma¬
chine, and a man was feated upon it to drive them over the
{heaves of corn.
Different methods are employed in different countries for
feparating the corn from the ftulk. In the greateft part of
France the flail is ufed ; but in the fouthern diftrifts it is
generally performed by the feet of animals: animals are alfo
ufed for the fame purpofe in Spain, in Italy, in the Morea, in
the Canaries, in China, and in the vicinity of Canton, where
the flail is alfo fometimes ufed. It appears that in hot cli¬
mates the grains do not adhere fo firmly to the ftalk as in
cold countries, and therefore may be more eafily feparated.
This will explain the reafon why animals are fo frequently
employed in hot countries for treading out the corn ; where¬
as in cold climates we know they are feldom tried, and have
no reafon to fuppofe that they would anfwer the purpofe. In
the Ifle of France in Africa, rice an 1 wheat are thraftied
with poles, and maize with flicks ; for it has not been pof-
frble to teach the negroes the ufe of the flail
The animals ufed for treading out corn are, oxen, cows,
horfes, mules, and even affes when the quantity is not great.
The operation is performed in this manner : The fheaves, af¬
ter being opened, are Ipread in fuch a manner that the ears
G the corn are laid as much uppermoft as pofiible, and a man,
Handing in the centre, holds the halters of the cattle, which
are made to trot round as in a manege ; whilft other men
with forks {hake the ftraw up from time to time, and the
cattle are trotted over it again and again till they have beat¬
en out all the grain. This method is expeditious enough ;
but befides bruifing a confiderable quantity of corn, it requires
a great many cattle, and injures the legs of the horfes and
mules, which are preferred before -cows and oxen for this
rrork.
i he flail is undoubtedly a much better iuftrument for
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
* Pliny,
Xviii. 30
I'hgil,
Georg, in.
1. 5. 2t.
f Ifai.ih
xviii. 27.
Homer, II.
ix. 495-
thrafhing corn than the feet of animals, for it feparates the Thralling',
grain from the ftraw and hufks both more effectually and ™ y
more expeditioufly ; yet it is liable to many objections. It is
a very laborious employment, too fevere indeed even for a
ftrong man ; and as it is ufually the intereft o!" the thrafher
rather to thrafti much than to thrafh clean, a good deal of
corn will generally be left upon the ftraw. It is therefore
an objeCt of great importance in hufbandry to procure a pro¬
per machine lor feoarating the corn from the ftraw.
The firft thraihing machine attempted in modern times,
of which we have received any account, was invented in E-
dinburgh by Mr Michael Menzies aljput the year 1732.
It confifted of a number of inftruments like flails, fixed in
a moveable beam, and inclined to it at an angle of ten de¬
grees. On each fide of the beam in which the flails were
fixed, floors or benches were placed for fpreading the fheaves
on. The flails were moved backwards and forwards upon
the benches by means of a crank fixed on the end of an axle,
which made about 30 resolutions in a minute.
The fecond thrafhing machine was invented by Mr Mi¬
chael Stirling, a farmer in the parifti of Dunblane, Perth-
fhire. Of this dilcovery we have received a very accurate
and authentic account from his fon, the Reverend Mr Robert
Stirling minifter of Crieff.
It is an old proverb, that neceffity is the mother of inven¬
tion. This was verified on the prefent occafion. Befides
his ordinary domeftic fervants, Mr M. Stirling had occafion
fometimes to hire an additional number to thrafh out his
grain, and frequently found.it difficult to procure to many
as he needed. This naturally led him to refledl whether
the operation of thrafhing could not eafily be performed by
machinery. Accordingly, fo early as the year 1753, an<!er
the pretence of joining in the amufements of his children, he
formed in miniarure a water mill, in which two iron fprings,
made to rife and fall alternately, reprefented the motion of
two flails, by which a few ftalks of corn put under them
might be fpeedily thrafhed. This plan he executed on a
fcale fufficiently large within two years after, making the
fp: ings about ten feet long, each ©f which had one end firmly
ferewed into a folid plank, and the other terminated in a
round batoon of folid iron, two feet long and above an inch
in diameter. Under thefe the fneaves were conveyed gradual¬
ly fo rward in a narrow channel or trough, by paffing between
two indented horizontal cylinders, fimilar to thofe now ufed
in moft of the thrafhing mills in that part of the country,
and called feeders. In this manner the thrafhing was exe¬
cuted completely, and with confiderable rapidity ; but as the
operation was performed on a low floor, and no method con¬
trived for carrying off the ftraw, the accumulation of it pro¬
duced fuch confufion, and the removal of it was attended with
fuch danger, that this fcheme was very foon entirely aban¬
doned. The mortification arifing from difappoincment, and
efpecially the feoffs of his neighbours, for what was univer-
fally accounted an abfurd and ridiculous attempt, ferved on¬
ly to ftimulate the exertions of the inventor to accomplifh
his defigns on another plan.
Laying afide therefore the iron fprings with the feeders,
and all the apparatus adapted to them, he retained only an
outer or water wheel, with an inner or cog wheel moving on
the fame axle to this inner wheel, which had 48 teeth or
cogs, he applied a vertical trundle or pinion, with ieven
notches, the axle of which palled through a floor above the
wheel, and having its upper pivot fecured in a beam fix
feet above that floor. At the diftance of three feet three
inches above the floor two ftraight pieces of fquared wood,
each roar feet long, paffed through the axle of the trundle
at right angles, forming four arms, to be moved round ho¬
rizontally. To the -extremities of thefe arms were fixed
3 S four
T H R
Thraflu'ng. Iron plates, each 20 inches long, and
^ at the end next the arms, but tapering towards a point
at the other end. This large horizontal fly, conflituting
four thrafhers, was inclofed within a wooden cylindri¬
cal box three and an half leet high and eight in diameter.
On the top of the box was an opening or port (two or three
ports were made at firft, but one was found fufficient) eight
inches wide, and extending from the circumference a foot
and an half towards its centre, through which the corn
fheaves defeended, being firft opened and laid one by one
on a board with two ledges gently declining towards the
port; on which board they were moderately prefled down
with a boy’s hand, to prevent them from being too haftily
drawn in by the repeated ftrokes of the thrafhers. Within the
box was an inclined plane, along which the ftraw and grain
fell down into a wide wire riddle two feet fquare, placed
immediately under a hole of nearly the fame fize. The
riddle received a jerk at every revolution of the fpindle from
a knob placed on the fide of it, and was inftantly thruft back-
ward by a fmall fpring prefling it in the oppolite direction.
The fhorc ftraw, with the grain and chaff which pafled
through the wide riddle, fell immediately into an oblong
ffrait riddle, which hung with one end raifed and the other
depreffed, and was moved by a contrivance equally Ample
as the other ; and having no ledge at the lower end, the
long chaff which could not pals through the riddle dropped
from thence to the ground ; while the grain and molt of
the chaff falling through the riddle into a pair of common
barn-fanners that (food under it on the ground floor, the
ftrong grain, the weak, and the chaff, were all feparated
with great exaftnefs. 1 he fanners were moved by a rope
©r band running circuitoufly in a (hallow niche cut on the
circumference of the cog-wheel. The ftraw colleaed gra¬
dually in the bottom of the box over the wide riddle, and
thiou jb an opening two and an hair feet wide, and as much
in height, left in that iide of the box neareft the brink of
the upper floor, was drawn down to the ground with a
rake by the perfon or perfons employed to form it into
Iheaves or rolls.
Such was the thraflifng mill invented by Mr Michael Stir-
which, after various alterations and improvements,
he completed m the form now deferibed, A. D. 1758. By
experiment it was found that four bolls of oats, Linlithgow
meafure, could be thrafhed by it in 25 minutes. From that
period he never ufed a common flail in thrafhmg, except for
bumbling or bearding barley. In every other kind of grain
he performed the whole operation of thrafhing with the mill;
and continued always to ufe it. till I 772» when he retired
bom bufinefs, and his thrafhing mill became the property
of his fecond fon, who continues to ufe it with ecual advan¬
tage and Ltisfadbon. Several machines were con ft tufted
on the fame plan, particularly one near Stilling, under Mr
Stirling’s direftion, for Mr Moir of Leckie, in 1765, which,
we underftand, has been ufed ever fince, and gives complete
fatisfaftion to the proprietor. There was another erefted
jn 1778 by Mr Thomas Keir (in the parifh of Muthil and
county of Perth), who has contrived a method of bearding
barky with it: and by the addition of a fmall fpindle with
fhort arms contiguous to the front of the box, and moved by a
band common to it and the great fpindle to which it is pa¬
rallel, the^ftraw is fliaken and whirled out of the box to the
ground. 1 hat this machine did not come immediately inSo
general ufe, was owing partly to the fmallnefs of the farms
in that part of the country, whole crops could eafily be
thrafhed by the few hands neceffarily retained on them for
other purpofes ; and chiefly to an apprehenfion that the
machine could only be moved by water ; an apprehenfiori
which experience proves to be entirely groundleis. The
[ 5C6 ] T H R
et.-ht broad machine however, was, ingenious; and did great credit to Thrafhine.
the worthy inventor, and certainly deferved a better fate
than it was deftined to undergo.
A third threfhing mill was invented in 1772, by two per¬
fons nearly about the fame time, and upon the fame prim
tuples. 1 he inventors were, Mr Alderton who lived near
Alnwick, and Mr Smart at Wark in Northumberland. The
operation was performed, by rubbing. The fheaves were
carried round between an indented drum of about fix feet
diameter, and a number of indented rollers arranged round
the circumference of the drum, and attached to itTby means
of fprings ; fo that while the drum revolved, the fluted
rollers rubbed the corn off from the ftraw by rubbing again ft
the flutings of the drum. But as a confiderable quantity of
the grain was brliifed in pafling between the rollers, the
machine was foon laid aflde.
In 1776 an attempt was made by Mr Andrew Mdkle, . _ j
an ingenious millwright in the parifh of Tyningham, £aft
Lothian, to conftruft a new machine upon the principles
which had been adopted by Mr Menzies already mentioned.
This confifted in making joints in the flails, which Mr
Menzies had formed without any. But this machine, after
much laboui and expence, was foon laid afide, on account
of the difficulty of keeping it in repair, and the fmall quan¬
tity of work performed, which did not exceed one boil or
fix Winchefter bufhels of barley per hour.
Some time after this, Mr Francis Kinloch, then junior of
Gilmerton, having vifited the machine invented in Nor¬
thumberland, attempted an improvement upon it. He in¬
clofed the drum in a fluted cover ; and inftead of making the
drum itfelf fluted, he fixed upon the outfide of it four fluted
pieces of wood, which by means of fprings could be raifed a
little above the circumference of the drum, fo as to prefs
againft the fluted covering, and thus rub off the ears of corn
as the fheaves paffed round between the drum and the fluted
covering. But not finding this machine to anfwer his expec¬
tation (for it bruifed the grain in the fame manner as the
Northumberland machine did), he fent it to Mr Meikle,
that he might, if pofiible, reftify its errors.
Mr Meikle, who had long direfted his thoughts to this
fubjeft, applied himfelf with much ardour and perfevcrance
to the improvement and correftion of this machine ; and af¬
ter {pending a good deal of time upon it, found it was com*
flrufted upon principles fo enoneous, that to improve it was
imprafticable.
At length, however, Mr Meikle’s own genius invented a
model, different in principle from the machines which had
already been conftrufted. This model was made hi the year
1785 ; and in the following year the firft thrafhing machine
on the fame principles was erefted in the neighbourhood o£
Allot, in the county of Stirling, by Mr George Meikle the
fon of the inventor. This machine anfwered completely
the v/ifhes of Mr Stein, the gentleman for whom it was
erefted, who gave the moft ample teftimony of his fatisfac-
tion both to the inventor and to the public. The fame of
this difeovery foon fpread over the whole country, and a
great many farmers immediately applied to Mr Meikle, de-
firing to have thrafhing mills erefted on their farms. Tlx
difeovery, it appeared, would be profitable, and it was rea-
fonable that the inventor ftiould enjoy the profits of his in¬
vention. He accordingly applied for a patent. ; which,
after confiderable expence, arifing from the oppofition of
fome perfons, who claimed a fhare in the difeovery, was
granted.—Thefe machines are now becoming very common
in many parts of Scotland, and are increafing very canfider- .
ably in number every year over all the united kingdom.
We will now endeavour to deferibe this.machine in its
moft improved ftate ; which is fo Ample, that with the affiff-
/
THRASHING MACHINE
t fca/r rf ' %"eet.
  1
Plate DTHI.
y /calt cf P S'teC.
?**TimB3jrjrmTm~j~7~r
THE [ 507 1 THE
rafting, ance of a ptete, exhibiting the plan of elevation, n° 1. the
ground plan, nQ 2, and the 3d ihowing its effential parts in
a diHindi manner, we hope it will be eafdy underftood
JDVht by all our readers who have not had an opportunity
of feeing it. The power employed for turning that part
of the machine which feparates the corn from the draw
is produced by four wheels (when moved by horfes), the
teeth of which move in one another and turn the drum, on
which four Icutchers are fixed. The (heaves are introduced
between two fluted rollers, which hold them firm, and draw
them in gradually, while the fcutchers llrike oft the grain
from the ftraw as it paffes through. This will fuffice for a
general idea of this machine. We will now be more parti¬
cular.
The large fpur-wheel A, n° 1. and z. which ha? 276 cogs, is
horizontal, and moves the pinion B, which has 14 teeth. '1 he
pinion B moves the crown-wheel C, which has 84 teeth ; the
wheel C moves a fecond pinion D, which has 16 teeth ; and
the pinion D moves the drum HIKL. The drum is a hol¬
low cylinder three feet and an half diameter, and placed ho¬
rizontally ; on the outfide of which the fcutchers are fixed
by ftrong ferew bolts. The fcutchera confift of four pieces
of wood, faced on one fide with a thin plate of iron, placed
at an equal diftance from each other, and at right angles to
the axis of the drum.
The {heaves are fpread on an inclined board F, n° 3. from
which they are introduced between two fluted rollers GG
made of call iron, about three inches and an half in diame¬
ter, and making about 3*; revolutions in a minute. As
thtfe rollers are only about three quarters of an inch diftant
from the fcutchers or leaves of the drum H1KL, they
ferve to hold the (heaves fall, while the Icutchers a, b, c, d,
moving with prodigious velocity, feparate the grain com¬
pletely from the ftraw, and at the fame time throw out both
grain and draw upon the concave rack M, lying horizon¬
tally with (lender parallel ribs, (o that the corn pafles through
them into a hopper N placed below. From the hopper it
paffes through a harp or riddle O into a pair of fanners P,
from which, in the mod improved machines, it comes out
clean and fit for the market. The ftraw, after being thrown
by the fcutchers a, c, d, into the rack, is removed from
it by a rake QJbST into a place contiguous V. The rake
confifts of four thin pieces of wood or leaves ; on the end
of each of thefe leaves is ranged a row of teeth e,f,g., h five
inches long. The rake moves in a circular manner in the
concave rack, while the teeth catch hold of the ftraw, and
throw it out of the rack. Thefe arc all the effential parts
of the machine ; the reft may be eafily underftood by the re¬
ferences to the Plate. W is the horfe-courfe, n° 1, which is
27 feet diameter. X is the pillar for fupporting the beams
on which the axle of the (pur-wheel is fixed. YYY are
three fpindles for moving the two fluted rollers, the rake,
a>nd fanners. To the defer iption now given we have only
to add, that the drum has a covering of wood Z at a (mall
diftaace above it, for the purpofe of keeping the (heaves
clofe to the fcutchers.
The advantages of this machine are many. As the drum
makes 300 revolutions in a minute, the four (cutchers to¬
gether make 1 200 ftrokes in the fame fpace of time. From
fuch power and velocity, it is evident that much work muft
be performed. When the hoifes go at the rate of two and
one-third miles pir hour, from three to fix bolls will be Theafhln#
thrafhed ; but as the quantity thraftied will be lefs when the Th)|.a)
ftraw is long than when it is fhort, we (hall take the ave- ‘ ^ ‘j
rage at four bolls* One gentleman, whofe veracity and ac¬
curacy we can depend on, affures us, that his mill thraftied
63 bolls in a day; by which, we fuppofe, he meant to hours.
To prove the fuperior advantage of this machine to the com¬
mon method of thrafning with flails, a gentleman ordered
two equal quantities of oats to be thraftied by the mill and
by flails. Wnen the com was cleaned and meafured, he ob¬
tained TVth more from the (heaves thraftied by the mill than
from thofe thraftied by the flail. We are alfo informed
by another gentleman who has (tudied this machine with much
attention, and calculated its advantages with care, that, in¬
dependently of having the com much cleaner feparated
from the ftraw than is ufually done by flails, there is a faving
of 30 or 40 per cent, in the expence ot thraftiing.
The number of oerfons requifite for attending the mill
when working is fix: One perfon drives the horfes ; a fe¬
cond hands the (heaves to a third, who unties them, while
a fourth fpreads them on the inclined boards and preffes
them gently between the rollers ; a fifth perfon is neceffary
to riddle the corn as it falls from the fanners, and a fixth to
remove the draw (a).
This machine can he moved equally well by water, wind,
or horfes. Mr Meikle has made fuch improvements on the
wind mill as to render it much more manageable and conve¬
nient than formerly ; and vve are informed many wind-mills
are now eredling in different parts o: the country. As to
the comparative expence of thefe different machines, the
eredlion of the horfe machine is leaft ; but then the expence
of employing horfes muft be taken into confideration. One
of this kind may be ere£led for L.70- A water mill will
cod L. 10 more on account of the expence of the water¬
wheel. A wind-mill will coft from L. 200 to L. 300
Sterling.
THRAVE of Corn, an exprefiion denoting 24 (heaves,
or four (hocks of (ix (heaves to the (hock ; though in fome
countries they only reckon 1 2 (heaves to the thrave.
THRASYBULUS, a renowned Athenian general and
patriot, the deliverer of his country fiom the yoke of the
30 tyrants, lived about 294 B. C *. * qee jlt;u
THRASYMENUS lacus (anc. geog.),alake of Etru-^, n*3199
m, near Perufia, and not far from the Fiber, fatal to the—^74*
Romans in the Punic war. Now II Logo de Perugia on the
Ecclefiaftical State.
THREAD, a fmall line made up of a number of fine
fibres of any vegetable or animal fubftance, fuch as flax,
cotton, or (ilk ; from which it takes its name of linen, cot¬
ton, or filk thread.
Dyeing Thrrad Black. Linen and cotton thread may
be dyed of a durable and deep black by folution of iron in
four beer, in which the linen is to be iteeped for fome time,
and afterwards boiled in madder. See the article Dyeing,
n 87.
Thread may be eafily bleached by the oxygenated muria¬
tic acid difeovered by Mr Scheele. This acid whitens
cloth remarkably well, but it is dill more advantageous for
bleaching thread. M. Welter has formed at Lille, with,
two partners, an eftabliftiment ior bleaching thread with
great iuccefs, and he has already begun fome others. He
3 S 2 has
(a) We add, on the authority of an experienced farmer, that of the fix perfons neceffary to attend the thraftiing ma¬
chine, only two can in juilice be charged to the account of the machine ; namely, the perfon who manages the horfes, and
the one who feeds the machine : For in the ufual mode of thrafhing by the flail, it requires the fame number of perions
£s the thvaftung machine does to clear an equal quantity of corn from the chaff in the fame time.
T H U
Threaten-
[ 50
has found that 10 or 12 leys and as many immerfions are
Jri||' required for fome forts of thread ; and that the thread may
Thuanus. furrounded with the liquor, it is neceffary to place it,
1 y 'quite loofely, in a bafket, which permits the liquor to
penetrate to all its furfaces: when the liquor is much
weakened, it is Itill fit to be ufed for the bleaching of
cotton.
Thole who wifh more information upon the powerful ef-
feds of the oxygenated muriatic acid in bleaching, as well
as on the cheapeft method of preparing it, may confult a Pa¬
per written by M. Berthollet, and publifhed in the Annales
de Chlmie, a tranllation of which is given in the R;pert. of
Arts, vol. i.
THREATENING l etters. Knowingly to fend any
letter without a name, or with a fi&itioHs name, demanding
money, or any other valuable thing, or threatening (with¬
out any demand) to kill or fire the houfe of any perion, is
made felony without benefit of clergy. And fending let¬
ters, threatening to accufe any perfon of a crime punifhable
with death, tranfportation, pillory, or other infamous pu-
nifhment, with a view to extort from him any money or
other valuable chattels, is punifhable by ftacute 30 Geo/ II.
c. 24. at the diferetion of the court, with fine, imprifon-
ment, pillory, whipping, or tranfportation for feven years.
THRESHING. 'See T HRASH1NG.
THRIFT, in botany. See Statice.
THRINAX, small Jamaica fan-palm, in botany ;
a genus of plants belonging to the natural clafs of palma,
and order of Jlabe/iifolia. The calyx is fexdentate ; there
is no corolla ; there are fix ftamina ; the ftigma is emargi-
nate, and the berry monofpermous. This plant was brought
from Jamaica to Kew garden by Dr William Wright.
THRIPS, a genus of infe&s belonging to the order of
hemiptera. The roftrum is obfeure, or io fmall as to be
fcarce perceptible. The antennae are filiform, and as long
as the thorax. The body is flender, and of equal thicknefs
in its whole length. The abdomen is reflexible, or bent up-
wards. The four wings are extended, incumbent upon the
back oL the infedl, narrow in proportion to their length,
and crofs one another at fome diftance from their bale.
The tarfi of the feet are compofed of only two articulation^.
There are eleven fpecies mentioned by Gmelin; of which
three are natives of Britain ; the phyfapus, juneperina, and
fafeiata.
THROAT, the anterior part of an animal, between the
head and the (boulders.
THROAT-wort. See Campa nu'la.
THRONE, a royal feat or chair of ftate, enriched with
ornaments of archhe&ure and fculpture, railed on one or
more fteps, and covered with a kind of canopy. Such are
the thrones in the rooms of audience of kings and other fo-
vereigns. ,
THROSTLE, in ornithology. See Turdus.
THRUSH, in ornithology. See Turdus.
Thrush, or Aphtha. See Medicine, n° 233.
TORY ALLIS, in botany ; a genus of plants belonging
;o the clafs of decandrii, and order of monogyma; and in
the natural fyftem ranging under the 38th order, Tricoccat,
The calyx is quinquepartite ; there are five petals, and the
capfule is tricoccous. There is only one fpecies known, the
brafilietifis.
THUANU'S (Jacobus Auguflus), young-eft fon of the
prefident de Thou, was famous for the depth and erudition
of his works. He was born In 1553 ; and having flnifhed
his ftudies and travels, was made prefident a-Mortier, and
took pofieffion thereof in 1595. He was employed in fe¬
deral important offices of ftate, and in reforming the uni-
s ] THU
verfity of Paris ; which he difeharged with fo much pm- T!i:;cy<ft.
dence, that he was efteemed the Cato of his age, and the ‘:es-
ornament of France. He wrote the hiftory of his own time
m Latin, from the year 1^43 to 1608, in 138 books; a
work, both for fubjea and ftyle* worthy or the ancients. He
alto left memoirs of his own life, befides poems; and died at
Paris, 1617.
•fhdJCYD.lDES, a celebrated Greek hiftorian, was
born at Athens 471 B. C. He was the fon of Olorus, and
grandfon of Miltiades, who is thought to have been defeend-
ed from Miltiades the famous Athenian general, and to h ive
marries the king of I brace s daughter. He was educated
in a manner Ratable to his quality,' that is, in the ftudy
of philofophy and eloquence. His mailer in the former
was Anaxagoras, in the latter Antiphon ; one, by his de-
feription in the eighth book of his*Hiftory, for power of
fpeech almoft a miracle, and feared by the people on that ac¬
count. (Saidas and Photius relate, that when Herodotus •
recited his hiftory in public, a fafhion in ufe then and many
ages after, 1 hucydides felt fo great a fling of emulation,
that it drew tears from him ; infomuch that Herodotus
himfelf took notice of it, and congratulated his father on
having a fon who fhowed fo wonderful an affetftion to the
Mufes. Herodotus was then 29 years of age, Thucydides
about 16.
When the Peloponefian war began to break out, Thu¬
cydides conjedlured truly, that it would prove a fubjeH
worthy of his labour ; and it no fooner commenced than he
began to keep a journal. This explains the reafon why he
has attended more to chronological order than to unity of
dehgn. During the fame war he was commiffioned by his
countrymen to relieve Amphipolis ; but the quick march of
Brafidas the Lacedmmonian general defeated his operations;
and Thucydides, unluccefsful in his expedition, was ba-
nifhed from Athens. This happened in the eighth year of
this celebrated war ; and in the place of his banifhment the
general began to write an impartial hiftory of the impor- LcmprUrt’j
tant events which had happened during his adminiftration,
and which ftill continued to agitate the feveral ftates of
Greece. 'This famous hiftory is continued only to the 21ft
year of the war, and the remaining part of the time till the
demolition of the walls of Athens was deferibed by the pen
of Theopompus and Xenophon. Thucydides wrote in the
Attic dialed!, as being poffefied of moil vigour, purity, ele¬
gance, and energy. He fpared neither time nor money to
procure authentic materials; and the Athenians, as well as their
enemies, furnifhed him with many valuable communications,
which contributed to throw great light on the different
tranfa&ions or the war. His hiiloryhasbeen divided into eight
books; the laft of which is imperfedl, and fuppofed to have
been written by his daughter.
The hiftorian of Halicarnaffus has often been compared
with the fon of Olorus, but each has his peculiar excellence.
Sweetnefs of ftyle, grace and elegance of expreffion, may¬
be called the charaderiftics of the former; while Thucydides
Hands unequalled for the fire of his deferiptions, the concife^
nefs, and at the fame time the ftrong and energetic manner
of his narratives. His relations are authentic, as he himfelf
was interefted in the events he mentions ; his impartiality is
undubitable, as he nowhere betrays the leaft refentment
againft his countrymen, and the fadious partizans of Cleon,
who had banifhed him from Athens. The hiftory of Thu¬
cydides was fo admired by Demofthenes, that he tranferibed
it eight different times, and read it with fitch attention, that
he could almoft repeat it by heart. Thucydides died at
Athens, where he had been recalled from his exile about 41s.
years before Chtcift.
The
1'hi.ja
11
hunber-
gia. ' '
THU [ 5=
The beft edition of Thucydides is that of Oxford, pub-
lifhed in 1696, folio, and that of Duker, publidtcd at Am-
fterdara in 1731, f dio*
THUJA, the arisor vi r JBf in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of monodelphia, and ot der of monxcia;
and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 51ft order, Co-
nifera. There are four fpecies known ; the orientalis, oc-
cider.talis, apylla, and dolabrata ; of which the two firft are
mod remarkable.
The occidental'll, or common arbor vita;, grows naturally
in Canada, Siberia, and other northern countries. In fome
of the Englilh gardens a tew of thefe trees are to be met
with of a large hze : it has a ftrong woody trunk, which
rifes to the height of 40 feet or more. The ba!k, while
young, is fmooth, and of a dark brown colour ; but as the
trees advance, the bark becomes cracked, and lefs fmooth.
The branches are produced irregularly on every fide, Hand¬
ing almolt horizontal, and the young flender (hoots fre¬
quently hang downward, thinly garniihed with leaves; fo
that when the trees are grown large they make but in-
different appearance. The young branches are flat, and
their flnall leaves lie imbricated over each other like the
feales of a fi(h ; the flowers are produced from the fide of
the young branches pretty near to the foot-ftalk ; the male
flowers grow in oblong catkins, and between thefe the fe¬
male flowers • are coUe&ed in form of cones. When the
former have feed their farina, they foon after drop off; but
the female flowers are fucceeded by oblong cones, having
obtufe fmooth fcalcs, containing one or two oblong feeds.
The leaves of this tree have a rank oily feent when bruifed.
2. The orientals, or China arbor vitse, grows naturally in
the northern parts of China, where it rifes to a conflderable
height ; but this has not been long enough in Europe to
have any trees of large hze. T he feeds of this fort were
firft fent to Paris by fome of the miffxonaries ; and there are
fome of the trees growing in the gardens of the curious
there, which are more than 20 feet high. The branches
of this fort grow clofer together, and are much better
adorned with leaves, which are of a brighter green colour,
fo make a much better appearance than the other, and be-
ing very hardy, it is efteemed preferable to mod of the ever¬
green trees with fmall leaves, for ornament in gardens. 1 he
branches of this tree crofs each other at right angles : the
leaves^ are flat; but the Angle divifions of the leaves are flen¬
der, and the feales are fmaller and He clofer over each other
than thofe of the firft fort. The cones are alio much larger,
and of a beautiful grey colour ; their feales end in acute re-
flexed points.
Thete trees are propagated by feeds, layers, or cut¬
tings.
THULE, or Thyl^e. (anc. geog ), an Hand in the
moft northern parts of the German Ocean. Its fttualion
was never accurately afeertained by the ancients, hence its
prefect name is unknown by modern hiftorians. Some fup-
pofe that it is the Hand now called Iceland, or part of
Greenland, and others that it was Fou/a. See Eoula.
THUMB, in anatomy, one of the extremities of the
hand.
TnuMB-Cap, an Hand in the South Sea, lies about feven
leagues north-weft of Lagoon Hand ; it is a low, woody
Hand, of a circular form, and not much above a mile in
compais. There was no appearance of inhabitants; the
land was covered with verdure of many hues.
THUMMIM. See Urim.
THUNBERGIA, in botany; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clais of didynamla, and order of angiofpermia.
The cab x is double; the exterior one is diphyllous, and the
interior one multipartite, The capfule is globole, beaked,
5 ] THU
and bilocular. There is only one fpecies known, the capen-
A
THUNDER, the noife occaiioned by the explofion of
a flash of lightning echoed back from the inequalities on the
furface of the earth, in like manner as the noile ot a cannon
is echoed, and in particular circumftances forms a rolling
lengthened found.
Although thunder, properly fpeaking, is only a mere
found, capable of producing very little effeft, yet the
word L generally fuppofed to include the phenomena of
lightning alfo ; and eledlriffed clouds are by univerfal con*
fent called thunder-clouds, and the explofions of many flafhes
of lightning proceeding from them are generally called thun-
dcr-Jiorms. Though the phenomena of lightning, therefore,
have been at a great length explained and accounted for un¬
der the articles Electricity and Lightning, and though
the immediate caufe of ele&rical explohor.s from clouds is
explained under the article Rain ; yet the ultimate caufe
remains ftill to be feown, and properly belongs to the pre-
fent article.
It is univerfally allowed, that the variation of the elec¬
tricity in different parts of the atmofphere is the caufe of
thunder. Under the article Electricity, it has been
feown why lightning explodes after the thunder-clouds are
charged. Under the article Lightning, it is feown why
chat meteor puts on the various forms in which we fee it,
why it fometimes flrikes houfes or animals, and fosnetimes
not, &c. ; and under the article Rain, why the atmofphere
in iome cafes parts with the vapours which at other times it
fo obftinately retains. It remains therefore only to men¬
tion the theory by which fome philofophers explain the
reafon why rains are fometimes attended with thunder,
and fometimes not ; which, to thofe who attentively perufe
the articles above-mentioned, may be done in few words.
In this part of Great Britain, and for a conflderable way
along the eaftern coaft, although thunder may happen at
any time of the year, yet the month of July is that in which
it may almoft certainly be expedted. Its duration is of
very uncertain continuance j fometimes only a few peals will
be heard at any particular place during the whole feafon ;
at other times the ftorm will return at the interval of three
or four days for a month, fix weeks, or even longer;
not that we have violent thunder in this country diredtly
vertical in. any one place fo frequently in any year, but in
many feafons it will be perceptible that thunder-clouds are
formed in the neighbourhood even at thefe feort intervals.
Hence it appears, that during this- particular period there
muft be fome natural caufe operating for the-produdlion of
this phenomenon, which does not take place at other times.
T his cannot be the mere heat of the weather, for we have
often a long tradl of hot weather without any thunder ; and
befides, though not common, thunder is fometimes heard in
the winter alfo. As therefore the heat of the weather is
common to the whole fummer, whether, there be thunder or
not, we muft look tor the caufes of it in thofe phenomena,
whatever they are, which are peculiar to the months of
July, Auguft, and the beginnin , ot September. Now it
is generally obferved, in the tradf of country of which vve
now fpeak, that from the month of April an eaft or fbuth-
eaft wind generally takes place, and continues with little in¬
terruption till towards the end of June. At that time,
fometiraes fooner and fometimes later, a wefterly wind take-s
place ; but as the cauies producing the eaft wind are not re¬
moved, the latter oppofes the weft wind with its whole force.
At the place of meeting, there is naturally a moft vehement
preffure of the atmolphere, and fridlion of its parts a ;ainfl
one another ; a calm enfues, and the vapours brought by
both winds begin to colled and form dark clouds, which.
Thunder.
caa*
THU [ 5*o ] THU
can have lif.tlc motion either way, becaufe they are prefled
alrnoft equally on all fjdea. For the rnoft part, however,
the weft wind prevails, and what little motion the clouds
have is towards the eaft : whence the common remark in
this Country, that “ thunder-clouds move againft the wind.”
But this is by no means univerlally true: for. if the weft
wind happens to be excited by any temporary caufe before
its natural period when it ftiould take place, the eaft wind
will very frequently get the better of it ; and the clouds,
even although thunder is produced, will move weftward.
Yet in either cafe the motion is fo flow, that the moft fuper-
ficial obfervers cannot help taking notice of a conliderable
refiftance in the atmofphere.
That when two ftreafns of air are thus driven againft each
other, the fpace where they meet muft become highly elec¬
trified, is as plain as that an eledlric globe muft be excited
when fruftion is applied. It is true, as the fubftances here
to be excited are both ele&rics per [e, it may be objected,
that no electricity could be produced ; for we cannot excite
one eleftric by rubbing it with another. Yet it is obferved,
that glafs may be electrified by blowing ftrongly upon it,
or by the explofion of cannon ; and even when glafs is
ftrongly prefied upon glafs, both pieces become electrified
as foon as they are feparated. When glafs is rubbed upon
glafs, no attraction nor repulfion can be perceived, nor is
any fign of electricity obferved on bodies brought near to
it ; yet a very bright eleCtric light always appears on the
glafles, and a phofphorcal fmell is felt ; which fhows, that
though the eleCtricity does not fly out through the air in the
ufual way, yet the fluid within the glals is agitated ; and
there is little reafon to doubt that any conduCling body in-
clofed within the fubftance of the glals would be eleCtrified
alto. The vapours therefore, which are the conducting fub¬
ftances in the atmofphere, become immediately eleCtrified in
confequence of the preffure above-mentioned, and all the
phenomena, deferibed under the various articles already re¬
ferred to take place.
In like manner, by the ftruggle of two other winds as
well as thofe of the eaft and weft, may a thunder-ftorm be
produced ; but it is always neceflary that the refiftance of
the air to the motion of the clouds fhould be very great,
and nearly equal all round. For if the vapour fhould get
off to a fide, no thunder would take place ; the ele&ricity
would then be carried off as fall as it was cr HeCted, and
rain would only be the conlequence, by reafon of the elec¬
trified vapours parting with their latent heat, as is explain¬
ed under the article Rain. In faft, we very often obferve,
that in the time of rain the clouds evidently move acrots
the wind, and the nearer their motion is to a direCt oppofr-
tion, the heavier will the rain be ; while, on the other hand,
if they move brifkly before the wind, let the dircClion be
what it will, the atmofphere foon clears up.
Thai rattling in the noife of thunder which makes it feem
as if it pafled thro’ arches, or were varioufly broken, is pro¬
bably ow no to the found being excited among clouds hang¬
ing over one another, and the agitated air Daffinu irregular¬
ly between them The explofion, if high in the air, and
remote from us, will do no mifehief; but when near, it may
deftroy trees, animals, See. 'I hi proximity or imall diftanee
may be eftimated marly by the interval of time between
feeing the flafti of lightning and hearing the report of the
thunder, eftimating the diftance after the rate of 114 feet
per fecond of time, or thiee two third feconds to the
mile. Dr \\'allis obferves that commonly the difference
between the two is about fever, ieconds, which, at the rate
above-mentioned, gives the aiftance aim ft two miles. But
fometimes it comes in a lecond or two, which argues the
dexplofion very near us, aud even among us. And in iuch
cafes, the DoClor aflures us, he ha* fometimes foretold the Thunder,
mifehiefs that happened. holt
The node of thunder and the flame of lightning are ea- T, H
fly made by art. If a mixture of oil or fpirit of vitriol be
made with water, and fome filings of rteel added to it, there ' ^
will immediately arife a thick Imoke or vapour out of the
mouth of the veffel; and if a lighted candle be applied to
this, it will take fire, and the flame will immediately defeend
into the veffel, which will be burft to pieces with a noife like
that of a cannon.
This is lo far analogous to thunder and lightning, that a
great explofion and fire are occafioned by it; but in this they
differ, that this matter when once fired is deflroyed, and can
give no more explofions ; whereas, in the heavens, one clao
of thunder ufually follows another, and there is a continued
fucceffion of them for a long time. Mr Homberg explain¬
ed this by the lightnefs of the air above us in comparifon of
that near, which therefore would not fuffer all the matter
fo kindled to be diflipated at once, but keeps it for feveral
returns,
Refpefting the phenomena of thunder, we have many ob-
fervations to communicate ; fome of which, vve flatter our.
felves, are new, and all of them valuable ; but our bounds
obliges us, though with great reluftance, to paft them
over.
THUNDERBOLT. When lightning adfts with ex¬
traordinary violence, and breaks or fhatters any thing, it is
called a thunderbolt, which the vulgar, to fit it for fuch ef-
fe&s, fuppole to be a hard body, and even a ftone. But
that we need not have recourfe to a hard folid body to ac¬
count for the effedfs commonly attributed to the thunder¬
bolt, will be evident to any one who confiders thofe of the
pulvis fulminans and of gunpowder ; but more efpecially
the aftoniihing powers of eledlricity, when only collected
and employed by human art, and much more when diredled
and exercifed in the courfe of nature.
When we confider the known effefts of eleftrical explo¬
fions, and thofe produced by lightning, we fhall be &t no
lofs to account for the extraordinary operations vulgarly a-
feribed to thunderbolts. At* ftoncs and bricks ftruck by
lightning are often found in a vitrified ftate, we may rea-
fonably fuppofe, with Beccaria, that fome ftones in the
earth having been ftruck in this manner, gave occafion to
the vulgar opinion of the thunderbolt.
TnuNDER-Houfe. See Electricity, p. 474.
THURINGIA, a divifion of the circle of Upper Saxo-
ny in Germany. It is a fruitful traft, abounding in corn,
Specially wheat; in black cattle, fheep, and horfes. It is
about 73 miles in length, and as much in breadth. It
contains 47 towns, 14 boroughs, betwixt 700 and 800 vil¬
lages, 300 noble eftates, 7 fuperintendencies, and 5 under-
confiftories. Thuringia, the country of the ancient i hu-
ringi, er Catti, a branch of the Vandals, mentioned by Ta¬
citus, was formerly a kingdom, afterwards a county, then a
landgravate, and was governed by its own princes tor many
ages, till 1 1 24, when it devolved to the marquis of Milnia,
and, with that country, afterwards to the duke of Saxony.
But the modern Thuringia is only a part of the ancient,
nay, but a part of the ancient South Thuringia, which com¬
prehends befides, a large fhare of the modern Franconia,
Heffe, &c. On the extinftion of the male line ot the an¬
cient landgraves in 1 247, it came to the margraves of Meif-
fen, anceltors to the prelent electoral family. The eledfor
has no voice in the diet, on account of his fhare in the land-
gravate or circle of Thuringia. Erfurt is the capital.
TBURLOE (John), an Englifh ftatti'man under Oli¬
ver Cromwell, was b rn at Abots Roding in Effex in 1616,
of which parifh his father was redtor, and was educated to
the
T I A [51:
'hurMay the Andy ef the Jaw. In 1648 he was matte receiver or
I! clerk of the curfitor fines ; and though his attachments were
^‘'ra‘ entirely on the fide of the parliament, he declares himfelf
‘ totally unconcerned in all counfels relative to the death of
the king : however, on that event, and on the eftablifhment
of the commonwealth, he was diverted from profecuting his
employments in the law by engaging in public bufinefs.
When Cromwell affumed the prote&orfhip, he became fe-
cretary of (late ; in 1655', he had the care and charge both
of foreign and inland pottage committed to him by the
protetlor ; and was afterward fworn one of his privy-coun¬
cil, according to “ The humble petition and advice.” He
was continued in the fame capacities under Richard Crom¬
well, and until meafures were taken for the Relloration ;
when he made an offer of his fervices to that end, which,
however, were not accepted. May 15th 1660, he was com¬
mitted to the cuftody of the ferjeant at arms on a charge ©f
high-treafon ; but being foon releafed, he retired to Great
Milton in Oxfordfhire : and though he was afterward often
folicited by Charles II. to engage in the adminiftration of
public bufinefs, he thought proper to decline the offers. He
died in 1668 ; and was a man of an amiable private charac¬
ter, who in the higheft of his power exercifed all poflible
moderation towards perfons of every party. The moft au¬
thentic teftimony of his abilities is that vaft colleftion of
ftate-papers, feven volumes folio, now in the hands of the
public ; which place the affairs of Great Britain, and of
Europe in general, during that remarkable period in the
clearett light.
THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Chriftlan week, but
the fixth of that of the Jews.
THUS, Frankincense, a folid brittle refin, brought to
us in little globes or maffes, of a brownifh or yellowifh co¬
lour on the outfide, internally whitifh or variegated with
whiti/h fpecks. It is fuppofed to be the produce of the
pine that yields the common turpentine, apd to concrete
upon the furface of the terebinthinate juice foon after it has
iffued from the tree. See Incense.
THUYA. See Thuja.
THYMUS, Th yme, in botany : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of dulynamla, and order of gymnoftermia-,
and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 42d order, Fer-
tkiUata. The calyx is bilabiate, and its throat clofed with
joft hairs. Theie are 11 fpecies ; of which two only are
natives of Britain, the ferpyltum and actnas.
1. The ferpyllutn, or mother of thyme, has pale red flowers
growing on round heads, terminal; the ftalks are procum¬
bent, and the leaves plane, obtufe, and ciliated at the bafe.
2. The aclnas, or wild bafil, has flowers growing in whirls
on fingle iootttalks; the flalks are ere& and branched ; the
leaves acute and ferrated. The thymus vulgaris, or garden
thyme, is a native of France, Spain, and Italy.—The at¬
tachment of bees to this and other aromatic plants is well
known. In the experiments made at Upfal, (beep and goats
were obferved to eat it, and Iwine to reiufe it.
Thymus, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n9 114.
riT\ RSUS, in antiquity, the feeptre which the poets
put into the hand of Bacchus, and wherewith they furnifhed
the menades in their Bacchanalia.
ttnYRSUS, in botany, a mode of flowering refembling
the cone of a pine. It is, fays Tinmans, a panicle eon-
trafted into an oval or egg-fhaped form. The lower foot-
ftalks, which are longer, extend horizontally, whilft the
upper ones are fhorter and mount vertically. Lilac and
butter-bur furnifh examples.
• TIARA, an ornament or habit wherewith the ancient
Per funs covered their head ; and with which the Arme¬
nians and kings of Pontus arc reprefented on medals; theie
i 1 TIB
laft, beeaufe they were defeended from the Perfians. La- Tiara
tin authors call it indifferently tiara and ciclaris. Strabo
fays, the tiara was in form of a tower; and the fcholiaft on ,
Ariftophanes’s comedy, A^pvnf, aft; 1. feene 2. affirms, that
it was adorned with peacock’s feathers.
Tiara is alio the name of the pope’s triple crown. The
tiara and keys are the badges ot the papal dignity ; the
tiara of his civil rank, and the keys of his juriidiftion : for
as foon as the pope is dead, his arms are reprefented with
the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara was
a round high cap. John XXIIL. firft encompaffed it with
a crown. Boniface VIII. added a fecond crown; and Be-
nedift XII. a third.
TIARELLA, in botany : A genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of decandria, and order of digynia ; and in the
natural fyttein ranging under the 13th order. Succulent*.
The calyx is quinquepartite; the corolla pentapetaldus, and
inferted into the calyx ; the petals are entire ; the capfule
is unilocular and bivalve, the one valve being lefs than the
other. There are two fpecies, the cordfo/ia and trfoliata.
TIBER, a great river of Italy, which runs through the
pope’s territories, patting by Perugia and Orvietto ; and
having vifited Rome, falls into the Tufcan fea at Ollia, fifteen
miles below that city.
TIBET, called by the Tartars Baranlo/a, Bootan, or
Tangoot, and by the Chinefe Tfung, is fituated between 26°
and 39y north latitude ; and, according to Abbe Grotter,
is reckoned to be 640 leagues from call to weft, and 650
from north to fouth. It is bounded on the north by the
country of the Mongols and the defert of Kobi; on the
call by China; on the weft by Hindoftan, and on the fouth
by the fame country and the kingdom of Ava. In the
valleys lying between the lower mountains are many tribes
of Indian people ; and a difpute happening between the
heirs of one of the rajahs or petty princes, one party called
to their aftittance the Boutaners, and the ©thei the Britifh.
The latter prevailed ; and the lame of Britifh valour being
carried to the court of Tibet, the Teefhoo-Lama, who ruled
the ftate under the Delai-L?.ma, at that time in his mino¬
rity, fent a deputation to Bengal, deliring peace for the
prince who had been engaged in war with the Britifh. This
was readily granted by the governor; and Mr Bogle was
lent ambaffador to the court of Tibet, where he relided
feveral months ; and after an abfence of a year and a quar¬
ter, returned to Calcutta. 'The account of this gentleman’s
expedition, hath not been publifhed by himfelf; but from
Mr Stewart’s letter to Sir John Pringle, publifhed in the
Philolophieal Tranfaftions, vol. 67. we learn the following
particulars, coliefted from his papers.
“ Mr Bogle divides the territories of the Dklai-Lama
into two different parts. That which lies immediately con-
tiguous to Bengal, and which is called by the inhabitants
Docpo, he diftinguifhes by the name of Booian ; and the
other, which extends to the northward as far as the fron¬
tiers of Tartary, called by the natives Puy he ftyles ’Tibet.
Bootan is ruled by the Dah Terriah, or Deb Rajah. It
is a. country, of tteep and inacceffible mountains, whole fum-
mits are crowned with eternal fnow ; they are interlefted
with deep valleys, through v/hich pour num he riels torrents
that increak in their courfe, and at laft, gaining the plains,
tele themlelves in the great rivers of Bengal. Theie moun¬
tains are covered down their lides with forefts of ft-ately
trees of various forts ; forrie (iuch as-pines, &.e.) which are
knowrc in Europe ; others,.fuch as are peculiar to the coun¬
try and climate. 1 he valleys and (ides of the hills which
admit of cultivation are not unfruitful, but produce crops-
of wheat, barley, and rice. The inhabitants are a (tout?,
and wailike people, ol a copper complexion* in f.ze rather!
x above-
TIB ' [ 5
above the middle European ftature, hally aid quarrelfome
in their temper, and adduced to the ufe of fpirituous liquors;
but honeft in their dealings, robbery by violence beinn al-
moft unknown amona them. The chief city is TafTey Sed-
dein fituated on the Patchoo. Tibet begins properly from
the top of the great ridge of the Caucafus, and extends
from thence in breadth to the confines of Great Taitary,
and perhaps to fome of the dominions of the Ruffian em-'
pne. 1 he woods, which everywhere cover the mountains
in Boutan, are heie totally unknown ; and, except a few
draggling trees near the villa res, nothing of the fort to be
feen.. T ne climate is extremely fevere and rude. At Cham-
nanning, wheie he wintered, although it be in latitude 310
39', only 8" to the northward of Calcutta, he often found
the thermometer in his room at 290 by Fahrenheit’s fcale;
and in the middle of April the Handing waters were all
frozen, and heavy fhowers of fnow perpetually fell. This,
no doubt, mud be owing to the great elevation of the
country, and to the vad ;rozen Ipace over which the north
wund blows uninterruptedly from the pole, through the vad
deferts of Siberia and Tartary, till it is flopped by this for¬
midable wall
“ ! he I ibetians are of a fmaller fize than their fouthern
neighbours, and of a lefs robnd make. 1 heir complexions
nre alio fairer, and many of them have even a ruddinefs in
their countenances unknown in the other climates of the
tad. Thofe whom Mr Bogle faw at Calcutta appeared to
have quite the T. artar face. i hey are of a mild and cheer¬
ful temper; the higher ranks are polite and entertaining in
converiation, in which they never mix either drained com-
pliments or flattery. The common oeople, both in Bootan
end ibet, are clothed in coarfe woollen fluffs of their own
manufacture, lined with luch fkins as they can procure: but
tne, better orders of men are dreffed in European cloth, or
China lilk, lined with the fined Siberian furs. I he ufe of
linen is totaLy unknown among them. ihe chief food of
the inhabitants is the milk of their cattle, prepared into
cheefe, butter, or mixed with the flour of a coarfe barley or
of peafe, the only grain which their foil produces ; and even
thefe articles are in a fcanty proportion : but they are fur-
nifhed with rice and w heat from Bengal and other countries
in their neighbourhood. They alfo are fupplied with fidi
from the rivers in their own and the neighbouring provinces,
falted and lent into the anterior parts. They have no want
of animal food from the cattle, fheep, and hogs, which are
railed on their hiils; and are not deditute of game. They
have a fingular method of preparing their mutton, by ex-
pofing the carcate entire, after the bowels are taken out, to
the fun and bleak northern winds which blow in the months
of Au ;uft and September, without frod, and fo dry up
the juices and parch the fkin, that the meat will keep un¬
corrupted for the year round. This they generally eat
raw, without any other preparation.
1 he religion and political conditution of this country,
which are intimately blended together, would make a con-
fiderable chapter in its hiftory. ‘ It fuffices to fay, that at
prefent, and ever fince the expulfion of the Eluth, Tartars,
the kingdom of Tibet is regarded as depending on the em¬
pire of China, which they call Cathay; and there adtnallv
refide two mandarines, with a garrifon of a thoufand Chi-
nefe, at Lahaffa the capital, to fupport the eovernment ;
but their power does not extend far : and in fa& the La¬
ma, v/hole empire is rounded on the fared grounds, perfon-
al affedlion and religious reverence, governs every thing
internally with unbounded authority. Every body know^
that the Delai Lama is the great objeft of adoration for
the various tribes of heathen Tartars, udio roam through
ihe vaft trad of continent which ftretches from the banks
T2 ] TIB
exlrnfi y°!pT t0 ^0rr.ei. 011 thc fea of the mod Tibet'
extenfive religious dominion, perhaps, on the face of the —v-|
globe. See Lama.
“ an. °ld n0t?0n, that the rcl,T°n of Tibet is a cor¬
rupted Chnd.anity : and even Father Difederii, a Jefuit
(but not of the Chinefe miffion) who vifited the country
about the beginning of this century, thinks he can refolve
all their mydenes into ours ; and afferts, with a truly mylti-
f,3 P^n.et.ratlong that the7 h?-ve certainly a good notion o?
the Trinity, fince.m their addrefs to the Deity, they fay
as often konxioh-oik in the plural as honcloh in the fingular,
and with their rofanes pronounce thefe words, ow, ha, hum
• i he truth is, that the religion of Tibet, from whatever
loutce it fprung, is pure and iimpje in its fource, conveying
very exalted notions of the Deity, with no contemptible
lydem of morality : but in its progrefs it has been greatly
altered and corrupted by the inventions of worldly men •
a fate we can hardly regret in a fyftem of error, fince we
know that that of truth has been fubjecl to the fame. P0-
lygamy, at lead in the lenle we commonly receive the word
is not in practice among them ; but it'exifts in a manned
itill more repugnant to European ideas; for there is a plu¬
rality of hufbands, which is firmly edablifhed and highly re-
ipeclcd there. In a country where the means of fubliding !
f farni7 a7 not eafiIy found, it feems not impolitic to al¬
low a let of brothers to agree in railing one, which is to he
maintained by their joint efforts In ffiort, it is ufual in
met <or the brothers in the family to have a wife in com-
mon, and they generally live in great harmony and condo’t
with her; not but fometimes little diffenfions will arife (as
may happen in families condituted upon different principles),
an in ft a nee of which Mr Bogle mentions in the cafe of a
moded and virtuous lady, the wife of half a dozen of the
ieeihoo Lama s nephews, who complained to the uncle
that the two youngelt of her huffiands did not furni/h that
ihare of love and benevolence to the common dock which ’
duty and religion required of them. In fhort, however
drange this cudom may appear to us, it is an undoubted fad
that it prevails in Tibet.
“ i he manner of bedowing their dead is alfo fingular:
they neither put them in the ground like the Europeans,
noi buin them like the Hindoos; but expofe them on the
bleak pinnacle of iome neighbouring mountain, to be de¬
voured by wild beads and birds of prey, or waded awav
by time and the viciffitudes of the weather in which they lie.
1 he man: led carcafes and bleached bones lie fcattered about;
and amidd this feene of horror, fome miferable old wretch,
man or woman, lod to all feelings but thofe of fuperdition,
generally lets up an abode, to perform the difmal office of
receiving the bodies, affigning each a place, and gathering
up the remains when too widely difoerfedT’
lo the account of i ibet which vve have given from the
communications of Mr Bogle, we may add the information
which we have obtained from a later traveller, Mr Saunders* *
furgeon at Boglepoer in Bengal, who made a journey into^ phl,
I ibet in the year 1783. His obfeivations chiefly refped v|x.
t.ie natural produfiions and difeafes of the country.
I he plants which Mr Saunders found were almoft all
European plants, a great number of them being natives of
Britain, brom the appearance of the hills, he concludes
that they mud contain many ores of metal and pyrites,
i here are intxhaudible quantities ofTiNCAL (rce Riat arti¬
cle), and rock ialt is plentiful; gold-dud is found in great
quantities in the beds of rivers, and fometimes in large maffes,
lumps, and irregular veins,; lead, cinnabar containing a
large proportion of quickfilver, copper, and iron, he thinks,
might eafily be procured. But the inhabitants of Tibet
have no better fuel than the dung of animals. A coal
mine
TIB [ 5
Tibet, mine would be a valuable difcovery. We are told, that in
Tibul'us. fome paitg 0f Chiaa bordering on Tibet coal is found and
ufed as fuel.
It is remarkable that the fame difeafe prevails at the foot
of the mountains of Tibet as in Switzerland at the foot of
the Alps, a glandular fwelling in the throat commonly call¬
ed goitre. This dileafe has been afcribed to the ufe of fnow-
water, which flows down in Itreams from the mountains in
both countries. But in many countries where fnow-water
is abundant it does not prevail, and in other places far remote
from fnow it is not unfrequent, as in Sumatra. Mr Saun¬
ders thinks that it arifes trom the air peculiar to the vicinity
of certain mountains; and finding the vegetable produftions
of the mountains of Tibet the fame with thofe of the Alps,
that they alfo may have their influence. An analyfis of the
water where this difeafe prevails might throw fome light on
the fuhjeft. We have heard it attributed to the impregna¬
tion of water with tufa. This very extraordinary dileafe has
been little attended to, from obvious reafons ; it is unaccom¬
panied with pain, feldom fatal, and generally confined to
the poorer fort of people. The tumor is unfi?htly, and
grows to a troublefome fize, being often as large as a per-
fon’s head. It is certainly not exaggerating to fay, that
one in fix of the Rungpore diitrift, and country of Bootan,
has the difeafe.
As thofe who labour moft, and are the leaft protefled
from the changes of weather, are moll fubjedl to the difeafe,
we univerfally find it in Bootan more common with the wo¬
men than men. It generally appears in Bootan at the age
of thirteen or fourteen, and in Bengal at the age of
oleven or twelve ; lb that in both countries the difeafe
fhows itfelf about the age of puberty. I do not believe
this difeafe has ever been removed, though a mercurial
courfe feemed to check its progrefs, but did not prevent its
advance after intermitting the ufe of mercury. An atten¬
tion to the primary caufe will firll lead to a proper method
ot treating the difeafe ; a change of fituation for a Ihort
while, at that particular period when it appears, might be
the means of preventing it.
The venereal difeafe is not uncommon in Tibet ; and what
will perhaps furprize the.phyfician, the inhabitants are ac¬
quainted with the effefts of mercury, and with a method of
preparing it fo as to render it a fafe and efficacious remedy.
They know how to deprive it of its metallic form by mix¬
ing it with alum, nitre, and vermilion, and expofing it to
a certain degree of heat, which they judge of by weighing
the fuel.
The language fpoken in Tibet is different from that of
the Tartars. The aftronomers are acquainted with the
motion of the heavenly bodies, and able to calculate eclipfes:
but the lamas are generally ignorant; few of them can read,
much left underftand their ancient books.
i IBULLUS (Aulus Albius), a Roman knight, and a
celebrated Latin poet, was born at Rome 43 B. C. He
was the friend of Horace, Ovid, Macer, and other great
men in the reign of Auguftus. He accompanied Meflala
Corvinus in his expedition againfl the ifland of Corcyra:
but falling lick, and being unable to fupport the fatigues of
war on account of the weaknefs of his conllitution, he
quitted the profeflion of arms, and returned to Rome, where
he died before the year 17 ; when Ovid ffiowed his grief
for his death by writing a fine elegy upon him. Tibullus
wrote four books of elegies, which are Hill extant: they are
written in a tender and agreeable ftyle, and in very ele¬
gant Latin. Muret and Jofeph Scaliger have written
learned and curious commentaries on the works of this
poet. he bell edition of T ibullus is that of Janus
lone.. iu!uis publiffied at Amfterdam in 1708, in one
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
i3 ] . ,T 1 D
volume quarto. We have an Englilh poetical verfion by Tiber
Mr Grainger. H
TIBUR, (anc. geog.) a town of Latium, pleafantlv. 1 e'
fituated on the Anio. Here Horace had his villa and
houfe ; and here he wilhed to end his days. Plere Adrian
built an extraordinary villa called Tiburtina, inferibed with
the names of the provinces and of the moft contiderable
places, (Spartian) ; near which Zenobia had a houfe called
Zenobia, (Trebellius, Pollfo). Hither Auguflus often re¬
treated on account of its falubrity, (Suetonius): for which
it is greatly commended, (Martial). Anciently, when the
Romans had far extended their territory, it was the utmoll
place of banilhment, (Ovid). It had a temple of Hercules ;
and therefore called Herculeum. In the temple was a li¬
brary, (A. Gellius). Now Tivoli in the Campagna di Ro¬
ma on the Teverone.
TICINUS, (anc. geog.) a river in Infubria, rifing in
mount Adula, traverfing the Lacus Verbanus fouthwards,
and falling into the Po near Ticinum. Between this ritfer
and the Po Hannibal gained his firft vidlory over the Romans
under P. Scipio. The general himfelf efcaped with the
utmofl difficulty, and that by the bravery of his fon the
firft Scipio Africanus. Now the Tefno, rifing in mount
Godard, running fouth through the Lago Maggiore and
Milan, by Pavia, into the Po.
TICK, in zoology. See Acarus.
TIC KELL (Thomas), an excellent Englifh poet, was
the fon of the Reverend Richard Tickell, and was born in
1686, at Bridekirk in Cumberland. He was educated at
Queen’s college, Oxford, of which he was made fellow ; and
while hecontinued at that univerfity, he addrefied toMr Addi-
fon a complimentary copy of verfes on his Opera of Rofamond,
which introduced him to an acquaintance with that gentle¬
man, who di (covering his merit, became his fincere friend.
On Mr Addifon’s being made fecretary of ftate, he appoint¬
ed Mr Tickell his under-fecretary ; and on his being obliged
to refign that office on account of his ill health, he recom¬
mended him fo effeftually to Mr Craggs his fucceffor, that
he was continued in his poll till that gentleman’s death. In
1724 Mr Tickell was appointed fecretary to the lords
juflices in Ireland, and enjoyed that place as long as he
lived. Pie wrote fome poems, which, when feparately
publiffied, met with a favourable reception, and paffed
through feveral editions : they are now printed in the fe-
cond volume of The Minor Poets. After Mr Addifon’s
death Mr Tickell had the care of the edition of his works
printed in 4 vols qto ; to which he prefixed an account of
Mr Addifon’s life, and a poem on his death. Mr Tickell
died in the year 1740.
TICKER A, a confiderable article of merchandife in
Fezzan in Africa; it is valued by travellers as a portable
and highly falubrious food. It is a preparation of pounded
dates, and the meal of Indian corn, formed into a palte, and
highly dried in an oven.
TICKSEED, Sun- flower. See Coreopsis.
TICUNAS. See Poison, p. 266.
TIDE, is a word which expreffes that rifing and falling
of the waters which are obferved on all maritime coafts.
There is a certain depth of the waters of the ocean which
would obtain if all were at reft : but obfervation (hows
that they are continually varying from this level, and that
fome of thefe variations art regular and periodical.
It is obferved, that on the (bores of the oce^n, and
in bays, Creeks, and harbours, which communicate freely with
the ocean, the waters rife up above this mean height twice
a-day, and as often fink below it, forming what is called a
floob and an ebb, a high and a low water. The
whole interval between high and low water is called a tide ;
3 T the
T 1 D [ ji
Tide, the water is faid to flow and to ebb ; and the riling is
—v  called the flood-tide, and the falling is called the ebb
TIDE. _-
id. It is obferved, that this rife and fall of the waters is
variable in quantity. At Plymouth, for inltance, it is fome-
,times 2i feet between the greateft and lead: depth of the
water in one day, and lometimcs only 12 teet.
Thefe different heights of tide are obferved to fucceed
each other in a regular feries, dimtnifhing from the greateft
to the leaft, and then increafing from the lead to the great¬
eft. The greateft is called a spring tide, and the leait is
called a neap tide.
This feries is completed in about 15 days. More
careful obfervation fliows that two feriefes are completed
in the exa£t time of a lunation. For the fpring tide in any
place is obferved to happen precifely at a certain interval of
time (generally between two and three days) after new or
full moon, and the neap tide at a certain interval after
half moon ; or, more accurately fpeaking, it is obferved that
the fpring tide always happens when the moon has rot a
certain number of degrees eaftward of the line of conjunc¬
tion and oppofition, and the neap tide happens when fhe is a
certain number of degrees from her firft or laft quadrature.
Thus the whole feries of tides appears to be regulated by
the moon.
t\th: It is obferved that high water happens at new and
full mbon when the moon has a certain determined pofition
with refpedl to the meridian of the place of obfervation,
preceding \rr following the moon’s (outhinga certain inter¬
val of time; which is conft?.nt with refpeft to that place, but
very different in different places.
5^, The time of high water in any place appears to he
regulated byr the moon ; for the interval between the time
of high water and the moon’s fouthing never changes above
three quarters of an hour, whereas the interval between the
time of high water and noon changes fix hours in the courfe
of a fortnight.
6th, The interval between two fucceeding high waters is
variable. It is leaft of all about new and full moon, and
.greateft when the moon is in her quadratures. As two high
waters happen every day, we may c?.ll the double of their
interval a tide day, as we call the diurnal revolution of the
moon a lunar day. The tide day is fhorteft about new and
full moon, being then about 24}' 37'; about the time of the
moon’s quadratures it is 2^h 27'. Thefe values are taken from
a mean of many obfervatkns made at Barbadoes by Dr
Mafkelyne.
7/A, The tides in (imilar circumftances are greateft when
the moon is at her fmalkft diftance from the earth, or in her
perigee, and, gradually dirmnifhing, are fmalkft when fhe is
in her apogee.
8th, The fame remark is made with refpeeft to the fun’s
diftance, and the greateft tides are obferved during the win¬
ter months of Europe.
gth. The tides in any part of the ocean increafe as the
moon, by changing her declination, approaches the zenith
of that place.
10th, The tides which happen while the moon is above
the horizon are greater than the tides of the fame day when
the moon is below the horizon.
Such are the regular phenomena of the tides. They
are important to all commercial nations, and have therefore
been much attended to. It is of the tides, in all probability,
that the Bible fpeaks, when God is faid to let bounds to
the fea, and to fay “ this far ftiall it go, and no farther.”
Homer is the earlieft profane author who fpeaks of the
tides. Indeed it is not very clear that it is of them that he
fpeaks (in the XHth book of the Odyffey) when he fpeaks of
4 1 T I D
Charybdis, which rifes and retires thrice in every day. Hero- Tide
dotus and Diodorus Siculus foeak more diftindlly of the tides ——y-
in the Red Sea. Pytheas of Marfeilles is the firft who fays
any thing of their caufe. According to Strabo he had been
in Britain, where he muft have obferved the tides of the
ocean. Plutarch fays exprefsly that Pytheas aferibed them
to the moon. It is fomewhat wonderful that Ariftotle fays
fo little about the tides. The army of Alexander, his pu¬
pil, were ftartled at their firft appearance to them near the
Perfran Gulph ; and we fhouH have thought that Ariftotle
would be well informed of all that had been oblerved there.
But there are only three paffages concerning them in all
Ariftotk’s writings, and they are very trivial. In one place
he Ipeaks of great tides obfen'ed in the north of Europe;
in another, he mentions their having been aferibed by fomc
to the moon ; and in a third, he fays, that the tide in a
great fea exceeds that in a finall one.
The Greeks had little oppoitunity of obferving the tides.
The conquefts and the commerce of the Romans gave them
more acquaintance with them. Caefar fpeaks of them in
the 4th book of his Gallic War. Strabo, after Pofidoniu;,
claffes the phenomena into daily, monthly, and annual. He
obferves, that the fea rifes as the moon gets near the meri¬
dian, whether above or below the horizon, and tails again as
fhe rifes or falls ; alio, that the tides increafe at the time of
new and full moon, and are greateft at the fummer foliticc.
Pliny explains the phenomena at fome length; and fays, that
both the fun and moon are their cauie, dragging the wa¬
ters along with them (B. II. c. 97). Seneca [Nat. QuejL
III. 28.) fpeaks of the tides with corredtnefs ; and Macro-
bins (Sornn. Sclp. I. 6.) gives a very accurate defeription
of their motions.
it is impoffihle that fuch phenomena fhould not exer-
cife human curiofity as to their caufe. Plutarch {Plant.
Ph i, III. 17), Galileo {Syjl. Mund. Dial 4.), Riccioli
in his Almagejl, ii. p. 374, and Gaffendi, ii. p. 27 have
colkdled moft of the notions of their predecefl'ors on the
fubjeft ; but they are of fo little importance, that they do
not deferve our notice. Kepler fpeaks more like a philofo-
pher (De Stella Martis, and Rpti. AJiron. p. 555). Pie
fays that all bodies attradl each other, and that the waters of
the ocean would all go to the moon were they not retained
by the attraftion of the earth ; and then goes on to explain
their elevation under the moon and on the oopofite fide, be-
caufe the earth is lefs attracted by the moon than the nearer
waters, but more than the waters which are more remote.
’i'he honour of a complete explanation of the tides was
referved for Sir Ifaac Newton. He laid hold of this clafs
of phenomena as the moft inconteftabk proof of univerfal
gravitation, and has given a moft beautiful and fynoptical
view of the whole fubjedl; contenting himfelf, however,
with merely exhibiting the chief coniequences of the gene¬
ral princiok, and applying it to the phenomena with lingu¬
lar addrefs. But the wide fteps taken by this great philo-
fopher in his inveftigation leave ordinary readers frequently
at fault: many of his affumotions require the greateft ma¬
thematical knowledge to latisfy us of their truth. The
academy of Paris therefore propoied to illuftrafe this among
other parts of the principles of natural phiiofophy, and
publifhed the theory of the tides as a pr’ze problem. 1 his
produced three excellent differtations, by M’Laurin, Dan.
Bernoulli, and Euler. Aided by thele, and chiefly by the
fecond, we fhall here give a phylical theory, and accommo¬
date it to the purpoks of navigation by giving the rules of
calculation. Wk have demonilrated in our differtations on
the phyfical principles of the cekftial motions, that it is an
unexcepted laft, that every particle of matter in the folar
fyftemisaftually defkfted toward every other particle; and
$ n 2 f
TMe,
Plate
DIX.
T I D [ 5
that the defleftton of a particle of matter toward any di-
ftant fphere is proportional to the quantity of matter in that
fphere dire&ly, and to the fquare of the diltance of the
particle from the centre of that fphere inverfely: and having
found that the heavinefs of a piece of terredrial matter is
nothing but the fupooled opponent to the force which we
exert in carrying this piece of matter, we conceive it as
poHeffing a property, that is, diftinguifhing quality, mani-
fefted by its being gravis or heavy. This is heavinefs, gra-
vitas, gravity ; and the manifeftation of this quality, or the
event in which it is feen, whether it be direftly falling, or
deflecting in a parabolic curve, or firetching a coiled fpring,
or breaking a rope, or fimply prefling on its fupport, is yra-
v'tatio, gravitation; and the body is faid to gravitate.
When all obftacles are removed Irom the body, as when we
cut the firing by which a Hone is hung, it moves diredlly
downwards, tendit ad te ram. Si dfcindatur funis, tenderet
lapis ad terrain. Dum vero funis integer perjlct, lapis ter-
ram verfts niti cenfetur. By fome metaphyfical orocefs,
which it is needlefs at prefent to trace, this nfus ad motum
has been called a tendency in our language. Indeed the
word has now come to flgmry the energy of any aftive qua¬
lity in thofe cafes where its limplell and molt immediate
rnanbeilation is prevented by fome obftacle. The Hone is
now laid to tend toward the earth, though it does not ac¬
tually approach it, being withheld by the firing. The
ft reaching the firing in a direction perpendicular to the
horizon is conceived as a full manifeftation of this tendency.
This tendency, this inergy of its heavinefs, is therefore
named by the word which dillinguifhes the quality ; and it
is called gravitation, and it is faid to gravitate.
But Sir Ifaac Newton diicovered that this defledlion of
a heavy body differs in no relpeft from that general deflec¬
tion obferved in all the bodies of the folar fyliem. For 16
feet, which is the deflexion of a ftone in one fecond, has
the very fame proportion to T^th of an inch, which is the fx-
multaneous defledlfon of the moon, that the fquare of the
moon’s diftance from the centre of the earth has to the
fquare of the Hone’s diftance from it, namely, that of 3600
to f.
Thus we are enabled to compare all the effedls of the mu¬
tual tendencies of the heavenly bodies with the tendency of
gravity, whofe effects and mcafures are familiar to us.
If the earth were a fphere covered to a great depth with
water, the water would form a concentric fpherical (hell ;
for the gravitation of every particle of its furface would
then be directed to the centre, and would be equal. The
curvature of its furface therefore would be every where the
fame, that is, it would be the uniform curvature of a fphere.
It has been demonftrated in former articles, after Sir
Ifaac Newton, that the gravitation of a particle C (fig. i.)
to the centre O, is to that of a particle E at the furface as
as CO to EO. In like manner the gravitation of 0 is to
that of /> as 0 O to p O. If therefore EO and O p are two
communicating canals, of equal lengths, the water in both
would be in equihbrio, becaufe each column would exert the
fame total preflure at O. But if the gravitation of each
particle in p O be diminifhed by a certain oroportion, fuch
as r'-sth or its whole weight, it is plain that ihe total pref
lure o‘ the column p O will be r^gth part lefs than that of
the column EO. Therefore they will no longer be in
eqmlibrio. The weight of the column EO will prevail; and
d a hollow tower be built at the mouth of the pit p 0,
the water will fink in EO and rife in Op, till both are
again in equilibrio, exerting equal total prefl'ures at O. Or
we may prevent the linking at E by pouring in more water
into the tower Pp. The fame thing muft happen in the
canalyv perpendicular to EO, if the gravitation of every
ij ] T 1 D
particle be diminifhed by a force adfing in the direflion CF,
and proportional to the dill ante of the particle from C, and
Inch, that when c C is equal to 0 O, the force adting on e is
equal to the lorce aftmg on <?. In order that the former
equilibrium may be reftored after this diminution of the
gravitation of the column/C, it is plain that more water'
rnuft be poured into the oblique tower F f. All this is
evident when we coniider the matter hydroftatieally. The
gravitation of the particle r may be reprefented by oO;.
but the diminution of the preflure occaiioned by this at O
is reprefented by C c.
Hence we can collecft this much, that the whole diminu¬
tion ot preflure at C is to the whole diminution of preflure
at O as the fum of all the lines r C to the fum of all the
lines 0 O, that is, as /C2 to pO\ But the weight of the
frnall quantity of water added in each tower is diminiflied ia
the fame proportion ; therefore the quantity added at Ff
mult be to the quantity added at P/ as/C to y O. There¬
fore we mull have F/: P/=y C : /> O, and the points E,
F, P, muft be in the circumference of an ellipfe, of which
PO and EO are the tranfverfe and conjugate femiaxes.
What we have here fuppoled concerning the diminution
of gravity in thefe canals is a thing which really obtains in
nature, it was demonftrated, when treating ot the Preces~
Sion of the Equinoxes, that if the fun or moon lie in the di-
redlion OP, at a very great diftance, there refults from the
unequal gravitation of the different particles of the earth a
diminution of the gravity of each particle ; which diminution
is in a direction parallel to OP, and proportional to the di¬
ftance of the particle from a plane paifing through the
centre of the earih at right angles to the line OP.
Thus it happens that the waters of the ocean have their
equilibrium dillurbed by the unequal gravitation of their
different particles to the fun or to the moon ; and this equi¬
librium cannot be reftored till the waters come in from all
hands, and rife up around the line joining the centres of the
earth and of the luminary. The fpherical ocean mull ac¬
quire the form of a prolate fpheroid generated by the revo¬
lution of an ellipfe round its tranfverle axis. 1 he waters
will be higheit in that place which has the luminary in its
zenith, and in the antipodes to that place ; and they will be
moll depreffed in all tlrofe places which have the luminary
in their horizon. P and P' will be the poles, and EOQ__
will be the equator of this prolate fpheroid.
Mr Ferguian, in his Allronomy, afligns another caufe of
this arrangement, viz. the difference ot the centrifugal forces
of the different particles of water, while the earth is turn¬
ing round the common centre of gravity of the earth and
moon. This, however, is a mittake. It would be jutt if
the earth and moon were attached to the ends of a rod, and
the earth kept always the fame face toward the moon.
It is evident that the accumulation at P and P', and the
depreffion at the equator, muft augment and dimini h in the
fame proportion with the diilurbing force. It is alio evi¬
dent that its abfolute quantity may be difeovered by our
knowf.dge of the proportion of the dillurbing force to the
force of gravity. —Now this proportion is known ; for the
proportion of the gravitation of the earth’s centre to tire
fun or moon, to the force of gravity at the earth’s furface, is
known ; and the proportion of the gravitation of the earth’s
centre to the luminary, to the difference of the gravitations
of the centre and ot the funace, is alio known, being very
nearly the proportion of the diitance of the luminary to
twice the radius of the earth.
Although this realoning, by which we have afeertained
the elliptical form of the watery ipheroid, be fufficiently
convincing, it is very imperfedl, being accommodated to one
condition only of equilibrium, viz. "the equilibrium of the
3X2 canals
Ti
T I D • [ 516 ] T I D
canals/c and c 0. There are feveral other conditions equal¬
ly neceffary to which this lax reafoning will not apply>
fuch as the direftion of the whole remaining gravitation in
any point F. This mail be perpendicular to the furface,
&c. &c. Nor will this mode of inveftigation afcertain the
eccentricity of the fnheroid without a moft intricate pro-
cefs. We mud therefore take the fubjedl more generally,
and (how the proportion and diredfions of gravity in every
point of the fpheroid. We need not, however, again de-
monftrate that the gravitation of a particle placed any
where without a perfedf fpherical fhell, or a fphere confift-
jng of concentric fpherical fiiells, either of uniform denfity,
or of denfities varying-according to fome furdfion of the
radius, is the fame as if the whole matter of the fhell or
fphere were colledfed in the centre. This has been demon-
ftrated in the article Astronomy. We need only remind
the reader of fome conieqviences of this theorem which are
of continual ufe in the prefect inveftigation.
iji. The gravitation to a fphere is proportional to its
quantity of matter diredfly, and to the fquare of the diflance
of its centre from the gravitating particle inverfely.
2r/, If the fpheres be homogeneous and of the lame den¬
fity, the gravitations of particles placed on their furiaces, or
at ditlances which are proportional to their diameters, arc as
the radii ; for the quantities of matter are as the cubes of
the radii, and the attractions are inverfely as the fquares of
r3
the radii; and therefore the whole gravitations are as—,or
gs r.
3d, A particle placed within a fphere has no tendency to
the matter of the fhell which lies without it, becaufe its ten¬
dency to any part is balanced by an oppoiite tendency to
the oppofite part. Therefore,
Ofth, A particle placed any where within a homogeneous
fphere gravitates to its centre with a force proportional to
its diftancc from it.
It is a much more difficult problem to determine the gra¬
vitation of particles to a fpheroid. To do this in general
terms, and for every fituation of the particle, would require
a train of propofitions which our limits will by no means
admit ; we muft content ourfelves with as much as is necef¬
fary for merely afcei taining the ratio of the axes. This
will be obtained by knowing the latio of the gravitation at
the pole to that at the equator. Therefore
Let N m S ^ N (fig. 2) be a fedlion through the axis of
an oblate homogeneous fpheroid, which differs very little
from a fphere. NS is the axis, m q is the equatorial dia¬
meter, O is the centre, and NMSQjs the fedtion of the in-
feribed fphere. Let P be a particle fituated at any di-
ftance without the fphere in its axis produced ; it is re¬
quired to determine the gravitation of this particle to the
whole matter of the fpheroid ?
Draw two lines PAC, PBD, very near to each other,
cutting off two fmall arches AB, CD ; draw GAn, HB£,
IC c, KD d, perpendicular to the axis ; alfo draw OE and
AL perpendicular to PAC, and OF perpendicular to PD,
cutting PC in/. Join OA.
Let OA, the radius of the inferibed fphere, be r, and
OP the diflance of the gravitating particle be d, and M rw,
the elevation of the equator of the fpheroid, or the clliptici-
ty, bee. Alfo make AE= k, and OE = jy, x2.
Then AE—BF = x and F f zzyy = ~-x  
V r1—x%
Suppofe the whole figure to turn round the axis OP.
The little fpace AB b a will generate a ring of the redun¬
dant matter j fo will CD d c. This ring may be conlider-
ed as confiding of a number of thin rings generated by the
revolution of A a. The ring generated by A a is equal to
a parallelogram whofe bafe is the circumference deferibed
by A and whofe height is A a. Therefore let c be the
circumference of a circle whofe radius is 1. The ring will
be A <2 X c X AG. But becaufe w a N is an arch of an
ellipfe, we have M m : Aa — MO : AG = r : AG, and
A a — M w X
AG
~ AG. Therefore the furface of this
e
ring is = c —AG1.
We have fuppofed the fpheroid to be very nearly fpheri¬
cal, that is, t exceedingly fmall in companion of r. This
being the cafe, all the particles in A a, and conlequemly
all the particles in the ring generated by the revolution of
A will attradk the remote particle P with the fame k>rce
that A does very nearly. We may fay the fame thing of
the whole matter of the ring generated by the revolution of
AB £ a. This attraction is exerted in the direction PA
by each individual particle. But every adtion of a particle
A is accompanied by the adlion of a particle A' in the dt-
redlion P V. Thefe two compofe an attraftion in the ci«
reftion PO. The whole attradiion in the diredtions fimiltr
e A G2
to PA is =: r X vctt-X GH, for GH meafures the
r PA
number of parallel plates of which the folid ring is compofed.
e
This being dccompofed in the diredtiori PG is 2= r X— X
A G2. P G
PA3
PE
PO-
X GH.
P
But
AG2
PA2
OE2
PO2
and
PG
PA
Therefore the attradlion of the ring, eflimated in
the diredlion PO, is rcr X —X
PO3
X GH.
Farther, by the nature of the circle, we have HG : -A- B
= AG : AO ; alfo AB : BE = AO : OE. But PA ;
AG =r PO : OE, and OE xr - —. Therefore
Prv
A G PO
AB : BL= AO : —j- , = AO . PA : PO . AG
Alfo BL : LA = EO : EA,
And LA : Ig/ — PA : P./, ultimately PA : PE. Phere-
lore, by equality, HG vYf — AG. AO . PA . EO . PA i
AO . PO . AG . EA . PE.
Or HG : F/— EO . PA2: PO . EA . PE.
EO PA2
Aud HG = F/X jr^-p-v ^
Now fubftitute this value of FIG in the formula exprtf-
e
fing the aftradlion of the ring. This changes it to c — X
OE2. PE w OE . PA2 ^ e __ OE3. PA2
PO3 X ‘PO . PE . EA* ^ orf r X 'PO4 . EA X
F/. In like manner, the attraddion of the ring generated
e OE3. PC2
by the revolution of CD r/c is r — ^"p0T~EA X ^
e ^'..OE3
Therefore the attradlion of both is £"X Y) ^pQ4 >
X PA’+fC2, =c —XF/->~-XPA2 + PC2* But
r J a* . x
PA2 + PC2 = 2 PE2 + 2 EA2, = 2 FE2 4- 2 x2. There-
e y3   
fore the attradlion is 2c—PE2-J-x2* But F/
r U* *
= *. Therefore F/ « X = J2 *>
S y X J
  T I D [ 5
tr: r* — .v2 * . Therefore the attra£Uon of the two rings is
2 r'—x' X PEM^X x . But PE2 = PO1 —
r a'
OE2, ~ d‘l — (r1 — x1) — d1 — r2 4" ^2* Therefore the
attraftion of the two rings is
' 2 c r^TX r2 — X d1— r2+ 2 y2 y 2 r ^4><
r2d1 x — r4 x + 2 r2 x“ x —dL x1 xr* x1 x — 2x*x — 2C ~~7\
* * * r a
X r’ d- x + 3 r*x x — r4 x — d2 x2 x — 2 x4 x.
The attraftion of the whole {hell of redundant matter
will be had by taking the fluent of this formula, which is
r f , 7 r2 x:’ m d1 x3 2 x* \
2 c—7, X ( r2 x 4- — r* x —  ' —  ),
rd* \ ~ 3 3 5 /
and then make x — r. This gives 2 c —(^r3 + rs —
— yd2 r3 — f r5), which is = 2 t d2 r3—f rs),
4c e r2 4 r4
= -—r —TTo • 20 tnis t‘ie attraction of the in-
3 d- S d
c r*
fcribedfphere, which is y > and we have the attraction
of the whole fpheroid
^ c r3 4 c e r* 4 ^ e r4
~T d2 ^ d2 s d*
Cor. i. If the particle P is fituated precifely in N, the
pole of the fpheroid, the attraction of the fpheroid, is y
c r /y c e.
If the fpheroid is not oblate, but oblonT, and if the
greater fem:axis be r, and the depreflion at the equator be
e, the analyfls is the fame, taking e negatively, 'i’herefore
tne attraction for a particle in the pole, or the gravitation
o( a particle in the pole, is y c r — T8r c e.
But if the polar iemiaxis be r -j-e, and the equatorial ra¬
dius be r, lo that this oblong fpheroid has the fame axis
with the former oblate one, the gravitation of a particle in
the pole is y e r -}- T2y c e.
Cor. 2. If a number of parallel planes arc drawn perpen¬
dicular to the equator of an oblong fpheroid, whole longer
femiaxis is r-j-e, and equatorial radius r, they will di¬
vide the fpherod into a number of fimilar elliphs ; and
fince the eJhpfe throu gh the axis has >' + e and r for its
two femiaxes, and the radius of a circle of equal area with
tins ehpfe is a mean proportional between r and r -f- e, and
therefore very nearly .n r -j- 4 when e is very fmall in com¬
panion of r, a particle on the equator of the oblong fphe¬
roid will be as much attracted by thefe circles of equal areas,
with their correfponding eliipfes, as by the elliplts. Now
the attraction at the pole of an oblate fpheroid was y r r-j-
iy c e. Therefore putting 4- e in place of e, the attraction
on the equator of the oblong fplieroid will be equal to 4 e ^
-f*rTs- c e.
rl hus we have afeertained the gravitations of a particle
Ctuated in the pole, and o1 one fituated in the equator, of a
homogeneous oblong fpheroid. This will enable us to folve
the following problem :
If the particles of a homogeneous oblong fluid fpheroid
attraCt each other with a Force inverfely as the fquares of
their diftances, and if they are attracted by a very diflant
body by the fame law, and if the ratio of the equatorial gra¬
vity to this external force be given ; to find what mult be
the proportion of the femiaxis, fo that all may be in equili-
brio, and the fpheroid preierve its form ?
Let r be the equatorial radius, and r-f-e be the polar fe.
nuaxis. Then the gravitation at the pole m is 11 r-f- ->r
17 ] T I D
e<?, and the gravitation at the equator is *cr~\-^ce. Tide.
Now by the gravitation towards the diftant body placed in ' y—
the direction of the polar axis, the polar gravitation is di-
minifhed, and the equatorial gravitation is increafed ; and
the increale of the equatorial gravitation is to the diminu¬
tion of the polar gravitation as NO to 2 m O. Therefore
if the whole attraction of the oblong fpheroid for a particle
on its equator be to the force which the diflant body exerts-
there, as G to P, and if the fpheroid is very nearly iphe-
rical, the abfolute weight at the equator will be y r r
c e y c r £T\ And the abfolute weight at the pole will
2 P
be y cr-\-yTce — ycr Their difference is T27c e-f.
P
2^r c>.
Now if we fuppofe this fpheroid to be compofed of fimi¬
lar concentric {hells, all the forces will decreale in the fame
ratio. Therefore the weight of a particle in a columa
reaching from the equator to the centre will be to the
weight of a limilarly litnated particle of a column reaching
from the pole to the centre, as the weight of a particle at
the equator to the weight of a particle at the pole. But
the whole weights of the two columns muft be equal, that,
they may balance each other at the centre. Their lengths
mutt therefore be reciprocally as the weights of fimilarly fi¬
tuated particles ; that is, the polar femiaxis muft be to the
equatorial radius, as the weight of a particle at the equator
to the weight of a particle at the pole. Therefore we mult
P P
have -jy- c e 4” 2 c r ‘.yerdr -jy- c e y c r ~ e i r.
P
Hence we derive 2 r ^ T8r r, or 4 G : l 5 P = r : e.
1 his determines the form of the fluid fpheroid when the ra¬
tio of G to P is given.
It is well known that the gravitation of the moon to the
earth is to the ditturbing forceof the fun a; 1 7^,725 to 1 very
nearly. 1 he lunar gravitation is increaied as fhe approaches,
the earth in the reciprocal duplicate ratio of the diftances.
1 he difturbing force of the fun dimimfhes in the fireple ra¬
tio of the diflances; therefore the weight of a body on the
furface of the earth is to the ditturbing force of the fun on
the fame body, in a ratio compounded of the ratio of
1 ?8j725 to 1, the ratio of 3600 to 1, and the ratio of 60
to 1 ; that is, in the ratio of 38604600 to x. If the mean
radius of the earth be 20954^03 feet, the difference of the
axis, or ttie elevation of the pole of the watery fpheroid pro¬
duced by the gravitation to the fun, will be y X
feet, or very nearly 244 inches. This is the tide produced
by the fun on a homogeneous fluid fpheie.
It is plain, that it the earth confifts ot a foil’d nucleus of
the fame denlity with the water, the form of the falar tide
will be the fame. But if the denfity of the nucleus be dif¬
ferent, the form of the tide will be different, and will de¬
pend both on the denfity and on the figure of the nucleus..
If the nucleus be of the fame form as the furrounding
fluid, the whole will Hill maintain, its form with the fame
proportion ot the axis. I? the nucleus be fpherical, its ac¬
tion on the furrounding fluid will be the fame as if all the
matter of the nucleus by which it exceeds an equal bulk of
the fluid were c dledted at the centre. In this cafe, the
ocean cannot maintain the fame, form for the aftion of this
central body betng proportional to the fquare of the diftanee
inverfely, will augment the gravity of the equatorial fluid
more than it augments that of the circumpolar fluid ; and
the ocean, which was in equilibrto (by fuppofition), mutt
now become more protuberant at the poles. It may, how-
3. ever.
Tide.
T I'D [ 51
ever, be again balanced in an elliptical form, when it has ac¬
quired a jull proportion of the axes. The procefs for de¬
termining this is tedious, but precifely fimilar to the pre¬
ceding.
If the denfity of the nucleus exceed that of the fluid about
—, we (hall have r : G: 3 P, which is nearly the form
w'hich has been determined for the earth, by the menfura-
tion of degrees' of the meridian, and by the vibration of pen¬
dulums. The curious rea ’er will do well to confult the
excellent difl’ertations by Clairaut and Bofcovich on the
Figure of the Earth, where this curious problem is treated
in the moft complete manner. Mr Bernoulli, in his difTer-
tation on the Tides, has committed a great miftake in this
particular. On the other hand, if the nucleus be lefs denfe
than the waters, or if there a great central hollow, the
elevation produced by the fun will exceed 244 inches.
It is needleis to examine this any farther. We have
colle&ed enough for explaining the chief affeftions of the
tides.
-It is known that the earth is not a fphere, but fvvelled
out at the equator by the diurnal rotation. But the change
of form is fo very fmall in proportion to the whole bulk, that
it cannot fenably affeft. the change of form afterwards indu¬
ced by the fun on the waters of the ocean. For the dif-
turbing force of the fun would produce a certain protube¬
rance on a fluid fphere ; and this protuberance depends on
the ratio of the difturbing force to the force of gravity at
the furface of this fphere. If the gravity be changed in
any proportion, the protuberance will change in the fame
proportion. Therefore if the body be a ipheroid, the
protuberance produced at any point by the fun wili
increafe or diminifh in the fame proportion that the gra¬
vity at this point has been changed by the change of
form. Now the change of gravity, even at the pole of the
terreftrial fpheroid, is extremely fmall in companfon with
the whole gravity. Theitfore the change produced on the
fpheroid will not fenfibly difter from that produced on the
fphere ; and the elevations of the waters above the furface,
which they would have affumed independent of the fun’s ac¬
tion, will be the fame on the fpheroid as on the fphere.
For the fame reafon, the moon will change the furface al¬
ready changed by the fun, in the fame manner as fhe would
have Changed the furface of the undiflurbed ocean. There¬
fore the change produced by both thele luminaries in any
place will be the fame when ailing together as when ailing
feparately ; and it will be equal to the fum, or the differ¬
ence of their feparate changes, according as thefe would have
been in the fame or in oppoflte direilions.
Fet us now conflder the moil interefling cireumfiances
of the form of an elliptical tide, which differs vejry litde
from a fphere. ' '
Let T (fig. 2.) be a point in the furfoce of the infcribed
fpheie, and let Z cxprefs the angular diftance TOQfrom
the longer axis of the furrounding ipheroid & w N Let
TR, TW be perpendicular to the equatorial diameter and
to the axis, fo that they are the cofine and the fine of TOQ_
to the radius TO or QO. Let S' <7 N be a feilion of the
circumfcribed fphere. Draw OT cutting the fpheroid in
Z and the circumfcnbed fphere in t. Alfo let ^ be a
fedtion of a fphere which has the fame capacity with the
fpheroid, and let it cut the radius in r. Then,
1. The elevation TZ of the point Z of the fpheroid
above the infcribed fphere is :n.QyX cof.2 Z, and the depref-
fion tZ below the circumfcribed fphere is =r X fine2 Z.
Produce R f till it meet the furface of the Ipheroid in V.
The minute triangle VIZ may be confidered as a redlili-
neal, right-angled at Z, and therefore fimilar to OTR.
3. ]
Therefore OT : TR TV :
or OT : TR = Q? : TV.
' * TR1
and i Z -     
T I D
TZ,
OT2
: TZ. But in the ell’pfe 0Q>
Therefore OT1 : TR2 — O y :
Q 7 X cof. 2 Z,
, .     =
Tide
Qj7 X cof/ Z.
And in the very fame manner it may be fhown, that (Z
= X fin.2 Z.
2. The elevation of the point T above another point T',
whofe angular diftapce TO T from the point T is 90°, is
= Q_y X cof.2Z — fin,2 Z. Call the angle QOT' Z'*
Then T' Z'-CLy X cof/ Z', and TZ — T', Z'/T Q^yX
cof.2 Z — cof/ Z\ But the arch QT' is the complement
of QJl) and therefore cof.2 Z' — fin/ Z. Therefore TZ —■
T , Z — Qj7 X cofi2 Z — fin.2 Z.
3. Qo — 4 For the infcribed fphere is to the
fpheroid as OQ^to O y. But the infcribed Iphere is to the
iphere s 0 n zs OQ^to O 0 b Therefore becaufe the fphere
s on h equal to the fpheroid S y N, we have OQj O q =
OQ^: O (93, and O 0 is the firfl of two mean proportionals
between OQ_and O q. But is very fmall in compari-
fon with I herefore Q^o is very nearly 4 of
Since son is the fphere of equal capacity, it is the :orm
of the undiflurbed ocean. The bell way therefore of con¬
ceiving the changes of form produced by the fun or moon,
or by both together, is to confider the elevations or depref-
fions which they produce above or below this furface. There¬
fore, •
4. The elevation r Z of the point Z above the equicapa-
cious fphere is evidently — Qj/ X cof.2 Z — 4
fo the depreflion r' Z of the point Z' is = O y X fin. 2Z'
~-4Q^y.
IV. b. Either of thefe formulas will anfwer for either the
elevation above, or the depreflion below, the natural ocean :
For if cof.2 Z is lefs than f, the elevation given by the for¬
mula will be negative ; that is, the point is below the natu¬
ral furtace. In like manner, when fin/ Z' is lefs than 4»
the depreffton is negative, and the point is above the lur-
fdce. But if cof.2 Z be — 4* or fin.2 Z be — 4> ttie point
is in the natural furface. This marks the place where the
fpheroid and the equal fphere interiefil each other, viz in
P', the arch P'0 being 54° 44' very nearly, and PS =
350 16'.
Let S reprefent the whole elevation of the pole of the
folar tide above its equator, or the difference between high
and low water produced by the fun ; and let M reprefent
the whole elevation produced by the moon. Let x and y
reprefent tire zenith diftances of the fun and moon with re-
ipett to any point whatever on the ocean. Then x and y
will be the arches intercepted between that point and the
lummits of the folar and lunar tides. I hen the elevation
produced by both luminaries in that plane is S * cof/ x —
4 S -)- M * cof/j — 4 I'1'!» or> more concifely, S • cof/ x -(-
M * cof.2 j — -f ^ "f" and the depreffion is S ’ fin.’2 x -j-
M • fin 2y — 4 S T M7
Let the fun and moon be in the fame point of the hea¬
vens. The folar and lunar tides will have the lame axis;
the cofines of x and y will each be 1, and the elevation at
the compound pole will be S + M — } S M — 4 ^
The depreffion at any point 90° from this pole will be
4 S -t- M, and the whole tide is S T M.
Let the moon b£ in quadrature, as in a (fig* 3)* # -Tfie
appearance at r will be known, by confiderinq that in this
place the cofine of x is 1, and the cofine of j is o. I here¬
fore the elevation at r =: S — 4 ^ ^ t ^ — T
M
The depreffion at a — S — y S M _ 4
The difference or whole tide = h
M.
In
t i d r
Tate Tn like manner, the whole elevation at a above the infcribed
‘ fphere is M — S.
Hence we fee that the whole tide, when the moon is in
quadrature, is the difference of S and M. We alfo fee,
that if M exceeds S, the water will be higher at a than at
s. Now it is a matter of obfervation, that in the quadra¬
tures it is high water under the moon, and low water under
the fun. It is alio a matter of obfervation, that in the tree
ocean, the ebb tide, or the water at r, immediately under
the fun, is below the natural furface of the ocean. Hence
we muft conclude, that -f S is lefs than 4 M, or that M is
more than double of S. This agrees with the phenomena
of nutation and precefiion, which feem to make S 4
of M.
In all other pofitions of the fun and moon, the place of
high water will be different. It is high water where the
fum of the elevations produced by both luminaries above the
natural ocean is greateff ; and the place of Igw water is
■where the deprefhon below the natural ocean is greateft.
Therefore, in order that it may be high water, we mult have
S • cof.2 .-v -j- M • coLzy — 4 $ -b M a maximum ; or, ne-
: . S -f M
gledting the conflant quantity  ^—, we muft have
S • cof.\v T M • cof.2y a maximum.
In like manner, to have low water in a place where the
zenith diltances of the fun and moon are v and w, we mult
have S * fm,2 u -b M ■ fin.2 <w a maximum.
Lemma I. If we confidei the fines and cofines of angles
as numeral fraftions of the radius i, then we have cof.2Z
— 4 4" 1 cof.2 Z, and fin.2 Z — 4 — l cof.2 Z.
Let a nt s (fig. 3.) be a quadrant of a circle of which O
! is the centre, and O j is the radius. On O s defcribe the
femicircle OMS, cutting O m in M Draw s M, and pro¬
duce it till it cut the quadrant in n. Alfo draw MC to
the centre of the femicircie, and MD and n d perpendicular
to O s.
It is plain that s M is perpendicular to OM ; and if O s
be radiuo, s M is the fine of the angle s OM, which we may
call Z ; OM is its cohne : and becaufe O s ; OM OM :
OD, and O s : OD ~ O j 2 : OM2, and OD may reprefent
cof.2 Z Now OD zmOC b CD. If Oj—(,thenOC
rm 4. CD _ CM • cof. MCD, = CM • cof. 2 MOD,
4 * c@f. 2 Z. Therefore col. 2 Z ar 4 + 4 cof. 2 Z,
In like manner, becaufe O r : j M ~ j M : r D, j D is =
fin 2Z. This is evidently — 4 — r cof 2 Z.
Lemma 2. Cof.2 Z — hn.2 Z. cof. 1 Z. For, becaufe
s M is perpendicular to OM, the arch ^ « is double of the
arch j m, and becaufe MD is parallel to n d, s d is =: 2 j D,
and t/D : fin.2 Z i'herelore Od cof.: Z — fin.2Z.
But O is the cofine of ns, — cof. 2 Z, and cof. 2 Z —
fin.2 Z ~ cof 2 Z.
By the firft Lemma we fee, that in order that there may
be high water at any place, when the zenith diftances of
the fun and moon are x and y, we muft have S * cof. 2 .v -[*
M • cof 2 y a maximum.
That this may be the cafe, the fluxion of this formula
mail be zz: o. Now we know that the fluxions of the co¬
fines of two arches are as the fines of thofe arches Therefore
we muft have S * fin 2 x 3- M • fin. 2y o, or S • fin. 2 x
zz — M • fin. 2y, which gives us fin. 2 x : fin. 2 j M : S.
In like manner, the place of low water requires fin. 2 v :
fin. 2 at; zz M : S.
Ftom this laft circumflar.ce we learn, that the place of
low water is o, removed 90° from the place of high water;
whereas we might have expe6ted, that the fpheroid would
have been molt protuberant on that fide on which the moon
rs : For the fines of 2 a; and of 2 w have the fame propor¬
tion with the fines of 2 x and of 2 y. Now we know that
519 ] T I D
the fine of the double of any arch is the fame with the fine
of the double of its complement. Therefore if low water
be really difiant 90 ’ from high wate*-, we {hall have fin. 2 x :
fin. 2 y rz fin. 2 v : fin. 2 <w. But if it is at any other place,
the fines cannot have this proportion.
Now let s be the point of the earth’s furface which has
the fun in the zenith, and m the point which has the moon
in the zenith. Let A be any other point. Draw 0,4
cutting the femicircle OMr in H. Make CM to CS as
the difturbing force of the moon to that of the fun ; and
draw So; parallel, and St, Mr perpendicular to HH.
Join MH and MH. The angle HC s is double of the
angle HO s, and MCH is double of MHH, or of its equal
MOH. Becaule H MH is a femicircle, HM is perpendi¬
cular to MO. Therefore b HH' be confidered as radius,
HM is the fine, and H M is the cofine of MHH. And
C r is MC ‘ cof. 2y, =z M ’ col. 2y. And C / is SC *
cof. 2 x. Therefore t r or S v is S • cof. 2 x 4- M * cof.
2jy. Therefore t r or S v will exprefs the whole difference
of elevation between 4 and the points that are 90 degrees
from it on either fide (by Lemma 2.) ; and if h be the place
of high water, it will exprefs the whole tide, becaufe the
high and low waters were fhown to be 90° afunder. But
when h is the place of high water, S a; is a maximum. Be¬
caufe the place of the moon, and therefore the point M, is
given, S v will be a maximum when it coincides with SM,
and CH is parallel to SM.
This fuggefted to us the following new, and not inele¬
gant, iolution of the problem for determining the place of
high water.
Let sQ^oqs (fig. 4. and 5'.') be a feftion of the terra¬
queous globe, by a plane palling through the fun and moon,
and let O be its centre. Let .< be the point which is imme¬
diately under the fun, and m the place immediately under
the moon. Bifedt O j in C, and deferibe round C the circle
OM .r LO, cutting O -rz in M. Take C s to reprefent the
diflurbing force of the moon, and make C s to CS as the
force of the moon to that of the fun fupooiing this ratio to
be known). Join MS, and draw CH parallel to it. Draw
OH h, and /OL / perpendicular to it. And laftly, draw
Cl perpendicular to SM. Then we fay that m and its op-
pofite m! are the places ot high water, / and /' are the places
of low water, MS is the height of the tide, and MI, SI
are the portions ot this tide produced by the moon and
fun.
For it is plain, that in this cafe the line S a; of the lait
propofition coincides with MS, and is a maximum. We
may alfo obferve, that MC : CS zz fin. MSC : fin. SMC, —
fin. HCS : fin. MCH, zz fin. 2 /> 0 j : fin. 2 hQ m, fin.,
2 x : fin 2y, or M : S — fin. 2 x : fin. 2y, agreeably to what
was required for the maximum.
It is alio evident, that MI zz MC * cof. CMI, zz M’ cof.
2 y, and SI - hC ' cof. ISC, — S • cof. 2 x ; and therefore
MS is the difference o elevation between h and the points
l and /', which are acy from it, and is therefore the place of
low water; that is, MS is the whole tide.
The elevation of every other point may be determined in
the fame way, ,and thus may the form of the Ipheroid be
completely determined.
If we fuppofe the figure to reprefent a feflion through
the earth’s equator (which is the cafe when the fun and
moon are in the equator), and farther fuppofe the two lu¬
minaries to be in conjunction, the ocean is an oblong iphe¬
roid, whofe axis is in the line of the fyzigies, and whofe
equator coincides with the fix hour circle. But if the moon
be in any other point of the equator, the figure of the ocean
will be very complicated. It will not be any figure of re¬
volution j becaufe neither its equator (or moft depreffed
part).
Tide.
T I D l S2
part), nor its meridians, are circles. The moft deprefied
part of its equator will be in that feftion through the axis
which is perpendicular to the plane in which the luminaries
are htuated. And this greatefl depiefiion, and its fliorteft
equatorial diameter, will be conftant, while its other dimen.
fions vaiy w-ith the moon’s place. We need not inquire
more minutely into its form ; and it is fufficient to know,
that all the feftions perpendicular to the plane paffing thro’
the fun and moon are ellipfes.
This conftrudlion will aftord us a very fimple, and, we
hope, a very perfpicuous explanation of the chief phenome¬
na of the tides The well informed reader will be plealed
with obierving its coincidence with the algebraic folution of
the problem given by Daniel Bernoulli, in his excellent dif-
fertation on the Tides, which fhared with M‘Laurin and
Euler the prize given by the Academy of Sciences at Paris,
and with the cafe and perfpicuity with which the pheno¬
mena are deducible from it, being in feme fort exhibited to
the eye.
In our application, we fhall begin with the fimpleft cafes,
and gradually introduce the complicating circumflances
which accommodate the theory to the true ftate of things.
We begin, therefore, by fuppohng the earth coveted, to
a proper depth, with water, forming an ocean concentric
with its folid nucleus.
In the next place, we fuppofe that this ocean adopts in
an inftant the form which is confident with the equilibrium
of gravity and the dillurbing forces.
Thirdly, We fuppofe the fun ftationary, and the moon
to move eaftward from him above 124° every day.
Fourthly, We fuppofe that the folid nucleus turns round
its proper axis to the eaflward, making a rotation in 24 fo-
lar hours. Thus any place of obfervation will fuccefilvely
experience all the different depths of water.
Thus we fhall obtain a certain Succession of pheno¬
mena, precifely fimilar to the fucceflion obferved in nature,
with this foie difference, that they do not correfpond to
the contemporaneous lituations of the fun and moon. When
we fhall have accounted for this difference, we fhall pre¬
fume to think that we have given a juft theory of the
tides.
We begin, with the fimpleft cafe, fuppofmg the fun and
moon to be always in the equator. Let the feries begin
with the fun and moon in conjundtion in the line Or. In
this cafe the points s, m, and h coincide, and we have high
water at f 2 o’clock noon and midnight
While the moon moves from s to m cuts the upper
femicircle in M; and therefore CH, which is always paral¬
lel to MS, lies between MC and C x. Therefore h is be¬
tween m and s, and we have high water after 12 o’clock,
but before the moon’s fouthing. The fame thing happens
while the moon moves from 0 to q, during her third quar¬
ter.
But while the moon moves from her firft quadrature in
Q^to oppofition in 0 (as in fig. 5.), the line m O drawn
from the moon’s place, cuts the lower femicircle in M and
CH, parallel to SM, again lies between M and s, and there¬
fore h lies between m and 0. The place of high water is
to the eaftward of the moon,' and we have high water after
the moon's fouthing. The fame thing happens while the
the moon is moving from her laft quadrature in q to the
next fyzigy. In fhort, the point H is always between M
and x, and the place of high water is always between the
moon and the nearejl fyzigy. The place of high water
overtakes the moon in each quadrature, and is overtaken by
the moon in each fyzigy. Therefore during the firft and
third quarters, the place of high water gradually falls be¬
hind the moon fox feme time, and then gains upon her
o ] T I D
again, fo as to overtake her in the next quadrature. But
during the fecond and fourth quarters, the place of high
water advances before the moon to a certain diftance, and
then the moon gains upon it, and overtakes it in the next
fyzigy.
If therefore we fuppofe the moon to advance uniformly
along the equator, the place of high water moves unequally,
floweft in the times of new and full moon, and fwifteft in the
time of the quadratures. There muft be fome intermediate
fit nations where the place of high water neither gains nor
lofes upon the moon, but moves with the fame velocity.
The rate of motion of the point h may be determined as
follows : Draw C ?, S n, making very fmall and equal angles
wa’th HC and MS. Draw n C, and about S, with the di¬
ftance S n, deferibe the arch n v, which may be confidered
as a ftraight line perpendicular to n S, or to MS.
Then, becaufe SM and S n are parallel to CH and C /,
the points n and i are contemporaneous lituations of M and
H, and the arches n M, i H, are in the ratio of the angular
motions of m and h. Alfo, becaufe n v and n M arc perpen¬
dicular to n S and « C, the angle d n M is equal to the angle
S « C, or SMC. Alfo, becaufe the angles « u M and MIC
are right angles, and the angles vn M, CMI, are alfo equal,
the triangles v n M, CMI, are fimilar. Therefore
n M : n zr MC MI. And
n v : r H = « S : r C, or = MS : MC ; therefore
n M : i H == MS : MI. Therefore the angular mo¬
tion of the moon is to the angular motion of the place of
high water as MS to MI.
Therefore, when M S is perpendicular to SC, and the
point I coincides with S, the motion of high water is equal
to that of the moon. But when M'S is perpendicular SC,
H'C is alfo perpendicular to C x, and the angle // O x is
4C, and the high water is in the oftant. While the moon
paffes from x to rn’, or the high water from x to />', the
point I falls between M and S, and the motion or high wa¬
ter is flower than that of the moon. 'The contrary obtains
while the moon moves from tri to Q, or the high water from
the o&ant to the quadrature.
It is evident, that the motion of h in the third quarter oi
the lunation, that is, in palling from a to q, is fimilar to its
motion from x to Alfo, that its motion from Q_to 0
muft retard by the lame degrees as it accelerated in paffing
from x to Q, and that its motion in the laft quarter from
g to x is fimilar to its motion from Q^to 0.
At new and full moon the point I coincides with C, and
the point M coincides with x. Therefore the motion of
the high water at full and change is to the motion of the
moon as x C to x S. But when the moon is in quadrature,
I coincides with C, and M with 0. rl herefore the motion
ol the moon is to that of high water as OS to OC or x C.
Therefore the motion of high water at full and change is to
its motion in the quadratures as OS to S x, or as the dif¬
ference of the difturbing forces to their fum. The motion
of the tide is therefore fioweft in the fyzigies and fwifteft in
the quadratures ; yet even in the fyzijies it pafles the fun
along with the moon, but more flowly.
Let the interval between the morning tide of one day
and that of the next day be called a ttde-day. This is al¬
ways greater than a folar day, ot 24 hours, beeaule the place
of high water is moving fafter to the eaftward than the fun.
It is lefs than a lunar day, or 24b. 50', while the high water
pafles from the fecond to the third obfanc, or from the fourth
to the firft. It is equal to a lunar day when high water is
in the o<ftants, and it exceeds a lunar day while high wafer
pafles from the firft to the fecond oCiant, or from the thiid
to the fourth.
The difference between a folar day and a tide day is
called,
T I D
Tide, called the priming or the retardation of the tides. This
—■'v ^ jg evidently equal to the time of the earth’s defcribing in
its rotation an angle equal to the motion of the high water
in a day from the fun. The fmalleft of thefe retardations
is'to the greateft as the difference of the diflurbing forces
to their fum. Of all the plienomena'of the tides, this feems
liable to the feweft and moft inconfiderable derangements
from local and accidental circumflances. It therefore af¬
fords the befl means for determining the proportion of the
diflurbing forces. By a comparifon of a great number of
obfervations made by Dr Mafkelyne at St Helena and at
Barbadoes (places fituated in the open fca), it appears that
the fhorteft tide-day is 24I1. 37^ and the longed; is 25 b. 27'.
This gives M — S : M 4- S = 37 : 87, and S : M = 2 :
4,96; which differs only 1 part in 124 from the propor¬
tion of 2 to 5', which Daniel Bernoulli collefted from a va¬
riety of different obfervations. We fhall therefore adopt
the proportion of 2 to 5 as abundantly exadt It alfo agrees
exadfly with the phenomena of the nutation of the earth’s
axis and the preceffion of the equinoxes ; and the aftrono-
mers affedt to have deduced this proportion from thefe phe¬
nomena. But an intelligent reader of their writings will per¬
ceive more fineffe than juftice in this aflertion. The nuta¬
tion and preceffion do not afford phenomena of which we
can aflign the fhare to each luminary with fufficient preci-
Jio.n for determining the pr*oportion of their diflurbing
forces ; and it is by means of many arbitrary combinations,
and without neceflity, that D’Alembert has made out this
ratio. Wc cannot help being of opinion, that D’Alembert
has accommodated his diftribution of the phenomena to this
ratio of 2 to 5, which Daniel Bernoulli (the bell philofo-
pher and the mofl candid man of that illuftrious family of
mathematicians) had, with fo much fagacity and juflnefs of
inference, deduced from the phenomena of the tides. D’A¬
lembert could not but fee the value of this inference ; but
he wanted to fhow his own addrefs in deducing it proprio
rrtarte forfooth from the nutation and precefiion. His pro¬
cedure in this rcfembles that of his no lefs vain countryman
De la Place, who affedls to be highly pleafed with finding
that Mr Bode’s difcovery that Meyer had feen the Geor-
. grum Sidus in 1756, perfedlly agreed with the theory of its
motions which he (De la Place) had deduced from his own
doctrines. Any well informed mathematician will fee, that
De la Place’s data afforded no fuch precifion ; and the
hook on the Elliptical Motions of the Planets, to which he
alludes, contains no grounds for his inference. This obfer-
vatton we owe to the author of a paper on that fubjedl in
the Tranfa&ions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Ae hope that our readers will excufe this occafional ob-
fervation, by which we wifh to do juftice to the merit of
a modeft man, and one of the greateft philofophers of his
time. Our only claim in the prefent differtation is the ma¬
king his excellent performance on the tides acceffible to
an Englifh reader not much veriant in mathematical refearch-
es ; and we are forry that our limits do not admit any thing
more than a fketch of it. But to proceed,
A{Tuming 2:5 ?-s the ratio of SC to CM', we have the*
angle CM'S 230 34' nearly, and in' 0 h' ~ 1 i° 47'; and
this is the greateft difference between the moon’s place and
the place of high water. And when this obtains, the moon’s
elongation in' 0 s is 56° 47' from the neareft fyzigy. Hence
it follows, that while the moon moves uninformly from 56°
47' weft elongation to 56° 47' eaft, or from 1230 13' eaft
to 123° 1 3' weft, the tide day is fhorter than the lunar day;
and while fhe moves from 56° 47' eaft to 1230 13', or from
123^ 13' weft to 56° 47', the tide-day is longer than the lu¬
nar-day.
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
[ 521 ]
T I D
We now fee the reafon why
 The fwelling tides obey the moon.
The time of high water, when the fun and moon are in
the equator, is never more than 47 minutes different from
that of the moon’s fonthrng (ft- or — a certain fixed quan¬
tity, to be determined once for all by obfervation.)
It is now an eafy matter to determine the hour of high
water correfponding to any pofition of the fun and moon in
the equator. Suppofe that on the noon of a certain day
the moon’s diftance from the fun is m s. 1 he conftruelion
of this problem gives us s h, and the length of the tide day.
Call this T. Then fay 360" : •r = T : /, and t is the hour
of high water.
Or, if we choofe to refer the time of high water to the
moon’s fouthing, we muft find the value of m h at the time
of the moon’s fouthing, and the difference d between the
tide day and a mean lunar day L, and fay 360 : m h zz d :
the time of high water before the moon’s fouthing in the
firft and third quarters, but after it in the fecond and fourth.
'Ihe following table by Daniel Bernoulli exhibits thefe
times for every 10th degree of the moon’s elongation from
the fun. The firft or leading column is the moon’s elon¬
gation from the fun or from the point of oppofition. The
fecond column is the minutes of time between the moon’s
louthing and the place of high water. The marks — and
ft- diftinguifh whether the high water is before or after the
moon’s fouthing. The third column is the hour and mi¬
nute of high water. But we muft remark, that the firft;
column exhibits the elongation, not on the nobn of any day,
but at the very time of high water. The two remaining
columns expreis the heights of the tides and their daily va¬
riations.
Tide.
h.
IO
20
30
40
53
60
70
80
90
100
I IQ-
120
I30
I4O
150
l6o
170
l8o
114—
22 —
3D1—
40.—
*45 —
464—
40-s-—
25 —
o
+
25 ft-
4°4-ft“
46 ft ft.
45 +
40 ft-
S^ft-
22 ft-
I 1 i ft“
O
■L
h.
0.284
0.58
1.28ft
2. 
2- 35
3- i3^
3*i9r
4- 55
6.—
7- 5
8. 04
8.464
9-25
10. —
10’3it
11. 2
11.314
12. «~
M S.
1000
987
949
887
8c6
7D
610
5*8
453
429
453
518
610
7H
806
887
949
987
1000
M
I3
38
62
81
91
105
92
65
24
24
65
92
io5
91
81
62
38
13
The height of high water above the low water confti-
tutes what is ufually called the tide. This is the intereft-
ing circumftance in pradtice. Many circumftances render it
almoft impofiible to fay what is the elevation of high water
above the natural furface of the ocean. In many places the
furface at low water is above the natural furface of the
ibis is the cafe in rivers at a great diftance from
3 U their
ocean.
tid
[ 522 1
T I D
of the tides, he adhered to the algebraic method. Unfor¬
tunately it did not prefent him with the eafieft formulas lor
pra&ice. But the geometrical conllrudUon which we have
given fuggefts feveral formulae which are exceedingly limple,
and afford a very ready mode of calculation.
The fundamental problems are to determine the angle
s O h or mOh, having mOs given; and to determine
MS.
Let the given angle tw O r be called a ; and, to avoid
the ambiguity of algebraic fig ns, let it always be reck¬
oned from the neareft fyztgy, lo that we may always
have a equal to the fum ot x and y. Alfo make a7 =
S2 X fin.2 2a ... r , S
-a, which reprefents the
S X fin. 2 a
M2 + S2 + 2 M X S X col.
of fig. 4. or fin.1 If, and make p =5^^:
o'
is the expieffion of —7- of that figure* or of tan. 2y.
Me
we fhall have,
,. Sin., =N/l
which
Then
^1 Til!. For we fhall have cof.
Tide, their mouths. This may appear abfurd, and is certainly
very paradoxical ; but it is a fadt eftablilhed on the moll
unexceptionable authority. One inftance fell nnder our
own obfervation. The low water mark at fpring tide in
the harbour of Alloa was found by accurate levelling to be
three feet higher than the top of the ftone pier at Leith,
which is feveral feet above the high water mark of this har¬
bour. A little attention to the motion of running waters
will explain this completely. Whatever checks the motion
of water in a canal mull raife its furface. Water in a canal
runs only in confequence of the declivity of this furface :
(See River). Therefore a flood tide coming to the
mouth of a river checks the current of its waters, and they
accumulate at the mouth. This checks the current farther
up, and therefore the waters accumulate there alfo ; and this
checking of the flream, and confequent riling of the waters,
is gradually communicated up the river to a great diftance.
The water rifes everywhere, though its furface Hill has a
fSope. In the mean time, the flood tide at the mouth pafles
by, and an ebb fucceeds. This mull accelerate even the
ordinary courfe of the river. It will more remarkably acce¬
lerate the river now railed above its ordinary level, becaufe
the declivity at the mouth will be fo much greater. There¬
fore the waters near the mouth, by accelerating, will fink
in their channel, and increafe the declivity of the canal be¬
yond them. This will accelerate the waters beyond them ;
and thus a flream more rapid than ordinary will be produ¬
ced along the whole river, and the waters will fink below
their ordinary level. Thus there will be an ebb below the
ordinary furface as well as a flood above it, however Hoping
that furface may be.
Hence it follows, that we cannot tell what is the natural
furface of the ocean by anyr obfervations made in a river,
even though near it? mouth. Yet even in rivers we have
regular tides, fubje&ed to all the varieties deduced from
this theory.
We have feen that the tide is always p-roportional to MS.
It is greatefl therefore when the moon is in conjun&ion or
ODpofition,. being then S s, the fum of the feparate tides
produced by the fun and moon. It gradually decreafes as There is flill an eafier method of finding both 2 x and
the moon approaches to quadrature ; and when fhe is at as follows.
or q, it is SO, or the difference of the feparate tides. Sup- Make M + S : M — S =: tan. a : tan. b. Then b is the
pofing Sr divided into icoo equal parts, the length of MS diflerence of « and y, as a is their fum. For this analogy
is expreffed in thefe parts in the fourth column of the fore* evidently gives the tangent of half the difference of the
going table, and their differences are expreffed in the fifth angles CSM and CMS of fig. 4 ~
zy
- V
a7.
But fin.5r= " cof. 2y —
•^22
V'
and fin.y
V/
d*
2. Tan. v
+ v" 1 +/>2
column.
We may here obferve, that the valuations of the tides in
equal fmsll times are proportional to the fine of twice the
diftance of the place of high water from the moon. For
fince M n is a conftant quantity, on the fuppofition of the
moon’s uniform motion, M v is proportional to the variation
of MS. Now M«:M‘U = MC:CI= 1 : fin. 2 y, and
M n and MC are conftant quantities.
Thus we have feen with what cafe the geometrical con-
ftrudlion of this problem not only explains all the intereft-
have 2x zza-^-b, or x~-
and y
Tide.
For becaufe / is =r tan«
iy,V 1 -{- p7 is the fecant of 2y, and 1 V 1 + p2 : l
p : tan.y.
Thefe proceffes for obtaining y dire&ly are abundantly
fimple. But it will be much more expeditious and eafy to
content ourfelves with obtaining x y by means of the value
of its tangent, viz. —^ Or, we may find x by
b M + S • coi. 2 a
means of the fimilar value of its tangent —of fig. 4.
or of 2 x and 2y. There*
fore to a, which is half the ium oi 2 x 2 y, add b} and we
a b , a — b
2 2
By either of thefe methods a table may be readily com¬
puted of the value of x or y for every value of a.
But we mull recolleft that the values of S, and M are by
no means conftant, but vary in the inveife triplicate ratio of
the earth’s dillance from the fun and moon ; and the ratio
of 2 to 5 obtains only when thefe luminaries are at their
mean diftances from the earth. The forces correfponding
ing circumftances of the tides, but ajfo points them out, al- j-0 perigean medium and apogean diftances are as foi^
moll without employing the judgment, and exhibits to the
eye the gradual progrefs of each phenomenon. In thefe re-
fpefts it has great advantages over the very elegant algebraic
analyfis of Mr Bernoulli. In that procefs we advance al-
mofl without ideas, and obtain our folutior.s as detached
fa&s, without perceiving their regular feries. This is the
ufual pre-eminence of geometrical analyfis; and we regret
that Mr Bernoulli, who was eminent in this branch, did not
rather employ it. We doubt not but that he would have
fhown Hill more clearly the connedlion and gradual progrefs
of every particular. His aim, however, being to inftrudl
thofe who were to calculate tables of the different affections
Apogean
’ Medium
Perigean
Hence we fee
,901 : 5,925 to
Sun.
1,901
2,
Moon.
4,258
5>
2,105 5’92-? .
that the ratio of S to M may vary fi
2,105 : 4,258, that is, nearly from 1
: 3
not
to 1 : 2, or from 2 : 6 to 2 : 4. ri he folar force uoes
vary much, and may be retained as conflant without any
great error. But tire change of the moon’s force has great
effedts on the tides both as to
thy.
their time and their quanv.
I. I»
T I D
E 523 1 T I D
j T, In refpcft of their Time.
1. The tide day following a fpring tide is 24I1. 27' when
the moon is in perigee, but 24b. 33' when (he is in a-
pogee.
2. The tide day following neap tide is 25 h. 15', and 25 h.
'40' in thefe two fituations of the moon.
3. The greateft interval of time between high water and
the moon’s fouthing is 39' and 61'; the angle y being if
45' in the firft cafe, and 150 15' in the fecond.
II. In refpedl of their Heights.
1. If the moon is in perigee when new or full, the fpring
tide will be 8 feet inilead of 7, which corresponds to her
mean diftance. The very next fpring tide happens when
(he is near her apogee, and will be 6 feet inftead of 7. The
neap tides happen when (he is at her mean diftance, and will
therefore be 3 feet.
But if the moon be at her mean diftance when new or
full, the two iucceeding fpring tides will be regular or 7 feet,
and one of the neap tides will be 4 feet and the other only
2 feet.
Mr Bernoulli has given us the following table of the time
of high water for thefe three chief fituations of the moon,
namely, her perigee, mean diftance, and apogee. It may
be had by interpolation for all intermediate pofitions with
as great accuracy as can be hoped for in phenomena which
are iubjedt to fuch a complication of difturbances. The firft;
column contains the moon’s elongation from the fun. The
columns P, M, A, contain the minutes of time which elapfe
between the moon’s fouthing and high water, according as
fhe is in perigee, at her mean diftance, or in apogee. The
fign — indicates the priority, and +the pofteriority, of high
water to the moon’s fouthing.
The reader will undoubtedly be making fome comparifon
m his own mind of the deductions from this theory with the
actual ftate of things He will find fome confiderable re-
femblances; but he will aifo find f«ch great differences as
Wih make him very doubtful of its juftnefs. In very few
peaces dots, the high water .happen within |>ths of an hour
of the moon’s fouthing, as the theory leads him to expert;
and in no place whatever does the fpring tide fall on the
day of new and full moon, nor the neap tide on the day of
her quadrature. 1 hefe always happen two or three days
later. By comparing the difference of high water and the
moon’s louthing in different places, he will hardly find any
connecting principle. This fhows evidently that the caufe
of this irregularity is local, and that the juftnefs of the theory
is not affeCted by it. By confidering the phenomena in a
navigable river, he will learn the real caufe of the deviation.
A flood tide arrives at the mouth of a river. The true the¬
oretical tide differs in no refpeCl from a wave. Suppofe a
fpring tide aClually formed on a fluid fphere, and the fun
and moon then annihilated. The elevation muff fink, pref-
fing the under waters afide, and caufing them to rife where
they were depreffed. The motion will not flop when the
furface comes to a level; for the waters arrived at that po-
fition with a motion continually accelerated. They will
therefore pafs this poiition as a pendulum paffes the perpen¬
dicular, and will rife as far on the other fide, forming a
high water where it was low water, and a low water where
it was high water ; and this would go on for ever, ofcilla*
ting in a time which mathematicians can determine, if it
wTere not for the vifeidity, or fomething like friCtion, of the
waters. If the fphere is not fluid to the centre, the motion
of this wave will be different. The elevated waters cannot
fink without diffuling themfelves fidewife, and occafioning a
great horizontal motion, in order to fill up the hollow at
the place of low water. This motion will be greateft about
half way between the places of high and low water. The
fhallower we fuppofe the ocean the greater muft this hori¬
zontal motion be. The refiftance of the bottom (tho’ per¬
fectly fmooth and even) will greatly retard it all the way
to the furface. Still, however, it will move till all be level,
and will even move a little farther, and produce a fmall flood
and ebb where the ebb and flood had been. Then a con¬
trary motion will obtain ; and after a few ofcillations, which
can be calculated, it will be infenfible. If the bottom of
the ocean (which we ftill fuppofe to cover the whole earth)
be uneven, with long extended valleys running in various di¬
rections, and with elevations reaching near the furface, it ie
evident that this muft occafion great irregularities in the
motion of the undermoft waters, both in relpeCt of velocity
and direction, and even occafion fmall inequalities on the
furface, as we fee in a river with a rugged bottom and ra¬
pid current. The deviations of the under currents will drag
with them the contiguous incumbent waters, and thus oc¬
cafion greater fuperficial irregularities.
Now a flood arriving at the month of a river, muft acl
precifely as this great wave does. It muft be propagated
up the river (or along it, even though perfectly level) in a
certain time, and we fir.all have high water at all the diffe¬
rent places in lucceffion. This is diftinCtly feen in all ri¬
vers. It is high water at the mouth of the Thames at three
o’clock, and later as we go up die river, till at London
bridge we have not high water till three o’clock in the
morning, at which time it is again high water at the Nore.
But, in the mean time, there has been low water at the
Nore, and high water about half way to London; and while
the high water is proceeding to London, it is ebbing at
this intermediate place, and is low water there when it is
high water at London and at the Nore. Did the tide ex¬
tend as far beyond London as London is from the Nore,
we fhould have three high waters with two low waters in- ‘
terpoTed. 'i he moft remarkable inftance o; this kind is the
Maragnon or Amazon river in South America. It appears
by the obfervations of Condamir.e and others, that between
Para, at the mouth of Uie river, and the conflux of the Ma-
3 U 2 dera
T I D [ 524 ] T I D
dera and Maragnon, there are feven coexiilent high waters,
with fix low waters between them. Nothing can more evi¬
dently fhow that the tides in thefe places are nothing but
the propagation of a wave. The velocity of its fuperficial
motion, and the didance to which it will fenfibly go, mu ft
depend on many circumitances. A deep channel and gentle
acclivity will allow it to proceed much farther up the river,
and the diftance between the fuccefiive fummits will be great¬
er than when the channel is (hallow and deep. If ive apply
the ingenious theory of Chevalier Buat, delivered in the ar¬
ticle River, we may tell both the velocity of the motion
and the interval of the fuccefiive high waters. It may be
imitated in artificial canals, and experiments of this kind
would be very inftractive. We have faid enough at preibnt
for our purpoie of explaining the irregularity of the times
o' high water in different places, with refpedt to the moon’s
fouthing. For we now fee clearly, that fomething of the
fame kind muft happen in all great arms of the fea which
are ol an oblong drape, and communicate by one end with
the open ocean. The general tide in this ocean muft pro¬
ceed along this channel, and the high water will happen on
its firores in luccefilon. This alfo is difiirRtly feetr. The
tide in the Atlantic ocean produces high water at new and
full moon at a later and later hour along the fouth coaft of
Great Britain in propoition as we proceed from Scilly iilands
to Dover. In the fame manner it is later and later as we
come along the eaft coaft from Orkney to Dover. Yet even
in this progrefs there are confiderable irregularities, owing
to the finuofities of the firores, deep indented bays, promi¬
nent capes, and extenfive ridges and valleys in the channel
A fimilar progrefs is obierved along the coafls of Spain and
France, the tide advancing gradually from the fouth, turn¬
ing round Cape Finifterre, ranging along the north coaft
of Spain, and along the weft and north coafts of France.
The attentive confiderntion of thefe fa£ts will not only
fatisfy us with relpeft to this difficulty, but will enable us
to trace a principle of connection amidft all the irregularities
that we obferve.
We now add, that if we note the difference between the
time of high water of fpring tide, as given by theory, for
any place, and the obferved time of high water, we (hall find
this interv?d to be very nearly conftant thro’ the whole (cries
of tides during a lunation. Suopofe this interval to be foity
hours. We (hall find every other phenomenon fucceed after
the lame interval. And if we fuppofe the moon to be in
the place where (he was 40 hours before, the obfervation
will agree pretty well with the theory, as to the luccefilon
of tides, the length of tide day, the retardations of the
tides, and their gradual diminution from fpring to neao
tide. We fay pretty well ; for there (fill remain feveral
fmall irregularities, different in different places, and not fol¬
lowing any obfervable law. Thefe are therefore local, and
owing to local caufes. Some of thefe we (hall afterwards
point out. There is alfo a general deviation of the theory
from the red (cries of tides. The neap tides, and thole ad¬
joining, happen a little earlier than the corrected theory
points out. Thus at Breft (where more numerous and ac¬
curate obfervations have been made than at any other place
in Europe), when the moon changes precifely at noon, it is
high water at 3I1. 28'. When the moon enters her fecund
quarter at noon, it is high water at 8h. 40', inftead of ph.
48', which theory affigns.
Something fimilar, and within a very few minutes equal,
to this is obferved in every place on the fea-cqali. This is
therefore fomething general, and indicates a real defeCt in
the theory.
But this arifes from the fame caufe with the other general
deviation, viz. that the greateftand leaft tides do net happen
on the days of full and half moon, but a certain time after.
We (ball attempt to explain this.
We fet out with the fuppofition, that the water acquired
in an inftant the elevation competent to its equilibrium. But
this is not true. No motion is inftantaneous, however great
the force ; and every motion and change of motion produ¬
ced by a fenfible or finite force increafes from nothing to
a fenfible quantity by infinitely fmall degrees, d ime elapfes
before the body can acquire any fenfible velocity ; and iu
order to acquire the fame fenfible velocity by the aCtion of
different forces a Cling (imilarly, a time muft elapfe inverfely
proportional to the force. An infinitely fmaR force requires
a finite time for communicating even an infinitely fmall ve¬
locity ; and a finite force, in an infinitely fmall time, com¬
municates only an infinitely (mall velocity ; and if there be
any kind of motion which changes by infenfible degrees, it
requires a finite force to prevent this change. Thus a buc¬
ket of water, hanging by a cord lapped round a light and
eafily moveable cylinder, will run down with a motion uni¬
formly accelerated ; but this motion will be prevented by
hanging an equal bucket on the other fide, fo as to aft with
a finite force. This force prevents only infinitely fmall ac«
celeiations.
Now let ALKF (fig. 6.) be the folid nucleus of the
earth, furrounded by the fpherical ocean Ihdg. Let this
be raifed to a fpheroid BITDG by the aClion of the moon
at M, or in the diredion of the axis CM. If all be at reft,
this (pheroid may have the form precifely competent to its
equilibrium. But let the nucleus, with its fpheroidal ocean,
have a motion round C in the diredion AFKL from weft
to eaft. When the line of water BA is carried into the
fituation s q infinitely near to BA, it is no longer in equili-
brio ; for s is too elevated, and the part now come to B is
too much depreffed. There is a force tending to deprefs
the waters at j-, and to raife thofe now at B; but this force
is infinitely (mall. It cannot therefore reftore the fhape
competent to equilibrium till a fenfible time has elapfed;
therefore the difturbing force of the moon cannot keep the
fummit of the ocean in the line MC. The force muft be of
a certain determinate magnitude before it can in an inftant
undo the inftantaneous effed of the rotation of the waters
and keep the fummit of the ocean in the fame place. But
this effed is poflible ; for the depreffion at s ntceffary for
this purpofe is nearly as the diftance from B, being a de¬
preffion, not from a flraight line, but from a circle delcribed
with the radius CB. It is therefore an infiniteiimal of the
firft order, and may be reftored in an inftaht, or the conti¬
nuation of the depreflion prevented by a certain finite force.
Therefore there is fome diltance, fuch as By, where the dif¬
turbing force of the moon may have the neceffary intenfity.
Therefore the fpherical qpean, inftead of being kept conti¬
nually accumulated at B and D, as the waters turn round,
will be kept accumulated aty andy', but at a height fome-
what fmaller. It is much in this way that we keep melted
pitch or other clammy matter from running off from a brufh,
by continually turning it round, and it hangs protuberant,
not from the loweft point, but from a point beyond it, in
the diredion of its motion. The tads are very .fimilar.
The following experiment will illuftrate this completely, and
is quite a parallel fad. Conceive GDH, the lower half of
the ellipfe, to be a fupple heavy rope or chain hanging from
a roller with a handle. The weight of the rope makes it
hang in an oblong curve, juft as the force of the moon raifes
the waters of the ocean. Turn the. roller very (lowly, and
the rope, unwinding at one fide and winding up on the other
fide of the roller, will continue to l@rm the fame curve:
but turn the roller very brifkly in the diredion ITvL,- and
the rope will now hang like the curve uy v, confiderably
advanced
5 I
o
to
20
3°
40
5o
6o
70
8o
90
100
1 i0
120
(3°
140
ISO
160
170
i8o'
Pcriyee.
T 1 D [ 525 ]
Tide, advanced from tlie perpendicular, fo far, to wit, that the fpring tides
force of gravity may be able in an inllant to undo the infi¬
nitely fmall elevation produced by the turning.
We are very anxious to have this circurnftance clearly
conceived, and its truth firmly eftabliihed ; becaufe we have
obferved it to puzzle many perions not unaccuftomed to
luch difcufiions: we therefore hope that our re?ders, who have
got over the difficulty, will irdul -e us while we give yet
another view of this matter, which leads to the fame conclu-
fion.
It is certain that the interval between high and low wa¬
ter is not fufficient for producing all the accumulation ne-
ceflary for equilibrium in an ocean fo very fhallow. The
horizontal motion neceflary for gathering too ether fo much
water along a fhallow fea would be prodigious. Therefore
it never attains its 'ull height; and when the waters, already
railed to a certain degree, have paffed the filiation imme
diately under the moon, they are ftill under the adfion of
accumulating forces, although thefe forces are now dimi*
niflied. ihey wall continue rifing, till they have fo far pafk
the moon that their lituation fubjedts them to deprefling
forces. If they have acquired this htuation with an accele¬
rated motion, they will rile ftiil farther by their inherent
motion, till the depreffing forces have deftroyed all their ac¬
celeration, and then they will begin to fink again. It is in
this way that the nutation of the earth’s axis produces the
greate ft inclination, not when the inclining forces are great¬
est, but three months after. It is thus tfiat the warmeft
time of the day is a ccnhderable while alter noon, and that
the warmeft lealon is confiderably, after midfummer. The
warmth increaies till the momentary wafte of heat exceeds
the momentary fupply. We conclude by faying, that it
may be demonftrated, that, in a fphere fluid to the centre,
the time of high water cannot be leis, and may be more, than
three lunar hours after the moon’s fouthing. As the depth
of the ocean dimi/rilhes, this interval alfo diminifhes.
i i® perhaps impoffible to affign the diftance B y at
which the fummit of the ocean may be kept while the earth
turns round its axis. V/e can only fee, that it mull be lefs
when the accumulating force is greater, and therefore kfs
ipiir!g tides than in neap tides ; but the difference may
be inienflble. All this depends on circumftances which we
aie little acquainted with : many of thefe circumftances are
Iccal; and the htuation of the fummit of the ocean, with
refpett to the moon, may be different in different Diaces.
Nor have we been able to determine theoretically what
wriil be the heignt of the lummit. It will certainly be lefs
than the height neceffary for perfeft equilibrium. Daniel
Bernoulli lays, that, alter very attentive confideration, he is
convinced that the height at new or full moon will be to the
theoretical height as the cofine of the angle BCy to radius,
c«
T I D
They are in fa61 tides correfponding to pofi-
tions of the moon, which are 20° more, and not1 the* real
fpring and neap tides. Thefe do not happen till two days
after ; ar 1 if the really g reate ft and leaft tides be obferved,
the leaft will oe found 6 hours latei than the firft.
Ti fe.
.; High Water before or after
Moon’s Southin7.
M. Dili.
18 after 2 2
94 do. 11 1
o do.
bef.
Apogee.
94
18
26
33
374
384
334
22
o
22 after
334 after
384
374
33
26
18
o
114 bef..
do. . 22
3*4
40
45
464
404
25
o
25
4->4
4^4
45
40
3j4
22
after 2 7 i- after
'‘4
o
14 bef.
274
39 v
50
56
58 .V
31
o
after 31
:5°4
58
56
5°
294
2'74
after
Time of High Water.
Perigee. |M. Dill.
O.T 8
O.494
1.20
1.504
2.22
2- 54
3- 27
4- 021
4-414
5.264
6.19
^ • 20
8.21
9-H34
9-584
10-374
•11.13
11.46
oj8
0.22
0.5 l :
1.20
1.48
2.18
2.48
3-20
3- 55
4- 33
5.19
6.15
7.20
8.25
9.20
10.06
1 o-45
1 r.20
u.51
0.22
Apoo-ee.
0.274
054
1.20
I.46
2.12
3.IO
3 44
4.22
5-09
6.09
7.20
8.31
9*3°
to.; 8
10.56
11,30
11.59
0.27
C
or that the height at y will be B 5 X
I he remit of all this reafoning is, that w'e mnft always
i pp°fe the fummit of the tide is at a certain diftance ealt-
ward from the place affigned by the theory. Mr Bernoulli
concludes, from a very copious comoarifon of obfervations
at different places, that the place of high water is about 20
t^grees to the eaflvvard of the place affigned by the theory.
Therefore the table formerly given will correfpond with ob-
ervation, ii the leading column of the moon’s elongation
trom the fun be altered accordinglv. .We have inferred it
pam in this place, with this alteration, and atHed three co¬
lumns for the times of high water. Thus changed it will
be of great ufe.
We have now an explanation of the acceleration of the
ne‘T tItles’ which ftiould happen 6 hours later than the
This table is general; and exhibits the time of hi h wa¬
ter, and their difference f rom thofe of the moon’s louthing,
in the open fea, free from all local obflrudiions. If there¬
fore the time of high water in any place on the earth’s
equator (for we have hitherto confidered no other) be dif¬
ferent from this table (fuppofed correct), we mult attribute
the difference to the diftinguifhing circumftahces of the fi-
tuation. Thus every place on the equator ffiould have high
water on the day that the moon, fituated at her mean di¬
ftance, changes precifely at noon, at 22 minutes paft noon ;
becaufe the moon paffes the meridian along with the fun by
fuppofition. Therefore, to make ufe of this table, we mult
take the difference between the firft number of the column,
rntitled time of high water, from the time of high water at
full and change peculiar to any place, and add this to aft
the other numbers of that column. This adapts the table
to the coven place. T hus, to know the time of high water
at Leith when the moon is 50= call of the fun, at her mean
diftance from the earth, take 22' from 4I1. 30', there remains
4.08. Add this to 2h» 48', and we have 6h, 56' for the
hour of high water. (The hour of high water at new and full
moon for Edinburgh is marked 4I1. 30' in Mafkelyne’s ta¬
bles, but we do not pretend to give it as the exact determi¬
nation, This would require a feries of accurate obferva-
tions.)
, . lt is ’Dy 120 means an eafy matter to afeertain the time of
high water with precifion. It changes fo very flowly, that
we may eafily miftake the exadt minute. The belt method
is to have a pipe frith a fmall hole near its bottom, and a
float with a long graduated rod. The water gets in by the
fmall hole and raifes the float, a fid the fmailnefs of the hole
prevents tire iiiciden and irregular Hurts which waves would
occaflon. Inftead of obferving the moment of high water,
obferve the height of the road about half an hour before,,
and wait after high water till the rod comes again to that
height: take the middle between them. The water rifes
6 fenfibly
-Tide.
* ^ee Mr
Caffini,
Paris,
*734'
t i d r 52
fenfibly half an honr before the top of the tide, and quickly
changes the height of the rod, fo that we cannot make a
great miftake in the time.
Mr Bernoulli has made a very careful comparifon of the
theory thus correfted. with the great colleftion of obferva-
tions preferved in the Depot de Id Marine at Breft and
Rochefort # ; and finds the coincidence very great, and far
exceeding any rule which he had ever feen. Indeed we have
/ ^cad' no rules but what are purely empirical, or which fuppofe
. a uniform progrellion of the tides.
The heights of the tides are much more affefted by local
circumftances than the regular feries of their times. The
regular fpring tide finould be to the neap tide in the fame
proportion in all places ; but nothing is more different than
this proportion. In feme places the fpring tide is not
double of the neap tide, and in other places it is more than
quadruple. This prevented Bernoulli from attempting to
fix the proportion of M to S by means of the heights of
the tides. Newton had, however, done it by the tides at
Briftol, and made the lunar force almoft five times greater
than the folar force. But this was very ill-founded, for the
. reafon now given.
Yet Bernoulli faw, that in all places the tides gradually
• decreafed from the fyzigies to the quadratures. He there-
; fore prefumed, that they decreaied by a fimilar law with
the theoretical tides, and has given a very ingenious method
, of accommodating the theory to any tides which may be
obferved. Let A be the fpring tide, and B the neap tide
in any place. Then form an M and an S from theie, by
A+B A—B
• making M r= —-—, and S ~ —^—; fo that M + S may
be = A, and M — S = B agreeable to theory. Then with
this M and S compofe the general tide T, agreeable to the
con(IruAion of the problem. We may be perfuaded that
the refult cannot be far from the truth. The following
table is calculated for the three chief diftances of the moon
-from the earth.
G
_2
o
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
I5C
160
170
180
Height of the Tide.
Vlopn in Perigee. Moon in M. Dili. 1 Moon in Apogee.
0,99 A-f 0,1 5B
i,ioA-i~o,04B
i,I4A+o,ooB
ijicA-j-OjOqB
OjpgA-fOjiyB
o,85A+o,32B
o,67A-fo,53B
o,46A4-o,75B
o,28A+o,96B
c,i3A-f-i,i3B
o,03 A+1,246
OjOoA-}-; ,28B
c,03 Ad-1,246
o,i3A+i,i3B
o,28A+c,96B
o,46A4-c,75B
0,67 A-f 0,536
0,85 A-f 0,326
0,99 A-f 0,156
o,S8A-f o,i2B
o,97A-f 0,036
i,coAq-o,ooB
0,97 A 4-0,03 B
OjSS^A-f o,i2B
o,75A-f 0,256
o,59A-f 0,416
0,41 A -f 0,596
OjZjA-f 0,756
o,i2A-f o,88B
0,03 A-f 0,976
o,co A-f i,ooB
0,03 A 4-0,976
o,i2A4-o,88B
0,25 A 4-0,756
o,4iA4-o,59B
o^9A4-°,4tB
0,75 A 4-0,256
o,88A-f CjicB
o,79A4-o,o8B
o,87A-f 0,026
o,9oA-fo,ooB
0,87 A-fo,o2B
o,79A-fo,c8B
o,68A-fo,i8B
o,53a+0229b
o,37A4-o,4iB
0,23 A-fo,53B
0,11 A-l-o,62B
o,o3A-f o,68B
o,ooA-fo,7oB
o,o3A-fo,68B
c,i ixA-f 0,626
0,23 A-fo,53B
o,37A4-o,4iB
0,536-fo, 29B
o,68A-f o,i8B
o,79A4'0,o8B
Obferve th t this table is corre&ed for the retardation
arifing from the inertia of the waters. Thus when the
moon is 20 degrees from the fun, the mean diflance tide is
i,ooA4 o,ooB, which is the theoretical tide cerrtfponding
to conjundion or oppofittion.
6 ] T I D
We have now given in fufneient detail the phenomena of
the tides along the equator, when the fun and moon are
both in the equator, fhewing both their times and their
magnitude. When we recoiled that all the fedions of an
oblong fpheroid by a plane paffmg through an equatorial
diameter are ellipfes, and that the compound tide is a com¬
bination of two fuch fpheroids, we perceive that every fec-
tion of it through the cent <, and perpendicular to the plane
in which the fun and moon are fituated, is alfo an ellipfe,
whofe fhorter axis is the equatorial diameter of a fpring
tide. This is the greatefl depreffion in all fituations of the
luminaries; and the points of greateft depreffion are the
lower poles of every compound tide. When the luminaries
are in the equator, thefe lower poles coincide with the poles
of the earth. The equator, therefore, of every compound
tide is alfo an ellipfe ; the whole circumference of which is
lower than any other fedion of this tide, and gives the
place of low water in every part of the earth. In like
manner, the fedion through the four poles, upper and lower,
gives the place of high water. Thefe two fedions are tcr-
reffrial meridians or hour circles, when the luminaries are in
the equator.
Hence it follows, that all that we have already faid as to
the times of high and low water may be applied to every
place on the furface of the earth, when the lun and moon
are in the equator. But the heights of tide will diminifli
as we recede from the equator. The heights muff be re¬
duced in the proportion of radius to the coline of the lati¬
tude of the place. But in every other fituation of the fun
and moon all the circurrtftances vary exceedingly. It is very
true, that the determination of the elevation of the waters
in any place whatever is equally eafy. The difficulty is,
to exhibit for that place a conneded view of the whole tide,
with the hours of flood and ebb, and the difference between
high and low water. This is not indeed difficult; but the
procefs by the ordinary rules of fpherical trigonometry rs
tedious. When the fun and moon arc not near conjundion
or oppofition, the fhape of the ocean refembles a turnip,
which is fiat and not round in its broadefl part. Before
we can determine with preciflon the different phenomena
in connedion, we muff afeertain the pofition or attitude of
this turnip ; maiking on the furface of the earth both its
elliptical equators. One of thefe is the plane paffing thro'
the fun and moon, and the other is perpendicular to it,
and marks the place of low water. And we muff mark in
like manner its fiift meridian, which paffes through all the
four poles, and marks on the furtace of the earth the place
of high water. The pofition of the greatefl: fedion of this
compound fpheroid is frequently much inclined to the earth’s
equator; nay, fometimes is at right angles to it, when
the moon has the fame right afcenfion with the fun, but
a different declination. In thefe cafes the ebb tide on the
equator is the greatefl: poffible; for the lower poles of the
compound fpheroid are in the equator. Such fituations
occaiion a very complicated calculus. We muff therefore
content ourfelves with a good approximation.
And firft, with refped to the times of high water. It
will be fufficient to conceive the fun and moon as always in
one plane, viz. the ecliptic. The orbits of the fun and
moon are never more inclined than yi degrees. This will
make veiy little difference ; for when the luminaries are fo
fituated that the great circle through them is much inclined
to the equator, they are then very near to each other, and
the form of the fpheroid is little different from what it
would be if they were really in conjundion or oppofition.
It will therefore be iufficient to confider the moon in three
different fituations.
1. In the equator. The point of higheft water is never far¬
ther
5
T 1 D [ S
ther from the moon than 15°, when fhe is in apogee and
the fun in perigee. Therefore if a meridian be drawn thro’
the point of higheft water to the equator, the arch mh of
fig. 4. will be reprefented on the equator by another arch
about of this by reafon of the inclination of the equa¬
tor and ecliptic. Therefore, to have the time of high wa¬
ter, multiply the numbers of the columns which exprefs the
difference of high water and the moon’s fouthing by xVo*
and the products give the real difference.
2. Let the moon be in her greatell declination. The
arch of right afcenfion correfoonding to mh will be had by
multiplying mb, or the time correfponding to it in the
table, by ‘~r •
3. When the moon is in a middle fituation between thefe
two extremes, the numbers of the table will give the right
afcenfion correfponding to m b without any correction, the
diflance from the equator compenfating for the obliquity of
the ecliptic arch mb.
The time of low water is not fo eafily found ; and we
xnuft either go through the whole trigonometrical procefs,
or content ourfelves with a lefs perfect approximation.
The trigonometrical procefs is not indeed difficult: We
mull find the pofition of the plane through the fun and
moon. A great circle through the moon perpendicular to
this is the line of high water ; and another perpendicular
circle cutting this at right angles is the circle of low water.
But it will be abundantly exadl to confider the tide as
accompanying the moon only.
Let NQoE (fig. 7.) be a feftion of the terraqueous
globe, of which N and S are the north and fouth poles and
EOO the equator. Let the moon be in the direction OM,
having the declination Let 1) be any place on the
earth’s furface. Draw the parallel LDC of latitude. Let
B F b'f be the ocean, formed into a Ipheroid, of which B b
is the axis and/F the equator.
As the place D is carried along the parallel CDL by the
rotation the earth, it will pafs in fucceffion through dif¬
ferent depths of the watery ipheroid. It will have high
water when at C and I,, and low water when it cro.Tes the
circle/OF. Draw the meridian N G, and the great cir¬
cle B d b. The arch GQ, when converted into lunar hours
(each about>62 minutes), gives the duration of the flood
dc and of the fubfequent ebb c d, which happen while
the moon is above the horizon ; and the arch EG will
give the durations of the flood and of the ebb which hap¬
pen when the moon is below the horizon. It is evident,
that thefe two floods and two ebbs have unequal durations.
When D is at C it has high water; and the height of the
tide is CC'. For the fpheroid is fuppofed to touch the
fphere on the equator/OF, fo that of CC is the difference
between high and low water. At L the height of the tide
is LLf; and if we deferibe the circle L'N q, C q is the dif¬
ference of thefe high waters, or of thefe tides.
Hence it appears, that the two tides of one lunar day
may be confiderably different, and it is proper to diftingsilh
them by different names. We {hall call that a [uperior tide
wuich happens when the moon is above the horizon during
high water, ihe other may be called the inferior tide.
The duration of the fuperior tide is meafured by 2 GC/,
and that of the inferior tide by 2 EG, and 4 GO meafures
the difference between the whole duration of a fuperior and
oi an inferior tide.
From this conftru&ion we may learn in general, 1. When
the moon has no declination, the durations and alfo the
heights of the fuperior and inferior tides are equal in all
parts of the world. For in this cafe the tide equator fY
coincides with the meridian NOS, and the poles B' l' of the
watery fpheroid are on the earth’s equator.
27 ] T I D
2. When the moon has declination, the duration and alfo
the height of a fuperior tide at any place is greater than
that of the inferior; or is lefs than it, according as the
moon’s declination and the latitude of the place are of the
fame or oppoflte names.
This is an important circumftance. It frequently hap¬
pens that the inferior tide is found the greateft wlren it-
fhould be the Icaft ; which is particularly the cafe at the
Nore. This ffiows, without further reafoning, that the tide
at the Nore is only a branch of the regular tide. The re¬
gular tide comes in between Scotland and the continent f
and after travelling along the coaft reaches the Thames,
while the regular tide is juft coming in again between Scot¬
land and the continent.
3. If the moon’s declination is equal to the coktitude of
the place, or exceeds it, there will be only one tide in a lu¬
nar day. It will be a fupevior oc-an inferior tide, accord¬
ing as the declination of the moon and the latitude of th©’
place are of the fame or oppolite kinds. For the equator of
the tide cuts the meridian in / and F. Therefore a place
which moves in the parallel cf has high water when at cs
and 12 lunar hours afterwards, has low water when at f.
And any place b which is ftill nearer to the pole N has
high water when at b, and 12 lunar hours afterwards has
low water at m. Therefore, as the moon’s declination ex¬
tends to 30°, all places farther north or fouth than the la¬
titude 60? will fometimes have only one tide in a lunar
day.
4. The fine of the arch GO, which meafures Jth of the
difference between the duration of a fuperior and inferior
tide, is = tan. lat. X tan. decl. For in the fpherical tri¬
angle d OG
Rad : cotan. dOG = tan. dG : fin. GO, and
Sin. GO = tan. d0(/X tan. dG, ~ tan. deel- X tan. lat.
Hence we fee, that the difference of the durations of the
fuperior and inferior tides of the fame clay increafe both with-
the moon’s declination and with the latitude of the place.
The different fituations of the moon and of the place of
obfervation affedt the heights of the tides no lefs remarkably.
When the point D comes under the meridian NBQJn whick
the moon is fituated, there is a fuperior high water, and
the height of the tide above the low water of that dav is-
CC'. When D is at L, the height of the inferior tide is
LI/. The elevation above the inferibed fphere is M X
cof.2 y, y being the zenith diftance of the moon at the place
of obiervation. Therefore at high water, which by the
theory is in the place diredtly under the moon, the height'
of the tide is as the fquare of the coline of the moon’s zenith
or nadir diftance.
Hence we derive a conftiu&ion which folves all quell ion*
relating to the height of the tides with great facility, free
from all the intricacy and ambiguities of the algebraic ana-
lyfis employed by Bernoulli.
With the radius CQjer M (the elevation produced by
the moon above the inferibed fphere) deferibe the circle p
Q/E (fig. 8,) to reprefent a meridian, of which P and p
are the poles, and EQjhe equator. Bifedt CP in O ; and
round O deferibe the circle PBCD. Let M be the place
over which the moon is vertical, and Z be the place of ob¬
fervation. MQJs the moon’s declination, and ZC/_is the
latitude of the place. Draw MC m, ZCN, cutting tha
fmall circle in A and B. Draw AG1 perpendicular to CP,
and draw CI^, which will cut off an arch E u ~ QM. MZ
and /«N are the moon’s zenith and nadir diftances. Draw
the diameter BD, and the perpendiculars IK, GH, and AF.
Alfo draw OA, PA, AB, ID,
Then DF is the fuperior tide, DK is the inferior tide*
and Dli is the arithmetical mean tide.
For
T I D [ 52S ] ' T I D
, Toi the angles BCA, BDA, {landing on BA, are equal.
‘v Allb the angles ID 13, CM, are equal, being fupnlements
of the angle ICB. Therefore, if BD be made radius, DA
and DI are the fines of the zenith and nadir diftances of
the moon.
But BD : D r "DA: DF. Therefore DF ~ M X
cot.2 y, — the height Z s of the fuperior tide. Alfo DK
~ hi • cof. 2«/, ~ the height n n' of the inferior tide.
Alfo, becaufe IA is bifefted in G, KF is bifeded in H,
4 t\tt DK + DF ,
and DiT , ~ the medium tide.
Let us trace the relation of the confequences of the va¬
rious politisns of Z and M, as rve formerly confidered the
refults of the various fituations of the fmr and moon.
hirft, then, let Z retain its place, and let M gradually
approach it from the equator. When M is in the" equator,'
A and I coincide with C, and the three points F, K, and
H, coincide in i.
A.s M approaches to Z, A and I approach to B and D;
DF increafes, and DK diminifhes. The fuperior or inferior
tide is greatefl when the moon is in M or in N; and DF
is then M. As the moon paffes to the northward of the
place, the fuperior and inferior tides both diminifh till I
comes to D ; at which time MQjs equal to ZP, and there
is no inferior tide. This however connot happen if z P is
greater than 30°, becauie the moon never goes farther
trom the equator. M ftill going north, we have again a
perpendicular from I on BD, but below I, indicating that
the inferior tide, now meafured by DK, belongs to the he-
milpheroid next the moon. Alfo, as M advances from the
equator northward, DPI diminiihes continually. Firft, while
H lies between O and B, becaufe G approaches O ; and
a Bernards, when G is above O and H lies between O and
D. It is otherwife, however, if ZQjis greater than 45^ ;
for then DB is inclined to EQjhe other way, and DH in¬
creafes as the point G rifes.
In the next place, let M retain its pofition, and Z pro¬
ceed along the meridian.
Let us begin at the equator, or fuppofe Q_the place of
obfervation. BD then coincides with CP, and the three
lines DF, DK, and DH, all coincide with PG, denoting
the'two equal tides Qj7 and Ee and their medium, equal
to either. As Z goes northward from fi), BOD detaches
itfelf irom COP; the line DF increafes, while DK and
DPI diminnh. When Z has come to M, F and B coincide
with A, and DK and DH are flill more diminifhed. When
Z pafTcs M. all the three lines DF, DK, and DPI, conti¬
nue to diminifh. When Z comes to latitude 45'0, DB is
parallel to LA and EQ^, and the point H coincides with
O. i his fituation of Z has the peculiar property that DH
(now DO) is the fame, whatever be the declination of the
moon. For IA being always parallel to DB, OK and OF
will be equal, and DO will be half of DK and DF however
they may vary. When Z gets fo far north that Z'P is
~ MQj, the diameter bd falls on I; fo that elk vanifhes, and
we have only df. And when Z goes ftill farther north, dk
appears on the other fide of I. When Z arrives at the pole,
BD again coincides with PC, D with C, and DF, DIG and
DH, coincide with CG.
rI hefe variations-of the points F, K, and H, indicate the
following phenomena.
1. ih - greateft tides happen when the moon is in the
zenith or nadir of the place of obfervation : for then the
point B coincides with A, and DF becomes DB ; that is,
= M, indicating the full tide BB'.
2. When the moon is in the equator, the fuperior and in¬
ferior tides have equal heights, ~ M • cof.2 lat. For then
A and I coincide with C, and the., points F ancl K coincide
in z, and D i is = DB * cofi2 BDC, = M * cof.2 lat. "
3. If the place of obfervation is in the equator, the in¬
ferior and fuperior tides are again equal, whatever is the
moon’s declination : For then B coincides with C, and the
points F, K, and H,"coincide with G ; and PG = PC • cof.2
APG, = M * cofi2 decl. moon.
4. The fuperior tides are greater or lets than the inferior
tides according as the latitude and declination are of the
fame or of eppofite names. For by making Qj — QZ, and
drawing C C », cutting the fmall circle in A, we fee that the
figure is reverfed. The difference between the fuperior and
inferior tides is KF, or IA X cofin. of the angle formed by
IA and DB ; that is, ol the angle BD which is the com¬
plement of twice ZQ ; becaufe BOC = 2 ZCQ. Now IA
is 2 GA, =: 2 OA* fin. 2MQ^— PC • fin. 2 — M ■ fin.
2 decl. Therefore the difference of the fuperior and infe¬
rior tides is M • fin. 2 declin. fin. 2 lat.
5. If the eolatitude be equal to the declination, or lefs
than it, there will be no inferior tide, or no fuperior tide, ac¬
cording as the latitude of the place and declination of the
moon are of the fame or oppofite names.
For when PZ = D coincides with I, and IK va-
nifires. When PZ is lefs than MQ, the point D is between
C and I, and the point Z never paffes through the equator
of the watery fpheroid ; and the low water of its only tide
is really the fummit of the inferior tide.
6. At the pole there is no daily tide : but there are two
monthly tides 22: M * fin.2 declin. and it is low water when
the moon is in the equator.
7. The medium tide, reprefented by DH, is = M X
1 4- cof. 2 lat. X cof. 2 declin.
—1 — . For DH rr DO 4- OPI.
2 1
Now OH is equal to OG X cof. GOH = OG • cof. 2 ZQ.
And OG =: OA ’ cof. GOA, 2= O.A * cof. 2 M(T_ There¬
fore OH " O A • cof. 2 ZQ - cof. 2 MQ. Therefore DH
= O A + OA • cofi 2 ZQ^cofi 2 MQ^.~
M X C'- Let this for the future
Tide,
be called m.
N. B. The moon’s declination never exceeds 30°. There¬
fore cof. 2 MQJs always a pofitive quantity, and never lefs
than G which is the cofine of 6og. While the latitude is
lefs than 45°, cofi 2 lat. is alfo a pofitive quantity. When it is
precifely 450 the cofine of its doubkis 0; and when it is greater
than 4 5, the cofine of its double is negative. Hence we fee,
1. That the medium tides are equally affefted by the
northern and fouthern declinations of the moon.
2. If the latitude of the place is 450, the medium tide
is always 4- M. 'Phis is the reafon why the tides alohg the
coafts of France and Spain ate fo little affe&ed by the de¬
clination of the moon.
3. If the latitude is lefs than 470, the mean tides increafe
as the moon’s declination diminifhes. The contrary hap¬
pens if ZQJs greater than 450. For DPI increafes or di¬
minifhes while the point G feparates from C according as
the angle COD is greater or lets than COB ; that is, ac¬
cording as PCZ is greater or lefs than ZCQ^
4. When Z is in the equator, PI coincides with G, and
the effeft of the moon’s declination on the height of the
tides is the rnoft fenfible. The mean tide is then = M
1 -p cof. 2 MQa
2
All that we have now faid may be find of the folar tide,
putting S in place of M.
Alfo the fame things hold true of fpring tides, putting
M 4- S in place of M.
But,
7 X; /
TJ1J K .
Plate Dl A
.//w/^t>r////ifo/' //,•»/ .
T I D [ 529 1 T I D
Tide. But in order to afcertaio the effefts of declination and and is compounded with the a&ion of to-day. This being
■'"■v " latitude on other tides, we mull make a much more com- the cafe, we fhould expedt that the nature of any tide will
plicated conftruftion, even tho’ we fuppofe both luminaries depend much on the nature of the preceding tide. There¬
in the ecliptic. For in this cafe the two deprefled poles of fore we Ihould expedt that the fuperior and inferiorgides of
the watery fpheroid are not in the poles of the earth ; and the fame day will be more nea»y equal than the theory de-
therefore the fedb'ons of the ocean, made by meridians, are terrnines. The whole courfe of obfervation confirms this,
by no means ellipfes. _ In latitude 45°, the fuperior and inferior tides of one day
In a neap tide, the moon is vertical at B (fig. 7. or 8.), may differ in the proportion of to f, and the tides cor¬
and the fun at fome point of /F, 900 from B. If O be refponding to the greatefl and leaft declinations of the moon
this point, the conflruddion for the heights of the tides may
be made by adding to both the fuperior and inferior tides
for any point D, the quantity M + S — D'F or DK X
S — tide X as is evident.
But if the fun be vertical at d, d will be the higheft part
of the circle j OF, and no correction is neceffary. But in
this cafe the circle of high water will be inclined to the me-
. ridian in an-angle equal to JBO (fig. 7.), and neither the
times nor elevations of high water will be properly afeertained,
and the error in time may be confiderable in high latitudes.
The inaccuracies are not fo great in intermediate tides,
and refpedt chiefly the time of high water and the height of
low water.
The exaft computation is very tedious and peculiar, fo
that it is hardly poffible to give any account of a regular
progrefs of phenomena ; and all we can do is, to afeertain
the precife heights of detached points. For which reafons,
we mud content ourfelves with the conftru&ion already gi¬
ven. It is the exa& geometrical expreflion of Bernoulli’s
analyfis, and its confequences now related contain all that he
has inveftigated. We may accommodate it very nearly to the
real date of things, by fuppofmg PC equal, not to CO of
fig 4. but to MS, exhibiting the whole compound tide.
And the point B, indead of reprefenting the moon’s place,
mud reprefent the place of high water,
Thus have we obtained a general, though not very accu¬
rate, view of the phenomena which mud take place in dif¬
ferent latitudes and in different declinations of the fun and
moon, provided that the phyfical theory which determines
the form and pofition of the watery fpheroid be jud. We
have only to compute, by a very Ample procefs of fpherical
trigonometry, the place of the pole of this fpheroid. The
fecond condruftion, in fig. 8. fhows us all the circumdances
of the time and height of high water at any point. It will
be recolledted, that in computing this place of the pole, the
anticipation of 20 degrees, ariling from the inertia of the
waters, mud be attended to.
Were, we to inditute a comparifon of this theory with
obfervation, without farther confideration, we fhould dill
find it unfavourable, partly in refpecd of the heights of the
tides, and more remarkably in refpeft of the time of low
water. We mud again confider the effedls of the inertia of
the waters, and recoiled!, that a regular theoretical tide dif¬
fers very little in its progrefs from the motion of a wave.
Pven along the free ocean, its motion much refembles
that of any other wave. All waves are propagated by an of-
cillatory motion of the waters, precifely fimilar to that of
a pendulum. It is well known, that if a pendulum receive
a imall irnpulfe in the time of every defeent, its vibrations
may be increafed to infinity. Did the fucceffive adfions of
the fun or moon jud keep time with the natural propaga¬
tion of the tides, or the natural ofcillations of the waters,
the tides would alfo augment to infinity : But there is an
infinite odds againft this exadt adjudment. It is much more
probable that the adtion of to-day interrupts or checks the
ofcillation produced by yederday’s adfion, and that the mo¬
tion which we perceive in this day’s tide is what remains.
Vot. XVIII, Part II,
may differ nearly as much. But the difference of the fu¬
perior and inferior tides, as they occur in the lid of Obfec-
vations at Rochefort, is not the third part of this, and the
changes made by the moon’s declination is not above one-
half. ! here ore we fliall come much nearer the true mea-
fure of a fpring tide, by taking the arithmetical mean, than
by taking either the fuperior or inferior.
We fhould expedl lefs deviation from the theory in the
gradual diminution of the tides from fpring tide to neap
tide, and in the gradual changes of the medium tide by the
declination of the moon ; becaule the fuccefiive changes are
very fmaU; and when they change in kind, that is, dimintih
after having for fome time augmented, the change is by in-
fenfible degrees. This is mod accurately confirmed by ob¬
fervation. The vad colle&ion made by Caflini of the Ob*
fervations at Bred being examined by Bernoulli, and the
medium of the two tides in one day being taken for the tide
of that day, he found fuch an agreement between the pro-
greffion of thefe medium tides and the progreffion of the
lines MS of fig. 4. that the one feemed to be calculated
by the other. He found no lefs agreement in the changes
cf the rqedium tides by the moon’s declination.
In like manner, the changes produced by the different di¬
dances of the moon from the earth, were found abundantly
conformable to the theory, although not fo exa& as the
other. This difference or inferiority is eafily accounted for :
When.the moon changes in her mean didance, one of the
neap tides is uncommonly fmall, and therefore the fuccefiive
diminutions are very great, and one tide fenfibly affe&s
another. The fame circumdance operates when fhe changes
in apogee, by realon of a very large fpring tide. And the
changes cerrefponding both to the fun’s didance from the
earth and his declination agreed almod exadtly.
All thefe things confidered together, we have abundant
reafon to conclude, that not only the theory itlelf is jud in
principle (a thing which no intelligent naturalid can doubt),
but alio that the data which are affumed in the application
are properly chofen ; that is, that the proportion of 2 to
5 is very nearly the true proportion of the mean folar and
lunar forces. If we now compute the medium tide for any¬
place in fucceflion, from fpring tide to neap tide, and dill
more, if we compute the feries of times of their occurrence,
we fhall find as great an agreement as can be defired. Not
but that there are many irregularities; but thefe are evi¬
dently fo anomalous, that we can aferibe them to nothing
but circumdances which are purely local.
This general rule of computation mud be formed in the
folowing manner:
The fpring tide, according to theory, being called A,
and the neap tide B, recoiled that the fpring tide, according
to the regular theory, is meafured by M + S. Recoiled
alfo, that when the lunar tide only is confidered, the fupe-
nor fpnng tide is M X fin.*, ZM (fig. 8). But when
we confider the. adion of two adjoining tides on each
other, we find it fafer to take the medium of the fupe¬
rior and inferior tides for the meafure ; and this is M X
1 -f- cofi* 2 ZQ^X cof. 2 MQ
• Let this be called m. This
3 ^ being
t r d
[ 53° ]
T I D
Tide.
belngr totally the effeft of M as modified, by latitude and
' declination, may be taken as its proper meafure, by which
we are to calculate the other tides of the monthly leries
from fpring tide to neap tide.
In like manner, we muft compute a value for S, as mo¬
dified by declination and latitude ; call this /. Then fay,
m s
This fourth proportional will give the fpring tide as
modified for the given declination of the luminaries, and the
latitude of the place.
Now recoiled!, that the medium tide, when the lumina¬
ries are in the equator, is AXcof.2Iat. Therefore let
T be the fpring tide obferved at any place when the lumi-
naiies are in the equator ’r and let this be the medium of a
great many obfervations made in thefe circumftances. This
gives A * cof.2 lat. (as modified by the peculiar circum¬
ftances of the place) = F. Therefore the fourth propor-
m s
tional now given changes to F X  rr;  And
■ M-f-S col. lat.
, . . m — /
a fimilar fubftitute for B is G X ———    
M — S • cof.2 lat.
Lafily, To accommodate our formulas to every diftanceof
the earth from the fun and moon, let D and a be the mean
diftances of the lun and moon, and d and ^ their dillances
at the given time ; and then the two fubflitutes become
A3 J M 4-1 3 D ~ S _ m-\-s
dJ s3 (M-f-S)
XFX-7
xGx
(M -f- S) cof.:
WJ -f- j
lat-
^JJ'3(M — S j (M — S) cof.2 lat.
The half ium of thefe two quantities will be the MC,
and their half difference will be the SC, of fig. 4. with which
we may now operate, in order to find the tide for any other
day of the menftrual feries, by means of the elongation a of
the moon from the (un ; that is, we muft fay MC -j-CS :
^ o —f* b
MC —- CS tan. a : tan. b ; then x — —-—, and y =;
a —b
——. And MS, the height of the tide, is MC X cof. 2y
*4" CS X cof. 2 x.
Such is the general theory of the tides, deduced from
the principle of univerial gravitation, and adjufted to that
proportion of the folar and lunar forces which is mofl con-
fiftent with other celeftial phenomena. The comparifon of
the greateff and leaft daily retardations of the tides was
with great judgment preferred to the proportion of fpring
and neap tides, fele&ed by Sir Jfaac Newton for this pur-
pofe. i his proportion muft depend on many local circum¬
ftances. When a wave or tide comes to the mouths of two
rivers, and fends a tide up each, and another tide of half the
magnitude comes a fortnight after ; the proportion of tides
lent up. to any ^iven places of thefe rivers may be extremely
different. Nay, the proportion of tides fent up to two di-
ftant places of the fame river can hardly be the fame ; nor
are they the fame in any river that we know. It can be
demonftrated, in the ftri&efl manner, that the farther we
go up the river, where the declivity is greater, the neap tide
will be fmaUer in proportion to the fpring tide. But it
does not appear that the time of fucceffion of the dift'erent
tides will be much affoffed by local circumftances. The
tide of the fecond day of the moon being very little lefs
than that of the firft, will be nearly as much retarded, and
the intervals between their arrivals cannot be very different
from the real intervals of the undifturbed tides ; according¬
ly, the fucceffion of the bigheft to the higheft but one is
found t® be the fame in all places, when not difturbed by
different winds. In like manner, the fucceffion of the loweft ■
and the loweft but one is found equally invariable ; and the
higheft and the loweft tides obferved in any place mujl be
accounted the fpring and neap tides of that place, whether
they happen on the day of full and half mo:m or not. Nay,
we can fee here the explanation of a general deviation of
the theory which v/e formerly noticed. A low tide, being
lefs able to overcome obftruftions, will be fooner flopped,
and the neap tides fhould happen a little earlier than by the
undifturbed theory.
With all theie corre&ions, the theory now delivered will
be found to correfpond, with obfervation, with all the ex-
adlneis that we can reafonably expert. We had an oppor¬
tunity of comparing it with the phenomena in a place where
they are very Angular, viz. in the harbour of Biffeftedt in
Iceland. The equator of the watery fpheroid frequently
paffes through the neighbourhood of this place, in a variety
of pofitions with relpedt to its parallel of diurnal revolution,
and the differences of fuperior and inferior tides are moft
remarkable and various. We found a wonderful conformity
to the moft diverfified circumftances of the theory.
There is a period of 18 years, refpeffting the tides in
Iceland, taken notice by the ancient Saxons ; but it is not
diftindlly deferibed. Now this is the period of the moon’s
nodes, and of the greateft and leaft inclination of her orbit
to the equator. It is therefore the period of the pofitions
of the equator of the tide? which ranges round this ifland,
and very fenfibly affeefts them.
Hitherto we have fuppofed the tides to be formed on
an ocean completely covering the earth. Let us fee how
thofe may be determined which happen in a fmall and con¬
fined fea, fuch as the Cafpian or the Black Sea. The de¬
termination in this cafe is very fimple. As no fupply of
water is fuppofed to come into the bafon, it is fufceptible of
a tide only by linking at one end and riling at the other.
This may be illuftrated by fig. 6. where C s, Cy, are two
perpendicular planes bounding a fmall portion of the natu¬
ral ocean. The water will link at z and rife at x, and form
a furtace 0 t r parallel to the equilibrated furface y s. It is
evident that there will be high water, or the greateft pof-
fible rife at r, when the bafon comes to that pofition where
the tangent is moft of all inclined to the diamater. This
will be when the angle / CB is 450 nearly, and therefore
three lunar hours after the moon’s fouthing ; at the fame
time, it will be low water at the other end. It is plain that
the rrfe and fall rnuft be exceedingly Imall, and that there
will be no change in the middle. The tides of this kind in
the Cafpian Sea, in latitude 450, whofe extent in longitude
does not exceed eight degrees, are not above feven inches;
a quantity io fmall, that a flight breeze of wind is fufficient
to cheek it, and even to produce a rife of the waters in the
oppofite direflion. We have not met with any accounts of
a trde being obferved in this fea.
It fhould be much greater, though Hill very fmall, in the
Mediterranean Sea. Accordingly, tides are obferved there,
but ftill more remarkably in the Adriatic, for a reafon which
will be given by and by. We do not know that tides
have been obferved in the great lakes of North America.
Thefe tides, though fmall, fhould be very regular.
Should there be another great bafon in the neighbour¬
hood of z x, lying eaft or weft of it, we fhould obferve a
curious phenomenon. It would be low water on one fide of
the fhore z when it is high water on the other fide of this
partition. If the tides in the Euxine and Calpian Seas, or
in the American lakes which are near each other, could be
obferved, this phenomenon fhould appear, and v/ould be one
of the prettieft examples of univerfal gravitation that can
Tide.
J
T I D
be conceived- Something like it is to be fcen at Gibraltar.
—v—"It is hi^h water on the call fide of the rock about 10
o'clock at full and change, and it is high water on the well
fide, not a mile diftant, at 12. This difference is per¬
haps the chief caisde -of the Angular current which is ob-
ferved in the Straits mouth. There are three currents
obferved at the fame time, which change their directions
every 12 hours. The fmall tide of the Mediterranean pro¬
ceeds along the Barbary fhore, which is very uniform all
the way from Egypt, with tolerable regularity. But along
the northern fide, where it is greatly obftrnCted by Italy,
the iflands, and the eaft coafl of Spain, it fets very irregu¬
larly ; and the perceptible high water ©n the Spanifh coail
differs four hours fiom that of the fouthern coaft. Thus it
happens, that one tide ranges round Europa point, and ano¬
ther along the fhore near Ceuta, and there is a third current
in the middle different from both, fts general direction is
from the Atlantic Ocean into the Mediterranean Sea, but
it fometimes comes out when the ebb tide in the Atlantic
is confiderable.
Suppofe the moon over the middle of the Mediterranean.
The futface of the fea will be level, and it will be half tide
at both ends, and therefore within the Straits of Gibral¬
tar. But without the Straits it is within half an hour of
high water. Therefore there will be a current fetting in
from the Atlantic. About three and an half hours after,
it is high water within and half ebb without. The cur¬
rent now fets out from the Mediterranean. Three hours
later, it is low water without the Straits and half ebb
within; therefore the current has been fetting out all this
while. Three hours later, it is half flood without the
Straits and low water within, and the current is again let¬
ting in, &c
Were the earth fluid to the centre, the only fenfible mo¬
tion cf the waters would be up and down, like the waves
on the open ocean, which are not brufhed alonsj by ftrong
gales. But the fhallownefs of the channel makes a horizon¬
tal motion neceffary, that water may be fupplied to form
the accumulation ot the tide. When this is formed on a
flat {helving coaft, the ^ ater muft flow in and out, on the
flats and fands, while it rifes and tails Thefe horizontal
motions muft be greatly modified by the channel or bed
along which they move. When the channel contracts along
the line of flowing water, the wave, as it moves up the
channel, and is checked by the narrowing fhores, muft be
reflected hack, and keep a top of the waters ftill flowing in
underneath. Thus it may rife higher in thefe narrow feas
than in the open ocean. This may ferve to explain a little
the great tides which happen on fome coafts, fuch as the
coaft of Normandy. At St Malo the flood frequently rifes
50 feet. But we cannot give any thing like a full or la-
tisraCtory account of thefe Angularities In the Bay of
handy, and particularly at Annapolis Royal, the water
fometimes rifes above 100 feet. This feems quite inexpli¬
cable by any force of the fun and moon, which cannot raife
the waters of the free ocean more than eight feet. Thefe
great floods are unqueftionably owing to the proper timing
of certain ofcillations or currents adjoining, by which they
unite, and form one of great force. Such violent motions
of water are frequently Teen on a fmall fcale in the motions
of brooks and rivers; but we are too little acquainted with
hydraulics to explain them with any piecifion.
We have feen that there is an ofcillation of waters form-
ea under the fun and moon ; and that in confequence of the
rotation of the earth, the inertia and the want of perfed
fluidity of the waters, and obftruCtions in the channel, this
accumulation never reaches the place where it would finally
T X D
fettle if the earth did not turn round its axis, The confe*
quence of this muft be a general current of the waters from
eaft; to weft. This may be feen in another way. The
moon in her orbit round the earth has her gravity to the
earth diminifhed by the fun’s difturbing force, and therefore
moves in an orbit lefs incurvated than {he would deferibe in¬
dependent of the fun’s adtion. She therefore employs t
longer time. If the moon were fo near the earth as almoft.
to touch it, the fame thing would happen. Therefore fup-
pofe the moon turning round the earth, almoft in contadl
with the equator, with her natural undifturbed periodic
time, and that the earth is revolving round its axis in the
fame time, the moon would remain continually above the
fame fpot of the earth’s furface (fuppole the city of Quito),
and a fpedlator in another planet would fee the moon al¬
ways covering the fame fpot. Now let the fun adb This
will not affedt the rotation of the earth, becaufe the adfion
on one part is exadlly balanced by the adtion on another.
But it will affedf the moon. It will move more flowly
round the earth’s centre, and at a greater diftaisce. It will
be left behind by the city of Quito, which it formerly co-
vered. And as the earth moves round from weft to eafl,
the moon, moving more flowly, will have a motion to the
weft with relpedt to Quito. In like manner, every particle
of water has its gravity diminifhed, and its diurnal motion
retarded ; and hence arifes a general motion ©r current from
eaft to weft. This is very diftindtly perceived in the At¬
lantic and Pacific Oceans. It comes round the Cape of
Good Hope, ranges along the coaft of Africa, and then lets
diredlly over to America, where it meets a fimilar ftream
which comes in by the north of Europe. Meeting the
fhores of America, it is defledted both to the fouth along
the coaft of Brazil, and to the north along the North A-
merican fhores, where it forms what is called the Gu/f
Stream, becaufe it comes from the Gulf of Mexico. 'I bis
motion is indeed very flow, this being fufficient for the ac¬
cumulation of feven or eight feet on the deep ocean ; but
it is not altogether infenfible.
We may expedt differences in the appearances on the
weftern fhores of Europe and Africa, and on the weflera
fhore of America, from the appearances on the eaftern
coafts of America and of Alia, for the general current
obftrudts the waters from the weftern fhores, and fends them
to the eaftern fhores. Alfo when we compare the wide
opening of the northern extremity of the Atlantic Ocean
with the narrow opening between Kamtfchatka and Ame¬
rica, we fhould expedl differences between the appearances
on the weft coafts of Europe and of America. The obfer-
vations made during the circumnavigations of Captain Cook
and others fliow a remarkable difference. All along the
weft coaft of North America the inferior tide is very tri¬
fling, and frequently is not perceived.
In the very fame manner, the difturbing forces of the fun
and moon form a tide in the fluid air which furrounds this
globe, confifting of an elevation and depreflion, which move
gradually from eaft to weft. Neither does this tide ever at¬
tain that pofition with refpeft to the difturbing planets
which it would do were the earth at reft on its axis. Hence
arifes a motion of the whole air from eaft to weft ; and this
is the principal caufe of the trade winds. They are a little
accelerated by being heated, and therefore expanding. They
expand more to the weftward than in the oppofite dire&ion,
becaute the air expands on that fide into air, which is now
cooling and contracting. Thefe winds very evidently fol¬
low the fun’s motion, tending more to the fouth or north as
he goes fouth or north. Were this motion confiderably af-
fe&ed by the expanfion of heated air, we fhould find the
air rather coming northward and fouthward from the torrid
3X2 zonej
[ 531 ]
Tula.
T I D
zone, in confequence of its expanfion in that climate. We
repeat it, it is almoit folely produced hy the aerial tide, and
is neceflary for the very formation of this tide. We cannot
perceive the accumulation. It cannot affedt the barometer,
as many think, becaufe, though the air becomes deeper, it
becomes deeper only becaufe it is made lighter by the gra¬
vitation to the fun. Inftead of preffing more on the cillern
of the barometer, we imagine that it prefl'es Ids; becaufe,
like the ocean, it never attains the height to which it
tends. It remains always too low for equilibrium, and
therefore it fhould prds with Ids force on the cittern of a
barometer.
There is an appearance precifely fimilar to this in the
planet Jupiter. He is furrounded by an atmofphere which
is arranged in zones or belts, probably owing to climate dif¬
ferences of the different latitudes, by which each feems to
have a different kind of fky. Something like this will ap¬
pear to a fpeftator in the moon looking at this earth. The
general weather and appearance of the fky is confiderably
different in the torrid and temperate zones. Jupiter’s belts
are not of a conttant fhape and colour ; but there often ap¬
pear large fpots or tradts of cloud, which retain their fhape
during feveral revolutions of Jupiter round his axis. To
judge of his rotation by one of thefe, we fhould fay that he
turns round in 9.55. There is alfo a brighter fpot which
is frequently feen, occupying one certain fituation on the
body of Jupiter. This is furely adherent to his body, and
is either a bright coloured country, or perhaps a trad! of
clouds hovering over feme volcano. This fpot turns round in
<5.51J. And thus there is a general current in his atmo¬
fphere from eaft to well.
Both the motion of the air and of the water tend to di-
minifh the rotation of the earth round its axis: for they
move flower than the earth, becaufe they are retarded by
the luminaries. They mutt communicate this retardation
to the earth, and mutt take from it a quantity of motion
precifely equal to what they want, in order to make up the
equilibrated tide. In all probability this retardation is com-
penlated by other caufes ; for no retardation can be ob-
ferved. This would have altered the length of the year
fince the time of Hipparchus, giving it a fmaller number of
cays. We fee caufes of compenfation. The continual wattl¬
ing down of foil from the elevated parts of the earth mutt
produce this effedl, by communicating to the valley on which
it is brought to reft the excels of diurnal velocity which it
had on the mountain top.
While we were employed on this article, a book was put
into our hands called Studies of Nature, by a Mr Saint
Pierre. This author fcouts the Newtonian theory of the
tides, as erroneous in principle, and as quite infufficient For
explaining the phenomena ; and he aferibes all pheno¬
mena of the tides to the liqnefadfion of the ices and fnows
of the circumpolar regions, and the greater length of the po¬
lar than of the equatorial axis of the earth. He is a man
of whom we wifk to fpcak with refpedl, for his conftant at¬
tention to final caufes, and the proof thence refulting of
the wifdom and goodnefs of God. For this he is entitled
to the greater praife, that it required no fmall degree of for¬
titude to refill the inttuence of national example, and to re¬
tain his piety in the midft of a people who have drunk the
very dregs of the atheifm of ancient Greece. This is a fpe-
cies of merit rarely to be met with in a Frenchman of the
prefent day ; but as a philofopher, M. de St Pierre can lay
claim to no other merit except that of having colledled ma¬
ny important fadls. The argument which he employs to
prove that the earth is a prolate fpheroid, is a diredl demon-
ilration of the truth of the contrary opinion ; and the melt¬
ing of the ice and fnows at the poles cannot produce the
T I I/
fmallell motion In the waters. Were there even to times T de
more ice and fnow floating on the northern fea than there II
is, and were it all to melt in one minute, there would be no * h.cea.
flux From it ; For it would only fill up the fpace which it ' """"v
formerly occupied in the water. Of this any perfon will
be convinced, who {hall put a handful of fnow fqueezed
hard into a jar of water, and note the exa<5l height of the
water. .Let the fnow melt, a ;d he will find the water of
the fame height as before.
T 1 de-IValters, or Tidefmen, are inferior officers belonging
to the cullomhoufe, whole employment is to watch or at¬
tend upon {hips until the cuftoms be paid : they get this
name from their going on board fhips on their arrival in the
mouth of the Thames or other ports, and fo come up with
the tide.
T1END, in Scots law. See Teind.
TIERCE, or Teir.ce, a meafure of liquid things, aa
wine, oil, &c. containing the third part of a pipe, or 42 gal¬
lons.
TIERCED, in heraldry, denotes the fhield to be divi-
ded by any part of the partition-lines, as party, coupy, tran-
chy, or tailly, into three equal parts of different colours or
metals.
TIGER, in zoology. See Felis.
Tiger-Wof, the name by which the hyaena is called at
the Cape of Good Hope. See HyjEna.
TIGRIS, a river of Alia, which has its fource near that
of the Euphrates in the mountain Tchildir in Turkomania;
afterwards it feparates Diarbeck from Erzerum, and Khu«
fiftan from Irac-Arabia ; and uniting with the Euphrates at
Gorno, it falls into the gulf of Bafforah, under the name of
Schat el-Arab. This river pafl'es by Diarbekar, Gezira,
Mouful, Bagdad, Gorno, and Bafforah.
TILIA, Lime or Linden-tree, in botany : A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs oi polyandria, and order of
monogynia ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the Co-
lumrnfere. The calyx is quinquepartite ; the corolla pentape-
talous ; the berry is dry, globofe, quinquelocular, quinque-
valve, and opening at the bale. There are four fpecies; the
europaea and americana, pubefeens and alba.
The europaa, or common lime-tree, is generally fup- Qoxe's q‘rll.
pofed to be a native of Britain; but we are informed by MrvcL in
Coxe, that Mr Pennant told him (on what authority is not Switzer-
mentioned), that it was imported into England before thelanc1' V0 ‘ll’
year 1652. P- ,
The leaves are heart-fliaped, with the apex produced, and
ferrated on the edges; the flowers grow in a thin umbel,
from three, to nine together, of a whitifti colour and a fra¬
grant fmell; very grateFul to bees. The wood is light,
fmooth, and of a fpongy texture, ufed for making lafts and
tables for fhoemakers, &c. Ropes and bandages are made
©f the bark, and mats and ruftic garments of the inner rind,
in Carniola and fome other countries.—The lime-tree con¬
tains a'gummy juice, which being repeatedly boiled and cla-*
rifled produces a fubftance like fugar.
TILLEMONT (Sebaftian le Nain de). See Nain.
TILLER of a Ship, a ftrong piece of wood faftened in.
the head ©f the rudder, and in fmall (hips and boats called
the be/m.
TILLCEA, in botany : A genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of tetrandrla, the order of tetragynia, and in the
natural Fyftem ranging under the 13th order. Succulent#.
The calyx has three or four divifions ; the petals are three
or four, and equal; the capfules three or four, and polyfper-
mous. There are four Ipecies; of which one only, the muf-
cofa, is a native of England, and is not mentioned among
the Scotch plants.
The mufeofa, or prociunbent tilleea, has proftrate items,.
almoFt
t 532 1
T I L
[ S31 ]
T I M
Ttnotron. almoft ereft, generally red, and grow longer after flowering,
v— The parts of fru&ification are always three. The leaves
grow in pairs, and are flefhy. It is found on dry heaths in
Norfolk and Suffolk, and flowers in May and June.
TILLOTSON (John), a celebrated archbifhop of Can¬
terbury, was the fon of Robert Tillotfon of Sowerby, in the
parifh of Hallifax in Yorkfhire, clothier ; and was born there
in the year 163^ He ftudied in Clare-hall, Cambridge;
and in 1656 left this college, in order to become tutor to
the fon of Edmund Prideaux, Efq; of Ford-abbey in De-
vonfhire. He was afterwards curate to Dr Hacket vicar of
Chefhunt, in Hertfordfhire. In 1663, he was prefented
by Sir Thomas Barnardifton to the redtory of Ketton or
Keddington in the county of Suffolk; but was the next
year chofen preacher to Lincoln’s Inn, when he procured
Ketton to be bellowed on his curate. He was greatly ad¬
mired in London for his fermons ; and in the fame year was
chofen Tuefday ledlurer at St Lawrence’s church, London,
where his ledfures were frequented by all the divines of the
city, and by many perfons of quality and diftindfion. In 1666,
he took the degree of Dodlor of Divinity at Cambridge ;
in 1669, was made prebendary of Canterbury ; in 1672,
was admitted dean of that cathedral; and three years after,
was made a prebendary of St Paul’s cathedral, London.
In 1679, he became acquainted with Charles earl of Shrewf-
bury, whom he converted from Popery ; and the next year
refuftd to fign the clergy of London’s addrefs of thanks to
king Charles II. for not agreeing to the bill of exclufion of
the duke of York. In 1683, he vifited the unhappy Lord
Rufl'el when under condemnation ; and attended him in his
lafl moments on the fcaffold. In 1689, he was inflalled
dean of St Paul’s; made clerk of the clofet to King Wil¬
liam and Queen Mary; and appointed one of the commif-
fioners to prepare matters to be laid before the convocation,
in order to a comprehenfion of all Proteftants, as well dif-
fenters as churchmen ; but this attempt was fruftrated by
the zeal of thofe members of that body, who refufed to ad¬
mit of any alteration in things confeffedly indifferent. In
1691, Dr Tillotfon was, notwithftanding the warmefl re-
monllrances and intreaties on his part, coniecrated archbx-
fhop of Canterbury, and four days after was fworn one of
the privy council; their majeflies always repofing an entire
conirdence in his prudence, moderation, and integrity. In
1694, he was feized with a dead palfy, of which he died in
the 65th year of his age. He was interred in the church
of St Lawrence Jury, London, where a handfome monument
is erefted to his memory. This learned and pious divine,
while living, was greatly inveighed againft by the enemies
of the revolution. After his death there was found a bundle
of bitter libels which had been publifhed againfl him, on
which he had written with his own hand, “ I forgive the
authors of thefe books, and pray God that he may alfo for¬
give them.” It is remarkable, that while this truly ^reat
man was in a private ftation, he always laid aflde two-tenths
of his income for charitable ufes One volume in folio of
Dr Tillotion’s fermons was publifhed in his life-time, and
corrected by his own hand ; thefe Barbeyrac tranflated into
French. Thofe which came abroad after his death, from
his chaplain Dr Barker, made two volumes in folio, the co¬
py of which was fold for 25001. and this was the only lega¬
cy he left to his family, his extenfive charity having confir¬
med his yearly revenues as conftantly as they came to his
hands. However, King William gave two grants to his
widow; the firft of which was an annuity of 400 1. during
the term or her natural life, and the fecond of 2001. as an
addition to the former annuity. Dr Tillotfon w;rote fome
other works befides his Sermons ; and alfo publifhed D»
Timon..
Barrow’s works, and Dr Wilkins’s Treatife of the Principles Timber
and Duties of Natural Religion, and a volume of that divine’s
Sermons.
TIMBER, wood fit for building, &c. See Tree, and
Strength of Materials.
TIMBERS, the ribs of a fhip, or the incurvated pieces
of wood, branching outward from the keel in a vertical di-
reftion, fo as to give ftrength, figure, and folidity, to the
whole fabric. See Ship-building, book i. ch. ii.
TIME, a fucceflion of phenomena in the univerfe, or
a mode of duration marked by certain periods or mea-
fures, chiefly by the motion and revolution of the fun.
The general idea which time gives in every thing to which
it is applied, is that of limited duration. Thus we cannot
fay of the Deity, that he exifts in time ; fcecaufe eternity,
which he inhabits, is abfolutely uniform, neither admitting
limitation nor fucceffion. See Metaphysics, n'> 209.
Time, in mufic, is an affe&ion of found, by which it is
faid to be long or fhort, with regard to its continuance in
the fame tone or degree of tune.
Mufical time is diftinguifhed into common or duple time,
and triple time.
Double^ duple, or common time, is when the notes are in
a duple duration of each other, wz. a femibreve equal to
two minims, a minim to two crotchets, a crotchet to two
quavers, &c.
Common or double time is of two kinds. The firft
when every bar or meafure is equal to a femibreve, or its
value in any combination of notes of a lefs quantity. The
fecond is where every bar is equal to a minim, or its value
in lefs notes. The movements of this kind of meafure are
various, but there are three common diltindtions ; the firft
JIotv, denoted at the beginning of the line by the mark
C ; the fecond brijh^ marked thus 1^-7 ; and the third very
brijhf thus marked
Triple time is when the durations of the notes are triple
of each other, that is, when the fetnibreve is equal to three-
minims, the minim to three crotchets, &c. and it is mark¬
ed T.
Time-Keepers, or Injlruments for meafuring Time, See
Clock, Dial, Watch, &e.
Harrifon's TiME-Keeper. See Harrison andLoNGiTUDE*
TIMOLEON, a celebrated Corinthian general, who re-
ftored the Syracufians to their liberty, and drove the Cartha¬
ginians out of Sicily. See Syracuse, n° 50 — 54.
TIMON the Sceptic, who is not to be confounded with
Timon the Mifanthrope, was a Phliafian, a difciple of
Pynho, and lived in the time of Ptolemy Phlladelphus. He
took fo little pains to invite difciples to his fchool, that it
has been laid of him, that as the Scythians Ihot flying, Ti¬
mon gained pupils by running from them. He was fond of
rural retirement:; and was fo much addidted to wine, that he
held a fuccefsful cpnteft with feveral celebrated champions in
drinking. Like Lucian, he wrote with farcaftic humour
againft the whole body of philofophers. The fragments of
his latirical poem Silli, often quoted by the ancients, have
been carefully colledfed by Henry Stephens in his Poefts:
Pbilofophica. Timon lived to the age of 90 years.
Timon, furnamed Mifanthropos, or the Man-hater, a fa¬
mous Athenian, who lived about 420 B. C. He was one
day afked, why he loved the young Alcibiades while he de-
tefted all the reft of the human race ? on which he replied,
<! It is becaufe I forefee that he will be the ruin of the Athe¬
nian*.”
TIM [ 534 1 TIP
fTmX'us n’a"S-U ^rcfully avoided all forts of company ; yet of 18 books of nomes, or airs, for the cithara, to Saoo Timur
  v— went one day^to an affembly of the people and cned with verfes ; and of IOoq or preludes, for the nomeu oC. H
a loud voice, X hat he had a fig-tree on which leveral per- the flutes. rU’perarjr,
Ions had hanged themfelves; but as he intended to cut it Timotheus died in Macedonia, according to Suidas at 'r"*‘
down, m order to build a houfe on the place where it flood, the age of 97 ; though the Marbles, much better authority,
he gave them notice of it, that if any of them had a mind fay at 9T; and Stephen of Byzantium fixes his death in
to hang themfelves, they muft make hafte and do it fpeedily.” the fourth year of the 10 th Olympiad, two years before
-He had an epitaph engraved on his tomb, filled with impre- ai^ 1— ^
cations againfl thofe who read it. Shakefpeare has formed
tragedy on his Itory.
TIMOR, an ifland of Afia, in the Eaft Indian fea, to
the fouth of the Moluccas, and to the eaft of the ifland of
Java, being 150 miles in length, and 37 in breadth. It
abounds in fandal wood, wax, and honey ; and the Dutch
have a fort here. The inhabitants are Pagans, and are little
better than favages; and fome pretend they had not the ufe
-of fire many years ago.
i IMOl HEUS, one of the moft celebrated poet-mufi-
‘cians of antiquity, was born at Miletus, an Ionian city of
Caria, 446 years B. C. He was contemporary with Philip
of Macedon and Euripides ; and not only excelled in lytic
and dithyrambic poetry, but in his performance upon the ci¬
thara. According to Paufanias, he perfedled that inftru-
ment by the addition of four new firings to the feven which
it had before; though Suidas fays it had nine before, and
that Timotheus only added two, the icth and 11th, to that
number. See Lyre.
With refpeft to the number of firings upon the lyre of
Timotheus : The account of Paufanias and Suidas is con¬
firmed in the famous fenatus-confultum againft him. Hill ex¬
tant, preferved at full length in Boethius. Mr Stillingfleet
has given an extra& from it, in proof of the fimpli-
city of the ancient Spartan mufic. The fail is mentioned
in Athenasus ; and Cafaubon, in his notes upon that author,
has inferted the whole original text from Boethius, with
corre&ions. 1 he following is a faithful tranflation of this
extraordinary Spartan a<5l of parliament. “ Whereas Ti
motheus the Milefian, coming to our city, has difhonoured
our ancient mufic, and, defpifing the lyre of feven firings,
has, by the mirodu&ion of a greater variety of notes, cor¬
rupted the ears of our youth ; and by the number of his
firings, and the novelty of his melody, has given to our mufic
an effeminate and artificial drefs, inftead of the plain and
orderly one in which it has hitherto appeared ; rendering
melody infamous, by compofing in the chromatic inftead of
the enharmonic: The kings and
the ephori have therefore refolved to pafs cenfure upon Ti¬
motheus for thefe things : and, farther, to oblige him to cut
all the fuperfluous firings of his eleven, leaving only the
feven tones; and to banifh him from our city; that men
may be warned for the future not to introduce into Sparta
any unbecoming cuftoBi.” 
The fame ftory, as related in Athenasus, has this addi¬
tional circumftance, That when the public executioner was
on the point of fulfilling the fentence, by cutting off the
new firings, Timotheus, perceiving a little ftatue in the
fame place, with a lyre in his hand of as many firings as
that which had given the offence, and fhowing it to the
judges, was acquitted.
It appears trom Suxdas, that the poetical and mafical
compofitions of Timotheus were very numerous, .and of va¬
rious kinds. He attributes to him 19 nomes, or canticles,
in hexameters ; 36 proems, or preludes ; i 8 dithy rambles ;
21 hymns; the poem in praife of Diana; one panegyric ;
three tragedies, the Perfians, Phinidas, and Laertes; to
which muft be added a fourth, mentioned by feveral ancient
authors, called Niobe, without forgetting the poem on the
Birth of Bacchus. Stephen of Byzantium makes him author
the birth of Alexander the Great; whence it appears, that
this 1 imotheus was not the famous player on the flute fo
much efteemed by that prince, who was animated to i'uch a
degree by his performance as to feize his arms ; and who
employed him, as Athenasus informs us, together with the
other great muficians of his time, at his nuptials. How¬
ever, by an inattention to dates, and by forgetting that of
thefe two muficians of the lame name the one was a Mile¬
fian and the other a Theban, they have been hitherto often
confounded.
I IMUR-beck. See Tamerlane.
TIN, one of the four imperfedt metals.
. ^'or an account of its metalline qualities, and the va¬
rious Hates in which it is found, fee Mineralogy, page
1 18. Por its chemical qualities, fee the places referred to
in Chemistry-//!*/**. For the method of effaying and
fmelting its ore, fee Metallurgy, Part ii. fe&. vi.; Parc
iii. ledl. vi. Bee alfo Cornwall, and Pharmacy-//!*/**.—
An advantageous commerce has been lately ooened between
Cornwall and the Eaft Indies and China. In 1791 about
3000 tons of tin were raifed in Cornwall; of which 220a
tons were fold in#the European market for L. 72 each, and
800 tons carried to India and China at L. 62 per ton.
1 INCAL, the name by which crude or impure borax ia
called. See Borax and Chemistry-//i</**.
Pharmacy- See Pharmacy-//!*/**.
PINDAL (Dr Matthew), a famous Englilh writer, was
the fon of the reverend Mr John i’indal of Beer Ferres in
Devonlhire, and was born about the year 1657. He ftudied
at Lincoln college in Oxford, whence he removed to Exeter,
and was afterwards ele&ed fellow of All Souls. In 168?
he took the degree of dodor of law, and in the reign of
James II. declared himfelt a Roman Catholic; but foon
renounced that religion. After the revolution he publifh-
ed feveral pamphlets in favour of government, the liberty
°JLthe Prcfs» &c. His “ Rights of the Chriftian Church
afferted,’, occafioned his having a violent contell with the
high-church clergy; and his treatife “ Chriftianity as old as
the Creation,” publiftied in 1730, made much noife, and
was anfwered by teveral writers, particularly by Dr Cony-
beare, Mr Forfter, and Dr Leland. Dr Tindal died at
London in Auguft i733‘ left in manufeript a fecond
volume of his M Chriftianity as old as the Creationthe
preface to which has been publifhed. Mr Pope has fati-
rized Dr Tindal in his Dunciad.
TINDALE (William). See Tyndale.
1 INNI NG, the covering or lining any thing with melted
tin, or tin reduced to a very fine leaf. Lookmg-glaffes are
foliated or tinned with thin plates of beaten tin, the whole
bignels of the glafs, applied or faftened thereto by means of
quickfilver. See Foliating of Looking Glajfes.
Finding of Copper. See Copper, n° 25 - 28.
11NNITUS aurtum, a noife in the ears like the con*
tinued found of bells, very common in many diforders, par¬
ticularly in nervous fevers.
TIPPERARY, a county of the province of Munller in
Ireland, bounded on the weft by that of Limerick and Clare,
on the eaft by the county of Kilkenny and Queen’s Coun¬
ty, on the fouth by the county of Waterford, and on
the north and north-eaft by King’s-county and the territory
of the ancient O‘Carols. It extends about 42 miles in
length.
m
7 1 p r 535 1 T I R
ripftaf, length, 27 in breadth, containing 599, ?es acres, divided
’ipuia. jnto I2 'baronies> in which are feveral market towns and
boroughs. It fends eight members to parliament, vhz. two
uSb'i for the county, two for the city of Calhel, and two for each
ot t^e borou-Ths Clonmell, Fetherd, and Thurles. The
\tanm*. nortb Part ob ^ is mountainous and cold ; but in the fouth
the air is milder, and the foil much more fertile, producing
plenty of corn, and good paiture for the numerous herds of
cattle and flocks of flieep with which it abounds. The
north part is called Ormond, and for a long time gave the
title of earl, and afterwards of marquis and duke, to the
noble family of Butler, defcended from a After of Thomas
a Becket archbifhop of Canterbury, till, at the acceflion of
George I. the laft duke was attainted of high-treafon, and
died abroad. In that part of the county, the family had
great prerogatives and privileges granted them by Edward
III. Another diftrift in this county was anciently called
the County of the Holy Crofs of Tipperary, from a famous
abbey in it ftyled Holy Crofs, on account of a piece of
Chrift’s crofs that was faid to be preferved there. This
abbey and diftrift enjoyed alfo fpecial privileges in former
times. The remains of the abbey, or rather the fpot where
it ftood, are ftill held in great veneration, and much reforted
to by the Roman Catholics.
TIPSTAFF, an officer who attends the judges with a
kind of ftaff tipped with lilver, and take* into his charge
all prifoners who are committed or turned over at a judge’s
chambers.
TIPULA, the crani-fly ; a genus of infers belong-
ing to the order of diptera. TL lie mouth is a prolongation
of the head; the upper-jaw is arched. They have two
palpi, which are curved, and longer than the head. The
probofcis is fhort, and bends inwards. Gmehn enumerates
123 fpecies, of which 14 are Britifh. They are divided
into two families. 1. Thofe with wings difplayed. 2. Thofe
with wings incumbent, and which in form refemble a
gnat. _
This two-winged infeft is often taken for the gnat, which
it refembles, but has not its mifchievous inftinft, nor its
murderous probofcis. The larger tipulae go by the name
of JempJlrffes, the fmall ones by that of luliciform ; the
latter, in fine fummer evenings, flutter about the water-fide
in legions, through which a perlon may pafs on his way
unhurt. The fhrill noife they make with their wings is
not very difcernible. Tipulae, before they become inhabi¬
tants of the air, creep under the form of grubs. Thofe
which turn to larger tipulae dwell in holes of decayed wil¬
lows, in the dampeft places, where they change into chry-
falids, and in that ftate have the faculty of breathing thro’
two fmall curve horns; befides which they are endowed
with progreffive motion, but not retrogreffive, being im¬
peded by little fpines placed on every ring of the abdomen.
When the fttroud is torn, the infeft, prettily apparelled,
■efcapes from his gloomy habitation by means of his wings,
which often are variegated, and takes his paftime in the
fields. Its long legs, and its wings, mutually affift each
other when it either walks or flies. The larvae and chry-
falids of the little tipulse are found in water. They are
various in colour, form, and carriage ; fome being orey,
others brown, and others red; fome, like the polypus, fur-
r.ifhed with a pair of arms; feveral with cylindrical tubes
that perform the office of vent-holes. Theie fwim with
nimbleneis ; thofe never leave the holes they have dug for
themlelves in the banks of rivulets. Laftly, others make
a filken cod that receives part of their body; but all of
them, after a period, renounce their reptile and aquatic
life, and receive wings from the hands of nature. Their
frame is then fo weak, that a touch is enough to crufh them.
They are foirtetimes of a beautiful green, fometimes coal- Tire,
black; and the moft remarkable are thofe whofe foie-legs,
extraordinarily long, do not touch the ground, and are
moveable like antennas. In this ftate of perfection, the ti¬
pulae being provided with proper organs, aoply themfelves
to the propagat’on of the Ipecies. Thofe fame poor infeCts,
who in the ftate of larvae have efcaped the voraciomnefs of
fifhes, often become, in their progrefs through the air, a
prey to equally mercilefs birds.
TIRE, in the fea-language, is a row of cannon placed
along a (hip’s fide, either above upon deck, or below, di-
ftinguilhed by the epithets of upper and lower tires.
1IROL, a county of Germany in the circle of Airltria,
under which may be included the territories bs-tonging to
the bifliops of Brixen, Trent, and Chur., Teutonic Order,
and the prince of Deitrichftein, the Auftrian feigniories
before the Arlberg, and the Auftrian diftrifts in Swabia.
It is 150 miles in length, and 120 iu breadth, and contains
20 large towns.
The face of the country is very mountainous. Of thefe
mountains, fome- have their tops always buried in fnow ;
others are covered with woods, abounding with a variety
of game; and others are rich in metals, and marble of all
colours. Of the lower, fome yield plenty of corn, others
wine, and woods of chefnut trees. The valleys are exceed¬
ing feitile alio, and pleafant. In fome places confiderable
quantities of flax are raifed, in others*there is a good b^eed
ot horfes and horned cattle ; and, among the mountains, ■
abundance of chamois and wild goats. In this country are
aifo found precious flones of feveral forts ; as granates, ru¬
bies, amethyfts, emeralds, and a fpecies of diamonds, agates,
cornelians, chalcedonies, malachites, &c. nor is it without
hot-baths, acid waters, falt-pits, mines of filver, copper,
and lead, mineral colours, alum, and vitriol. The principal!
river of I irol is the Inn, which, after traverfing the country,
and receiving a number of lefler ftreams into it, enters Ba¬
varia, in which, at Paffiau, it falls into the Danube. The
men here are very tall, robuft, and vigorous ; the women;
alfo are ftout, and generally fair ; and both fexes have a
mixture of the Italian and German in their tempers and •
charadfers. As there is little trade or manufafture in the
country, except what is occafioned by the mines and falt-
works, many of the common people are obliged to feek a
fubfiftence elfewhere. A particular kind of falutation is
ufed all over I irol. When a perfon comes into a houfe,,
he fays, “ Hail! Jefus Chrift ‘the aniwer is, “ May Chrift
be praifed, and the Holy Virgin his mother.” Then the
mafter of the houfe takes the vifitoi by the hand. This fa-
1 utation is fixed up in print at all the doors, with an adver-
tifement tacked to it, importing, that pope Clement XL
granted 100 days indulgence, and a plenary ablelution, to
thofe who fhould pronounce the falutation and anfwer, as
often as they did it. The emperor has forts and citadels -■
fo advantageoufly fituated on rocks and mountains all over
the country, that they command all the valleys, avenues, and
pafies that lead into it. The inhabitants, however, to keep
them in good humour, are more gently treated, and not fo
highly taxed as thofe of the other hereditary countries.
Jh s to the ftates, they are much the fame in this country as
in the other Auftrian territories, except that the peafants
here fend deputies to the diets, Tirol came to the houfe
of Aultria in the year 1363, when Margaret, countefs there-
of, bequeathed it to her uncles the dukes of Auflria. The
arms of Tirol are an eagle gules, in a field argent. The
counts of Trap are hereditary ftewards ; the lords of Glofz,
chamberlains •, the princes of Trautfon, marfhals; the counts
of Wolketiftein, matters of the horfe and carvers ; the houfe
of Spaur, cup-bearers; the counts of Kungl, fewers and
1 rangers j,
TIT t536
Titan, rangers ; the counts of Brandis, keepers of the jewels ; the
"""V houfe of Welfpergi purveyors and ftaff-bearers ; and the
counts of Coalto, falconers. Befides the governor, here
are three fovereign colleges, fubordinate to the court at
Vienna, which fit at Infpruck, and have their different de¬
partments. Towards the expences of the military eftablifh-
ment of this county, the proportion is 100,000 florins year¬
ly ; but no more than one regiment ©f foot is generally
quartered in it.
Tirol is divided into fix quarters, as they are called ; name¬
ly, thofe of the Lower and Upper Innthal, Vmtfgow, Etch,
JEifack, and Pufterthal.
TITAN, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Ccelus and
Terra, and the eldeft brother of Saturn, fuffered the latter
to enjoy the crown, on condition that he flrould bring up
none of his male iflue, by which means the crown would
at length revert to him ; but Jupiter being fpared by the
addrefs of Rhea, Saturn’s wife. Titan and his chrildren were
fo enraged at feeing their hopes fruftrated, that they took
up arms to revenge the injury; and not only defeated Sa¬
turn, but kept him and his wife prifoners till he was deliver¬
ed by Jupiter, who defeated the Titans; when f?om the blood
■of thefe Titans flam in the battle, proceeded ferpents, fcor-
pions, and all venomous reptiles. See Saturn.
Such is the account given by the poets of this family of
Grecian and Roman gods. From the fragments of Sancho-
niatho, however, and other ancient writers, many learned men
have inferred that the Titans were an early race of ambitious
heroes, who laid the foundation of that idolatry which quick¬
ly overfpread the world, and that by afluming the names of
the luminaries of heaven they contrived to get themfelves
every where adored as the Dd majorum gentium. That the
word Titan fignifies the fun, there can indeed be very little
doubt. Every one knows that fuch was its fignification in
the jEolic dialeft ; and as it is evidently compounded of TV,
which, in feme oriental tongues, fignifies bright or clear,
and Tan, which fignifies a country or the earth, it may be
fafely concluded that Titan was the name of the fun before
the word was imported into Greece. But the great
queftion among antiquarians is, of what country was that
race which, afluming to themfelves the names of the heaven¬
ly bodies, introduced into the world that ipecies of idolatry
which is known by the appellation of Hero-worjhip ?
M. Pezron, in a work publifhed many years ago, and en¬
titled The Antiquities of Nations, maintains that the Titans
were a family of Sacse or Scythians, who made their firft
appearance beyond Media and mount Imaus, in the upper
regions of Afia ; that they were the defeendants of Gomer
the fon of Japheth and grandfon of Noah ; and that after
conquering a great part of the world, upon entering Upper
Phrygia, they quitted their ancient name of Gomerians or
Cimmerians, and aflumed that of Titans. All this, he fays,
happened before the birth of Abraham and the foundation
of the Aflyrian monarchy ; and he makes Uranus, their fe-
cond prince in the order of fucceflion, to have conquered
Thrace, Greece, the Ifland of Crete, and a great part of
Europe. Uranus was fucceeded by Saturn, and Saturn by
Jupiter, who flourifhed, he fays, 300 years before Mofes,
and divided his vaft empire between himfelf, his brother Plu¬
to, and his coufin-german Atlas, who was called Telamon.
For the truth of this genealogy of the Titans M. Pezron
appeals to the moft approved Greek hiftorians ; but unlucki¬
ly for his hypothefis thefe writers have not a Angle fen-
tence by which it can be fairly fupported. It fuppofes
not only the great antiquity of the Scythians, but like-
wife their early progrefs in arts and fciences, contrary to
what we have proved in other articles of this work. See
Sculpture, n04 and 5. and Scythia.
] TIT
_ Others, taking the fragment of Sanchoniatho’s Plienician Titan,
hiftory for their guide, have fuppofed the Titans to have, 'r'thl!“'
been the defeendants of Ham. Of this opinion was bifhop ^
Cumberland; and our learned friend Dr Doig, to whom
we have been indebted for greater favours, indulged us with
the perufal of a manuicript, in which, with erudition and in¬
genuity ftruggling for the pre-eminence, he traces that im¬
pious family from the profane fon of Noah, and flrows by
what means they fpread the indolatrous worfbip of them¬
felves over the greater part of the ancient world. Cronus,
of whofe exploits fome account has been given elfewhere
(fee Sanchgniatho), he holds to be Ham; and tracing
the progrefs of the family from Phoenicia to Cyprus, from
Cyprus to Rhodes, thence to Crete, and from Crete to Sa-
mathrace, he finds reafon to conclude that the branch called
Titans or Titanides flourifhed about the era of Abraham,
with whom, or with his fon Ifaac, he thinks the Cretan Ju¬
piter mull have been contemporary. As they proceeded
from countries which were the original feat of civilization
to others in which mankind had funk into the grofleft bar-
baritm, it was eafy for them to perfuade the ignorant inha¬
bitants that they derived the arts of civil life from their pa¬
rent the fun, and in confequence of their relation to him to
aflume to themfelves divine honours. To afk how they
came to think of fuch grofs impiety, is a queftion as foolifh
as it would be to afk how Ham their anceftor became fo
wicked as to entail the curfe of God upon himfelf and his po-
fterity. The origin of evil is involved in difficulties ; but
leaving all inquiries into it to be profecuted by the meta-
phyfician and moralift, it is furely more probable that the
worfhip of dead men originated among the defeendants of
Ham than among thofe of Shem and Japheth ; and that the
fragment of Sanchoniatho, when giving an account of the
origin of the Titans, the undoubted authors of that worfhip,
is more deferving of credit than the fabulous and compaiitive-
ly late writers of Greece and Rome.
TITHES, in ecclefiaftical law, are defined to be the
tenth-part of the increafe, yearly arifing and renewing from
the profits of lands, the flock upon lands, and the perfonal
induftry of the inhabitants : the firft fpecies being ufually
called predial, as of corn, grafs, hops, and wood ; the fecond
mixed, as of wool, milk, pigs, &c. confifting of natural pro-
dufts, but nurtured and preferred in part by the care of
man ; and of thefe the tenth muft be paid in grofs; the
thved perfonal, as of manual occupations, trades, fifheries,
and the like; and of thefe only the tenth-part of the clear
gains and profits is due.
We fhall, in this article, confider, 1. The original of the
right of tithes. 2. In whom that right at prefent fublills.
3. Who may be difeharged, either totally or in part, from
paying them.
1. As to their original, we will not put the title of the
clergy to tithes upon any divine right ; though fuch aright
certainly commenced, and we believe as certainly ceafed,
with the Jewifh theocracy. Yet an honourable and com¬
petent maintenance for the minifters of the gofpel is un-
doubtedly jure divino, whatever the particular mode of that,
maintenance may be. For, befides the pofitive precepts of
the New Teftament, natural reafon will tell us, that an
order of men who are feparated from the world, and excluded
from other lucrative profeffions for the fake of the reft of
mankind, have a right to be furnifhed with the neceftaries,
conveniences, and moderate enjoyments of life, at their ex¬
pence ; for whofe benefit they forego the ufual means of
providing them. Accordingly all municipal laws have pro¬
vided a liberal and decent maintenance for their national
priefts or clergy ; ours, in particular, have eftablifhed this
of tithes, probably in imitation of the Jewiflt law; and per-
2 haps,
TIT [ s
Tith?*. hnps, corifulering the desrcnerate ftate of the world in gene.
^ ralj it may be more beneficial to the En ’lifii cler 'y to found
theii tule on the law of the land, than upon any divine tight
whatsoever, unacknowledged and unfupported by temporal
fan 6t ions.
\V^e cannot precifely afeertam the time when tithes were
fiill introduced into this country. Polfibly they were con¬
temporary with tne planting of Chriftianity among the
baxons by Auguftin the monk, about the end of the fixth
century. But the firlt mention of them which v/e have met
with in any written Englifh law, is a conftitutional decree,
made in a lynod held A. D. 786, wherein the payment of
tithes in general is ftrongly enjoined. This canon or decree,
which at iii ft bound not the laity, was effe&ually confirmed
by two kingdoms of the heptarchy, in their parliamentary
conventions of eftates, refpe&ively confifting of the kings of
Mei cia and Northumberland, the bifhops, dukes, fenators,
and people. Which was a few years later than the time
that Charlemagne eftablilhed the payment of them in France,
and made that famous divifion of them into four parts; one
to maintain the edifice of the church, the fecond to iupport
the poor, the third the bifhop, and the fourth the parochial
clergy.
1 he next authentic mention of them is in the /War
tunrdi et Guthruni ; or the laws agreed upon between king
Guthrun the Dane,, and Alfred and his Ion Edward the
Elder, fuectffive kings of England, about the year 900.
This was a kind of treaty between thofe mosarehs, which
may be found at large in the Anglo-Saxon law's : wherein
it was neceflary, as Guthrun was a Pagan, to provide for the
fubfiftence of the Chriftian clergy under his dominion ; and
accordingly, we find the payment of tithes not only enjoin¬
ed, but a penalty added upon non-obfervance : which law is
feconded by the laws of Athelftan, about the year 950.
And this is as much as can certainly be traced out with re¬
gard to their legal original.
2. We are next to confider the petfons to whom tithes
are u_.e. Upon their lirft introduftion, though every man
was ebuged to pay tithes in general, yet he might give
them to what priefts he pleafed ; which were called arMrary
r ttthes- ’ .0r he miirht Paf t}iem into tl,e bands
o. the bifhop, who diitributed among his diocefian clergy the
revenues of the church, which were then in common. But
when diocefes were divided into parifhes, the tithes of each
parwh were allotted to its own particular minifter ; firft by
common confent or the appointments of lords of manors,
anc. afterwards by the written law of the land.
Arbitrary confecrations of tithes took place again after¬
wards, and were in general ufe till the time of king John,
i his was probably owing to the intrigues of the regular
C C w?A°r Bl?nks of the Benedicftine and other orders, under
aic loifhop Dunftan and his fuccefTors ; who endeavoured
to wean the people from paying their dues to the fecular
or parochial clergy (a much more valuable fet of men than
t remElves), and were then in hopes to have drawn, by
ianCnmonious pretences to extraordinary purity of life, all
eccleha.ucal profits to the coffers of their own focieties.
".Vl, thl® w’lli naturally enough account for the number and
riches of the monaftenes and religious houfes which were
ounded in thoie days, and which were frequently endowed
with tithes. For a layman, who was obliged to pay his
tithes fomewhere, might think it good policy to ereEt an
tbere pay them to his own monks, or orant
them to fome abbey already ereded : lince for this dona¬
tion which really coft the patron little or nothing, he
J/r t, accorcling to the fuperftition of tlie times/have
rnffe, for „„ fung for h;s foul But in ce|s of’ J
Vo^xvm'part nb0riOU8 par!rallntfts bei"g Icandaf
.37 ] TIT
loufiy reduced by tbefe arbitrary confecrations of tithes, it
was remedied by pope Innocent III. about the year 1200,““
in a decretal epiftle lent to the arebbilhop of Canterbury,
and dated from the palace of Esteran : which has occafion-
ed Sir Elenry Hobart and others to miftake it for a decree
of the council of Lateran, held A. D. 1179, which only-
prohibited what was called the infeodation of tithes, er their
being granted to mere laymen ; whereas this letter of pope
Innocent to the archbifhop enjoined the payment of tithes
to the parfons of the refpedive parifhes where every man
inhabited, agreeable to what was afterwards directed by
the fame pope in other countries. This epiftle, fays Sir
Edward Coke, bound not the lay fubjefts of this realm ;
but being reafonable and juft, it was allowed of, and fo be¬
came /ex terra. This put an effeEtual flop to all the ar¬
bitrary confecrations of tithes ; except fome footfteps which
{till continue in thofe portions of tithes which the parfon of
one parifh hath, though rarely, a right to claim in another:
for it is now univerfally held, that tithes are due, of com¬
mon right, to the parfon of the parifh, unlefs there be a
fpecial exemption. Bhis parfi.n ot the parifti may be either
the adtual incumbent, or elfe the appropriator of the bene-
fice ; appropriations being a method of endowing monaf-
teries, which feems to have been deviled by the’ regular
clergy, by way of iubftitution to arbitrary confecrations of
tithes.
2. We obferved that tithes are due of common right
to the parfon, unlefs by fpecial exemption; let us therefore
fee, thirdly, who may be exempted from the payment of
tithes, and how lands and their occupiers may be exempted
or dilcharged from the payment of tithes, either in part or
totally; firft, by a real compofition ; or, fecondly, by cuftom
or pretcription.
Ihirjl, a real compofitisn is when an agreement is made
between the owner of the lands and the parfon or vicar,
with the confent of the ordinary and the patron, that fuch
lands {hall for the future be difeharged from {payment of
tithes, by italon ol fome land or other real recompenfe
given to the parfon in lieu and fatisfa&ion thereof. This
was permitted by law, becaufe it was fuppofed that the
clergy would be no Infers by fuch compofition ; fince the
confent of the ordinary, whole duty it is to take care of the
church in general, and ot the patron, wliofe intereft it is to
protect that particular church, were both made neceftary
to render the compofition effe&ual : and hence have arifen
all Inch compofitions as exift at this day by force of the
common law. But experience {bowing that even this cau¬
tion was ineffe&ual, and the poflefiions of the church being
by this and other means every day diminifhed, the difabling
ftatute 13 Eliz. c. ic. was made; which prevents, among
other fpiritual perfons, all parfons and vicars from making
any-conveyances of the eftates of their churches, other than
for three lives or 21 years. So that now, by virtue of this
ftatute, no real compofition made fince the 1 3 Eliz. is good
for any longer term than three lives or 21 years, though
made by confent of the patron and ordinary: which has
indeed effeaually demolished this kind of traffic ; fuch com-
pofitions being now rarely heard of, unlefs by authority of
parliament. 7
. Secondly, a difcharge by cuftom or prefeription, is where'
time out of mind fuch perfons or Inch Ends have been
either partially or totally difeharged from the payment of
tithes. And _ this immemorial ufage is binding upon all
parties ; as it is in its nature an evidence ot univerfal con¬
fent and acquiefcence, and with reafon fuppofes a real com¬
pofition to have been formerly made. fI his cuftom or pre-
Icnption is either de modo dectmandi, or de non decimando.
A modus decimandij commonly called by the fimple name
3Y of
tit r 538 1 .,T 1 T
Tfthes. of a molus only, is where there is by cuftom a particular to parochial tranquillity, and even to religion, that feme Tithing,
--v—rry.nner of tithing allowed, different from the general law of juft and reafonable ftandard of compofition could be fixed. *ltia:i0-
taking tithes in kind, which are the adtual tenth-part of the I.and has been propofed, but in the prefent ftate of the " 'r“m
annual increale. This is fometimes a pecuniary compenfa- divifion of property this is impoffible : and as money is
tion, as twopence an acre for the tithe of land : fometimes continually changing in its value, it would alfo be a very
it is a compenfation in work and labour, as that the parfon improper ftandard, unlefs fome plan could be formed by
ihall have only the twelfth cock of hay, and not the tenth, which the compofition could be increafed as the value of
in conhderation of the owner’s making it for him: iome- money diminifhes. A plan of this kind has been oubliftted
times, in- lieu of a large quantity of crude or imperfeft tithe,
the parfon {hall have a lefs quantity when arrived at greater
maturity, as a couple of fowls in lieu of tithe-eggs, and
the like. Any means, in fnort, whereby the general law of
tithing is altered, and a new method of taking them is intro¬
duced, is called a modus decimancli, or fpecial manner of tithing.
A prefeription de non dtcimnndo is a claim to be entirely
difeharged of tithes, and to pay no compenfation in lieu of
them. 'Thus the king by his prerogative is dilcharged
from all tithes. So a vicar fhall pay no tithes to the
rtdtcr. nor the redtor to the vicar, for ec hfia duimas
non foivlt ecclfjix. But thefe perfonal privileges (not
ariling from or being anneved to the land) are perlon-
ally confined to both the king and the clergy; for their
tenant or leftee fhali pay tithes, though in their own occu¬
pation their lands are not generally tithable. And, general¬
ly fpeaking, it is aft eftablifhed rule, that in lay hands, mo¬
dus de non decimando non valet. But fpiritnal perfons or
corporations, as monafteries, abbots, bifhops, and the like,
were always capable of having their lands totally diicharged
eft tithes by various ways: as, 1. By real compofition.
2. By the pope’s bull of exemption. 3. By unity of
pofleflion ; as when the rtftory of a parifh, and lands
in the fame parifh, both belonged to a religious houfe,
thofe lands were dilcharged of tithes by this unity of poftef-
fion. 4. By prefeription ; having never been liable to tithes,
by being always in fpiritual hands. 5. By virtue of their
or der ; as the Knights Templars, Ciftercians, and others,
whole lands were privileged by the pope with a difeharge
of tithes. Though, upon the diffolution of abbeys by
Henry VIII. molt of thefe exemptions from tithes would
have fallen with them, and the lands become tithable again,
had they not been fupported and upheld by the ftatute 31
Henry VIII. c. 13. which enatts, that all perfons who
Ihould come to the poffeffion of the lands of any abbey then
diffolved, ihould hold them free and difeharged of tithes, in
as large and ample a manner as the abbeys themfelves former¬
ly held them. And from this original have fprung all the
lands which being in lay hands, do at prefent claim to be
tithe-free : for if a man can fhow his lands to have been
fuch abbey-lands, and alio immemorially dilcharged of tithes
by any of the means before-mentioned, this is now a <jood
preferiptien de non decim&ndo. But he muft fhow both
thefe requifites : for abbey-lands, without a fpecial ground
of difeharge, pre not difeharged of courfe ; neither will any
prefeription de non decimando avail in total difeharge of tithes,
unlefs it relates to fuch abbey-lands.
It is univerfally acknowledged that the payment of tithes
in kind is a great difeouragement to agriculture. T hey
are inconvenient and vexatious to the hufbandman, and
operate as an impolitic tax upon induftry. The clergyman,
too, frequently finds them troublefome and precarious ; his
expences in colled!ing are a conhderable drawback from their
value, and his juft rights are with difficulty iecured : he is
too often obliged to fubmit to impofition, or is embroiled
with his pariftiioners in difputes and litigations, no Ids irk-
fome to his feelings than prejudicial to his intereft, and
tending to prevent thofe good effefts which his precepts
Ihould produce. It is therefore of the utmoft importance
in the Tranfa&ions of the Society inftitute1. at Bath, Vol.
IV. which thofe who are interelled in this fubjedt may con-
fult for farther information.
TT ITTiNG, (Tithlnga, from the Sax. ’Tbeothunpe, i.e. De-
curia m), a number or company of ten men, with their fa¬
milies, knit together in a kind of fociety, and all bound to
the king, for the peaceable behaviour of each other. An¬
ciently no man was fuffered to abide in England above forty
days, unlefs he were enrolled irt fome tithing.—One of the
principal inhabitants of the tithing was annually appointed
to prefide over the reft, being called the tithing-m -n, the
head-borough, and in tome countries the borfeholder, or
borough’s ealder, being fuppofed the diicreeteft man in the
borough, town, or tithing. The diftribution of England
into timings and hundreds is owing to king Alfred. See
Bop.seholder.
T ITT A NO Vecf.lli, or Titian, the moft univerfal
genius for painting of all the Lombard ichool, the belt co-
lourift of all the moderns, and the moft eminent for hi-
ftories, portraits, and landfcapes, was born at Cadore, in putimfon’i
the province o1 Friuli, in the ftate of Venice, in 1477, or loftionary
in 1480 according to Vafari and Sandrart. His parents'^{>a'nttrs*
fent him at ten years of age to one or his uncles at Venice,
who finding that he had an inclination to painting, put him
to the fchool of Giovanni Bcllino.
But as ioon as Titian had feen the works of Giorgione,
whofc manner appeared to him abundantly more elegant,
and lefs conftrained than that ol BelUno, he determined to
quit the ftyle to which he had fo long been a.ccuftomed,
and to purfue the other that recommended ittelf to him,
by having more force, more relief, more nature, and more
truth. Some authors affirm, that he placed himfelf as a
difciple with Giorgione ; yet others only fay, that he cul¬
tivated an intimacy with him ; but it is undoubtedly cer-*
tain that he ftudied with that great mafter ; that he learn¬
ed his method of blending and uniting the colouis ; and
piadlifed his manner fo effectually, that feveral of the paint¬
ings of Titian were taken for the performances of Gior¬
gione ; and then his fuccefs inTpired that aitift with an in-
vkicible jealoufy of Titian, which broke off their connection
for ever after.
The reputation of Titian rofe continually ; every new
work contributed to extend his fame through all Europe ;
and he was confidcred as the principal ornament of the age
in which he flourifhed. And yet, Sandrart obferves, that
amidft all his applaufe, and conftant employment at Venice,
his income and fortune were inconfiderable; and he was
more remarkable for the extenfivenefs of his talents, than
for the affluence of his circumftances. But when his merit
was made known to the emperor Charles V. that monarch
knew how to fet a juft value on his fuperior abilities ; lie
enriched him by repeated bounties, allowed him a confider-
able penfion, conferred on him the honour of knighthood,
and what was ftill more, honoured him with his friendfhrp.
He painted the portrait of that benefaCfor feveral times;
and it rs recorded by Sandrart, that one day, while the em¬
peror was fitting for his picture, a pencil happening to drop
from the painter, he Hooped, took it up, and returned it;
obligingly aniwering to the modeft apology of the artift
TIT [ 530 ] TIT
Titiano. (who bldhcd at the condefeenfion of fo great a monarch),
“""■v that the merit of a Titian was worthy of the attendance of
an emperor.
The excellence of Titian was not fo remarkably appa¬
rent in the hiftorical competitions which he painted as in his
portraits and landscapes, which feem to be fuperior to all
competition ; and even to this day, many of them preferve
their original beauty, being as much the admiration of the
prefent age as they have defervedly been of the ages paft.
—- It is obferved of Titian by moft writers, that in the dif¬
ferent periods of his life he had four different manners;
one refembling his firft inffiu&or Bellino, which was fome-
what ftiff ; another, in imitation of Giorgione, more bold,
and full of force ; his third manner was the refult of ex¬
perience, knowledge, and judgment, beautifully natural,
and fiiiilhed with exquilite care, which manner was peculiar¬
ly his own ; and in thofe pidtures which he painted between
the years of approaching old age and his death may be
noticed his fourth manner. His portraits were very dif¬
ferently finifhed in his early, and in his latter time, accord¬
ing to the teftimony of Sandrart. At firll he laboured his
pictures highly, and gave them a polifhed beauty and luftre,
fo as to praduce their effeft full as well when they were
examined clofely as when viewed at a diftance ; but after¬
wards, he lo managed his penciling, that their greateft force
and beauty appeared at a more remote view, and they plea-
fed lefs when they were beheld more nearly. So tlrat many
of thofe artifts who ifudied to imitate him, being milled by
appearances which they did not fufficiently confider, have
imagined that Titian executed his work with readineis and
~ a mafferly rapidity ; and concluded that they Ihould imitate
his manner meft effectually by a freedom of hand and a
bold pencil: Whereas in reality, Titian took abundance
of pains to work up his pictures to fo high a degree of per¬
fection ; and the freedom that appears in the handling
was entirely effedted by a ikilful combination of labour and
judgment.
It cannot be truly affirmed, that Titian equalled the
great mafters of the Roman fchool in delign ; but he al¬
ways took care to diipole his figures in i'uch attitudes as
ihowed the. moll beautiful parts of the body. His tafte in
defigning men was not generally fo correbl or elegant as it
appeared in his boys and female figures; but his colouring
had all the look of real fleffi, his figures breathe. He was
not lo bold as Giorgione, but in ttndernels and delicacy he
prove-d himfelf much fuperior to him and all other artills.
I he exprefiion of the paflions was not his excellence,
though even in that relpeCt many of his figures merited the
juileil commendation ; but he .always gave his figures an air
of eafe and dignity. His landfcapes are univerfally allowed
to be unequalled, whether we confider the forms of his trees,
the grand ideas of nature which appear in his feenery, or
his diltances which agreeably delude and delight the eye of
every oblerver ; and they arc executed with a light, tender,
and mellow pencil. He learned Ircm nature the harmony
or colour's, and his tints leem allonifhing, not only for their
force, but their iweetnels; and in that rdpeCt his colour¬
ing rs accounted the llandard of excellence to all profeffors
of the art.
It would prove almoft an endlels talk to enumerate the
variety of works executed by this illultrious artill, at Rome,
Venice, Bologna, and Florence, as well as thole which are
to be leen in other cities of Italy, in England, Spain, Ger¬
many. and France ; but there are two, which are mention¬
ed as being truly ajnurable. One is, a Laft Supper, pre-
fervtd in the Refeclory at the Efcurial in Spain, which
ki inimitably fine; the other is at Milan, reprefenting Chrift
crowned with Thorns. The principal figure in the latter
has an attitude full of grace and dignity more than mortal, Titlark
and the countenance Ihows a benevolence and humility, com- Jl
bined with dignity and pain, which no pencil but that of
Titian could, fo feelingly have deferibed. It is admirably
coloured, and tenderly and delicately penciled ; the heads
are wonderfully beautiful, the compofition excellent, and
the whole has a charming efft£l by the chiaro-fcuro.
He was of fo happy a conllitution, that he was never
ill till the year 1576, when he died of the plague, at 99
years of age. His difeipks were Paulo Veronefe, Giacomo
Tintoret, Giacomo de Porte Baffano, and his Tons.
TITLARK, in ornithology. See Alauda.
TITLE, an appellation of dignity or rank given to
princes and perfons of diltinftion.
Titles were not lo common among the ancient Greeks or
Romans as they are in modern times. Till the reign of
Conllantine the title of Illujirious was never given exceot to
thofe who were dillinguifhed in arms or letters: But at
length it became hereditary in the families of princes, and
every fon of a prince was illultrious. The title of High-
nefs was formerly given only to kings. The kings of Eng¬
land before the reign of Henry VIII. were addreffed by the
title oi yyur Grace. That monarch firll affumed the title
of High nefs, and afterwards that of Mayfly. The title of
majelly was firll given him by Francis I. in their enterview
in 1520. Charles V. was the firll king of Spain who af¬
fumed the lame title.
Princes, nobles, and clergy generally have one title de¬
rived from their territories and eftates, and another derived
from their rank or from fome other remarkable circum-
llance. The Pope is called the BJhop of Rome, and has
the title of Holinefs. A cardinal has his name gene¬
rally from fome church, and is fainted by the name of
Eminent, or mofl Eminent. An archbilhop, befides being
named Irom his diocefe, is called bis Grate and mofl Reve-
r.nd : a bifliop is alio dillinguilhed by the name of his dio-
cele, and has the title of his Eordflsip and right Reverend.
Inferior clergymen are denominated Reverend.
The titles of crowned heads derived from their dominions
it is unnecelfary to mention. It will be fufficient to men¬
tion thofe by which they are -addreffed. To an emperor
is given the title oi Imperial Mayfly ; to kings, that of Ma-
jejly; to the princes of Great Britain, Royal Highnefs ; to
thofe of Spain, Infant; to tlcGiors, Elefioral Highnefs; to
the grand duke of Tuicany, Mofl Serene Highnefs; to the
other princes of Italy and Germany, Highnefs; to the Doge
oi Venice, Mofl Serene Prince ; to the grand-malter of Mal¬
ta, Eminence ; to nuncios and ambalfadors of crowned heads.
Excellency ; to dukes, Grace; to marquiffes, eails, and barons,
Lordfhip.
'1 he emperor of China, among his titles, takes that of
Tien Su, “ Son of Heaven.” The Orientals, it is obferved,
are exceedingly loud oi titles: the fimple governor of Schi-
ras, for inltance, after a pompous enumeration of qualities,
lerdfhips, Sic. ados the titles of dlotuer of Ltourtefy, dlutmeg
of Confoiation, and Rofe of Delight.
Title, in law, denotes any right which a perfon has
to the polfeffion of a thing, or an authentic inltrument
whereby he can prove his right. See the articles Right,
Property, &c.
Piti.e to the Crown in the Ijritfh Conflitution. See Suc¬
cession.
i i PMOUSE, in ornithology. &ee Paros.
IIIULAR, denotes a perion invelled.with a title, in
virtue of which he holds an office or benefice, whether he
perform the fundlions thereof or not.
'II I US Ve-spasianus, the Roman emperor, the fon of
Vefpalian ; of whoni it is related, that not being able to re-
3 Y 2 collect
T O B
Tobacco.
cfran fac
tions fa
178 a.
pro-
I. sale's
J-’raflical
EJfay on
Tiyiat eollesfi &r*y remarkable rood action he ha'! done on a certain
day, he exclaimed, “ I have loft a day !” He might
truly be called the .father of his people ; and though Rome
laboured under various public calamities during his reign,
fuch was his equitable and mild adminiftration, that he con-
ftantly preferved his popularity. He was a great lover of
learning, and compoled leveral poems. He reigned but
two years ; audit is thought Doraitian his brother poifor.ed
him, A. 13. 81, aged 41. See (Hiflory of )■ Rome.
TIVIOT kilis. • See Cheviot.
TIVOLI, the modern name of Tibcr.
1 OAD, in zoology. See Rana.
'ToAD-Fifo. SeeLopnius.
Toad-FIqx, in botany. See Antirrhinum,
Toad Stone, a genus of argillaceous earths examined by
Dr Withering. He defcribes it as of a dark-brownifh grey
colour ; its texture granular; neither effervefcing,'with acids
nor linking fire with fteel. The cavities of it are filled
with cryftallized fpar, and in a ftrong heat it is fulible per
Philofphicalf' hundred parts of toad-ftone contain from 56 to
63 5 of fibceous earth, near 15 of argillaceous earth, 7.5
of calcareous earth, and 16 of oxydated iron. Dr Kirwan
©bferves, that the toad-ftone is not much different from ba-
faltes,- only that it is {otter : it contains alfo a fmailer
portion of iron, and a larger one of filiceous earth.
TOBACCO, in botany. See Nicotiana and Snuff.
The Indians (lays Dr Leake) poifon their arrows with
the oil of tobacco, which, infufed into a frdh wound, occa-
fions ficknefs and vomiting, or convullions and death ; with
what fafety therefore, fetting afide propriety, the fubtile pow¬
der of this plant, called fnujf, may be applied to the tender,
internal iurface of the nofe, it may be proper to inquire; for,
il the oil oi tobacco is a mortal poifon when applied to the
‘P’Jfl-ff open veffels of a wound, furely this plant, when taken in
%ra! ^ fubftance as fnuff, mull in a certain degree be injurious.
From the infinite number of nerves diffufed over the mucous
membrane of the nofe, it is endowed with exquifite feeling ;
and, the better to preferve the fenfe of fmelling, thofe nerves
are continually lubricated with moiilure.
By the almoft cauftic acrimony of fnuff, this moifture is
dried up, and thole fine, delicate nerves, the organs of fmell¬
ing, are rendered callous and infenfible. To this fell-evi¬
dent bad effect may be added the narcotic or ftupifying
power of tobacco, by which not only the brain and nerves
are injured, but alfo the eyes depending upon their influ¬
ence, together with the fenfe of fmelling ; and, from the
force with which fnuff is ufually drawn up the nofe, its paf-
fage will be obftrufted, and the voice lefe its clearnefs and
diftinft articulation.
Befides thofe pernicious qualities, fmsff often involuntari¬
ly defcends into the ttomach, creating naufea, lofs of ap¬
petite, and vomiting ; and by its narcotic power will dimi-
nilh nervous influence and impair digeftion ; it difcolours
the flcin contiguous to the nofe, and will taint the fweeteft
breath with the tank odour ol a tobacco caflc. For this
reafon the ladies of fafliion in France feldom take fnuff till
they are married ; a very high compliment, no doubt, to
their hufbands. The only advantage of taking fnuff is
that of ineezing, which, in fluggifh, phlegmatic habits, will
give univerfal concuftion to the body, and promote a more
free circulation of the blood ; but of this benefit, fnuff-
takers are deprived, from being familiar with its ufe.
We have been told, that tobacco, when chewed, is a pre-
fervative againft hunger : but this is a vulgar error ; for,,
in reality, it may more properly be faid to deftroy appetite
by the profufe difcharge of faliva, which has already been
tonlidered as a powerful, diffolving fluid, effential both to
appetite and digeftion. In fmoking, the fumes of tobacco
[ 54=> I
T O B
induce a kind of pleafing jnfenfibility not eafily defcribed.
Its narcotic odour, thus adminiftered, equally infatuates the
ignorant favage and the intelligent philofopher ; but, by
the large expence of faliva thereby uccafioned, it is produc¬
tive of many diforders of the head and ftomach, particularly
the laft.
ToBACCQrFipe-Fifh. See Fistularia.
ToBAcco-'ivine. See Pharmacy-Index.
TOBAGO, one of the Caribbee Hands, ceded to Great
Britain by the treaty of Paris in 1763, taken by the French
in 1781, and retaken by the Britilh in 1793. It lies in
the latitude of 11 degrees 10 minutes north, and 59 degrees
40 minutes longitude vreft from London, about 40 leagues
fouth-by-weft trom Barbadoes, 35 fouth-eaft from St Vin¬
cents, 20 fouth-eaft from Grenada, 1 2 north-eaft from the
Spanifh Hand of Trinidada, and between 30 and 40 north-
eaft from the Spanifh main. According to the latell ac¬
counts, it is fomewhat more than 30 miles in length trom
north-eaft to fouth-weft, between 8 and 9 in breadth, and
from 23 to 25 leagues in circumference. The Englifh vi-
iited this Hand very early, Sir Robert Dudley being there
in the reign of queen Elizabeth. In that of Charles I.
William earl of Pembroke procured a grant of this, with
two other fmall Hands ; but died before he was able to carry
into execution his defiga of fettling them. In A. D. 16^2
fame merchants of Zealand fent over a fmall colony thither,
and gave it the name of New Walcheren ; but bexore they
were able thoroughly t© eftablifh themfelves, they were
deftroyed by the Indians aflifted by the Spaniards. Ten years
after, James Duke ol Courland fent a colony thither, who
fettled themfelves upon Great Courland bay, and made a
confiderable progrefs in planting. A. D. 1654, Meffieurs
Adrian and Cornelius Lampfius, two opulent merchants of
Flufhing, fent a conftderable number ol people thither, who
fettled on the other fide of the Hand, and lived in amity
with the Courlanders, until they learned that the king of
Sweden had feized the perfon of their duke and difpoffel-
ledhimofhis dominions, when they attacked and forced
his fubjedls to fubmit. The duke being afterwards re-,
ftored, he obtained from Charles II. a grant of this ill and,
dated the 17th of November 1664. In the fecond Dutch
war the count d’Eftrees, by order of his mailer, to¬
tally ruined it at the dole of the year 1677 ; and from that
time it continued wafte till Britain took pcffeffion of it alter
the treaty of Paris. The climate, notwithftanding its vici¬
nity to the line, is io tempered by the breezes from the fea,
as to be very lupportable even to Europeans ; and hath the
fame advantages with that of Grenada, in having regular
leafons, and alio in being exempt from the hurricanes There
are throughout the Hand many riling grounds, though, ex¬
cept at the north-eaft extremity, there is no part of it that
can be ftyled mountainous ; and even there the country is
far from being rugged or impaffable. The foil, if we may
credit either Dutch or French waiters, is as fertile and lux¬
uriant as any of the Hands, and very finely diverfified.
Ground provifions of all forts have been raifed in great
plenty, a vaft variety of vegetables, excellent in their kind,,
fome for food, feme for phyfic. Almoft every fpecies of
ufeful timber is to be found here, and fome of an enormous
lize; amongft others, the true cinnamon and nutmeg tree,
as the Dutch cenfefs, and of which none could be better
judges ; whole groves of faffafras, and of trees that bear the
true gum copal, with other odoriferous plants that render
the air wholefome and pleafant. It is as well watered as
can be wiftied, by rivers that fall into the lea on both
lides, many fmaller ftreams, and fine frdh fprings in almoit
every part of the Hand. The fea-coaft is indented by io-
or 12 fair and fpacious bays, and there are amoiiglt thefe
4. one
Tobaec8(
Tobago.
TOD [ ] T O L
foboUW one or two porta capable e? receiving as large fhips as ever
II vilited thole leas. There are wild hogs in great plenty,
^<^1'' ; abundance of fowls of di-fFerent kinds, and a vaft variety of
fea and river fifh. At the north call extremity lies Little
Tobago, which is two miles long, and about half a mile
broad, very capable of improvement.
TOBOLSK!,'the capital of Siberia, is fituated at the
confluence of the rivers Tobol and Irtilh, in N. Lat. 58°
12, E. Long. 68° 18b The city ftands upon the afcent of
a high hill, the lower part of which is inhabited by Maho¬
metan Tartars, who carry on a confiderable traffic upon the
river Irtilh, and convey their merchandile quite acrofs Great
Tartary, as far as China. The river Irtilh is reckoned' as
rapid as the Danube ; runs from the fouth, and empties rt-
felf into the Oby : the Tobol wafhes the other lide of the
town, and a little below it falls into the Irtilh. . By means
of thefe two rivers, there is a conftant flow of merchandife
into the city during the fummer feafon. Tobclflci is there¬
fore a great mart for the commodities of Mufcovy, Tartary,
and other countries : and here is a great concourfe of mer¬
chants. All forts of provifions are plentiful and cheap. A^.n
hundred weight ©f rice is fold for x6 copecs, equal to about
eight pence Sterling ; a llurgeon weighing 40 pounds, for
half that money ; an ox for two rix-dollars, and every other
article in proportion : the adjacent country abounds with
game in great variety. The fupreme court of judicature for
all Siberia is held in this city, which is alfo the feat of a
metropolitan, lent hither from Mofcow to exercife fpiritual
jurtldiftion over the whole kingdom. Tobolfki is well for¬
tified, and defended by a ftrong garrifon, under the com¬
mand of the waiwode, who refides in the place, and takes
charge of the fur tribute, which is here depofited in proper
magazines. This governor enjoys a very extenfive com¬
mand, and can occafionally bring into the field 9000 men,
, bei'des a ftrong body o! Tartars on horfeback, to make head
again ft the Kalmucks and Coflacks, in their repeated in-
curfions. A fufficient number of Ruffians, called Jbvrc-
Jioiks, are kept in continual pay by the government, on the
banks of the Irtifh, to fupply travellers on the czar’s ac¬
count with men, boats, or carriages, to convey them as far
as Surgut on the Oby, a voyage of 200 leagues by water.
1 his is the common method of travelling in the fummer ;
but in winter the journey by land is not half to long,
being performed in fleds over die ice and Inow, with which
the country is covered, d hefe Beds are moved by a pair
ot dogs, which will draw a load of 300 pounds with fur-
prifing expedition. They are hired at ealy rates, and du¬
ring one half of the year may be feen flying over the fnow
in great numbers. The city is fuppofed to contain 1 5,000
inhabitants. It is 800 miles call from Moicow, and 1000
from Peterlburgh.
TODDAPanna. SeeCvcAs.
1 ODDY, a name given to the juice of the cocoa nut
tree. See Arak.—Toddy is alfo a name given to a mix¬
ture of Ipirits, water, and fugar.
Toddy-Bird. See Loxla, fpecies 11.
d ODUS, the I ody, in ornithology ; a genus belonging
to the order of pica. The beak is Bender, depreffed, broad,
and the bafe befet with briftles. d’he noitrils are fmall and
oval, d he toes are placed three before and one behind ;
the middle are greatly connedfed to the outer. There are
15 fpecies according to Dr Latham.
“ Birds of this genus (fays that eminent ornithologift)
inhabit the warmer parts ot America. T'hey vary confi-
derably in their bills as to breadth, but all of them have a
certain flatnefs, 01 depreffion, which is peculiar, ddiey have
great affinity to the flycatchers ; and indeed, to ipeak the
truth, the two genera run much into one another; however,
in one thing they differ materially; for in the tody the Toga
outer and middle toes are much connefted, whereas in the
flycatcher genus they are divided to their origin.” . .' ‘A.J
TOGA, in Roman antiquity, a wide woollen gown or
mantle, which feems to have been of a femicircular form,
without fleeves ; differing both in richnefs and largenefs, ac¬
cording to the circurnftances of the wearer, and ufed only
upon occafion of appearing in public.
Every body knows that the toga was the diftinguifhed
mark of a Roman : hence, the jus toga, or privilege of a
Roman citizen ; i. e. the right of wearing a Roman habit,
and ot taking, as they explain it, fire and water through the
Roman emoire.
TOKAY-Wine, derives its name from a town of Hun¬
gary, where it is produced. There are four forts of wine
made from the fame grapes, diflinguifhed at Tokay by the
names of ejftnce, aufprucb, mafshnh, and the common wine.
The effence is made by picking out the half-dried and Ihri- '
veiled grapes, and putting them into a perforated veffel,
where they remain as long as any juice runs off by the mere
preffure of their own weight. "This is put into fmall calks..
The aufpruch is made by pouring the expreffed juice of the
grapes from which the former had been picked on thole that
yielded the effence, and treading them with the feet. The
liquor thus obtained Hands for a day or two to ferment, and-
then is poured into (mall calks, which are kept in the air for
about a month, and afterwards put into calks. The fame
procefs is again repeated by the addition of more juice to
the grapes which have already undergone the two former
preffures, and they are now wrung whh the hands ; and thus
is had the mafslach. Thefourth kind is made by taking all the
grapes together at firft, and fubmitting them to the greateft
preliure : this i#3,chiefly prepared by the peafants. The ef¬
fence is thick, and very iweet and lulcions: it is chiefly ufed
to mix with the other kinds. The aufpruch is the wine
commonly exported, and which is known in foreign coun¬
tries by the name of Tokay.
The goodnefs of it is determined by the following rules..
The colour rtiould neither be reddifh nor very pale, but a
light filver: in trying it, the palate and tip of the tongue
Ihould be wetted without fvvallowing it, and if it maniieft
any acrimony to the tongue, it is not good ; but the tafle
oujht to be toft and mild: when poured out, it Ihould form
globules in the glafs, and have an oily appearance : when
genuine, the ftrongeft is always of the beff quality ; when
fwallowed, it fhould have an earthy aftringent talle in the
mouth, which is called the tafle of the root. All tokay
wine has an aromatic tafle, which diflinguifhes it from every
other Ipecies of wine. It keeps to any age, and improves
by time : but is never good till about three years old. It
is the bell way to tranfport it in calks ; for when it is on,
the leas, it ferments three times every feafon, and thus re¬
fines itfelf. When in bottles, there mull be an empty fpace
left between the wine and the cork, other wife it would burlt
the bottle. A little oil is put upon the fnrface, and a piece
of bladder tied over the cork. The bottles are always laid
on their lides in fand. Philofopbical TranjaBions, vol. Ixiii..
part ii. p. 292, &c.
TOKENS. See TRADESMENs-Tokcns.
TOISE, a French meafure containing fix of their feet,,
or a fathom.
TOLAND (John), a very famous writer, was born near
Londonderry in Ireland, 1 670, and educated in the Popilh
religion ; but at 16 years of age embraced the principles of
the Proteftants He ftudied three years at the univerlity of
Glafa ow ; was created matter of arts in the univerlity ot £-
dinburgh ; and afterwards completed his ftudies at Leyden,
where he relided two years. He then went to Oxford,.
where,.
Tokdo.
T O L [
where, having the advantage of the public library, he cob
lefted marerials upon various fubjefts, and compofed fome
pieces ; among which was, A DifTertation to prove the re¬
ceived hiftory of the tragical death of Atiiius P,.egulus, the
Roman conful, to be a table. He began Kkewife a work of
greater confequence, in which he undertook to fhow that
there are no myileries in the Chrifxian religion. He pub-
liflred it in 1696 at London, under the title of Chrijiianily
not myjlerious. This book gave great offence, and was at¬
tacked by feveral writers. He afterward wrote in favour of
the Hanoverian fucceffion, and many other pieces. In 1707
he went into Germany, where he vifited feveral courts ; and
in 1710 he was introduced to Prince Eugene, who gave
him feveral marks of his generofrty. Upon his return to
England he was for fome time fupported by tire liberality
■of the earl of Oxford lord-treafurer, and kept a country-
houfe at Epfom ; but foon lofing his lordihip’s favour, he
publifhed feveral pamohlets again ft that miniiler’s mealures.
In the four laft years of his life he lived at Putney, but
ufed to fpend moft part of the winter in London. Mr Po¬
land died at London in 1722; He was a man of uncom-
ftion abilities, publiftied a number of curious trails, and was
perhaps the moft learned of all the infidel writers ; but his
private character was far from being an amiable one ; for he
was extremely vain, and wanted thofe focial virtues which
are the chief ornaments as well as duties of life. His poft-
humous woi‘ks, two volumes odlavo, were publifhed in 1726,
with an account of his life and writings, by Mr Des Mai-
zeaux.
TOLEDO, an ancient and trading city of Spain in
New Caftile, of which it was formerly the capital. About
two centuries ago it is faid to have contained more than
jBeurgoanne'j 200,000 inhabitants; but they are now ciminifhed to
20,000, or at moft to 30,000. It is advantageoufly feated
on the river Tajo, which furrounds it on two fidts ; and on
the land-fide it has an ancient wall built by a Gothic king,
and flanked with ico towers. It is feated on a mountain,
which renders the ftreets uneven, and which are narrow;
but the houfes are fine, and there are a great number of fu-
perb ftrudtures, befides 17 public fquares, where the mar¬
kets are kept. The fineft buildings are the royal caftle and
the cathedral church ; which laft is the richeft and moft con-
fiderabie in Spain, It is feated in the middle of the city,
joining to a handfome ftreet, with a fine fquare before it.
Several of the gates are very large, and of bronze There
is alfo a fuperb fteeple extremely high, from whence there is
a very diftant profpeft. The Sagrariro, or principal cha¬
pel, is a real treafury, in which are 15 large cabinets let
into the wall, full of prodigious quantities of gold and filver
veffels, and other works. There are two mitres of filver
gilt, fet all over with pearls and precious ftones, with three
collars of mafl'y gold, enriched 'in like manner. There are
two bracelets and an imperial crown of the Virgin Mary,
confiding of large diamonds and other jewels. The weight
of the gold in the crown is 15 pounds. The veffel which
contains the confecrated wafer is of filver gilt, as high as a
man, and fo heavy, that it requires 30 men to carry it;
within it is another of pure gold enriched with jewels. Here
are 38 religious houfes, moft of which are worthy a travel¬
ler’s notice, with many other facred buildings, a great num¬
ber of churches belonging to 27 parifhes, and home hofpi-
tals. Without the town are the remains of an amphi¬
theatre, and other antiquities.
Toledo is an archbiihop’s fee, and the feat of the pri-
mate of Spain. His revenue is faid to be worth 400,000
'1 rayds m ducats, but there are large deductions to be made from it.
It pays 15,000 ducats to the monks of the Efcurial, be¬
fides feveral other penfwns. Toledo has alfo a univerfity.
IraveU in
Spain,
vol. n.
542 ] T O L
It was formerly celebrated for the exquifite temper of the Toleration,
fword blades made there. It is fit u at ad in eaft longitude 3. v*—■*'
15. in north latitude 39. 50. and is 37 miles fouth from
Madrid.
1 OLERATION, in matters of religion, is either civil
or ecclefiaftical. Civil toleration is an impunity and fafety
granted by the ftate to every fedt that does not maintain
dodlrines mconhftent with the public peace : and ecclefi¬
aftical toleration is the allowance which the church grants
to its members to difrer in certain opinions, not reputed fun¬
damental.
As the gods of Paganifm were almoft all local and tute¬
lary, and as it was a maxim univerfally received that it was
the duty of every man to worfhip, together with his awn
deities, the tutelary gods of the country in which he might
chance to relide, there was no room for perfecution in the
Heathen world, on account of different ientiments in reli¬
gion, or of the different rites with which the various dei¬
ties were worlhipped. Had the primitive Chriftians joined
their fellow-citizens in the worfhip of Jupiter, Juno, and
the reft of the rabble of Roman divinities, they would have
been iuffered to worfhip, without moleftation, the Creator
of the world and the Redeemer of mankind ; for in that
cafe the God of the Chriitians would have been looked upon
as a Being of the fame kind with the gods of the empire;
and the great principle of intercommunity would have
remained unviolated. But the true God had exprefsly pro¬
hibited both Jews and Chriftians from worfhipping any
other god befides Himfelf ; and it was their refufal to break
that precept of their religion which made their Heathen
mafters look upon them as Atheifts, and perfecute them as
a people inimical to the ftate. Utility, and not truth, was
the objeft for which the Heathen legiflatures fupported the
national religion. They well knew that the (lories told by
their poets or their different divinities, of the rewards of
Elyfium, and of the punifhments of Tartarus, were a col-
ledlion of fenfeiefs fables ; but they had nothing better to
propofe to the vulgar, and they were not fuch flrangevs to
the human heart, as to fuppole that mankind could live to¬
gether in fociety without being influenced in their conduct
by fome religion.
Widely different from the genius of Paganifm was the
fpirit of the Jewifh difpenfation. Truth, which is in fadl
always coincident with general utility, was the great object
of the Molaic law. The children of Jlrael were feoarated
from the reft of the world., to preferve the knowledge, and
wot {hip of the true God, at a time when all the other nations
on earth, forgetting the Lord that made them, were ‘ailing
proftrate to flocks and ftones, and v/orfhipping devils and
impure ipirits. Such v/as the contagion of idolatry, and fo
ftrong the propenlity of the Ifraelites to the cuftoms and
manners of the Egyptians, and other polytheiilic nations
aioujnd them, that the purpofe of their reparation could not
have been ferved, had not Jehovah condelcended to become
not only their tutelary God, but even their fupreme civil
Magiftrate (fee TtrEotoGY, n° 151.) ; fo that under the
Mofaic economy, Idolatry was the crime of high treafon,
and as fuch jullly punifhed by the laws of the ftate. Among
the Jews, the Church and ftate were not indeed different io-
cieties. They were fo thoroughly incorporated, that what
was a fin in the one v/as a crime in the other; and the for¬
feiture of ecciefiaftical privileges was the forfeiture of the
rights of citizens.
In many refpefts the Chriftian religion is direflly op-
pofite to the ritual law of Moles. It is calculated for all
nations, and intended to be propagated among all. Inlfead
of feparating one people from another, one of its principal
objeAs is to diffamnaie univerfal benevolence, and to incul¬
cate
T O L [ 543 1 T O L
Toleration. ct»te upon the whole human race, that mutual love which
—v naturally fprinpjs from the knowledge that all men are bre¬
thren. Its ultimate end being to train its votaries for hea-
• ven, it concerns itfelf no farther with the affairs of earth
than to enforce by eternal fanftions the laws of morality ;
and the kingdom of its Founder not being of this world, it
haves every nation at liberty to fabricate its own municipal
laws, lo as bed to feive its own intereft in the various cir-
- cumftances in which it may be placed; and denounces a
curfe upon all who pay not to thofe laws the fulled obedi¬
ence, when they were not obvioufly incondftent with the
laws oT piety ar.d virtue, which are of prior obligation. The
Chriftian church therefore mud always remain a didinft fo-
ciety from the date; and tho’, till the prcfentage of hazardous
innovations, it has been deemed expedient in every country,
where the truth of the gofpel is admitted, to give to the re¬
ligion of Chrid a legal edablilhnient, and to colder immu¬
nities on its miaiilers, this meafure has been adopted, not to
fecure the purity of the faith which appeals to the private
judgment of each individual, but merely to preferve the
peace of fociety, and to put a redraint upon thofe addons of
which human laws cannot take cognizance. With religion,
Chridian governments have no farther concern than as it
tends to promote the practice of virtue. The early Chri-
llians, however, not underitanding the principle upon which
penal laws were employed to preferve the purity of the Jew-
jfh religion ; and, as our bleffed Lord obferved to two of
his apoitles, not knowing what fpirit they were of—hadily
concluded that they had a right to enforce the dotlrines
and worfhip of the New Tedament, by the fame means
which had been ufed to preferve the Ifraelites beady to the
dodlrines and worfhip of the Old. Hence, though they
had fuffered the cruelled perfecutions themfelves (fee Per¬
secution), they no fooner got the power of the date in
their hands, than they perlecuted the Pagans for their
idolatry ; and afterwards, when herefies arofe in the church,
perlecuted one another for expreffing in different phrafes
metaphyfical prppofkions, of fuch a nature as no human
mind can fully comprehend. The apoftle had forewarned
them that there mud be herefies in the church, that they
who are approved may be made manifed ; but it did not
occur to them that perfecution for opinion is the word of
all herefies, as it violates at once truth and charity.
Hitherto thefe unhallowed means of bunging Chridians
to uniformity of faith and practice, had been only occafion-
ally employed from their not accurately didinguifhing be¬
tween the fpirit of the gofpel and that of the law ; but as
loom as the bifhops of Rome had brought the inhabitants of
Europe to recognize their infallibility in explaining articles
of faith, and deciding points of controverfy, perfecution be¬
came a regular and permanent indrument of ecckbadieal
difeipline. To doubt or to deny any dodlrine to which
thefe unerring indrudtors had given the fan&ion of their
approbation, was held to be not only a refiding of the
truth, but an a<d of rebellion againh their facred authority;
and the fecular power, of which, by various arts, they had
acquired the abfoiute direffion, was inbantly employed to
avenge both.
“ Thus Europe had been accudomed, during many cen¬
turies, to fee fpeetdative opinions propagated or defended
by force, the charity and mutual forbearance which Chri-
Hub'ertfon t ftianity recommends with fo much warmth, were forgotten;
7 % ^acrec^ rights of confcience and of private judgment were
l"1 ' unheard of; and not only the idea of toleration, but even
the word itfelf, in the fenle now affixed to it, was unknown.
A right to extirpate error by force, was univerfally allowed
to bfc the prerogative of thofe who pofTeffed the knowledge
of truthand though the hrd reformers did not arro¬
gate to themfelves in diredl terms that infallibility which Toleration,
they had refufed to the church of Rome, they were not lefs
confident of the truth of their own do&rines, and required
with equal ardour the princes of their party to check fuch
as preimned to impugn or to oppofe them. To this requeft
too many of thefe princes lent a willing ear. It flattered
at once their piety and their pride to be confidetfd as pof-
feffing all the rights or Jewifh princes ; and Henry the
VIII. of England, after labouring to make his divines
declare that all authority ecclefiaftical as well as civil flows
from the crown, peri'ecuted alternately the Papifts and Pro-
tefiants. Many of his fucceffors, whofe charadlers were
much better than his, thought themfelves duly authorized,
in virtue of their acknowledged fupremacy over all ftates
and conditions of men, to enforce by means of penal laws a
nni'oimity of faith and worfhip among their fubjefts ; and
it was not till the revolution that any feft in England feems
to have fully underflood, that all men have an unalienable
right to worfhip God in the manner which to them may
feem moil fuitable to his nature, and the relation in which
they (land to him ; or that it is impofiible to produce uni¬
formity of opinion by any other means than candid difqui-
fition and found reafoning. That the civil magiflrate has
a right to check the propagation of opinions which tend on¬
ly to iap the foundations of virtue, and to difiurb the peace
of fociety, cannot, we think, be queftioned ; but that he has
no right to reftrain mankind from publicly profelling any
fyftem of faith, which comprehends the being and provi¬
dence of God, the great law's of morality, and a future ftate
of rewards and punifhments, is as evident as that it is the
objedl of religion to fit mankind for heaven, and the wdiole
duty of the magiftrates to maintain peace, liberty, and pro¬
perty, upon earth. We have elfewhere obferved (lee Test),
that among a number of different fe£!s of Chriitians, it is
not the fuperior purity of the fyftem of faith pro^effed by
one of them, that gives it a right to the immunities of an
eftablifhment in preference to all its rivals; but tho’ the legifi¬
lature is authorized, in certain circumftances, to make a lefs
pure fyftem the religion of the ftate, it would be the height
of abiurdity to luppole that any man, or body of men, can
have authority to prevent a purer fyftem from being ac¬
knowledged as the religion of individuals. For propaga-
tmg opinions and purfuing practices which neceffarily create
civil difturbance, every man is anfwerable to the laws of his
country ; but for the foundnefs of his faith, and the purity
of his worfhip, he is anfwerable to no tribunal -but that which
can fearch the heart.
When churches are eftablifhed, and" creeds drawn up as
guides to the preaching of the national clergy, it is obvious
that every clergyman who teaches any thing diredfly con-
tra-y to the do&rine of fuch creeds, violates the condition
on which he holds his hving, and'may bejuftly deprived of
that living, whether his obnoxious opinion be in itfelf true
or falfe, important or unimportant ; but his punifhment.
fhould be extended no farther. To expel a Chriftian from
private communion for teaching any dodrine. which is nei¬
ther injurious to the Rate nor contrary to the few fimple ar¬
ticles which comprife the fum of the Chriftian faith, is the
groffeft tyranny ; and the governors of that church which,
is guilty of it, ufurp the prerogative of their bleffed Lord,
who commanded the apoitles themfelves not to be called ma¬
ilers in this fenfe ; for one (fays he) is your mailer b
cven Chrilt. It is indeed a hardfhip to deprive a.
man of his living for conicientioufly illuflrating what he be¬
lieves to be a truth of the gofpel, only becaufe his illuftras*
tion may be different from that which had formerly been gi¬
ven by men fallible like himfeif; but if the eflabliftiment of
human compilations of faith be neceffary, this- hardfhip
cannot
Toll
Toluifera.
WnodtnlL's
Medical
Hot any.
T O L [ 544 ] TOM
cannot be removed* but by making fnch compilations as
fimple as poffible, and drawing them up in Scripture lan¬
guage. Such a reformation, could it be effected peaceably,
would ierve other good purpose's; for while it would fuffi-
ciently guar! the purity ot the faith, it would withdraw
that temptation which too many eflablifhments throw in the
way ot men, to fubferibe to the truth of what tfwy do not
really believe ; and it would efEe&ually banifh from the Chri-
flian church every thing which can be called by the name of
perfecution. See Nonconformists.
I OL.L, a tax or cuftom paid for liberty to vend goods
in a market or fair, or for keeping roads in proper repair.
I he firft appointment of a toll on highways of which we
read, took place in 1346. See Road.
TOLOUSE. See Toulouse.
FuLU, a town of South America in Terra Firm?., and
in the government of Carthagena ; famous for the fine bal-
fam of Tolu, brought into Europe from thence, and pro¬
duced from a tree like a pine. It is feated on a bay of the
North Sea, 60 miles louth of Carthagena. W. Long. 72.
55. N. Lat. 9. 40.
TOLUIFERA, the Balsam orTolu-tree; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the clafs of decandr'ia, and order
of monngynta. There is only one fpecies ; the balfamum.
’I his tree grows to a coniiderable height ; it fends off nu¬
merous large branches, and is covered with rough, thick,
greyifh bark : the leaves are elliptical or ovate, entire, point¬
ed, a.lternate, of a light green colour, and ftand uoon fhort
flrong footflalks : the flowers are numerous, and produced
in lateral racemi: the calyx is bell-fhaped, divided at the
brim into five teeth, which are nearly equal, but one is pro-
jefted to a greater diftance than the others : the petals are
inierted into the receptacle, and are live in number, of which
four are equal, linear, and a little longer than the calyx ; the
fifth is much the largeft, inverfely heart-fhaped, and its un¬
guis is of the length of the calyx : the 10 filaments are very
fhort, and furnifhed with long antherae : the germen is ob¬
long : there is no ftyle : the ftigma is pointed : the fruit is a
round berry.
It grows in Spanifh America, in the province of Tolu,
behind Carthagena, whence we are fupplied with the bal-
fam, which is brought to us in little gourd fhells. This
balfam is obtained by making incifions . in the bark of the
tree, and is colleiffed into fpoens, which are made of black
wax, from which it is poured into proper veffels.
This balfam is of a reddifh yellow colour, tranfparent, in
confidence thick and tenacious ; by age it grov/s fo hard
and brittle, that it may be rubbed into a powder between
the finger and thumb. Its fmell is extremely fragrant,
fomewhat refembling that of lemons ; its tafte is warm and
fweetifh, and on being chewed it adheres to the teeth.
Thrown into the fire it immediately liquifies, takes flame,
and dilperfes its agreeable odour. Though it does not dif-
folve in water, yet if boiled in it for two or three hours in
a covered vefiel, the water receives its odoriferous Imell:
water alfo fuffers a fimilar imoregnation from the balfam
by diffillation. With the afllftance of mucila je it unites
with water, fo as to form a milky folution. It difi’olves en¬
tirely in Ipirit of wine, and eafily mixes with diftilled oils,
but lefs eafily with thofe of the expreffed kind. Lift died
without addition, it produces not only an err.pyreumatic oil,
of a pale dark colour, but fometimes a fmall portion of a
faline matter, limilar to that of the flowers of benzoin.
This balfam poflefles the lame general virtues with the
balfam of Gilead, and that of Peru ; it is, however, lefs
heating and ftimulatinq, and may therefore be employed
with more fafety. It has been chiefly ufed as a peftoral,
and is laid to be an eScacious corroborant in gleets and fe-
minal weaknefles. It is diredfed by the PharmaeopoeiSji Tunan-.*
in the fyrupus toiutanus, tindfura tolatana, and fyrupus bal- *om0-
famicus. See PnARMjicr-Index. *
J OMATOES, See Solanum.
TOMB, inlcudes both the grave or fepulchre wherein a
defunbl is interred, and the monument e;e£ted to preferve
his memory. i he word is formed from the Greek ■iT V/uCoCj
tumulus, “ fepulchre or, according to Menage, from the
Latin tumba, which fignifies the fame.
In many nations it has been cuftornary to burn the bodies
of the dead ; and to colledt the afhes with pious care into an
urn, which was depoiited in a tomb or fepulchre. See
Burning. Among many nations it has alfo been the prac¬
tice to lay the dead body in a tomb, without confuming it,
after having wrapped it up decently, and fometimes placing
it in a coffin. See Coffin.
The tombs of the jews were generally hollow places hewn
out of a rock. Abraham burled Sarah in a cave.. Such
was the place too in which the kings of Judah and Ifrael
were interred ; and. fuch was the place in which the body of
our Sa> iour was dgpofited by Jofeph of Arimathen. But
it is probable that the common people buried their dead in
graves; for our Saviour compares the Pharifees to “ graves
which appear not, and the men that appear not are not
aware of them.” Over the tombs, perhaps only of people
of diflimftion, a done or monument was eredled, to intimate
to paffengers that they were burying places, that they
might not pollute themfelves by touching them. With the
fame intention, as Lightfoot informs us, they whitened them
every year on the 15th of February.
The Egyptians alfo buried their dead in caves, called ca¬
tacombs. See Catacomb. The pyramids, as fome think,
were alfo employed lor the fame purpofe. Sometimes alio,
a-ter embalming their dead, they placed them in niches in
iome magnificent apartment in their houfes.
The Greeks and Romans burned their dead, and depo-
fited their afhes in a tomb. The Greeks interred the afhes
without the cities, by the fides of their highways. Some-
times indeed, by way o! particular honour, they were buried
in an elevated part of the town ; and the Lacedemonians
were allowed by Lycurgus to bury in the city and round
their temples : But this was forbidden among the Romans
by the law of the twelve tables, In urbe ne fepeJito, ne-ve uri.
to; yet Valerius Publicola, Pofthumus Tubertius, and the
family of the Claudii, were buried in the Capitol. To
bury by the fides of public roads was common among the
Romans alfo ; hence their epitaphs frequently began with
Jijle viator. Highways were made choice of probably for
two reafons ; 1. 1 hat the dead might not be offenlive or
injure the health ot the living, which they certainly would
if buried in towns or populous places ; and, 2dly, That
they might hold out to travellers a leflbn of mortality, and
teach the ruftic moralifl to die.
As it would fwell this article to too great a fize to de-
feribe all the different kinds ot tombs which have been ufed
by different nations and ages, we mull content ourfelves
with fhortly delcribing the tombs of a few nations, and add¬
ing a few concomitant circumttances.
1 he tombs of the Parfees are lingular. The defundl,
aftei lying a proper time in his own lioufe, for the purpoles
of mourning, is carried, followed by his relations and friends,
the females chanting a requiem, and depofued in a tomb of
the following conflrudlion. It is a circular building, open
at top, about 55 feet diameter, and 23 feet in height, filled
to within 5 feet of the top, excepting a well of 1 5 feet dia¬
meter in the centre. The part fo filled is terraced, with a
flight declivity toward the well. Two circular grooves
three inches deep are raifed round the well; the firft at the
diftance
T O M
Tomb- diflianctf of the fecond at ten, feet from the well,
—v-—' Grooves of the like depth or height, and four feet dillant
from each other at the outer part of the outer circle, are
carried ftraight from the wall to the we!l, communicating
with the circular ones, for the purpofe of carrying off the
water, &c. The tomb, by this means, is divided into three
circles of partitions : the outer, about fe^en feet by four ;
the middle, fix by three ; the inner, four by two : the out¬
er for the men, the middle (or the women, the inner for the
children; in which the bodies are relpe&ively placed, wrap¬
ped loofely in a piece of cloth, and left to be devoured by
the vultures ; which is very foon done, as numbers of thofe
animals are always feen hovering and watching about thefe
charnel houfes, in expectation of their prey. The friends
of the deceafed, or the perfons who have charge of the
tomb, come at the proper time, and throw the bones into
their receptacle, the well in the centre ; for which purpofe,
iron rakes and tongs are depofited in the tomb. ri he en¬
trance is clofed by an iron door, four feet fquare, on the
eafiern fide, as high up as the terrace, to which a road is
raifed. Upon the wall, above the door, an additional wall
is raifed, to prevent people* from looking into the tomb,
which the Parfees are particularly careful to prevent. A
Perfian infeription is on a ftone inferted over the door,
which we once copied, but have forgotten its tenor. From
the bottom of the wall fubterraneous paflages lead to re¬
ceive the bones, &c. and prevent the well from filling.
Of the ancient lepulchres found in Ruffia and Siberia,
fome are perfeCt tumuli, raifed to an enormous height, while
firtleolo- others are almoft level with the ground. Some of them are
lia, vol. vii. encompafied with a fquare wall of large quarry ftones placed
in an ere& pofition ; others are covered only with a finall
heap of ftones, or they are tumuli adorned with ftones at
top. Some are mured with brick within,, and vaulted over;
others are no more than pits or common graves. In fome
the earth is excavated feveral fathoms deep ; others, and
efpecially thofe which are topped by a lofty tumulus, are
only dug of a fufficient depth for covering the carcafe. In
many of thefe fepulchres the bones of men, and frequently
of horfes, are found, and in a condition that renders it pro¬
bable the bodies were not burnt before they were inhumed.
Other bones fhow clearly that they have been previoufiy
burnt ; becaufe a part of them is unconfumed, and becaufe
they lie in a dilordered manner, and fome of them are want¬
ing. Urns, in which other nations of antiquity have depo¬
fited the afhes of their dead, are never met with here. But
fometimes what remained of the bodies after the combuftion,
and even whole carcafes, are found wrapped up in thin
plates of gold. Many dead bodies are frequently feen de¬
pofited together in one tomb ; a certain indication that ei¬
ther a battle had been fought in the neighbourhood of the
place, or that fome families buried their relations in an he¬
reditary tomb.
The Moors, like all other Mahometans, hold it a thing
irreverent, and contrary to the fpirit of religion, to bury
their dead in mofques, and to profane the temple of the
Chenier's Moft High by the putrefaftion of dead bodies. In the in-
'I’srocco, fancy of the church the (Thriftians had the like piety, and
pave example of the refpedt in which they held temples de¬
dicated to religious worfhip ; but ill-guided devotion, ming¬
led with fuperftitious vanities, and that contagious fpirit of
felf-intereft which pervades all human affairs, without re-
fpefting the altar of God, have, together, infenfibly pervert¬
ed mens ideas. The burial grounds of the Mahometans are
moft of them without the city ; the emperors have their fe¬
pulchres diftinft and diffant from the moi’que, in fanftuaries,
built by themfelves, or in places which they have indicated:
their tombs are exceedingly fimple : the Moors do not imi-
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
TON
tate the oftentation of Europeans, where fuperb monuments
are raifed rather to gratify the pride of the living than the
merit of the dead.
All Mahometans inter the dead at the hour fet apart for
prayer. The defundt is not kept in the houfe, except he ex¬
pires after fun-fet ; but the body is tranfported to the
mofque, whither it is carried by thofe who are going to
prayer. Each, from a fpirit of devotion, is defirous to carry
in his turn. The Moors fing at their burial fervice ; which
ufage perhaps they have imitated after the Chriitians or
Spain, for the oriental Mahometans do not fing. They have
no particular colour appropriated to mourning ; their grief
for the lofs of relations is a fenfation of the heart they do
not attempt to exprefs by outward fymbols. Women re¬
gularly go on the Friday to weep over and pray at the fe¬
pulchres of the dead, whofe memory they hold dear.
Among the northern nations it was cuftomary to bury
their dead under heaps of ftones called cairns, or under bar¬
rows: (See the articles Cairns and Barrow). The in¬
habitants of Tibet, it is faid, neither bury nor burn their
dead, but expofe them on the tops of the mountains. Sec
Tibet.
TOMPION, a fort of bung or cork ufed to flop the
mouth of a cannon. At fea this is carefully encircled with
tallow or putty, to prevent the penetration of the water in¬
to the bore, whereby the powder contained in the chamber
might be damaged or rendered incapable of fervice.
TON, a mealure or weight. See Tun.
TONE, or Tune, in mufic, a property of found, where¬
by it comes under the relation ot grave and acute ; or the
degree of elevation any found has, from the degree of fwilt-
nets of the vibrations of the parts of the fonorous body.
The variety of tones in human voices arifes partly from
the dimenfions of the windpipe, which, like a flute, the long¬
er and narrower it is, the (harper the tone it gives; but
principally from the head of the larynx or knot of the
throat: the tone of the voice being more or lels grave as
the rima or cleft thereof is more or lefs open.
The word tone is taken in four different fenfes among the
ancients: I. For any found ; 2. For a certain interval, as
when it is faid the difference between the diapente and dia-
teffaron is a tone ; 3. For a certain locus or compafs of the
voice, in which fenfe they ufed the Dorian, Phrygian, Ly¬
dian tones ; 4. For tenfion, as when they fpeak of an acute,
grave, or a middle tone.
Tone is more particulaily ufed, in'mufic, for a certain
degree or interval of tune, whereby a found may be either
railed or lowered from one extreme of a concord to the other,
fo as dill to produce true melody.
TONGUE. See Anatomy, n° 102.
TONIC, in mufic, fignifies a certain degree of tenfion,
or the found produced by a vocal firing in a given degree of
tenfion, or by any fonorous body when put in vibration.
‘Tonic, fays Roufleau, is likewife the name given by Arif-
toxenus to one of the three kinds of chromatic mufic, whofe
divifions he explains, and which was the ordinary chromatic
of the Greeks, proceeding by two fonitones in fucceffiofi,
and afterwards a third minor.
Tonic Dominant. See Dominant.
TONNAGE and Poundage, an ancient duty on wine
and other goods, the origin of which feems to have been
this : About the 2 lit of Edward III. complaint was made
that merchants were robbed and murdered on the leas. The
king thereupon, with the confent of the peers, levied a duty
of 2 s. on every ton of wine, and I2d. in the oound on all
goods imported ; which was treated as illegal by the com¬
mons. About 25 years after, the king, when the knights
of {hires were returned home, obtained a like grant from the
3 Z citizens
[ 545 I
TON
< Tonrage,
Toncjuin.
T.l'i-lft.
Comment*
vul, i.
citizens and burgefTes, and tfie year after it was regularly-
granted in parliament. Thele duties were diminifhed fome-
times, and fomctimes increafed; at length they feem to have
been fixed at gs. tonnage and I s. poundage. They were
at firft ufually granted only for a Hated term of years, as,
for two years in 5 Ric. II. ; hut in Henry VI.’s time they
were granted him for life by a ft?.lute in the 31 ft year of
bis reign ; and again to Edward IV. for the term of his life
alfo : liace which time they were regularly granted to all
his fucceflbrs for life, fometimes at the firft, fometimes at
other fubfequent parliaments, till the reign of Charles I. ;
when, as the noble hiftorian exprefles it, bis mim.fters were
not fufflciently felicitous for a renewal of this legal grant.
And yet thefe imports were imprudently and unconftitution-
ally levied and taken, without confent of parliament, for 15
years together; which was one of the caui’es of thofe un¬
happy difeontents, juftiliable at firft in too many inftances,
but which degenerated at la!! into caufelefs rebellion and
murder. For, as in every other, fo in this particular cafe,
the king (previous to the commencement of hsftilities) gave
the nation ample fatisfaftion for the errors of his former
conduct, by palling an aft, whereby he renounced all power
in the crown of levying the duty ot tonnage and poundage,
without the exprefs confent of parliament; and alfo all power
of impofitfon upon any merchandifes whatever. Upon the
reftoration this duty was granted to King Charles II. for
life, and fo it was to his two immediate fuccelfors; but now,
by three feveral Ibatutes, 9 Ann. c. 6. 1 Geo. I. c. 12. and
3 Geo. I. c. 7. it is made perpetual, and mortgaged for the
debt of the public.
TONQUIN, a kingdom of Afia, in the Fall Indies,
beyond the Ganges ; bounded on the north by the province
of Yunnan in China, on the call by the province of Canton
and the bay of Tonquin, on the fouth by Cochin China, and
on the weft by the kingdom of Laos. It is about 1200
miles in length and 500 in breadth ; and is one of the finelt
and mol! conliderable kingdoms of the Eaft, as wrell on ac¬
count of the number of inhabitants as the riches it contains
and the trade it carries on. 'I he country is thick fet with
villages ; and the natives in general are of a middle llature
and clean limbed, with a tawny complexion. Their faces
are oval and flattifb, and their nofes and lips well propor¬
tioned. Their hair is black, long, lank, and coarfe ; and
they let it hang down their fhoulders. They are gene-
islly dexterous, nimble, aftive, and ingenious in me¬
chanic arts. They weave a multitude of fine filks, and
make curious la.cker-works, which are tranfported to other
countries. There is fuch a number gf people, that many
want employment ; for they feldom go to work but when
foreign Ihips arrive. The money and goods brought hither
by the Englifh and Dutch put them in aftion ; for they
have not money of their own fufficient to employ them-
Lives ; and therefore one-third at leal! mull be advanced
beforehand by the merchants : and the Ihips mul! ftay here
till the goods are finilhed, which is generally five or fix
months. They are fo addifted to gaming, that when every
thing elfe is loft, they will Hake their wives and children.
The garments of the Tonquinefe are made either of filk or
cotton ; but the poor people and foldiers wear only cotton
ef a dark tawny colour. Their houfes are fmall and low ;
and the walls either of mud, or hurdles daubed over with
clay. They have only a ground-floor, with two or three
partitions ; and each room has a fquare hole to let in the
light. The villages confil! of 30 or 40 houfes, furrounded
with trees ; and in fome places there are banks to keep the
water from overflowing their gardens, where they have
manges, betels, melons, and falad-herbs. In the rainy fea-
fon they cannot pafs from one houfe to another without
t ]
TON
wading through the water; they fometi nes have boats. In Tonqujty
the capital city called Cacho there ate about 20,000 houfes K
with mud-walls, and covered with thatch ; a few are built
with brick, and roofed with pan-tiles. In each yard is a » J
fmall arched building like an oven, about fix feet high,
made of brick, which ferves to fecure their goods in cafe of
fire. The principal ftreets are very wide, and paved with
fmall ftones. The king of Tonquin has three palaces in it,
fuch as they are ; and near them are tlables for his horfes
and elephants. The houfe of the Englifu factory is feated
at the north end of the city, fronting the river, and is the
belt in the city. The people in general are courteous, and
civil to Itrangers ; but the great men are proud, haughty,
and ambitious ; the foldiers infolent, and the poor thievilh.
't hey buy all their wives, of which the great men have fe¬
veral ; but the poor are Hinted for want of money. In hard
times the men will fell both their wives and children to buy
rice to maintain themfelves. The women offer therr.felvea
to ftrangers as wives while they ftay, and agree with them-
for a certain price. Even the great men will oiler their
daughters to the merchants and officers who are likely to
ftay fix months in the country. They are not afraid of
being with child; for if they are girls they can fell them
well when they are young, becaufe they are fairer than the
other inhabitants. Thefe women are laid to be very faith¬
ful ; and are trufted with money and goods by the Euro¬
peans during their abfence, and will make great advantage
with them. The firft new moon in the year that happens
after the middle of January, is a great feftival; when they
rejoice for 10 or 12 days together, and fpend their time in
all manner of fports. Their common drink is tea, but they
make themfelves merry with arrack. The language is fpo-
ken very much in the throat; and fome of the words are
pronounced through the teeth, and has a great refemblance
to the Chinefe. They have feveral mechanic arts or trades;,
fuch as fmiths, carpenters, joiners, turners, weavers, taylors,
potters, painters, money-changers, paper-makers, workers,
in lacker, and bell-founders. Their commodities are gold,,
mulk, filks, callicoes, drugs of many forts, woods for dye¬
ing, lacquered wares, earthen wares, fait, anileeds, and.
worm-feeds. The lacquered ware is not inferior to that of
Japan, which is accounted the bell in the world. With all
thefe merchandifes, one would expeft the people to be very
rich, but they are in general very poor ; the chief trade be¬
ing carried on by the Chinefe, Englifh, and Dutch. The
goods imported, befides filver, are laltpetre, fulphur, Eng¬
lifh broad cloth, pepper, fpices, and great guns-
TONSILS. See Anatomy, n° 102.
TONSURE, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a particular man¬
ner of lhaving or clipping the hair of ecclefialtics or monks.
The ancient tonfure of the clergy was nothing more than
polling the head, and cutting the hair to a moderate degree,
for the fake of decency and gravity: and the fame obfer-
vation is true with refpeft to the tonfure of the ancient
monks. But the Romans have carried the affair of tonfure
much farther; the candidate for it kneeling before the bi-
Ihop, who cuts the hair in five different parts of the head,
viz. before, behind, on each fide, and on the crown.
TONTINE, a loan given for life annuities with bene¬
fit of furvivorfhip ; fo called from the inventor Laurence
Tonti, a Neapolitan. He propofed his fcheme in 1653 to
reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarine’s government, by
amufing them with the hope of becoming fuddemy rich.
He obtained the confent of the court, but the parliament
would not regifler the edift. He made attempts atterwards,
but without fuccefs.
It was not till Louis XIV. was diftreffed by the league
of Auglburg, and by his own immenfe expences, that he
TOT [ 547 ] TO R
'Tcnl Tiad rpcourfe to the plans of Tont!, V-’Kich, though long
11 laid afide, were not forgotten. By an edift in 1689 he
created a Tontine royale of 1,400,000 livres annual rent,
v divided into 14 claffes. The aftions were 300 livres apiece,
and the proprietors were to receive 10I. per cent, with be-
■ nefit of furvivorfhip in every clafs. This fcheme was exe¬
cuted but very imperfedtly ; for none oi the claffes rofe to
above 25,000 livres, inftead of 100,000, according to the
-original inftitution ; though the annuities were very regu¬
larly paid. A few years after, the people feeming in better
humour for projefts of this kind, another tontine was e-
refted upon nearly the fame terms, but this was never above
half full. They both lublifted in the year 1726, when the
French king united the 13 th clafs of the firit tontine with
the 14th of the fecond ; all the a£tions 01 which were pof-
fefled by Charlotte Bonnemay, widow of Lewis Barbier, a
furgeon of Paris, who died at the age of: 96. i his gentle¬
woman had ventured 300 livres in tontine ; and in the
laft year of her life die had for her annuity 73,500 livres,
or about 36001. a-year, for about 30I.
The nature of the tontine is this ; there is an annuity,
after a certain rate of intereft, granted to a number of
people ; divided into claffes, according to their refpe&ive
ages ; fo that annually the whole fund of each clafs is di¬
vided among the lurvivors of that clals ; till at laff it falls
to one, and upon the extinAion of that life, reverts to the
power by which the tontine was ereAed, and which becomes
thereby fecurity for the due payment of the annuities.
TOOL, among mechanics, denotes in general any fmall
inftrument ufed as well for making other complex inllru-
xnents and machines, as in molt other operations in the
mechanic arts.
TOOTH, for a defcription of, fee Anatomy, np 27,
TOOTHACH. See Medicine, n'' 210, Surgery,
ng 236, Teeth, and Electricity, p. 535.
7ooTHJCH-Tree. See Zanthoxylum.
TOOTHWORT. See Plumbago.
TOP, a fort of platform, furrounding the lower mafl>
head, from which it projeAs on all tides like a fcaffold.
The principal intention of the top is to extend the top-
mail fhrouds, fo as to form a greater angle with the malt,
and thereby give additional fupport to the latter. It is
fuftained by certain timbers fixed acrofs the hounds or fhoul-
ders of the raaft, and called the irejile-trees and crofs-trees.
Befides the ufe above-mentioned, the top is otherwife
extremely convenient to contain the materials neceffary for
extending the fmail fails, and for fixing or repairing the
•rigging and machinery with more facility and expedition.
In (hips of war it is ufed as a kind of redoubt, and is ac¬
cordingly fortified for attack or defence; being furnifhed
with fwivels, mulketry, and other fire-arms, and guarded
by a thick fence of corded hammocs. Finally, it is em¬
ployed as a place for looking out, either in the day or night.
Top-Majl, the fecond divifion of a malt, or that part
■which {lands between the upper and lower pieces. See the
article Mast.
Top-Sai/s, certain large fails extended acrofs the top-
mafts by the topfail-yard above, and by the yard attached
to the lower rnaff beneath ; being fattened to the former
by robands, and to the latter by means of two great blocks
fixe4 on its extremities, through which the top fail-(beets
are inferted, palling from thence to two other blocks fixed
on the inner part ot the yard clofe by the mart ; and from
the fe latter the fheets lead downwards to the deck, where
they may be flackened or extended at pleafure. See the
article Sail.
topaz, in natural hiffory, a gem called by the ancients
as being of a gold colour; its,texture foliaceous ; its
form cubic, parallelopipedal, or prifmatie; its fpecific gravity Tape
from 3,46 to 4,56 ; itlofes its colour only in a very ftrotig \
heat, and of the ufual fluxes it yields only to borax and .
microcofmic fait. According Ber IOO p3TtS
of it contain 46 of argill, 39 of filiceous earth, 8 of mild Mineralogy.
calcareous, and 6 of iron. Its great fpecific gravity fhews
thefe earths to be very perfeAly united.
The finefl topazes in the world are found in the Eafl
Indies ; but they are very rare there of any great lize: the
Great Mogul, however, at this time, poffeffes one which is
faid to weigh 157 carats, and to be worth more than
20,000 pounds. The topazes of Peru come next after
thefe in beauty and in value. The European are princi¬
pally found in Silefia and Bohemia, and are generally full of
cracks and flaws, and of a brownifh yellow.
TOPE, in ichthyology, a fpecics of Squalus.
TOPHET. See Hinnom and Moloch.
TOPHUS, in medicine, denotes a chalky or fiony con~
cretion in any part of the body; as the bladder, kidney,
&c. but efpecially in the joints.
TOPIC, a general head or fubjeA of difeourfe.
Topics, in oratory. See Oratory, n0 10—13.
Topics, or Topical Medicines, are the fame with exter¬
nal ones, or thofe applied outwardly to fome difeafed and
painful part: fuch are plafters, cataplafms, unguents, &c.
TOPOGRAPHY, a deicription or draught of fome
particular place, or fmall track of land, as that of a city or
town, manor or tenement, field, garden, houfe, cattle, or
the like ; fuch as furveyors fet out in their plots, or make
draughts of, for the information and fatisfaAion of the pro*
prietors.
TOPSHAM, a town in Devonfhire, in England, feated
on the river Exmouth, five miles fouth-eafl of Exeter, to
which place the river was formerly navigable ; but in time
of war was choaked up defignedly, fo that fhips are now
obliged to load and unload atTopiham. W, Long. 3. 26.
N. Lat. 50. 39.
TORBAY, a fine bay of the Englifh channel, on the
coaft of Devonfhire, a little to the eaft of Dartmouth,
formed by two capes, called Bury Points, and BoPs Nofe,
TORDA, or rasor-bill. See Alca, n° 4.
TORDYLIUM, Hart-wort, in botany : A genus of
plants belonging'to the clafs of pentandria, and order of
digynia; and in the natural fy item arranged under the 45th
order, Umbellatx. The coroliets are radiated, and all her¬
maphrodite ; the fruit is roundifh, and crenated on the mar¬
gin ; the involucra long and undivided. There are ieven
fpecies ; of which two are Britifli, the nodofum and officinale.
1. The nodofum, or knotted parfley, has Ample fefiile
umbels, the exterior feeds being rough. It grows in the
borders of corn-fields, and in dry ftony places. 2. The
officinale, officinal hart-wort, has partial involucra, as long
as the flowers ; leafets oval and jagged : the feeds are large
and flat, and their edges notched.
TORIES, a political faction in Britain, oppofed to the
Whigs.
The name of Torw was given to a fort of banditti in Ire¬
land, and was thence transferred to the adherents of Char¬
les I. by his enemies, under the pretence that he favoured
the rebels in Ireland. His partifans, to be even with the
republicans, gave them the name of Whigs, from a word
which fignifies whey, in derifion of their poor fare. The
Tories, or cavaliers, as they were alfo called, had then prin¬
cipally in view the political interefis of the king, the crown,
and the church of England; and the round-heads, or Whigs,
propofed chiefly the maintaining ot the rights and intereiis
of the people, and of Proteft^ntiffn This is the moil po¬
pular account; and yet it is certain the names Whig and
3 Z a Tory
TOR [ 548
Tory \rere but little known till about the middle of the reii?,n
of king Charles TI. M. de Cize relates, that it was in the
year 1678 that the whole nation was firti oblerved to be
divided into Whigs and Tories; and that on occafion of the
famous depohtion of Titus Oates, who accufed the Catho¬
lics of having conipired againff the king and the ftate, the
appellation of Whig was given to fuch as believed the plot
real; and Tory to thofe who held it fictitious.
I hefe parties may be confidered either with regard to the
TOR
Galen fays it is a fort of intermediate diforder hetwren palfv Torrcfac
and health. '
flate or to religion. The ilate Tories are either violent or
moderate : the firft would have the king to be abfolute, and
therefore plead for pafifive obedience, non-refiftance, and the
hereditary right of the houfe of Stuart. The moderate
lories would not fuffer the king to lofe any of his prero¬
gative ; but then they would not faerifiee thole of the
people. The ftate Whigs are either ftrong republicans or
moderate ones. “ The firft (fays Rapin) are the remains
of the party of the long parliament, who attempted to
change monarchy to a commonwealth : but thefe make fo
/lender a figure, that they only ferve to ftrengthen the party
of other Whigs. 'I he Tories would perfuade the world,
that all the Whigs are of this kmd ; as the Whigs would
make us believe that all the Tories are violent. The mo-
xlerate ftate Whigs are much in the fame fentiments with
the moderate Tories, and defire that the government may
be maintained on the ancient foundation : all the difference
is, that the firft bear a little more to the parliament and
people, and the latter to that of the king. In {hurt, the
old Whigs were always jealous of the encroachments of the
royal prerogative, and watchful over the prefervation of the
liberties and properties of the people.
TORMENT! LI. A, Tormentil, in botany: A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs of icofundrta, and order of
polygynlci; and in the natural fyftera ranging under the 35th
order, Senticvfre. The calyx is oftofid ; the petals are four;
the feeds round, naked, and affixed to a juicelefs receptacle.
I here are two fpecies ; the erett,i and repens, both indi¬
genous.
1. The erefta, common tormentil, or feptfoil, has a ftalk
fomewhat ereft, and feffile leaves. The roots confift of
thick tubercles, an inch or more in diameter, replete with
a red juice of an aftringent quality. They are ufed in moft
of the Weftern Ifies, and in the Orkneys, for tanning of
leather; in which intention they are proved by fome late
experiments to be fuperior even to the oak-bark. They are
firft of all boiled in water, and the leather is afterwards
fteeped in the liquor. In the iflands of Tirey and Col the
inhabitants have deftroyed fo much ground by digging them
up, that they have lately been prohibited the ufe of them.
A decoftion of thefe roots in milk is alfo frequently adrrii-
niftered by the inhabitants of the fame iflands in diarrhoeas
and dyfenteries, with good fuccefs ; but perhaps it would
be moft proper not to give it in dyfenteries till the morbid
matter be firft evacuated. A fpirituous extract of the plant
Hands recommend d in the fea-feurvy, to ftrengthen the
gums and fallen the teeth. Linnaeus informs us, that the
Laplanders paint their leather of a red colour with the juice
of the roots.
I’ORREFACTION, in chemiftry, is the roafting or
fcoreuing of a body by the fire, in order to difeharge a part
either unneceffary or hurtful in another operation. Sulphur
is thus dilcharged from an ore before it can be wrought to
advantage.
i OR RENT, denotes a temporary ftream of water fal¬
ling fuddenly from mountains, whereon there have been great
non
Tor’oiTe.
rams, or an extraordinary thaw of fnovv.
lORRICELLI (Evangelitte), an illuftrious Italian ma¬
thematician and philofopher, born at Faenza in 1608. He
was mined in Latin literature by his uncle a monk ; and
after cultivating mathematical knowledge for fome time
without a mafter, he ftudied it under father Benedidt Caf-
telli, profeffor of mathematics at Rome. Having read Ga¬
lileo’s dialogues, be compofed a treatife on motion, on his
principles, which brought him acquainted with Galileo,
who took him home as an affiftant: but Galileo died in
three months after. He became profeffor of mathematics
at Florence, and greatly improved the art of making tele-
fcopes and mierofeopes: but he is beft known tor finding
out a method of afeertaining the weight of the atmofphere
by quicklilver; the barometer being called, from him, the
7 orriceihun tube. He pubhlhed Opera Geornetrica, 4to, 1 644;
and died in 1647.
TORRICELLIAN experiment, a famous experiment
made by Torricelli, by which he demonftrated the prtffure
of the atmofphere in oppofition to the do&rines of iutlion,
&c. finding that preffure able to fupport only a certain
length of mercury, or any other fluid, in an inverted glafs
tube. See Barometer.
TORSK, or Tusk, in ichthyology. See Gadus.
TORTOISE, in zoology. See Testudo.
ToRTonE-Jhell, the fhell, or rather feales, of the teflaceous
animal called a tortoife ; ufed in inlaying, and in various
other works, as for fnuff boxes, combs, &c. Mr Catefby -pj^ T ,
obierves, that, the hard ftrong covering which inclofes allnu 433, p,
forts of tortoifes, is very improperly called aJhell; being of 117.
a perfedt bony contexture ; but covered on the outfide with
feales, or rather plates, of a horny iubllance; which are
what the workmen call tortoife-Jh-,14.
There are two general kinds of tortoifes, the land
and Jea-tortoife, ttjludo terrtjlris and marina. The fea-tor-
toife, again, is of feveral kinds; but it is the caret, or tefludo
imbricata of Linnaeus, alone which furnifhes that beautiful
fhell fo much admired in Europe.
I he fhell of the caretta, or hawkfbill tortoife, is thick ;
and confifls of two parts, the upoer, which covers the back,
and the lower the belly : the two are joined together at thd
fides by tlrong ligaments, which yet allow of a little motion..
In the fore-part is an aperture for the head and fore-legs,
and behind for the hind-legs and tail. It is the under fhcll
alone that is ufed : to feparate it, they make a little fire
beneath it, and as foon as ever it is warm, the under fhell
becomes eafily feparable with the point of a knife, and is
taken off in laminoe or leaves.
The whole fpoils of the caret confift in 13 leaves or feales.
2. The ret tans, or creeping tormentil, has reddifh ftalks, .eight of them flat, and five a little bent. Of the flat ones.
flender and creeping. The leaves are fharply ferrated,
grow on fhort footftalks, and are five lobed. The flowers
are numerous and yellow, blcflbm in July, and are frequent
in wodds and barren paftures.
T OR-NADO, a fudden and vehement guft of wind from
all points of the compafs, frequent on the coaft of Guinea.
TORPEDO, the Cramp fish. See Raja, and Elec¬
tricity, n° 258—261.
TORPOR, a numbr.efs, ox defect of feeling and motion.
there are four large ones, fometimes a foot long, and feven
inches broad. The beft tortoife-fhell is thick, clear, trans¬
parent, of the colour of antimony, fprinkled with brown
and white. When ufed in marquetry, &c. the workmen
give it what colour they pleaie by means of coloured leaves,
which they put underneath it.
IV or king and joining of Tortoise-fhell.— 1 ortoife fhell and
horn become loft in a moderate heat, as that of boiling water,
fo as to be prelied, in a mould, into any form, the fhell or
horn
7
T O U [ *49 l T O U
!| Torture horn being prevtoufly cut into plates of a proper fize. Plu-
II mier informa us, in his /irt de Tourner, that two plates are
likewife united into one by heating and preffing them ; the
edges being thoroughly cleaned, and made to fit clofe to
one another. The tortoife-fhell is conveniently heated for
this purpofe by applying a hot iron above and beneath the
juncture, with the interpoiition of a wet cloth to prevent
the (hell from being fcorched by the irons : thefe irons
fhould be pretty thick, that they may not lofe their heat
before the union is effedted. Both tortoife-fhell and horns
may be fiained of a variety of colours, by means of the
colouring drugs commonly ufed in dyeing, and by certain
.metallic folutions.
TORTURE, a violent pain inflidted on perfons to force
them to confefs the crimes laid to their charge, or as a pu-
muhment for crimes committed.
Torture was never permitted among the Romans except
in the examination of (laves : it would therefore appear, that
st was a general opinion among them, that a (lave had fuch
a tendency to falfehood, that the truth could only be ex¬
torted from him. To the difgra.ee of the profeffors of Chri-
ftianity, torture was long pradtifed by thofe who called them-
I'elves Catholics, againft thofe whom they termed heretics ;
that is, thofe who differed in opinion from themlelves. Find¬
ing that they could not bring over others to adopt their
fentiments by the force of argument, they judge it proper
to compel them by the force of pimifhment. This practice
was very general among orthodox Chriftians, but efpecially
among Roman Catholics. See Inquisition.
By the law of England, torture was at one period em¬
ployed to compel thole criminals who itood obltinately mute
when brought to trial, and refufed either to plead guilty
or not guilty ; but it is now abolifhed (fee Arraignment,
Rack). A hiitory of the machines which have been in¬
vented to torture men, and an account of the inftances in
which thele have been employed, would exhibit a dilmal
pidture of the human charadter.
TORUS, in aichitedfure, a large round moulding ufed
in the bafes of columns. See Plate XXXVIII. fig. 3.
TOUCAN, in ichthyology. See Rhamphastos.
TOUCH-needle, among alfayers, refiners, See. little
bars of gold, filver, and copper, combined together, in all
the different proportions and degrees of mixture ; the ufe of
which is to difeover the degree of purity of any piece of
gold or filver, by comparing the mark it leaves on the touch-
itone with thofe of the bars.
The metals ufually tried by the touch-flone are gold, Til-
ver, and copper, either pure, or mixed with one another in
different degrees and proportions, by fufion. In order to
find out the purity or quantity of baler metal in thefe vari¬
ous admixtures, when they are to be examined they are com¬
pared with thefe needles, which are mixed in a known pro¬
portion, and prepared for this life. The metals of thefe
tseedles, both pure and mixed, are all made into laminae or
plates, one-twelfth of an inch broad, and of a fourth part of
their breadtti in thicknefs, and an inch and half long ; thefe
being thus prepared, you are to engrave on each a mark in¬
dicating its purity, or the nature and quantity of the ad¬
mixture in it. The black rough marbles, the bafaltes, or
the fofter kinds of black pebbles, are the moil proper lor
touch-ilones.
The method of ufing the needles and ftone is this : The
piece of metal to be tried ought firit to be wiped well with
a clean towel or piece of fort leather, that you may the bet¬
ter lee its true colour; for from this alone an experienced
perton will, in fume degree, judge beforehand what the
principal metal is, and how and with what debafed-
Then clioofe a convenient, not over large, part of the fur-
face of the metal, and rub it feveral times very hardly and Touch
ftrongly againft the touch-ftone, that in cafe a deceitful coat H I
or cruft fhould have been laid upon it, it may be worn off  tf
by that fridtion : this, however, is more readily done by a
grindftone or fmall file. Then wipe a flat and very clean
part of the tonchftone, and rub againft it, over and over,
the juft mentioned part of the furface of the piece of metal,
till you have, on the flat furface of the ftone, a thin metal¬
lic cruft, an inch long, and about an eighth of an inch broad:
this done, look out the needle that fee ms molt like to the
metal under trial, wipe the lower part of this needle very
clean, and then rub it againft the touchftone, as you did the
metal, by the fide of the other line, and in a diredtion pa¬
rallel to it.
When this is done, if you find no difference between the
colours of the two marks made by your needle and the me¬
tal under trial, you may with great probability pronounce
that metal and your needle to be of the fame alloy, which
is immediately known by the mark engraved on your needle.
But if you find a difference between the colour of the mark
given by the metal, and that by the needle you have tried,
choofe out another needle, either of a darker or lighter co¬
lour than the former, as the difference of the tinge on the
touchftone diredfs ; and by one or more trials of this kind
you will be able to determine which of your needles the
metal anfwers, and thence what alloy it is of, by the mark
of the needle ; or elfe you will find that the alloy is extraor¬
dinary, and not to be determined by the compariion of your
needles.
ToucH-Stone, a black, fmooth, gloffy ftone, ufed to exa¬
mine the purity of metals The ancients called it lap a Ly~
dius, the Lydian ftone, from the name of the country
whence it was originally brought.
Any piece of pebble or black flint will anfwer the pur-
pofes of the beft lapis lydius of Afia. Even a piece of
glafs made rough with emery is ufed with fuccefs, to di-
ftinguifh true gold from fuch as is counterfeit ; both by the
metallic colour and the tell of aquafortis. The true touch¬
ftone is of a black colour, and is met with in feveral parts of
Sweden. See Trapp.
TOUCHWOOD, See Boletus.
TOULON, a celebrated city and feaport of France, in
that part of the late province of Provence which is now de¬
nominated the department of the Far. It L a very ancient
place, having been founded, according to the common opi¬
nion, by a Roman general. It is the chief town of the de¬
partment, and before the great revolution in 1789 was an
epifcopal fee. The inhabitants are computed at 80,000. It
is divided into the Old Quarter and the New Quarter. The
firft, which is very ill built, has nothing remarkable in it
but the Rue aux /Irbres, the Tree Street, which is a kind
of courle or mall, and the town-houfe ; the gate of this is
fuiTounded by a balcony, which is fupported by two ter¬
mini, the mafterpieces of the famous Pujet. The New
Quarter, which forms as it were a fecond city, contains, be-
fide the magnificent works conftradted in the reign of
Louis XIV. many fine houfes (among which that of the
late feminary merits beyond compariion the preference) <
and a grand oblong fquare, lined with trees, and ferving as
a parade.
The Merchants Haven, along which extends a noble
quay, on which (lands the townhoufe, is pretefted by two
moles, begun by Henry IV. The New Haven was con-
ftru&ed by Louis XIV. as were the fortifications of the
city. In the front ot this haven is an arfensl, containing
all the places neceffary for the conftruftion and fitting out
ot veflels : the firft objedt that appears is a rope-walk, entirely
arched, extending as far as the eye can teach, and built at-
* ter
T ° U '[ SJo ]
ter the defigns of ^auban : here cables are made, a".d above 66 high.
■ is a place for tne preparation of hemp. Here likewife is the
armoury for mulkets, piftols, halberds, &c. In the park of
artillery are cannons placed in piles, bombs, grenades, mor¬
tars, and balls of various kinds, ranged in wonderful order.
1 he long fad room, the foundry for cannon, the dock-
. yards, the bafons, &c. fire all worthy of obfervation.
Both the old and New Port have an outlet into the fpa-
cious outer road or harbour, which is furrounded by hills,
■ and formed by nature almoft circular. Its circuit is of very
great extent, and the entrance is defended on both Tides by
a fort v/ith ftrong batteries. In a word, the bafons, docks,
•and arienal, at .Toulon, warranted the remark of a foreigner
that vifited them in the late reign, that “ the king of France
'was greater there than at Ver{ailles.,, Toulon is the only
mart in the Mediterranean for the re-exportation of the pro-
• clufts of the Eaft Indies. '
This place was deftroyed toward the end of the tenth cen¬
tury, and pillaged by the African pirates almoft as foon as
rebuilt. i he conftable of Bourbon, at the head of the Im-
. perial troops, obtained poffeilion of it in 1524, as did
Charles V. in 1536 y but in the next century Charles Ema¬
nuel duke of Savoy could not enter it, and Prince Eugene
in 1707 ineffe&ually laid fiege to it. This city was fur-
rendered by the inhabitants in September 1793 to the Bri-
-tifh admiral Lord Herod, as a condition ancl means of en¬
abling them to eiTeft the re-eftablifhment of monarchy in
Prance, according to the conftitution of 1789. Lord
Hood accordingly, in conjunction with the Spanilh land
- and naval forces, took poffeffion of the harbour and forts in
• trull for Louis XVII. It was garrifoned for fome time by
the Britilh troops, and their allies the Spaniards, Neapoli¬
tans, and Sardinians ; but the French having laid fiege to it,
«the garriton was obliged to evacuate the place in the month
of December following, after having deftroyed the grand
arfenal, two fhips of 84 guns, eight of 74, and two frigates;
and carried off the Commerce de Marfeilles, a fliip of 120
guns, with an 80 and 74 gun fhip. This exploit was molt
..gallantly performed, after it was found impoffible to defend
the town, or to carry off the fhips. Lord Hood entrufted
the management of the affair to Sir Sydney Smith, fo dr-
'flingiufhed for his intrepidity. Captain Hare commanded
the firefhip which was towed into the grand arfenal; and
fo eager was he to execute his orders, that inftead of fetting
fire to the tram in the ufual cautious manner, he fired a pi-
flol loaded with powder into the bowl of the train, compo-
fed of 36 pounds of powder, and other combuftibles. The
confequence was, he was blown into the water with fuch
violence, as to knock a lieutenant of the Victory’s boat
overboard, and narrowly efcapcd with his life. A Spanifh
captain was appointed to fet fire to the fmali arfenal, but
cowardice prevented him from executing his orders ; and
this is the realon why the whole French fnips were not de-
dtroyed. We have been favoured with this account by an
officer of the Britifh fleet.
il oulon is leated on a bay of the Mediterranean, 17
leagues fouth-eaft of Aix, 15 fouth-eaft of Marfeilles,
and 217 fouth eaft of Paris. E. Long. 5. 37. N. Lat.
-43; 7- -
TOULOUSE, a very ancient city of France, in the de¬
partment of Upper Garonne, and late province of Langme-
-doc, with an archfcifhop’s fee. It is the molt confiderable
city in Trance next to Paris and Lyons, although its popu¬
lation bears no proportion to its extent. According to Mr
■Neckar’s calculation, it contains 56,000 inhabitants. Th*e
itreets are very handfome, and the walls of the city, as well
as the houfes, are built with bricks. The townhoufe, a mo¬
dern ftruCturf, forms a perfect fquare, 324 feet long -and
T o u
The principal front occupies an entire fide of the
grand fquare, lately called the Place Royalc. In the great
h.-tll, called the Hall of Illujirious Alert, is the ftatue of the
Chevalier Ifaure, and the bulls of all the great men to whom
I ouloufe has given birth. Communicating with the ocean
on one fide by the river Garonne, and witli the Mediterra¬
nean on the other by the canal of Languedoc, Toulqufe
might have been a very commercial city; but the tafte of
the inhabitants has been principally for the fciences and
belles-lettres. Of courfe, there are two colleges, two pub¬
lic libraries, and three academies. The little commerce of
1 ouloufe conhfts in leather, drapery, blankets, mignionets,
oil, iron, mercery, hardware, and books. The bridge over
'the Garonne is at leaft equal to thofe of Tours and Orleans:
it forms the communication between the fuburb of St Cyprian
and the city. The quays extend along the banks of the
Garonne ; and it has been in contemplation to line them
with new and unnorm houfes. "1 ouloufe is 37 miles eaft of
Auch, 125 fouth-eaft of Bourdeaux, and 350 fouth-by-weft
of Paris. E. Long. 1.27. N. Lat. 43. 36.
TOUP (the Reverend Jonathan), was defcendecTfrom a
family formerly fettled in Dorfetfhire. His grandfather,
Onefiphorus Roup, had been a man of good property, and
patron as well as incumbent of Bridport, in that county ;
but he appears to have been embarraffed in his cfrcumftances
before his death, as he parted with the advowfon, and left a
numerous family very flenderly provided for. His fecond
fon Jonathan was bred to the church, and was curate and
lecturer of St Ives in Cornwall. He married Prudence,
daughter of John Btifvargus, Elq; of Bufvargus in Corn¬
wall, and by her had iffue Jonathan, the fubjedt of this ar¬
ticle, and one daughter.
Mr I oup loft his father while he was a child ; and hia
mother fome time after marrying Mr Keigwyn, vicar of Lan-
drake in Cornwall, his uncle Bufvargus (the laft male of
that family) took him under his care, and confidered him
as his own child. He bore the whole charge of his educa¬
tion both at fchool and at college, and procured for him the
redtory ©f St Martin’s near Lo'oe.
Mr I oup was born at St Ives in Cornwall in the year
I7I3* He received the firft rudiments of his education in
a grammar fchool in that town; and was afterward-s placed
under the care of Mr Gurney, mafter of a private fchool in
the parifti of St Merryn. Thence he was removed to Exe¬
ter College in Oxford, where he took his degree of Bache¬
lor of Ants. His mailer’s degree he took at Cambridge in
the year 1756. Fie obtained the redtory of St Martin’s
in 1750 ; was inftalled prebendary of Exeter in 1774 ; and
inftituted to the vicarage of St Merryn in 1776 : the two
lait preferments he owed to the patronage of Biihop Kep-
pel of Exeter. By the death ot his uncle Bufvargus with¬
out iffue in 1751, Mrs Keigwyn (filter to Mr Bufvargus,
and mother to Mr loupj iucceeded as heir at law to his
eftate and effedts. She died in 1773, and left a will be¬
queathing the whole of her eftates to her fon Mr Tonathan
Toup.
_ In the year 1 760 Mr Toup publifhed the firft part of
his Emendationes in Suidam, and in 1764 the fecond part of
the fame work. Thefe books procured him the notice of
Biihop Warburton, who from the time of their publication
honoured him with his coirtfpondence and patronage. The
Biihop, in one of his letters, laments his having a fee with¬
out any preferment on it; “ had it been otherwife, he fhould
have been 500 felfiili to invite any of his brethren to fhare
with him in the honour of properly diftinguifhing fuch me¬
rit as Mr Toup’s. All, however, that the Biihop could do,
he did with the warmth and earneftnefs of fincere friend-
Ihip. He repeatedly recommended Mr Toup to Archbifhop
Seeker-
T O' U . [ s;i ]
Setker, to the Traftees for difpofins; of his Options, to Warburton
T O U
a patron, capable of diftinguifhhrg
Lrord Shelburne, and to Bidiop Keppel ; and the favours
this prelate bellowed on Mr Toup were owing to the feli¬
citations of 13i(hop Warburton. The third part of the E-
Tnendcitiones in ' Suidam was publHhed in 1766. Inthe fol¬
lowing year Archbifhop Seeker expreffed a defire that Mr
Toup would lend his allt(lance towards a new edition of Po¬
lybius, which w'as then in contemplation. Bifhop War-
b.wton ftrongly prefled his compliance with this wifh,
and that he would lay by for a while the Notes he was
preparing for Mr Warton’s edition of Theocritus. In
the yeat 1767 Mr Toup’s Epijlola Critica ad virum celeberri-
mum GuL Epifcop. G7oc. made its appearance. In the year
1770, Mr Waiton’s edition of‘Theocritus was printed
at the univerfity prefs in Oxford. Mr Toup was a large
contributor towaids the correftions and annotations of this
edition. A note of his on Idyll, xiv. 37. gave Inch offence
to fome perfons, that the vice chancellor of Oxford prevail¬
ed on the editor to cancel the leaf on which it was printed,
and fubftitute another in its room. In 1772 Mr Touo pub-
lifhed his Appendicuhim Notarum in Theocritum, in which the
fubRance (a) of the cancelled note was inferted. Pie con¬
cludes his preface to this work with thefe words : “ Quod
•nero [cripfimus ad xiv. 37. verum eji et honejlum. Sed rem
pro Jingulari fua fagacitate minus ceperunt nonnvili Oxonierfes ;
qui et me fugillare hand eruluerunt ; homunculi eruditione medio-
cri, ingenio nullo ; qui in Heir aids per omnem fere vitam turpi-
ter volutati, in Uteris elegantioribus plane kofpites funt” Mr
Tone’s next work was the Appendiculum Notarum in Sui¬
dam, publifhed in 1775. In 1778 his Longinus was pub-
liflied from the Oxford preis in quarto. A fecond edition
has fince been printed in o&avo.
As a writer of gi'eat learning, and of Angular critical fa-
gacity, Mr Toup needs no encomiaft. The teftimouies
of Mr T. Warton, of Bifhop Warburton, and of every
perfbn in any way diftinguifhed for claffical learning at
home ; of Erneflus, Hemfterhufms, Runkheniu?, Valcke-
n?.er, Brunck, Kluit, D’Anfe de Villoiton, L’Areher, &c.
&c. in all parts of Europe, fufficiently eftablifh his reputa¬
tion as an author. To moft or all of thefe he was afiiRing
in the feveral works they publifhed.
As his whole life was paft in literary retirement, his cha¬
racter as a man v/as known but to few. It will appear
from his works that he was not wholly untintlured with
that felf-complacency which is the almoft infeparable com¬
panion of too much folitude ; and by thofe who beft knew
him, he is laid to have been unhappy in his difpofition. Plis
virtues, however, were refpetlable, and his learning was con-
fefledly great. His theological Rudies were well directed r
he fought for the truths of religion where only they can be
found, in the Scriptures ; not in the gloffes and comments
of men : it will be needlefs to add, that he was a liberal and
a tolerant divine. He was punClual and ferious in the dif-
charge of the duties of his profefiion ; and in his preaching
fingularly plain and forcible. He died on the 1 9th of Ja¬
nuary 1785, juft entering into the 72d year of his age, and
was buried under the communion-table in his church of St
Martin’s.
Mr Toup was a Chriftian from conviction; not merely
from the accident of having been born in a country where
Chriftianity was profeffed. He fulfilled the duties of life
confcientioufly, and from principle, without parade or often-
tation. In his purfuit of learning he was a&uated by the
moil honourable motives ; by the defire of improving his
own mind, and of amufing himfelf and others. If in Bifhop
he1 found
merit, and zealous to reward it, let it be remembered,."
to the honour of both parties, that the Bifhop’s pa--
tronage was offered, not folicited. In the year 1764-
he was repeatedly preffed by another prelate to quit
his retirement at St Martin’s, and to fettle either in Lon¬
don or in Oxford, where he might have accefs to books,
and might place himfelf in the way of notice and prefer¬
ment. Ele was affured, at the fame time, that the bifhop of
his diocefe would himfelf make a tender of his connivance-
at his non-refidence, without any application from Mr Toup
on the fubjeft. But every propofa! ot this nature he con-
flantly reje&ed ; for he confidered the non-refidence of thd
parochial clergy as a neglect of duty, tor which no apology
can be made. Ele was never married, and rather capri-
cioufly left his fortune, amounting, it has been faid, to
L. 1 2,000, to a niece whofe mother was his half-fifter, ta¬
king not the leaft notice in his will of his other nephews and
nieces, whofe mother was his full filter.
TOUR (Henry de la), vifeount Turenne, a celebrated
French general, was the feeond fen'of Henry de la Tour
duke of Bouillon, and was born at Sedan in 1611. He
made his firft campaigns in Holland, under Maurice and
Freddie Henry princes of Orange ; who were his uncles by
the mother’s fide ; and even then diftinguifhed himfelfby his
bravery. In 1634 he marched with his regiment into Lor¬
raine ; and having contributed to the taking of La Mothe,
was, though very young, made marefchal de camp. In
1636 he took Saverne, and the year following the caftles of
Hirfon and Sole.; on which occafion he performed an a&ioa
like that of Scipio’*, with refpeft to a very beautiful wo¬
man whom he fent back to her hufband. '1 he vifeount
Turenne continued to diftinguifh himfelf in feveral fieges
and battles, and in 1644 was made marfhal of France ; but
had the misfortune to be defeated at the battle of Mariendal
in 1645. However, he gained the battle of Ndrtlingen
three months after; reftored the eleftor of Treves to his
dominions ; and the following year made the famous junc¬
tion of the French army with that of Sweden commanded
by general Wrangel, which obliged the duke of Bavaria to
demand a peace. Afterwards that duke breaking the trea¬
ty he had concluded with France, he was defeated by the
vifeount Turenne at the battle of Zamarfliaufen, and in 1648
driven entirely out of his dominions. Luring the civil wars
in France he fided with the princes, and was defeated at the
battle of R.hetel in 1650 ; but fbon after was reftored to the.
favour of the king, who in 161; 2 gave him the command of
his army. He acquired great honour at the battles of Jer-
geau, Gren, and the fuburbs of St Amthony, and by the re¬
treat he made before the army commanded by the princes
at Ville Neuve St George. In 1654 he made the Spani¬
ards raife the fiege of Arras : the next year he took- Condc,
St Guilian, and feveral other places ; gained' the famous
battle of Dunes ; and made himfelf mafter of Dunkirk, Ou-
denarde, and almoft all Flanders : this obliged the Spaniards
to conclude the peace of the Pyrenees in 1660. ! hefe im¬
portant fervices occafioned Iris being made mafftial-general
of the king’s camps and armies. The war being renewed
with Spain in 1667, Turenne commanded in Flanders; and
took fo many places, that in 1668 the Spaniards were obli¬
ged to fue for peace. He commanded the French army in
the war againft the Dutch in 1672 ; took 40 towns in 22
days ; purfued the elector of Brandenburg even to Berlin ;
gained the battles of Slintfheim, Ladenburg, Enfheim, Mnl-
haufen, and Turkeim ; and obliged the Imperial army,
which
(a) Not improbably all of that note which was omitted in the fubftituted leaf.
T O U
[
Tounia-
meiit.
^ ^ 5S*
i. utn aine which coniifted of 70,000 men, to repafs tlie Rhine. By
this campaign the vii'count Turenne acquired immortal ho¬
nour. He palled the Rhine to give battle to general Mon-
tecuculi, tvhon\ he followed as far as Safpach ; but mount¬
ing upon an eminence to difeover the enemy’s camp, he was
hilled by a cannon-ball in i6’5. All France regretted the
lols of this great man, who by his military exploits had rai-
fed the admiration of Europe.
i OURAINR, a province of France, bounded on the
north by Maine, on the eaft by Orleanois, on the fouth by
Berris, and on the well by Anjou and Poitou. It is about
58 miles in length, and 55 in breadth where it is broadeil.
Phis country is watered by 17 rivers, beiides many brooks,
which not only render it delightful, but keep up a commu¬
nication with the neighbouring provinces. The air is tempe¬
rate, and the foil is fo fruitful that it is called the garden of
France. It now forms the department of Indre and Loire,
of which 'fours 7s tire capital.
TOURMALINE, in mineralogy, a fpecies of filiceous
earth.
It has been found only in Ceylon, Brazil, and Tyrol.
That of Ceylon is of a dark brown or yellowifh colour ; its
fpecific gravity 3,065, or 3,295 ; that of Brazil is green,
blue, red, or yellow, and its Ipecific gravity 3,075 or
g, 180; that of Tyrol by refleded light is of a blackilh
brown, but by refrafted light yellowilh, or in thin pieces
green ; its fpecif.c gravity 3,050 ; moftly cryftallized in po¬
lygon prilms, but fometimes amorphous. The thickeft
parts are opake : the thin more or lels tranfparent.
The proportion of their conllituent parts has been found
by Bergman,
Argill,
iSilex,
Calcareous earth,
Iron,
100
100
100
For the eleflrical qualities of tourmaline, fee Elec¬
tricity, n° 54.
i OURNAMENT, a martial fport or exercife which
the ancient cavaliers ufed to perform, to fhow their bra¬
very and addrefs. It is derived from the French word
tour tier, i. e. “ to turn round,” becaufe to be expert in
thefe exercifes, much agility both of horfe and man was
requifite, they riding round a ring in imitation of the an¬
cient Circi.
The firft tournaments were or.ly courfes on horfeback,
wherein the cavaliers tilted at each other with canes in
manner of lances ; and were diflinguifiied fromjufls, which
were courfes or careers, accompanied witli attacks and
cembats, with blunted lances and fwords. See Just.
The prince who publifhed the tournament, ufed to fend
a king at arms, with a fafe-condu6l, and a fword, to all the
princes, knights, &c. frgnifying that he intended a tourna-
rnent and a clafhing of fwords, in the prefence or ladies and
dardels ; which was the ultra 1 formula of invitation.
The rrrll engaged man againft man, then troop againfl
troop ; and after the combat, the judges allotted the prize
to the beft cavalier, and the bell itriker of fwords ; who was
accordingly conducted in pomp to the lady of the tourna¬
ment ; where, after thanking her very reverently, he faluted
her and likew-ife her two attendants.
Thefe tournaments made the principal diverfron of the
13th and 14th centuries. Munfter lays, it was Henry the
Fowler, duke of Saxony, and afterwards emperor, who died
] T o u
in 936, that full introduced them ; but it appears from the Tourna*
chronicle of Fours, that the true inventor of this famous H
fport, at kaft in France, was one Geoffry, lord of Preuilli,Fourrtefor*,
about the year ]c66. * —-y—
Inllances of them occur among the Englifh in the reign
of king Stephen, about the year 1140; but they were not
much in ufe till Richard’s time, towards the year 1149.
After which period thefe diverfions were performed with ex¬
traordinary magnificence in the Tilt-yard near St James’s,
Smithfield, and other places.
The following account of a tournament, from Maitland,
is curious. King Richard II. defigning to hold a tourna!
ment at London on the Sunday after Michaelmas, fent di¬
vers heralds to make proclamations of it in all the principal
courts ol Europe; and accordingly not a few princes, and
great numbers of the prime nobility, reforted hither from
France, Germany, the Netherlands, &c. This folemnity
began on Sunday afternoon, from the Tower of London,
with a pompous cavalcade of 60 ladies, each leading an arm¬
ed knight by a filver chain, being attended by their ’fquirea
ot honour, and, palling through Cheapfide, rode to Smith-
field, where the jufts and tournaments continued feveral day®
with magnificent variety of entertainments; on which occa-
fion the king kept open houfe at the bilhop of London’s pa¬
lace for all perfons of diitindlion, and every night concluded
with a ball.
A.t lalt, however, they were found to be produftive of bad
effects, and the occafions of leveral fatal misfortunes—as in
the rnflance of Henry II. of France, and of the tilt exhibi-'-
ted at Chalons, which, from the numbers killed on both
fides, wras called the little avar of Chalons. Thefe and other
inconveniences, refulting from thofe dangerous paftimes,
gave the popes occaiia^to forbid them, and the princes of
Europe gradually concurred in diicouraging and fuppreffing
them.
1 OURNAY, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands in
Flanders, and capital of a diftrict called Fournayjis, with a
bifhop’s fee. It is divided into two parts by the river
Scheld ; and is large, populous, well built, and carries on a
great trade in woollen Huffs and llockings. The cathedral
is a very handfome ftruclare, and contains a great many
chapels, with rich ornaments, and feveral magnificent tombs
of marble and brafs. The town was taken by the allies in
1709 ; but was ceded to the houfe of Auftria by the treaty
of Utrecht, though the Dutch had a right to put in a gar-
rifon. It was taken by the French in June 1745, who de-
molifhed the fortifications. In 1781 the emperor Jofeph II.
obliged the Dutch to withdraw their garrifon. It was ta¬
ken by the French in 1791, abandoned by them in 1793,
and again conquered by them in 1794. It is 14 mile#
fouth-eaft of Lifle, 30 fouth-welt of Ghent, and 135 north
by eaft from Paris. E. Long. 3. 28. N. Lat. 50. 33.
TOURNEFORT (Jofeph Pitton de), a famous French
botanill, born at Aix in Provence in 1656. Fie had a pal-
fion for plants from his childhood, which overcame his fa¬
ther’s views in putting him to fttidy philofophy and divini¬
ty ; therefore on his death he quirted theology, and gave
himfelf up entirely to phyfic, natural hiftory, and botany.
He wandered over the mountains of Dauphiny, Savoy, Ca¬
talonia, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, in fearch of new fpe¬
cies of plants, which he acquired with much fatigue and
danger. His fame in 1683 procured him the employment
of botanic profeffor, in the king’s garden ; and by the king’s
order, he travelled into Spain, Portugal, Holland, and Eng¬
land, where he made prodigious colledlions of plants. In
1700, Mr Tournefort, in obedience to another order,
fimpled over all the ifles of the Archipelago, upon the coafts
of the Black Sea, in Bithynia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Arme-
6 nia.
T R A
nJa, and Georgia ; making obrervatiofla on natural hiftory
at large, ancient and modern geography, religion, manners,
and commerce. He fpent three years in this learned voy¬
age ; and then refumir.g his profeffion, was made profefibr
of phyfic in the college-royal., He died in confequence of
an accidental crufh of his bread by a cart-wheel, which
brought on a {pitting of blood and hydrothorax, that earned
him off in t '08, He wrote Elements of Botany, both in
French and Latin ; A Relation of his Voyage into the Le¬
vant ; with other pieces of lefs confideration.
TOURNIQUET, in furgery, an inftrument formed with
ferews, for compreffing any part- with rollers, &c. for the
flopping of heemorrhagies. See Surgery, n° 16c.
TOWER, a tall building confiding of feveral dories,
ufually of a round form, though fome are fquare or polygo¬
nal. Towers are built for fortreffes, 6cc, as the Tower of
London. See London, n° 46.
TOWN, a place inhabited by a confiderable number of
people, being of a middle .fize between a city and a village.
TOXICODENDRON, in botany. See Rhus.
TRAAS. See Terras.
TRACHEA. See Anatomy, n° 116.
TRACHINUS, the weever, a genus of fifhes belong¬
ing to the order of jugulares. There is but one fpecies,
viz. the c/raco, or common weever. The qualities of this
fifh were well known to the ancients, who take notice of
them without any exaggeration : the wounds inflkded by
its fpines are exceedin jly painful, attended with a violent
burning and mod pungent {hooting, and fometimes with
an indammation that will extend trom the arm to the
fhoulder.
It is a common notion, thatthefe fymptoms proceed from
fomething more than the imall wound this fifh is capable of
inflidtinu ; and that there is a venom infufed at lead into the
wounds made by the fpines chat form the fird dorfal fin,
which is dyed with black, and has a mod fufpicious afpedl;
though it is poilible, that the malignity of the fymptoms
arifes from the habit of body the perfon is in, or the part in
which the wound is given. The remedy uied by fome fi-
fhermen is the fea fand, with which they rub the place af-
fe&ed ‘or a confiderable time. At Scarborough, dale urine
warmed is ufed with fuccefs. In the Univerfal Mufeum for
November 176;, is an infiance of a perfon who was redu¬
ced to great dam>er by a wound from this fifh, and wrho was
cured by the application of fweet oil, and taking opium and
V enice treacle.
This fifh buries itfelf in the fands, leaving only its nofe out,
and if trod on immediately drikes with great force ; and they
have been feen directing their blows with as much judgment
as fighting cocks. Notwithdanding this noxious property
of the fpines, it is exceeding good meat. f
The Englifh name feems to have no meaning, being cor¬
rupted from the French la vive, to called as being capable,
of h ving long out of the water, according to the interpre¬
tation of Belon. It grows to the length of 12 inches, but
is commonly found much lefs: the irides are yellow : the.
under jaw is longer than the upper, and dopes very much
towards the belly ; the teeth are imall: the back is draight,
the fides are flat, the belly is prominent, the lateral line
draight : the covers of the gills are armed with a very drong
fpine : the fird dorfal fin coniids of five very drong fpines,
which, as well as the intervening membranes, are tinged
with black; this fin, when quiefeent, is lodged in a fimll
hollow : the fecond confids of feveral foft rays, commences
jud at the end of the fird, and continues, almod to the tail:
the pecdoral fins are broad and angular ; the ventral fins
ftnall : the vent is placed remarkably forward, very near the
throat: the anal fin extends to a (mall didance from the
VOL. XVIII. Part II..
r ssi 1
T R A
tail, is a little hollowed in the middle, but not fo much as Tratft
to be called forked : the fides are marked lengthwife with , !l
two or three dirty yellow lines, and tranfverfely by numbers rraS0PCu
of fmall ones : the belly filvery. ®on'
T. RAC L, in geo raphy, an extent of ground, or a por¬
tion of the earth's furface.
Tract, in matters of literature, denotes a fmall treatifeor
written difeourfe upon any fubjeT.
ft RADE, in general, denotes the fame with commerce,
confiding in buying, felling, and exchanging of commodi¬
ties, bills, money, &c. See Commerce, Coin, Money,
Company, &c.
1 RADR-Windsy denote certain regular winds at fea, blow¬
ing either condantly the fame way, or alternately this way
and that; thus called from their ule in navigation, and the
Indian commerce. See Wind.
TRADESMEN’S tokens, a term fynonymous among
medallids with provincial coins.
This is a lubjedl curious enough to deferve attention,
though we will not; go fo far as Mr Pinkerton does, who
fays that it is a fubjedt in which the perpetual glory of the
nation is intereded. Since the year 1789 provincial half¬
pence have been made and circulated in confiderable quanti¬
ty. As ancient medals and coins have been frequently of
uie to hiftorians, it is to be regretted that many of thefe
provincial halfpence are rendered ufelefs in this refpedl by
unmeaning figures and puerile devices. Utility and ele¬
gance ought to be dudied : for this view it has been pro-
pofed by a gentleman of tade on this fubjeft, that all coins
fhould be didinguifhed by one of the following five charac-
teriffics. 1. Fac fimiles of magnificent beautiful build¬
ings. 2. Reprefentations of great and ufeful undertakings.
3. Emblems of the indudry and commerce of the age.
4. The illudrious men, &c. to which the nation has given
birth. 5. Important hidorical events.
For thefe hints we acknowledge ourfelves indebted to
the papers of an ingenious gentleman pulifhed in the perio¬
dical works of the time. i hofe who wilh. to fee more
upon the fubjedl, may confult the Univerfal Magazine for
Augud 1796. ^
TRADITION, fomething handed down from one ge¬
neration to another without being written. Thus the Jews
pretended, that befides their written law contained in the
Old Peftament, Mofes had delivered an oral law which had
been conveyed down from father to fon ; and thus the Ro¬
man Catholics are fa id to value particular do&rines iup-
pofed to have defeended from the apodolic times by tradi¬
tion.
TRAGACANTH. See Astragalus, Pharmacy-
Index.
PRAGEDY, a dramatic poem, reorefenting fome fig-
nal arftion performed by illudrious perfons, and which has
frequently a fatal iflue or end. See Poetry, Part II.
left. 1.
TRAGI-comedy, a dramatic piece, partaking both of
the nature of tragedy and comedy ; in which a mixture of
merry and ferious events is admitted.
I R.vGOl OGOin, goat s beard, in botany r A genus
plants belonp’irip' to the r'afs nf /T
of plants belonging to the c!afs of fyngemji , and to the
order of folygamia <equaL ; and in the natural fydem ran-
ging under the 49^ order, Conipojtt^e. Fhe receptacle is
niked, the calyx fimple, and the pappus plumose. There
are 14 fpecies; of which two are Britifh, the p. atenfe and
porr folium.
1. rhe praten e, or yellow goat’s heard, has its calyxes
equal with the dorets, and its leaves entire, long, narrow, ief-
file, and grally. In fair weather this plant opens at fun*
riling, and fhuts between nine and ten in the morning. T ie
4 A
roots
T R A
Trajan
f 554 3
T R A
roots are conical and efculent, and are fometlmes boiled and
ferved up at table like afparaqus. It irrows on meadows.
2. The porrif(ilium, or purple goat’s beard, has the calyx
■i longer than the radius of the floret; the flowers are large,
purple, Angle, and terminal; and the leaves long, pointed,
and bluifh. The root is long, thick, and efculent. It grows
in meadows, and is cultivated in gardens under the name of
falfafy.
TRAJAN (Marcus Ulpius), a celebrated Roman em¬
peror, who gained many vidftories over the Parthians and
Germans, pufhing the empire to its utmod extent on the
eaft and north Tides. He died at Silinunte, a city of Cili¬
cia, which from him was called Trajanopolis, in the year
ny-
Trajan's Column, a famous hiftorical column erefted in
Rome, in honour of the emperor Trajan. It is of the Tuf-
can order, though fomewhat irregular: its height is eight
diameters, and its pedeftal Corinthian : it was built in a
large iquare called Forum Romanum. Its bafe cenfifts
of 12 flones of an enormous frze, and is raifed on a focle,
or foot, of eight fteps: withinfide is a ftaircafe illumi¬
nated with 44 windows. It is 140 feet high, v/hich is 3 ^
feet fhort of the Antonine column, but the workmanfhip of
the former is much more valued. It is adorned from top
to bottom with baffo relievos, reprefencing the great adtions
of the emperor againft the Dacians.
TRAIN, a line of gunpowder laid to give fire to a quan¬
tity thereof, in order to do execution by blowing up earth,
works, buildings, &c.
Train of Artillery, includes the great guns and other
pieces of ordnance belonging to an army in the field.
Train-OU, the oil procured from the blubber of a whale
by boiling.
TRALLIAN (Alexander), a Greek writer on phyfic,
a native of Tralles in Lydia, who lived about the middle of
the fixth century. His works are divided into 1 2 books ;
in which he treats of diftempers as they occur, from head
to foot. He was the firft who opened the jugular vein, and
that^ufed cantharides as a blifter for the gout. Dr Freind,
in his Hiftory of Phyfic, ftyles him one of the moft valu¬
able authors fince the time of Hippocrates. Though he
appears on the whole to have been a rational phyfician, yet
there are things in his writings that favour of enthufiafm
and fuperftition.
TRA-LOS-MONTES, a province of Portugal, called in
Latin Tranfmontana, becaufe fituated on the eait fide of a
chain of hills that feparate it from Entre Duero-e-Mintio.
It is bounded on the north by Galicia ; on the fouth by
the provinces of Beira and Leon ; by the laft of which it is
bounded alfo to the eaft. Its length from north to fouth
is upwards of 120 miles, and its breadth about 80. It is
full of mountains, and produces little corn, but plenty of
wine, fruits of feveral forts, and abundance of game.
TRANSACTIONS, a name generally given to a col-
Jeftion of the papers read before literary or philofophical
focieties. The name of Pbilofophical Tranfaftions was firll
adopted by the Royal Society of London. See an account
of the Royal Society, Vol. XVII. p. 582,
The Fhilofophical Tranfadtions to the end of the year
2700 were abridged in three volumes by Mr John Low-
thoru : thofe from the year j 700 to 1720 were abridged
in two volumes by Mr Henry Jones : thofe from 1719 to
1733 were abridged in two volumes by Mr John Eames
and Mr John Martyn ; Mr Martyn continued the abridge¬
ment of thofe from 1732 to 1744 two volumes, and of
thofe from 1743 to 1 750 in two volumes.
They were for many years publifhed in numbers, and
the printing of them was always, from time to time, the Tnnfctn.
fingle aft of the refpedfive fecretaries, till the yean 1752, dental
when the fociety thought fit that a committee fhould be ap- H
pointed to reconfider the papers read before them, and to Tr^fu*
feleft out of them fuch as they fliould judge moll proper for
publication in the future Tranfaftions. They are publifhed
annually in two parts at the expence of the fociety, and
each fellow is entitled to receive one copy gratis of every
volume publifhed after his admifiion into the fociety.
They were firft fet on foot in 1665, by Mr Oldenburg,
fecretary of the fociety, and were continued by him till the
year 1677. Upon his death, they were difcontinued till
January 1678, when Dr Grew refumed the publication of
them, and continued it for the months of December 1.678,
and January and February 1679, after which they were in¬
termitted till January 1683. During this laft interval they
were fupplied in fome meafure by Dr Hooke’s Philofophi-
cal Colledtions. They were alfo interrupted for three
years, from December 1687 to Januaiy 1691, befide other
fmaller interruptions amounting to near one year and a half
more, before October 1695, fince which time the Tranfac-
tions have been regularly carried on.
TRANSCENDENTAL, or Transcendent, fome-
thing elevated, or raifed above other things ; which paflcs
and tranfcends the nature of other inferior things.
TRANSCRIPT, a copy of any original writing, par¬
ticularly that of an aft or inftrument mferted in the body
of another.
TRANSFER, in commerce, an aft whereby a perfon
furrenders his right, intereft, or property, in any thing move-
able or immoveable to another.
TRANSFORMATION, in general, denotes a change
of form, or the affuming a new form different from a former
one.
TRANSFUSION, the aft of pouring a liquor out ®f
one veflel into another.
Transfusion of Blood, an operation by which it was
fome time ago imagined that the age of animals would be
renewed, and immortality, or the next thing to it, confer¬
red on thofe who had undergone it.
The method of transfufing Dr Lower gives us to the
following effeft : take up the carotid artery of the dog, or
other animal, whofe blood is to be transfufed into another
of the fame, or a different kind ; feparate it from the nerve
of the eighth pair, and lay it bare above an inch. Make a
flrong ligature on the up*per part of the artety ; and an
inch nearer the heart another ligature with a running knot,
to be loofened and faflened as occafion requires. Draw
two threads between the two ligatures, open the artery, put
in a quill, and tie up the artery again upon the quill by the
two threads, and flop the quill by a flick.
Then make bare the jugular vein of the other animal for
about an inch and half in length, and at each end make a
ligature with a running knot; and in the fpace between
the two knots draw under the veins two threads, as in the
other. Open the vein, and put into it two quills, one into
the defcending part of the vein, to receive the blood from
the other dog, and carry it to the heart ; the other quill
put into the other part of the jugular, towards the head,
through which the fecond animal’s own blood is to run into
difhts. The quills thus tied faft, flop them up with flicks
till there be occafion to open them.
Things thus difpofed, fallen the dogs on their fides to¬
wards one another, in fuch manner as that the quills may
go into each other; then unflop the quill that goes down
into the fecond dog’s jugular vein, as alfo that coming out
of the other dog’s artery ; and by the help of two or three
, other.
Trarufii
fion
T R A r
• other quills put Into each other, as there lhall be oceafion,
infert them into one another. Then flip the running knots,
and immediately the blood runs through the quills as through
an artery, very impetuoufly. As the blood runs into the
-'dog, unftop the quill in the upper part of his jugular, for
his own blood to run out at, though not conftantly, but as
you perceive him able to bear it, till the other dog begins
to cry and faint, and at laft die. Lajlly, take both quills
out of the jugular, tie the running knot fall, and cut the
vein afunder, and few up the fkin : the dog, thus diimiffed,
will run away as if nothing ailed him.
In the Philofophical Tranfaftions we have accounts of
the fuccefs ot various transfuhons praftiled at London,
Paris, in Italy, &c. Sir Edmund King transfufed forty,
nine ounces of blood out of a calf into a Iheep ; the Iheep,
after the operation, appearing as well and as ftrong as be¬
fore.
M. Denis transfufed the blood of three calves into three
dogs, which all continued bride, and eat as well as before.
The fame perlon transfuled the blood of four wethers into a
horfe twenty-fix years old, which thence received much
flrength, and a more than ordinary appetite.
Soon after this operation was introduced at Paris, viz,
in 1667 ancl 1668, M. Denis performed it on five hu¬
man fubjedls, two of whom recovered of diforders under
which they laboured, one being in perfeft health fuffered
no inconvenience from it; and two perfons who were ill,
and fubmitted to the operation, died : in confequence of
which the magiftrates ifiued a fentence, prohibiting the
transfufion on human bodies under pain of imprifonment.
Mr John Hunter, we are told, made many ingenious ex¬
periments to determine the effefts of transfuiing blood,
fome of which are iufficient to attraft attention. But
whether fuch experiments can ever be made with fafety on
the human body, is a point not eafily determined. They
might be allowed in defperate cafes proceeding from a
corruption of the blood, from poifon, &c. as in hydrophobia.
I RANSI F, from tranjit, “ it pafies over,” fignifies the
paffage of any planet over the fun, moon, or liars.
I RANSI 1 ION, the paffage of any thing from one
place to another.
Iransition, in oratory. See Oratory, n° 39.
1 RANSI FIVE, in grammar, an epithet applied to fuch
verbs as fignify an action which paffes from the lubjed that
does it, to or upon another iubjed which receives it. Under
the head of verbs tranfitive come what we ufually call verbs
aSive and pajjiveother verbs, whofe a&ion does not pafs
out of themfelves, are called neuters.
1 RANSLATION, the ad of transferring or removing
a thing from one place to another ; as we fay, the tranflation
of a bifhop’s fee, a council, a feat o1'jullice, &c.
Translation is alio ufed for the verfion of a book or
writing out of one language into another.
1 he principles of tranflation have been clearly and ac¬
curately laid down by Dr Campbell of Aberdeen in his inva¬
luable 1 reliminary Differtations to his excellent tranflations
of the golpels. ^ t he fundamental rules which he eftablifhes
are three : 1. I hat the tranflation fhould give a complete
tranfeript of the ideas of the original. 2. That the ftyle and
mariner of the oiiginal fhould be preferved in the tranflation.
3- 1 hat the tranflation fhould have all the eale of original
compofition. i he rules deducible from thefe general laws
are explained and illullrated with much judgment and tafle,
m a late Effay on the Principles of Tranflation, by Mr
i y tier, judge-advocate of Scotland.
I RANSMaRINE, lomething that comes from or be¬
longs to the parts beyond lea.
5SS 1 T R A
TRANSMIGRATION, the removal or tranflation of
a whole people into another country, by the power of a con¬
queror.
I ransmtgration is particularly ufed for the paffage of
the foul out of one body into another. Sec Metempsy¬
chosis.
1 RANSMU1 AT I ON, the ad of changing one fub-
jlance into another.
Nature, fays Sir Ifaac Newton, is delighted with tranl-
mutation : water, which is a fluid, volatile, taftelels, fait, is,
by heat, tranfmuted into vapour, which is a kind of air *
and by cold into ice, which is a cold, tranfparent, brittle
{lone, eafily diffolvable ; and this {lone is convertible again
into water by heat, as vapour is by cold.—Earth, by heat,
becomes fire, and, by cold, is turned into earth again :
denfe bodies, by fermentation, are rarefied into various kinds
of air ; and that air, by fermentation alio, and fometimes
without it, reverts into grois bodies. All bodies, beails,
fifhes, infeds, plants, &C. with all their various parts, grow
and increafe out of water and aqueous and faline tindures ;
and, by putrefadion, all of them revert into water, or an
aqueous liquor again.
Tran smutation, in alchemy, denotes the ad of chan¬
ging imperfed metals into gold or iilver. This is alfo called
the grand operation ; and, they fay, it is to be effected with
the philofopher’s Hone.
The trick of tranfmuting cinnabar into filver is thus ;
the cinnabar, being bruifed gtolsly, is ftratified in a crucible
with granulated filver, and the crucible placed in a great
fire ; and, after due time for calcination, taken off; then
the matter, being poured out, is found to be cinnabar turn¬
ed into real filver, though the filver grains appear in the
fame number and form as when they were put into the cru¬
cible ; but the mifehief is, coming to handle the grains of
filver, you find them nothing but light friable bladders,
which will crumble to pieces between the fingers.
i he tranfinutability of water into earth teems to have
been believed by Mr Boyle ; and Bifhop Watfon thinks that
it has not yet been difproved. See his Chemical. EJfays.
Transmutation of Acids. See CHEMisTRY-/«</f’X.
Transmutation oj Metals, See Chemistry-/W<?x.
TRANSOM, among builders, denotes the piece that i*
framed acrofs a double-light window.
TRANSOMS, in a {hip, certain beams or timbers ex¬
tended acro{s the fternpoft of a fhip, to fortify her a! terpart,
and give it the figure moft fuitable to the fervice for which
flic is calculated.
TRANSPARENCY, in phyfics, a quality in certain
bodies, whereby they give paffage to the rays of light ; in
contradiftindlion to opacity, or that quality of bodies which
renders them impervious to the rays or li ht. /
It has been generally iuppoled by philolophers, that tranf¬
parent bodies have their pores difpoied in itraight lines, by
which means the rays of light have an opportunity of pene¬
trating them in all dire&ions; but lome experiments in
electricity have made it apparent, that by the a&ion of this
fluid the moft opaque bodies, fuch as fulphur, pitch, and
fealmg-wax, may be rendered tranfparent as glafs, while yet
we cannot luppole the direClion ot their pores to be any¬
way altered from what it originally was (fee Electricity,
n 4') A curious in fiance of an increafe of tranfparency
we have in rubbing a piece or white paper over one that has
been written upon or printed 1 while the white paper is at
refi, the writing or print will perhaps fcarce appear through
it ; but when in motion, will be very eakly legible, and
continue fo till the motion is dilcontinued.
1 RANSidOSITION, in grammar, a difturbing or diflo-
4 A 2 eating
Tranfrm.
gratiou
1!
Tranipali.
T R A [ 556 ] T R E
TrarfuV cat'ng tli? words of a difcourfe, or a clianginpf their natural
ftanhation orcjer Gf conftrudlion, to pleafe the ear by rendering the
TTrap contexture more fmooth, ealy, and harmonious,
u—TRANSUBSTANTIA'riON) in theology, the conver-
fion or change ot the fubftance of the bread and wine in the
eucharift, into the body and blood of Jefus Chi ill ; which
the Romiih church fuppofe to be wrought by the confecra-
tion of the prieft, bee Suffer of the Lard) n'; 5.
TRANSVERSAL IS, in anatomy, a name given to fe-
veral mufcles. See Anatomy, Part IT.
1 RANSVERSE, fomething that goes acrofs another
from corner to corner : thus bends and bars in heraldry are
tranfverfe pieces or bearings; the diagonals of a parallelo¬
gram or a Iquare are tranfverfe lines.
TRANSYLVANIA, a province of Europe, annexed
to Hungary, and bounded on the north by Upper Hun¬
gary and Poland, on the eaft by Moldavia and Walachia,
on the fouth by Walachia, and on the weft by Upper and
l.ower Hungary. It is furrounded on all parts by high
mountains, which, however, are not barren. The inhabi¬
tants have as much corn and wine as they want themielves ;
and there are rich mines of gold, lilver, lead, copper, quick-
filver, and alum. It has undergone various revolutions; but
it now belongs to the houfe of Auftria. The inhabitants
are of feveral forts of religions ; as Papifts, Lutherans, Cal-
vinifts, Socinians, Photinians, Arians, Greeks, and Maho-
' metans. It is about 162 miles in length, and r 50 in
breadth. The adminiftration of affairs is conducted by 12
perlons ; namely, three Roman Catholics, three Lutherans,
three Calvinifts, and three Socinians. 1 he militia is com¬
manded by the governor, whofe commiflion is the more im¬
portant, as Tranfylvania is the bulwark of Chriftendom.
It is divided into feveral fmall diftridts, called palatinates
and counties; and is inhabited by three different nations,
Saxons, Sicilians, and Hungarians. Hermanftadt is the
capital town.
TRAPEZIUM, in geometry, a plane figure contained
under four unequal right lines.
TRAPEZIUS, a mufcle. See Anatomy, Part II.
TRAPP (Dr Jofeph), an Englifh divine of excellent
parts and learning, was born at Cherington in Gloucefter-
ifeire, of which place his father was redtor in t s79- He
was the firft perfon chofen to the profefforfhip of poetry
founded at Oxford by Dr Bivkhead; and publifhed hi lec
tures under the title of Pr&ledtiones Poetic*, in which he laid
down excellent rules for every fpecies of poetry in very ele¬
gant Latin. He fhowed afterwards, however, by his tianf-
lation of Virgil, that a man may be able to diredt who can¬
not execute, and may have the critic’s judgment without
the poet’s fire. In the early part of his life Dr Trapp is
faid to have been chaplain to the father of the famous Lord
Bolingbroke : he obtained the living of Chrift church in
Newgate Street,-and St Leonard’s, Fofter-lane, London ;
and his very high-church principles probably obftrudfed his
farther preferment. He publifhed feveral occafional poems,
a tragedy called Alramule, tranfiated Milton’s Paradife Loft
into Latin verfe, and died in 1747.
Trapp, in mineralogy, a fpecies of filiceous earth. It
is defcribed by Dr Kir wan as nearly the fame with bafaltes:
a dark grey or black ftone, generally invefted with a ferru¬
ginous cruft, and cryftallized in opake, triangular, or poly-
angular columns, is called ba/altes ; that which is amorphous,
or breaks in la> ge, thick, fquare pieces, is called tea p. Their
conftituent principles, and relation to acids and fluxes, are
exactly the fame. The texture os this ftone is either coarie,
rough, and diftindt, or hne and inditcernible. it is often red-
difh ; it is always opake, and moulders by expofure to the air;
fome fpecimens give fire with fteel very difficultly, though
Treat in.
it is always very compadt; fometimes it is fprinkled over Traveller*
with a few minute fhining particles: its fpecific gravity is
3° v,
\V hen heated red-hot, and quenched in water, it becomes
by degrees of a reddifh brown colour : it melts per fe in a
ftrong heat into a compadt flag. Borax alfo diffolves it in
fulion, but mineral alkali not entirely.
According to Mr Bergman, 100 parts of the bafaltes
contain 52 of filiceous earth, 15 of argil, 8 of calcareous, 2
of magnefia, and 25 of iron ; and with this Mr Meyer very
nearly agrees.
For a more complete account of this fpecies of ftone, fee
M Faujas de St Fond on the Nat. Hijl. of Trapp.
TRAVELLERS joy. See Clematis.
TRAVERSE, or Transverse, in general, denote?
fomething that goes athwart another; that is, croffes and
cuts it obliquely.
Traverse, in navigation, implies a compound courfe, or
an affemblage of various courfes, lying at different angles
with the meridian. See Navigation, p. 688.
Traverse Board, a thin circular piece of board, marked
with all the points of the compafs, and having eight holes
bored in each, and eight fmall pegs hanging from the centre
of the board. It is ufed to determine the different courfes
run by a flrip during the period ot the watch, and to afeer*
tain the diftance of each courfe.
TRAVESTY, a name given to an humorous tranflation
of any author. The word is derived from the French tra¬
veler “ to difguife.”
TRAUMATIC balsam. See Pharmacy, n°428.
TREACLE. See Theriaca.—Some alfo give the
name treacle to melaffes. See Pharmacy, n°6o5.
Treacle Beer. See Spruce.
Treacle Mufiard. See Clypeola.
TRE ASON, a general appellation, made ufe of by the
law, to denote not only offences againft the king and go¬
vernment, but alfo that accumulation of guilt which ariles
whenever a fuperior repofes a confidence in a fubjedt or in¬
ferior, between whom and hlmfelf there fubfifts a natural, a
civil, or even a fpiritual relation ; and the inferior fo abufes
that confidence, fo forgets the obligations of duty, fubjec-
tion, and allegiance, as to deftroy the life of any fuch iu-
perior or lord. Hence treafon is of two kinds, high and
tetty'
High Treafon, or Treafon Paramount (which is equivalent
to the crimen Ufa majejlatts of the Romans, as Glanvil de¬
nominates it alfo in our Englilh law), is an offence commit¬
ted againft the fecurity of the king or kingdom, whether
by imagination, word, or deed. In order to prevent the
inconveniences which arofe in England from a multitude of
conftrudtive treafons, the ftatute 25 Edw. III. c. 2. waa
made; which defines wdrat offences only for the future
fliould be held to be treafon ; and this ftatute comprehends
all kinds of high-treafon under feven diftindt branches.
“ 1. When a man doth compafs or imagine the death of
our lord the king, of our lady his queen, or of their eldeil
fon and heir.” Under this defeription it is held that a
queen-regnant (fuch as Queen Elizabeth and Qjaeen Anneji
is within the-WTords of the adt, being invefted with royal
power, and intitled to the allegiance of her fubjedi : but the
hufband of fuch a queen is not comprifed within thefe
words; and therefore no treafon can be committed againft
him. ... 111
Let us next fee what is a comptjjing or imagining tire oeatn
of the king, &c. Thefe are fynonymous terms : the word
compajs fignifying the purpoie or defign of the mind or
will ; and not, as in common ipeech, the carrying iueh de¬
fign to effedt. And thereiore an accidental ftroke, which
T R E [ 557 1 T R E
Treafon. may mortally wound the fovereign, infortuniam, without
—nr-"' any traitorous intent, is no treafon : as was the cafe of Sir
Walter Tyrrel, who, by the command of King William
Rufus, fhooting at a hart, the arrow glanced againft a tree,
and killed the king upon the fpot. But as this compaffing
or imagination is an a£f of the mind, it cannot poffibly fall
under any judicial cognizance, unlefs it be demonftrated by
fome open or overt a&. The ttatute exprelsly requires,
that the acculed “ be thereof upon fufficient proof attainted
of fome open a£t by men of his own condition.” Thus, to
provide weapons or ammunition for the purpofe of killing
the king, is held to be a palpable overt a£t of treafon in
imagining his death. To confpire to imprifon the king by
force, and move towards it by affembling company, is an
overt a£t of compaffing the king’s death; for all force, ufed
to the perfon of the king, in -its confequence may tend to
his death, and is a ftrong prefuinption of fomething worfe
intended than the prefent force, by fuch as have fo far
thrown off their bounden duty to their fovereign : it being
an old obfervation, that there is generally but a ffiort inter¬
val between the prifons and the graves of princes. It feems
clearly to be agreed, that by the common law and the fta-
tute of Edw. III. words fpoken amount only to a high mif-
demcanor, and no treafon. For they may be fpoken in
heat, without any intention ; or be miftaken, perverted, or
milremembered by the hearers; their meaning depends al¬
ways on their connexion with other words and things ;
they may fignify differently even according to the tone of
voice with which they are delivered ; and iometimes filence
itfelf is more expreffive than any difcourfe. As therefore
there can be nothing more equivocal and ambiguous than
words, it would indeed be unreafonable to make them a-
mount to high treaion. And accordingly, in 4 Car. I. on
a reference to all the judges, concerning fome very atrocious
words fpoken by one Pyne, they certified t® the king,
4‘ that though the words were as wicked as might be, yet
they were no treafon ; for unlels it be by fome particular
ftatute, no words will be treafon.” If the words be fet
down in writing, it argues more deliberate intention ; and
it has been held, that writing is an overt aft of treafon ;
for fcribere eji agere. But even in this cafe the bare words
are not the treaion, but the deliberate aft of writing them.
2. i he fecond fpecies of treafon is, “ if a man do vio¬
late the king’s companion, or the king’s eldeft daugh¬
ter unmarried, or the wife of the king’s eldeft fon and
heir.” By the king’s companion is meant his wife; and by
violation is underftood carnal knowledge, as well without
force as with it : and this is high treafon in both parties if
both be confenting ; as fome of the wives of Henry VIII.
by fatal experience evinced.
1 he third fpecies of treafon is, “ if a man do levy war
again ft our lord the king in his realm.” And this may be
done by taking arms, not only to dethione the king, but
under pietence to reform religion, or the laws, or to re¬
move evil counfellors, or other grievances whether real or
pietended. For the law does not, neither can it, permit
any piivate man, or fet of men, to interi ere forcibly in
matters of fuch high importance ; eloecially as it has efta-
bhfiled a fufficient power for thefe purpoles in the high
court of parliament •; neither does the conftitution juftify
any private or particular rtfiftance for private or particular
grievances ; though, in cafes os national oppreffion, the na¬
tion has very julfifiably rifen as one man, to vindicate the
original conn aft fubfifting between the king and his
people. . 0
4 “ If a man be adherent to the king’s enemies in his
reaim, giving to thetn aid and comfort in the realm or elfe-
vt wre, he is aho declared guilty of high-tiealon. This
muft likewife be proved by fome overt aft ; as by giving Treafon.
them intelligence, by lending them provifions, by felling  
them arms, by treacheroufly furrendering a fortrefs, or the
like.
5. “ If a man counterfeit the king’s great or privy feal,”
this is alfo high-treafon. But if a man takes wax bearing
the impreffion of the great feal off from one patent and fixes
it to another, this is held to be only an abufe of the feal,
and not a counterfeiting of it: as was the cafe of a certain
chaplain, who in fuch a manner framed a difpenfation for
non-refidence. But the knavifii artifice of a lawyer much
exceeded this of the divine. One of the clerks in chancery
glued together two pieces of parchment; on the uppermoft
of which he wrote a patent, to which he regularly obtained
the great feal, the label going through both the Ikins. He
then diffolved the cement, and taking off the written patent,
on the blank Ikin, wrote a freffi patent of a different import
from the former, and publifhed it as true. This was held
no counterfeiting of the great feal, but only a great mifpri-
fion ; and Sir Edward Coke mentions it with iome indig¬
nation that the paity was living at that day.
6. The fixth Ipecies of treafon under this ftatute is, “ if
a man counterfeit the king’s money ; and if a man bring
falfe money into the realm counterfeit to the money of Eng¬
land, knowing the money to be falfe, to merchandife and
make payment withal.” As to the firft branch, counter¬
feiting the king’s money ; this is treaion, whether the falfe
money be uttered in payment or not. Alfo if the king’s
own minters alter the ftandard or alloy eftablilhed by law, it
is treafon. But gold and lilver money only are held to be
within this ftatute. With regard likewife t© the fecond
branch, importing foreign counterfeit money in order to ut¬
ter it here ; it is held that uttering it, without importing itr
is not within the ftatute.
7. The laft fpecies of treafon afeertained by this ftatute
is, “ if a man fiay the chancellor, treafurer, or the king’s
juftices of the one bench or the other, juftices in eyre, or
juftices of affize, and all other juftices affigned to hear and
determine, being in their places doing their offices.” Thefe
high magiftrates, as they reprefent the king’s majefty du¬
ring the execution of their offices, are therefore for the time
equally regarded by the law. But this ftatute extends on¬
ly to the aftual killing of them; and not to wounding, ora
bare attempt to kill them. It extends alfo only to the of¬
ficers therein fpecified ; and therefore the barons of the ex¬
chequer, as fuch, are not within the proteftion of this aft ;
but the lord keeper or commiffioners of the great feal now
feem to be within it, by virtue of the ftatutes 5 Eliz. c. 18.
and 1 W. and M. c. 2 1.
The new treafons, created fince the ftatute 1 M. c. r.
and not comprehended under the defeription of ftatute 25
Edw. III. may be comprifed under three heads. The firft
fpecies relates to Papifts ; the fecond to falfifying the coin
or other royal fignatures, as falfely forging the fign manual,
privy fignet, or privy leal, which fhall be deemed high trea¬
ion (1 M. flat. ii. c. 6.) .1 he third new fpecies of high
treafon is fuch as was created for the fecurity of the Protef-
tant fucceffion in the houfe of Hanoyer. For this purpofe,
after the aft of iettlement was made, it was enafted by fta¬
tute 13 and 14 W. II‘. c. 3. that the pretended prince of
Wales, affuming the title of King James III. fhould be at¬
tainted of high treafon ; and it was made high-treafon for
any or the king’s fubjefts to hold correfpondence with him.
or any perlon employed by him, or to remit money for his
ufe. And by 17 Geo. II. c. 39. it is enafted, that if any
of the fons of the pretender fiiall land or attempt to land in
this kingdom, or be found in the kingdom or any of its do¬
minions, he fhall be adjudged attainted of high-treafon; and
cor-
T R E t 55$ J T R E
Tre-fm, correfponding with them or remitting money to their ufe is
made high treafon. By 1 Ann, flat, 2. c. 17. the offence
df hindering the next in fucceffion from fucceeding to the
crown is high-treafon : and by 6 Ann. c. 7. if any perfon
fhall mnlicioufiy, advifedly, and diredtly, by writing or print¬
ing, maintain, that any other perfon hath any right to the
crown of this realm, otherwife than according to the aft of
fettlement, or that the kings of this realm with the autho¬
rity of parliament are not able to make laws to bind the
crown and its defcent; fuch perion ilrall be guilty of high-
treafon.
The punilhment of high treafon in general is very folemn
and terrible. 1. That the offender be drawn to the gal¬
lows, and not be carried or walk; though dually (by con¬
nivance, at length ripened by humanity into law) a fledge
or hurdle is allowed, to preferve the offender from the ex¬
treme torment of being dragged on the ground or pave¬
ment. 2. That he be hanged by the neck, and then cut
down alive. 3. That his entrails be taken out, and burned
while he is yet alive. 4. That his head be cut off. 5. That
his body be divided into four parts. 6. That his head and
quarters be at the king’s difpofal.
The king may, and often doth, cifcharge all the punifh-
ment except beheadiitg, efpecially where any of noble blood
are .attainted. For beheading being part of the judgment,
that may be executed, though all the reft be omitted by
the king’s command. But where beheading is no part of
the judgment, as in murder ©r other felonies, it hath been
faid that the king cannot change the judgment, although
at the requeft of the party, from one fpecies of death to
another.
In the cafe of coining, which is a treafon of a different
complexion from the reft, the punifhment is milder for male
offenders ; being only to be drawn and hanged by the neck
till dead. But in treafons of every kind the punifhment of
women is the fame, and different from that of men. For as
the natural modefty of the lex forbids the expofing and
publicly mangling their bodies, their fentence (which is to
the full as terrible to fenfe as the other) is to be drawn to
the gallows, and there to be burned alive.
For the confequences of this judgment, fee Attainder,
Forfeiture, and Corruption oj Blood.
Petty or Petit ’Treafon, according to the ftatute 25 Ed¬
ward III. c. 2. may happen three ways: by a fervant kill¬
ing his matter, a wife her hufband, or an eccleliaftical per¬
fon (either iecular or regular) his fuperior, to whom he
owes faith and obedience. A fervant who kills his matter
whom he has left, upon a grudge conceived againft him du¬
ring his fervice, is guilty of petty treafon : for the traiter-
ous intention was hatched while the relation fubflfted be¬
tween them, and this is only an execution of that intention.
So if a wife be divorced a rnenfe et thoro, ftill the vinculum
matrimonii fublifts; and if Are kills fuch divorced hufband,
fhe is a traitrels. And a clergyman is underftood to owe
canonical obedience to the bifhop wlv ordained him, to him
in whole diocefe he is beneficed, and alfo to the metropolitan
of fuch fuffragan or diocefan bifhop; and therefore to kill
any ot thele is petit trealon. As to the reft, whatever has
been (aid with relpeft to wilful Murd r, is alfo applicable
to the crime of petit treafop, which is no other than murder
in it^ moft odious degree ; except that the' trial fhall be as
in cafes of high trealon, before the imp’ovtmeats therein
made by the ftatiites o£ William Hi. But a perio: indift-
cd of petit trealon may be acquitted thereof, and ;ound
guilty of iiiaiiflaughter or murder: and m luch cafe it fhould
I'eem that two witnefles are not neceffary, as in cafes of pe¬
tit trealon they art. Which crime is alio diflinguifhed fiom
trnutder in its punifhment.
The punifhment of petit treafon in a man, is to he drawn Tieifort
and hanged, and in a woman to be drawn and burned : the it
idea of which latter punifhment feems to have been handed Treaf«r7-
down to us from the laws of the ancient Druids, which con- v
demned a woman to be burned for murdering her hufband ;
and it is now the ufual punifhment for all forts of treafons
committed by thofe of the female fex. Perfons guilty of
petit treafon were firft debarred the benefit of clergy by
ftatute 12 Henry VII. c. 7. which has fmee been extended
to their aiders, abettors, and counfellors, by ftatutes 23 Hen¬
ry VIII. c. 1, and 4 & 5 P. and M. c. 4,
TREASUREr in general, denotes a ftore or flock of
money in referve.
TREssvRF.-Trove, in law, derived from the French word
trover, “ to find,” called in Latin thefaurus inventus, is where
any money or coin, gold, filver, plate, «r bullion, is found
hidden in the earth or other private place, the owner there¬
of being unknown ; in which cafe the treafure belongs to
the king ; but if he that hid it be known, or afterwards
found out, the owner and not the king is intitled to it.
TREASURER, an officer to whom the treafure of a
prince or corporation is committed to be kept and duly dif-
pofed of, in payment of officers and other expences. Sec
Treasury.
Of thefe there is a great variety. His majefty of Great
Britain, in quality of eleftor of Brunfwick, is arch-treafurer
of the Roman empire. In England, the principal officers
under this denomination are, the lord high-treafurer, the
treafurer of the houfehold, treafurer of the navy, of the
king’s chamber, &c.
The lord high-treafurer of Great Britain, or flrft commif-
fioner of the treafury, when in commiffion, has under his
charge and government all the king’s revenue which is kept
in the exchequer. He holds his place during the king’s
pleafure ; being inftitrited by the delivery of a white ftaffto
him. He has the check of ail the officers employed in col-
lefting the cuftoms and royal revenues : and in his gift and
dilpoution are all the offices of the cuftoms in the feveral
ports of the kingdom ; elcheators in every county are no¬
minated by him; he alfo makes leaies of the lands belonging
to the crown.
The office of lord-treafurer is now in commiffion. The
number of lords-commiffioners is five ; one of whom is the
firft lord, whofe annual falary was formerly L. 383, but i*
now L. 4000 ; and who, unlefs he be a peer, is alfo chan¬
cellor of the exchequer, and prime minifter in the govern¬
ment of this country ; the other lords commiffioners have
an annual lalary of L. 1600 each.
Treasurer of the Houfohold, is an officer who, in the ab-
fence of the lord-fteward, has power, with the comptroller
and other officers of the green-cloth and the fteward of the
Marfhalfea, to hear and determine treaions, felonies, and
other crimes committed within the king’s palace. See
Household..
There is alio a treafurer belonging to the eftablifhment
of her majefty’s houfehold, &c.
Tre ‘Surer of the JSavy, is an officer who receives money
out of the exchequer, by warrant from the lord hiph-trea-
iurer, or the lords commiffioners executing that place; and
pays ail charges of the navy, by warrant from the principal
officers of the navy.
7 reasurer of the County, he that keeps the county flock.
There are two of them in each county, chofen by the ma¬
jor part of the juffices or the peace, &c. at their geneial
quarter leffion ; under previous iecurity given for the money
entrulled with them, and the faithful execution of the trulls
repoled in them.
TREASURY, the place wherein the revenues of a prince
are
T R E [
Trestifc arc received, preferved, and difburfed. In England the
li treafury is a part of the exchequer; by fome called' the
rTcfe' lower exchtquer. The officers of his majefty’s treafury, or
the lower exchequer, are the lords commiffioners, one of
whom is chancellor, two joint fecretaries, private fecretary
to the firft lord, two chamberlains, an auditor, four tellers,
a clerk of the pells, ufhers of the receipt, a tally-cutter, &c.
See each officer under his proper article, Chancellor,
Teller, Tally, See.
Lords of the Treasury. In lieu of one fingle diredlor
and adminiftrator of his majefty’s revenues under the title of
lord high treafurer, it is at prefent thought proper to put
that office in commiffion, z. e. to appoint feveral perfons to
difeharge it with equal authority, under the title of lords
commiffioners of the treafury.
TREATISE, a fet difeourfe in writing on any fub-
jeft*
TREATY, a covenant between two or more nations ;
or the feveral articles or conditions ftipulated and agreed
upon between fovereign powers.
TREBLE, in mufic, the highelt or moft acute of the
four parts in fymphony, or that which is heard the cleared;
and fhrilleft in a concert.
TREBUCHET, Trebucket, Triluch {Terbichetum),
a tumbrel or cucking itool. Alfo a great engine to call
ftones to batter walls.
TREE, a large vegetable rifing with one woody ftem
to a confiderable height.
Trees may be divided into two clafles, timber and fruit-
trees ; the firft including all thole trees which ate ufed in
machinery, {hip-building, &c. or, in general, for purpofes
of utility ; and the fecond comprehending thofe trees valued
only, or chiefly, for their fruit. It is not necefiary to form
a third clafs to include trees ufed for fuel, as timber is ufed
for this purpofe where it is abundant ; and where it is not
abundant the branches of the timber trees, or fuck of them
as are dwarfiffi, unhealthy, or too fmall for mechanical pur¬
pofes, are ufed as fuel.
_ ^ he anatomy and phyfiology of trees have already been
given under the generic name Plant and Sap. For an
account of their natural hiftory, fee Natural History,
left. iii.
Certain trees, it is well known, are natives of particular
diftrifts ; but many of them have been tranfplanted from
tlKir native foil, and now flounfli luxuriantly in diftant
countries, fo that it becomes a matter of very confiderable
difficulty to afeertain their original foil. The following
rules arc given for this purpofe by the Honourable Daines
Barrington.
i. They muft grow in large mafies, and cover confiderable
trads of ground, the woods not ending abruptly, by a
change to other trees, except the fituation and ftrata become
totally different. 2. They muft grow kindly in copies, and
moot from the {tool, fo as to continue for ever, if not ve’-ycare¬
fully grubbed up. 3. The feed muft ripen kindly ; ‘nature
never plants, but where a fucceffion in the greateft p^ofu-
fiun will continue. Laftly, trees that give names to many
places are probably indigenous.
1 he growth of trees is a curious and interefting fubjed ;
yet few experiments have been made to determine what the
additions are which a tree receives annually in different pe¬
riods of its age. The only obfervations which we have feen
on this fubjed worth repeating were made by the ingenious
* I u rker’t0 wll0m Philofophical Tranfadions are much
indebted for papers containing an accurate regifter of the
weather, which he has kept for many years. He has drawn
"fi.* t0 P01nt out tiie £rowth of three kinds of trees,
0a les> and i- which may be feen in the Philofo-
5S9 ] , T R E
phi cal Tranfadions for 1788. We {hall give his con-
clufiona.
“ I Und (fays he) the growth of oak and affi to be nearly
the fame. I have fome of both iorts planted at the fame
time, and in the fame hedges, of which the oaks are the
largeft ; but there is no certain rule as to that. The com¬
mon growth of an oak or an affi is about an inch in girth
in a year ; fome thriving ones will grow an inch and a half;
the unthriving ones not fo much. Great trees grow more
timber in a year than fmall ones ; for if the annual growth
be an inch, a coat of one-fixth of an inch is laid on all
round, and the timber added to the body every year is its
length multiplied into the thicknefs of the coat and into
the girth, and therefore the thicker the tree L, the more
timber is added/’
We will prefent our readers with a table, ffiowing the
growth of 1 7 kinds ot trees for two years. The trees grew
at Cavenham ia Suffolk.
Tree.
N®
1 Oak
2 Larch
3 Scotch fir
4 Spruce fir
5 Spaniffi chefnut
6 Elm
7 Pinafter
8 Larch
9 Weymouth pine
10 Acacia
I r Beech
12 Plane occidental
13 Lombardy poplar
14 Black poplar
15 Willow
16 Silver fir - -
17 Lime
July 1785.
In.
O IC-r
Os ■
3t
5^ '
7t •
'
3t •
5* ■
5 •
■
■
6f -
8 •
2J ■
St ■
•
84- •
July 1786.
F. In.
■ O Ili ■
3 •
5t ■
64 ■
7t ■
9 '
4t ■
6 ■
6 -
5! ■
64- •
7i ■
o -
44 ■
2 *
H-
i
I
1
o
o
2
2
I
O
1
o
o
2
I
3
o
1 10
July 1787.
F. In.
Ot'
4
7!
7*
o 8
2 j 1
/ T
7
li
64
74
84
34
54
3
94
o
See Husbandry, n° 165, where the growth of it kinda
of trees in 2 r years is given.
I rees fometiines attain a very great'fize : this muft de¬
pend in a great meafure on the richnds of foil, but no lefs
on the degree of heat. Indeed heat is fo effentiai to the
growth oi trees, that as we go from the place within the
polar circles where vegetation begins, and advance to the
equator, we find the trees increafe in fize. Greenland,
Iceland, and other places in the lame latitude, yield no trees
at ad; and the ffirubs which they produce are dwarfiffi ;
whereas, in warm climates, they often grow to an immenfe
itze. . Mr Maiffiam faw fpruce and filver-firs in the dock¬
yard in Venice above 40 yards long, and one of 39 yards
was 18 inches diameter at the fmall end. He was informed
that they came from Switzerland.
ihe largeft tree in Europe, mentioned by travellers, is
the chefnut tree on mount Etna, already deferibed under
the article Etna, n° 18. It is a certain faft that trees
acquire a very great fize in volcanic countries. Befide the
multitude of fine groves in the neighbourhood of Albano in
Italy, there are many detached oaks 20 feet in circum¬
ference, and many elms or the fame fize, efpecially in the
romantic way to Eaftello, called the Galleria. In travel¬
ling by the fide of the lake of Bolfena, the road leads us
through an immenle number a!j, oaks, fpread upon beautiful
hills. W here the lava has been lufficiently loftened, they
are mean and ftraight, and of a confiderable fize ; but where
the lava has not been converted into a foil proper for ftrong,;
vegetation, they are round-headed, and of lefs bignefs ; how¬
ever, taken all together, they make a magnificent appear- -
ancej:
THE [ coo ] THE
anee; and the fpot itfelf crnojit to ranked among the fire
parts of Italy. The fame may he obfervcd of the Imall
lake of Vico, encompafled with gentle riiings, that are all
clothed with fore ft-trees.
Some yews have been found in Britain 60 feet round.
Palms in Jamaica attain the height of 200 feet; and fome
of the pines in Norfolk Ifland are 280 feet high.
Of all the different kinds known in Europe, oak is heft
for building ; and even when it lies ekpofed to air and wa¬
ter, there is none equal to it. Fir-timber is the next in de¬
gree of goodnefs for building, efpecially in England, where
they build upon leafes. It differs from oak in this, that it
requires not much feafoning, and therefore no'great flock is
required before hand. Fir is ufed for flooring, wainfcoting,
and the ornamental parts of building within doors. Elm is
the next in ufe, efpecia.lly in England and France : it is very
tough and pliable, and therefore eahly worked : it does not
readily fplit ; and it bears driving of bolts and nails better
than any other wood ; tor which reafon it is chiefly ufed
by wheel-wrights an;J coach-makers, for (hafts, naves, See.
Beech is alfo ufed for many purpofes : it is very tough and
white when young, and ef great ftrength ; but liable to
warp very much when expofed to the Weather, and to be
worm-eaten when ufed within doors; its greatell ufe is for
planks, bedlteads, chairs, and other houfehold goods. Afh
is likewife a very ufeful wood, but very fcarce in moll pa’ts
of Europe; it ferves in buildings, or for any other ute,
when fereened from the weather; handfpikes and oars are
chiefly made of it. Wild chefiiut tir .ber is by many efleemed
to be as good as oak, and feems to have been much ufed in
old buildings; but whether thefe trees are more icarce at
pre’ent than formerly, or have been found not to anfwer fo
well as was imagined, it is certain that this timber is now
but little ufed. Walnut-tree is excellent for the joiner’s
ufe, it being of a more curious brown colour than beech,
and not fo fubjedl to the worms The poplar, abel, and
afpen trees, which are very little different from each other,
are much ufed inftead of fir; they look well, and are tougher
and harder. See Qjjercus, Oak, Pinos, Ulmus, Pla-
TANUS, POPULUS, &C
The goodnefs of timber not only depends on the foil and
fituation in which it Hands, but likewife on the feafon
wherein it is felled. In this people difagree very much ;
fome are for having it felled as loon as its fruit is ripe,
others in the fpring, and many in the autumn. But as the
lap and moifture of timber is certainly the cauie. that it
perifhes much fooner than it otherwife would do, it feems
evident, that timber fhould be felled vvhen(there is the leafl
fap in it, viz. from the time hat the leaves begin to fall till
the trees begin to bud. This work ufually commences
about the end of April in England, becaule the bark then
rifes moft treely ; for where a quantity of timber is to be
felled, the ftatute requi’-es it to be done then, for the ad¬
vantage of tanning. The ancients chiefly regarded the age
of the moon in fellimj their timber ; their rule was to fell
it in the wane, or four days aftet the new moon or feme-
times in the lail quarter. Pliny advifes it to be in the very
inflant'of the change; which happening to be in the laft day
of the winter folftice, the timber, fays he, will be incorrup¬
tible.
Timber fhould likewife be cut when of a proper age ; for
when it is either too young or too old, it will not be 10 durable
as when cut at a proper age. It is faid that oak fhould not
be cut under 60 years old, nor above 200. 'limber, how¬
ever, flrould be cut in its prime, when almoft fully grown,
and before it begins to decay ; and this will be fooner or
later according to the drynefs and moiftnefs of' the foil
where the timber grows, as alfp according to the bignefs of
the trees ; for there are no fixed rules in felling of timber, Yree,
experience and judgment mufl diredl here as in moft other-y—
cafes.
Great attention is neceflary in the feafoning of timber.
Some advife the planks of timber to be laid for a few days
in fome pool or running ftream, in order to extraft the fap,
and afterwards to dry them in the fun or air. By this
means, it is faid, they will be prevented from either chop¬
ping, cafting, or cleaving ; but againft fhrinking there is no
remedy. Some again are for burying them in the earth,
others in a heat; and fome for fcorching and feafonin r them-
in fire, efpecially piles, polls, See. which are to Rand in
water or earth. The Venetians firft found out the method
of feafoning by fire; which is done after this manner : They
put the piece to be feafoned into a flrong and violent flame ;
in this they continually turn it round by means of an engine,
and take it out when it is everywhere covered with a black
.coaly cruft ; the internal part of the wood is thereby fo .
hardened, that neither earth nor water can damage it for a
long time afterwards.
Dr Plott fays, it is found by long experience, that the
trunk or body of the trees, when barked in the fprimr, and
left ftandin:/ naked all the fummer expofed to the fun and
wind, are fo dried and hardened, that the fappy part in a
manner becomes as firm and durable as the heart itfelf.
This is confirmed by M. Buffon, who, in 173b, presented
to the royal academy of fciences at Paris a memoir, intitled,
“ An eafy method of increafing the folidity, ftrength, and
duration of timber ;” for which purpofe he oblerves, “ no¬
thing more is neceflary than to ftrip the tree entirely of its
bark during the feafon of, the rifing of the fap, audio
leave it to dry completely before it be cut down.”
By many experiments, particularly deferibed in that effay,
it appears, that the tree fhould not be felled till the third
year after it has been ftrioped of the hark ; that it is then
perfeilly dry, and the lap become almoft as ftrong as the
reft of the timber, and ftronger than the heart of any other
oak tree which has not been fo dripped ; and the whole of
the timber ftronger, heavier, and harder ; from which he
thinks it fair to conclude, that it is alfo more durable. “ It
would no longer (he adds) be neceflary, if this method were
praftiied, to cut off the fap ; the whole of the tree might
be uted as timber ; one of 40 years growth would ferve all
the purpofes for which one of 60 years is now required;
and this pva&ice would have the double advantage of in-
creafin j the quantity, as well as the ftrength and lolidity,
of the timber.”
The navy board, in anfwer to the inquiries of the com-
miffioners of the land revenue, in May 1789, informed them,
thay they had then Handing fome trees dripped of their
bark two years before, in order to try the experiment of
building one half of a (loop of war with that timber, and
the other half with timber felled and dripped in the com¬
mon way. This very judicious mode of making the expe¬
riment, if it be properly executed, will undoubtedly go far
to afeertain the effects of this pra&ice. We are forry that
•we are not able to inform our readers what was the refult of
the experiment.
After the planks of timber have been well feafontd and
fixed in their places, care is to be taken to defend or pre-
ferve them ; to which the fmearing them with linfeed oil,
tar, or the like oleaginous matter, contributes much. I he
ancients, particularly Hefiod and Virgil, advife the fmoke-
drying o^ all inftruments made of wood, by hanging them
up in the chimneys where wood fires are ukd. 1 he Dutch
prelerve their gates, portculhces, drawbridges, fluices, &c.
bv coating them Over with a mixture oi pitch and tar,
whereon they ftrew fmall pieces oi cockle and other (hells,
beaten
T R E
Tree, beaten almoft to powder, and mixed with fea-fand, which
u^v~~; incrufts and arms them wonderfully acrainft all aftaults of
wind and weather. When timber is felled berore the fap
is perfectly at reft, it is very fubject to worms; but to
prevent and cure this, Mr Evelyn recommends the following
remefty as the moft approved : Put common fulphur into
a cucurbit, with as much aquafortis as will cover it three
fingers deep ; diftil it to drynefs, which is performed by
two or three rectifications. Lay the fulphur that remains
at bottom, being of a blackifh or fand red colour, on a
marble, or put it in a glafs, and it will diftblve into an oil;
with this oil anoint the timber which is infeLtd with worms.
This, he fays, will not only prevent worms, but preferve
all kinds of woods, and many other things, as ropes, nets,
and mafts, from putrefaction, either in water, air, or fnow.
An experiment to determine the comparative durability
of different kinds of timber, when expofed to the weather,
was made by a nobleman in Norfolk ; of which an account
Annals of L given by Sir Thomas Beevor. This nobleman, in the
Agriculture,year 1774, ordered three polls, forming two fides of a qua-
; vol. vi. drangle, to be fixed in the earth on a riling ground in his
park. Into thefe pofts were mortifed planks, an inch and
an half thick, cut out of trees from 30 to 45 years growth.
Thefe, after Handing t o years, were examined, and found
in the following (late and condition :
The cedar was perfectly found ; larch, the heart found,
but the lap quite decayed ; fpruce fir, found ; filver fir, in
decay ; Scotch fir, much decayed ; pinlaftet, quite rotten ;
chefnut, perfectly found ; abele, found ; beech, found ; wal¬
nut, in decay ; fycamore, much decayed ; birch, quite rot¬
ten. Sir Tuomas Beevor juftly remarks, that the trees
ought to have been of the fame age ; and Mr Arthur Young
adds, they ought to have been cut out of the fame plan¬
tation.
v The immenfe quantity of timber confumed of late years
in fhip-buikling and other purpofes has diminifhed in a
very great degree the quantity produced in this country.
On this account, many gentlemen who wifh well to their
country,, alarmed with the fear of a fcarcity, have ftrongly
recommended it to government to pay fome attention to the
cultivation and prefervation of timber.
- We find, on the beft authority, that of Mr Irving in-
fpeClor general of imports and exports, that the Ihipping of
England in 1760. amounted to 6,107 in number, the ton-
rage being 433,922 ; and the Ihipping in Scotland amount¬
ed to 9761*0 number, the tonnage being 32,818. In 1788
the whole (hipping of Britain and Ireland and their colonies
amounted to 13,800, being 1,359,752 tons burden, and em¬
ploying 107,925 men. The tonnage of the royal navy in
Eleventh the fame- year was 413,667. We a'e informed alfo, on
l-fort. what we corif1{}er as tfie authority (the report of the com-
miliioners of the laud revenue), that the quantity of oak tim¬
ber, of Englifh growth, delivered into the dockyards from
1760 to 1788 was no lefs than 768,676 loads, and that
the quantity ufed in the merchants yards in the fame time'
was 5 16,630 loads ; in all 1,285,306 loads. The foreign
oak ufed in the fame period was only 137,766 loads. So
that, after deducting the quantity remaining in the dock¬
yards in 1760 and 1788, and the foreign oak, there
will remain about 1,054,284 loads of Englifh oak, confumed
in 28 years, which is at an average 37,653 loads per an-
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
T R E
befides from 8,300 to 10,000 loads expended annually Tr^e.
by the Eaft India company within the fame period (a). U—V"—■
The price of wood has rifen in proportion to the de¬
mand and to its diminution. At the conqueft, woods were *
valued, not by the quantity of tiv.ber which they contain¬
ed, but the number of twine which the acorns could fup-
port. In 1608, oak in the forefts was fold at 10s. per load,
and fire-wood for 2 s. per load. In 1663 or 1665, in navy
conttafts from L. 2 to 2I. 15 s. 6d.load was given. Iti
1756 it rofe to 4I. 5s per load, and 3s. in addition, becaufe
no tops are received. Plank four inch fold in 1769 for. L* 7
a load, three inch L.6; which prices were the fame in 1792.
So great an expenditure of valuable timber within fo Ihort
a period, gives reafon to fear that the forefts of this country-
will foon be entirely difmantled, unlefs fomething is done to
raife frefh fupplies. The building of a 70 gun fhip, it is
faid, would take 40 acres of timber. This calculation is
indeed fo exceflive, that it is fcarcely credible. This, how¬
ever, is no exaggeration.. According to the prevailing opi¬
nion of experienced furveyors, it will require a good foil
and good management to produce 40 trees on an acre,
which, in a hundred years, may, at an average, be computed
at two loads each. Reckoning, therefore, two loads at
81. 16s. one acre will be worth L.350, and confequently
40 acres will only be worth L. 14,200. Now a 70 gun fhip
is generally fuppofed to coft L.70,000 ; and as fhips do not
laft a great many years, the navy continually requires new
fhips, fo that the forefts muft be flapped in a century or
two, unlefs young trees are planted to fupply their place.
Many plans have been propofed for recruiting the forefts.
Premiums have been held forth to individuals ; and it has-
been propofed that the crown-lands fhould be fet a,part for '
the fpecial purpofe of raifing timber. With refpedl to in¬
dividuals, as they muft generally be difpofed to few or plant
their lands with thofe vegetables which will beft reward
their labours, it is not to be expe&ed that they will let
apart their fields for planting trees unlefs they have a great¬
er return from them than other crops. But bad muft that
land be which will not yield much more than L. 350 pro¬
duce in 100 years. But though it be evident that good land
will produce crops much more lucrative to the proprietor
than timber, yet ftill tliere are lands or pieces of land which
might be applied with very great advantage to the produc¬
tion of wood. Uneven ground, or the fides of fields where
corn cannot be cultivated, might very properly be fet apart for
this purpofe ; barren lands, or fuch as cannot be cultivated
without great labour and expence, might alfo be planted.
Hed>;e-rows and clumps of trees, and little woods fcattered
up and down, would (belter and defend the fields from de-
ftrubtive winds, would beautify the face of the country,
render the climate warmer, improve barren lands, and
furnifh wood for the arts and manufadtures.
But to cultivate foreft timber has alfo been thought of
fuch national importance, that it has been deemed wefrthy
of the attention of government. It has been prppofed to
appropriate fuch part of the crown-lands as are fit for the
purpofe folely for producing timber for the navy. This
appears a very proper fcheme in (peculation; but it has been
objeded, that for government to attempt the farming of
forefts would be really to eftablifh groups of officers to
pocket falaries for doing what, it is well known, will never
4 ^ be
[ 561 1
(a) A writer in the Bath Tranfaftions fays, that the aggregate of oaks felled in England and Wales for 30 years paft
hath amounted to 320,000 loads a-year; and affirms that he has documents in his pofleilion founded on indifputable fads,
i lie difference between this account, and that which we have given in the text from the report of the commiffioners, we
leave to be reconciled by thofe who have proper opportunities. We give the fads merely on the authority of others.
• • '*
T R E
Tree, done at all. But to this objection we reply, that fuch
an agreement might be made with the infpe&ors of forefts,
as to make it their own intereft to cultivate trees with as
much care as poflible. Their falary might be fixed very
low, and raifed in proportion to the number of trees which
they could furnifh of fuch a fize in a certain number of
years. After all, we mutt acknowledge, that we mull de¬
pend greatly on Ruffia, vSweden, Norway, and America, for
lupplying us with timber ; and while thefe countries take
our rnanufinftures in exchange, we have no reafon to com¬
plain. Still, however, we ought furely not to negledt the
cultivation of what is of to much importance to our exiftence
as a nation, for it may often be impoffible in time of war to
obtain timber from foreign countries.
In the beginning of this article we mentioned the gene¬
ral divifion of trees into timber or forefl-trees and fruit
trees. We have already find all that our limits will permit
refpedling the former: we will now. therefore, fay lome-
thing of the latter. Our obfervat.’ons fi all be confined to the
methods of preferving fruit trees in bloFom from the elFefts
o‘ froft, and from other difeafes to which they are liable.
European The chevalier de Bienenberg of Prague, we are told, has
Magazine, difcovered a method of effectually preferving trees in blof-
March fom from the fatal effects of thofe frofts which fometimes
in the fpring deftroy the mod promifing Bppes of a plenti¬
ful crop of fruit. Plis method is extremely ample. He
furrounds the trunk of the tree in bloffom with a wifp of
flraw' or hemp. The end of this he finks, by means of a
done tied to it, in a vtffel ( of i'pring wrater, at a little di-
ffance from the tree. One vefiel will conveniently ferve
two trees ; or the cord may be lengthened fo as to furroUnd
feveral, before its end is plunged into the water. It is
neceffary that the veffel be placed in an open fituation, and
by no means (haded by the branches of the neighbouring
trees, that the froft may produce all its efferit on the water,
by means of the cord communicating with it.— i bis pre¬
caution is particularly neceffary for thofe trees the flowers
of which appear nearly at the fame time as the leaves ;
which trees are peculiarly expofed to the ravages of the
froft. The proofs of its efficacy, which he had an opportu¬
nity of obferving in the fpring of 1787, were remarkably
(hiking. Seven apricot efpaliers in his garden began to
bloffom in the month of March. Fearing that they would
faffer from the late frofts, he furrounded them with cords
as above diredted. In cffeft, pretty (harp frofts took place
fix or eight nights : the apricot-trees in the neighbouring
gardens were all frozen, and none of them produced any
(ruit, whilft each of the chevalier’s produced fruit in abun¬
dance, which came to the greateft perfedrion.
The following is the method propofed by Mr William
Forfyth for curing injuries and defedts in trees ; for which
a reward was given to him by his majefty, on condition
that he fhould make it pilblic. It is equally applicable to
for eft as to fruit trees (b).
Take one bufhel of frefh cow-dung, half a bufhel of lime
rubbifh of old buildings (that from the ceilings of rooms is pre¬
ferable) j half abufhelof wood-afhes ; and a fixteenth part of
a buihei of pit or river fand. The three laft articles are to be
fiited fine before they are mixed ; then work them well to¬
gether with a fpade, and afterwards with a wooden beater, un-
T R E ,
til the (luff is very fmooth,like fine plafter ufed for the ceil- Tree
ings of rooms. The compofrtion being thus made, care II
muft be taken to prepare the tree properly for its applica- rtme
tion by cutting away all the dead, decayed, and injured
parts, till you come to the frefh found wood, leaving the fur-
face of the wood very (mooth, and rounding oft the edges
of the bark with a draw-knife, or other inftfument, per-
feritly fmooth, which muft be particularly attended to.
Then lay on the plafter about one-eighth of an inch thick
all over the part where the wood or bark has been fo cut
away, fimfhing off the edges as thin as poffible. Then taka
a quantity of dig* powder of wood-afties, mixed with a fixth
part of the fame quantity of the afhes of burnt bones ; put
it into a tin box, with holes in the top, and (hake the
powder on the furface of the plafter, till the whole is cover¬
ed over with it, letting it remain for halt an hour to abforb
the moifture ; then apply more powder, rubbing it on
gently with the hand, and repeating the application of the
powder, till the whole plafter becomes a dry fmoOth iur-
face. ,
All trees cut down near the ground fhould have the fur-
face made quite finooth, rounding it off in a fmall degree,
as before mentioned ; and the dry powder directed to be
uled afterwards (hould have an equal quantity of powder of
alabafter mixed with it, in order the better to reiilt the
dripping of trees and heavy rains. If any of the compo-
fition be left for a future occafion, it Ihould be kept in a
tub or other veffel, and urine of any kind poured on it, fo
as to cover the furface ; other wife the atmofphere will great¬
ly hurt the efficacy of the apolication. Where lime-rubbifh.
of old buildings cannot be eafily got, take powdered chalk,
or common lime, after having been flaked a month at leaft.
As the growth of the tree will gradually affect the plafter,
by railing up its edges next the bark, care fhould be taken,
where that hapoens, to rub it over with the finger when oc¬
cafion may require (which is beft done when moiftened by
rain), rUt the plafter may be kept whole, to prevent the
air and wet from penetrating into the wound.
By this procefs, fome old worn-out pear trees, that bore Fcrfyd's
only a few fmall, hard fruit, of a kernelly texture, were Ob/matim
made to produce pears of the beft quality and fineft flavour™^ ;P'/“
the fecond fummer after the operation ; and in four or five
years they bore fuch plenteous crops, as a young healthy
tree would not have produced in four times that period.
Bv this procefs, too, fome large ancient elms, in a mod
decayed ftate, having all their upper parts broken, and a
fmall portion only of the bark remaining, fhot out ftems
from their tops, above thirty feet in height, in fix or feveu.
years from the firft application of the compofition.
Thus may valuable fruits be renovated ; and foreft trees,
which are ufeful or ornamental from their particular fitm>
tion, be preferved in a flourifhing ftate. But what is far
more interefting, a perfect cure has been made, and found
timber produced, in oak trees, which had icceived very cony
fiderable damage from blows, bruifes, cutting of deep let¬
ters, the rubbing off the bark by the ends of rollers, or
wheels of carts, or from the breaking of branches by ftorms,
TREFOIL, in botany. See Trifollum-
TREMELLA, in botany ; a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of crypiogamia, and natural order of alg** It
is
C 562 ]
(b) A pafte for covering the wounds of trees, and the place where grafts are inferted, was difcovered long ago. . It ts.
recommended in a Treatife on Fruit Trees, pubhfhed by Thomas Hitt in 1755 ; a third edition of which, with additions,,
was publifhed in 1768. It confifts of a mixture of clay and eows-d'ung diluted with water. Fhis pane he directs to he
laid on the wound with a brufh ; it adheres firmly, he fays, without cracking till the wound heals. We arc informed^by a.
gentleman, to whofe opinion and experience v/e pay great refpett, that this pafte anfwers every purpoie which M: ! or.yt - a
can fsnre. 3
T R E L S63 ] T R E
Tremelliu" jg a grelatinons membranous fubftance ; the parts of the fruc-
II tification fcarcely viiible. There are 11 fpecies ; of which
L 'rr^nt: flve are indigenous; the noftoc, lichenoides, verrucofa, hemi-
fpherica, and purpurea.
1. The nojloc, or jelly rain tremella, is found in paftures
and by the fides of gravel-walks in gardens after rains; not
uncommon in fpring, fummer, and autumn. It is a mem¬
branaceous, pellucid, and gelatinous fubftance, without any
vifible root ; of a yellowifh dull green colour ; affuming
various forms, either round, angular, plaited or folded to¬
gether irregularly, like the inteftines, or a pocket-handker¬
chief, an inch or two or more in diameter ; foft to the
touch when moift ; but thin, membranaceous, and brittle,
when dry ; and of a black fufeous colour.—The ancient
alchemifts called this vegetable the flowers of heaven, and
imagined that from it they would procure the univerfal
menftruum : but all their refearches ended in dilcovering
that by diftillation it yielded feme phlegm, volatile fait, and
empyreumatic oil. It has been extolled in wounds, ulcers,
&c. but no regard is ever paid to it by judicious pradfi-
tioners. Dr Darwin fays, he has been well informed that
this tremella is a mucilage voided by herons after they have
eaten frogs ! ! 2. The lichenoides, or tranfparent tremella, is
ereft, plane, margin curled, lacinulated, and brown. It
grows on heaths and in woods, &c. 3. Verrucofa, or warty
tremella, is tubercular, folid, wrinkled, roundifh, and re-
fembling a bladder ; it is of a blackifh yellow. It grows on
ftones in rivulets. 4. Hemifpherica, or fea tremella, is fcattered
among confervce, fuci, &c. 5. Purpurea, or purple tremella,
is globular, feffile, folitary, and fmooth. It grows on ditch-
banks about London.
TREMELLIUS (Emmanuel), a Jew by birth, was
born at Ferrara in the year 1510. He was fo carefully
educated as to become a great mafter of the Hebrew
tongue : he was converted to Chriftianity by the celebrated
Peter Martyr. After travelling to Germany and England,
he was made profeffor of Hebrew, firft at Heidelberg, and
then at Sedan, where he died in 1 i;8o. He trardlated the
Hebrew Bible and Syriac Teftament into Latin ; in the
former'he was afiifted by Junius, who afterwards correfted
the Second edition in 1587. This work was received by
|he Prate!1 ant churches with great approbation.
TREMOR, an involuntary {baking, chiefly of the hands
and head, fometimes of the feet, and fometimes of the tongue
and heart.—Tremors arifing from a too free ufc of fpirituous
liquors require the fame treatment as palftes.
1 RENCHES, in fortification, are ditches cut by the
beliegers, that they may approach the more lecurely to
the place attacked ; whence they are alfo called lines of ap¬
proach.
# TRENT (bifhopric of), a province of Germany, in the
circle of Auftria, near the frontiers of Italy, is bounded on
the north by Tirol : on the eaft, by the Feltrino and
Lellunefe ; on the South, by Vicentmo, the Veronele, Bref-
eiano, and the lake de Garda ; and on the weft, by the
Brefciano and the lake de Garda. The foil is faid to be
pretty fruitful, and to abound in wine and oil.
I rent, a city of Germany, and capital of the bifhopric
of that name, is a very ancient place, and ftands in a fertile
and pleaiant plain, in the midft of the high mountains of
the Alps. The river Adige wafties its walls, and creeping
for feme time among the hills, runs Swiftly into Italy. Trent
has three confiderable churches, the principal of which is the
cathedral: this is a very regular piece of architecture. rl he
church of St Maria Major is all of red and wdiite marble ;
?!‘d is remarkable (or being the place where the famous
council of Brent was held, whole deciflons are now the
Handing rule of the Romifh church. E. Lorfg. 11. 5. N. Trent
Lat. 46. iq. . II
'I rent, one of thelargeft rivers iu England, which rifes , reve>j
in the Moorland of Staffordfhire, and runs fouth-weft by
Newcaftk'under-Line ; and afterwards dividing the county
in two parts, runs to Burton, then to Nottingham and
Newark ; and fo continuing its courfe due north to Gainf-
boroughon the confines of Lincolnfhire, it joins feveral rivers,
and falls into the Humber.
Trent (council of), in ecclefiaftical hiftory, denotes the
council aflembled by Paul III. in 1545, and continued by
25 feffions till the year 1563, under Julius 1II. and Pius IV.
in order to corredt, illuftrate, and fix with perfpicuity, the
doctrine of the church, to reftore the vigour of its dilcipline,
and to reform the lives of its minifters. The decrees of
this council, together wuth the creed of pope Pius IV. con¬
tain a fummary of the dodtrines of the Roman Catholics.
Thefe decrees were fubferibed by 255 clergy, confifting of 4
legates, 2 other cardinals, 3 patriarchs, 25 archbifhops, 168
bifhops,befides inferior clergy. Of thefe 150 came from Italy;
of courfe the council was entirely under the influence of the
pope. For a more particular account of the council of
Trent, fee Mojheim’s Church Hijlory, the Modern Univerfal
HiJlory, Vol. XXIII. and Father Paul’s Hijlory of the
Council of Trent.
TRENTON. See IVm>
TREPANNING. See Surgery, n° 186.
TRES TABERN.E (anc geog.), a place in Latium, lying
on the Via Appia, on the left or louth fide of the river
Aftura, to the north of the Paludes Pomptinm. Its ruins
are now feen near Cifterna, a village in the Compagna dx
Roma, 2 1 miles from Rome, whence the Chriftians went
out to meet St Paul.
TRESPASS, in law, fignifies any tranfgreflion of the
law, under treafon, felony, or mifprifion of either: but it is
commonly uied for any wrong or damage that is done by
one private perfon to another, or to the king in his foreft.
1 RESSLE-trees, in {hip-building, two ftrong bars of
timber fixed horizontally on the oppolite fides of the lower
mail-head, to fupport the frame of the top and the weight
of the top-maft.
PRESSURE, in heraldry, a diminutive of anorle, ufual-
ly held to be half the breadth thereof.
I REP, in commerce, an allowance made for the wafte
or the dirt that may be mixed with any commodity ; which
is commonly four pounds in every 104 pounds weight.
BREVERI, or Treviri (anc. ge:og.), an ancient and
a powerful people both in horfe and foot, according tc*
Caemr ; extending far and wide between the Meufe and the
Rhine. I heir chief town was called Treveris. Now Triers
OI 7 reves.
TREVES, or Briers (in Latin Trevere, Trevers, Trevi-
ris, or Augujla Trevirorum), the capital of a German arch-
biftiopric of the fame name, ftands 60 miles weft of Mentz,
52 fouth of Cologne, and 82 north of Stralburg. This
city vies with mott in Europe for antiquity, having been a
large and noted town before Auguftus fettled a colony in
it. It was free and imperial till the year 1560, when it was
iurprifed and fubjeefted by its archbiihop James III. It
ftands on the Moielle, over which it has a fair ftone bridge.
The cathedral is a large buildingand near it ftands the
eleAor s palace, which not long aijo was -rebuilt. Here
are three collegiate and five parifh churches, three colleges
of Jeiuits, thirteen monalteries and nunneries, an univerfity
founded in 1472, a houie oi the Teutonic order, and ano-
ther of that of Malta, with iome remains of the ancient Ro¬
man theatre. Roman coins and medals are often found in
4 B 2 the
T R I [ 5% ] T R I
Trial, t’ne ruins of the old city. In the cathedral they pretend to
’v"" ■' have our Saviour’s coat and St Peter’s ftaff, to which they
afcribe miracles. The private houfts here are mean ; and
the city is neither well fortified nor inhabited, p. Long.
<5. 41. N. Lat. 49. 45.
TRIAL, in law, the examination of a caufe according
to the laws of the land before a proper judge ; or it is the
manner and order obferved in the hearing and determining
of caufes.
Trials are either civil or criminal.
I. Civil Trials. The fpecies of trials in civil cafes are
feven : By record; by ufpection, or examination ; by certifi¬
cate ; by luitmjfes ; by wager of battel; by wager of /aw;
and hy jury The firll fix are only had in certain ipecial
or eccentrical cafes, where the trial by jury would not be
fe proper or effedtual: i See them explained under their
refpe&ive titles). The nature of the lad, that principal
criterion of truth in the law of England, fhall be explained
in this article.
As trial by jury is efteemed one of the mod important
privileges which members of fociety can enjoy, and the bul¬
wark of the Britifh conditution, every man of refleftion
mud be dimulated by the defire of inquiring into its origin
and hidory, as well as to be-acquainted wfith the forms and
advantages by which it is accompanied. We will therefore
begin with tracing it to its origin. Its inditution has been
aferibed to our Saxon ancedors by Sir William Blackdone.
"Blaclfiones “ Some authors (fays that illudrious lawyer) have endea-
Commenta-' vourecl t;0 trace the origimlu of juries up as high as the Bri-
P 349 'UI 10118 t^emfe^ves» inhabitants of our idand ; but cer¬
tain it is, that they were in ule among the earlied Saxon
colonies, their inditution being aferibed by bifhop Nicholfon
to Woden himfelf, their great legiflator and captain. Kence
it is, that we may find traces of juries in the laws of aU
thole nations which adopted the feodal fydem, as in Ger¬
many, France, and Italy ; who had all of them a tribunal
compofed of twelve good men and true, bom hominest ufual-
ly the vaffals or tenants of the lord, being the equals or peers
of the parties litigant; and, as the lord’s vaflals judged each
other in the lord’s courts, fo the king’s vaflals, or the lords
themfelves, judged each other in the king’s court. In England
we find adfual mention of them fo early as the laws of king
Ethelred, and that not as a new invention. Stierahook aferibes
the invention of the jury, which in the Teutonic language
is denominated nembda, to Regner king of Sweden and
Denmark, who was contemporary with our king Egbert.
JuA as we are apt to impute the invention of this, and fome
other pieces of juridical polity, to the fuperior genius of
Alfred the Great; to whom, on account of his having done
much, it is ufual to attribute every thing : and as the tradi¬
tion of ancient Greece placed to the account of their own
Hercules whatever atchievement was performed fuperior to
the ordinary prowefs of mankind. Whereas the truth leems
to be, that this tribunal was univerlally edablilhed among all
the northern nations, and fo interwoven in their very con-
flitution, that the earlied accounts of the one give us alfo
fome traces of the other.”
This opinion has been controverted with much learning
and ingenuity by Dr Pettingal in his Enquiry into the Ule
and Practice of Juries among the Greeks and Romans,
who deduces the or Lin of juries from thefe ancient nations.
He begins with determining the meaning of the word
in the Greek, andjudices in theRoman, writers. “The
common acceptation of thefe words (lays he), and the idea
generally annexed to them, is that oi prejidents of courts, or,
as we call them, ; as fuch they are underdood by
commentators, and rendered by critics. Dr Middleton, in
Hs life of Cicerp, exprefsly calls the \\xddcts, judges of the
bench: and Archbifhop Potter, and in fhort all modern Trial,
writers upon the Greek or Roman orators, or authors in ge- ‘y"~
neral, exprefs and judices by luch terms as convey the
idea of prefidents in courts of jufhee. The propriety of this is
doubted of, and hath given occafioh for this inquiry ; in
which is Ihown, from the bed Greek and Roman authori¬
ties, that neither the of the Greeks, or the judkes of
the Romans, ever iignified prefidents in courts of judicature, or
judges of the bench ; but, on the contrary, they were didin-
guiflied from each other, and the difference of their duty
and function was carefully and clearly pointed out by the
orators in their pleadings, who were the bed authorities in
thofe cafes, where the queflien related to forms of law, and
methods of oroceeding in judicial aflairs and criminal proceis.
The prefidents of the courts in criminal trials at Athens
were the nine archons, or chief magidrates, of which whoever
prefided was calledorprelidentof the court,
i hefe nine prefided in different cauies peculiar to each ju-
rifdiftion. The archon, properly fo called, had belonging
to his department all pupillary and heritable cafes; the
flxcnxiv; or rex facrorum, the chief pried, all cafes where
religion was concerned ; the polemarchus, or general, the
affairs of the army and all military matters ; and the fix,
the fmothetae, the other ordinary fuits.
Wherever then the imas-xi, or judicial men, are
addreffed by the Greek orators in their ipeeches, they are
not to be underdood to be the preliding magidrates, but
another clafs of men, who were to inquire into the date
of the caufe before them, by witneffes and other methods of
coming at truth; and after inquiry made and witneffes
heard, to report their opinion and verdidt to the preiident,
who was to declare it.
The feveral iteps and circumdances attending this judicial
proceeding are fo fimilar to the forms obferved by our jury,
that the learned reader, for luch I mud fuppofe him, can¬
not doubt but that the nature, intent, and proceedings of
the Oxar^iov among the Greeks were the fame with the Eng-
lifli jury; namely, for the protection of the lower people
from the power and oppreifion of the great, by adminittering
equal law" and judice to all ranks ; and therefore when the
Greek orators direCted their fpeeches to the S.Karcu,
as we fee in Demoflhenes, Affchines, and Lyfias, we are to
under ftand it in the fame fenfe as when our lawyers at the
bat fay, Gentlemen of the jury.
So likewife among the Romans, the judices, in their
pleadings at the bar, never figntfied judges of the bench, or
preiidents of the court, but a body or order of men, whole
office in the courts of judicature was diflindt from that of
the praetor or judex quejiionis, which anfwered to our judge
ot the bench, and was the fame with the archon, or nyw**
Swar&giu, of the Greeks : whereas the duty of the judices
confided in being impannelled, as we call it, challenged, and
fwore to try uprightly the cate before them; and when
they had agreed upon their opinion or verdidf, to deliver it
to-the prefident who was to pronounce it. 1 his kind of
judicial procefs was fird introduced into the Athenian poli¬
ty by Solon, and thence copied into the Roman republic, as
probable means of procuring jud judgment, andprotedfing
the lower people from the oppreffion or arbitrary decifiona
of their fuperiors.
When the Romans were fettled in Britain as a province,
they carried with them their ju> a and injhtuta, their laws
and cudoms, which was a pradfice effential to^ all colonies ;
hence the Britons, and other countries of Germany and
Gaul, learned from them the Roman laws and cuiioms ; and
upon the irruption of the northern nations into the fouthern
kingdoms of Europe, the laws and inditutions of the Ro¬
mans remained, when the power that introduced them was
with-
Trial-
Maclflene'i
'omnenta-
T R I
withdrawn : and Montefqmeu tills us, that under the firft
race of kinp;8 in France, about the fifth century, the Ro-
wans that remained, and the Burgundians their new matters,
lived together under the fame Roman laws and police, and
particularly the fame forms of judicature. How reafonable
then is it to conclude, that in the Roman courts of judica¬
ture continued among the Burgundians, the form of a jury
remained in the fame Hate it was ufed at Rome- It is cer¬
tain, Montefquieu, fpeaking of thofe times, mentions the
pdirrs or hommes de fuf homagers or peers, which in the
fame chapter he callsyngw, judgei ox jurymen: fo that we hence
fee how at that time the hommes de jiefi or “ men of the fief,”
were called peers, and thofe peers werejuges or jurymen. 1 hefe
were the fame as are called in the laws of the confeffor pers
de la tenure, the “ peers of the tenure, or homagers,” out of
whom the jury of peers were chofen, to try a matter in dif-
pute between the lord and his tenant, or any other point of
controverly in the manor. Sohkewife in all other parts of
Europe, where the Roman colonies had been, the Goths
fucceeding them, continued to make ufe of the fame laws
sr d inftitutions, which they found to be ettablifhed there by
the firft conquerors. This is a much more natural way of
accounting for the origin of a jury in Europe, than having
recourfe to the fabulous llory of Woden and his favage Scy¬
thian companions, as the ftvft introducers ot io humane and
beneficent an inftitution.”
Trials by jury in civil caufes are of two kinds; extraor¬
dinary and ordinary.
1. The firft fpecies of extraordinary trial by jury is that
of the grand affife, which was inftituted by king Henry II.
in parhanlent, byway of alternative offered to the choice of
the tenant or defendant in a writ of right, inftead of the
barbarous and unchriftiao cuftom of'duelling. For this
jsurpofe a writ de magna ajfija eligenda is dnetted to the
fheriff, to return four knights, who are to elect and choofe
12 others to be joined with them ; and thete all together
form the grand aflife, or great jury, which is to try the
matter ot right, and mutt now confift of i 6 jurors. Ano¬
ther fpecies of extraordinary juries is the jury to try an at¬
taint ; which is a proceis commenced againtt a former jury
for bringing a falfe verdiH. See the article Attaint.
2. With regard to the ordinary trial by jury in civil
cafes, the molt clear and perfpicuous way of treating it will
be by following the order and courte of the proceedings
themfelves.
When therefore an iffue is joined by thefe v/ords, “ And
this the faid A prays may be inquired of by the country
or, “ And of this he puts himfelf upon the country, and the
faid B does the like the court awards a writ of venire
facias upon the roll or record, commanding the fheriff
“ that he caule to come here, on luch a day, twelve free
and lawful men, Meres et legates homines, of the body ol his
county, by whom the truth of the matter may be better
known, and who are neither of kin to the aforefaid A nor
the alorefaid B, to recognize the truth of the iffue between
the faid parties.” And inch writ is accordingly iffued to
the fheriff. It is made returnable on the laft return of the
fame term wherein iffue is joined, viz. hilary or trinity terms;
which, from the making up ot the iffues therein, are ufual-
ly called ijjuable terms. And he returns the names of the
jurors in a panel (a little pane or oblong piece of parch
ment) annexed to the writ. This jury is not fummoned,
and therefore not appearing at the day muft unavoidably
make default. For which reafon a compulhve procefs is
now awarded againft the jurors, called in the common pleas
a writ of holeas corpora juraterum, and in the King’s Bench
dijlringas, commanding the fheriff to have their bodies, or
to diftrain them by their lands and goods, that they may
T R I
appear upon the day appointed. The entry therefore on Trial,
the roll of record is, “ That the jury is refpited, through —
defeat of the jurors, till the firft day of the next term, then
to appear at Weftminfter ; unlefs before that time, viz. on
Wednefday the fourth of March, the juft ices of our lord
the king appointed to take affi/.es in that county fhall have
come to Oxford, that is, to the place afligned for holding
the alfizes. Therefore the fheriff is commanded to have
their bodies at Weftminfler on the laid firft day of next
term, or before the faid juftices of affize, if before that time
they come to Oxford, viz. on the fourth of March afore¬
faid.” And as the judges are fure to come and open the
circuit-commiffions on the day mentioned in the writ, the
fheriff returns and fummons this jury to appear at the affixes;
and there the trial is had before the juftices of affize and
niji prius: among whom (as hath been faid*) are ufually * ^ef ^
two of the judges of the courts at Weftminfter, the whole
kingdom being divided into fix circuits for this purpofe.
And thus we may obferve, that the trial of common ift’ues,
at niji prius, was in its original only a collateral incident to
the original buiinefs of the juftices of affize ; though now,
by the various revolutions of pradtice, it is become their
principal civil employment ; hardly any thing remaining in
ufe of the real affixes but the name.
If the fheriff be not an indifferent perfon, as if he be a
party in the fuit, or be related by either blood or affinity to
either of the parties, he is not then trulled to return the
jury ; but the venire ffiali be diredfed to the coroners, who
in this, as in many other inffances, are the fubftitutes of the
fheriff to execute procefs when he is deemed an improper
perion. If any exception lies to the coroners, the venire -
fhall be diredted to two clerks of the court, or two perfons
of the county named by the couvt, and fvvorn. And thefe
two, who are called elifors, or debtors, fliall indifferently
name the jury, and their return is final; no challenge being
allowed to their array.
Let us now paufe a while, and obferve (with Sir Mat¬
thew Hale *), in thefe firft preparatory ftages of the trial, *
how admirably this conftitution is adapted and framed forC.L.
the inveftigation of truth beyond any other method of trialc- lz*
in the world. For, firft, the perfon returning the jurors is
a man of iome fortune and contequence ; that fo he may be
not only the lefs tempted to commit wilful errors, but like-
wile be refponlible for the faults of either himfelf or his of¬
ficers : and he is alfo bound by the obligation iof an oath
faithfully to execute his duty. Next, as to the time of
their return t the panel is returned to the court upon the
original venire, and the jurors are to be fummoned and
brought in many weeks afterwards to the trial, whereby the-
parties may have notice of the jurors, and of their fufficien-
cy or infufficiency, charablers, connnedtions, and relations,,
that fo they may be challenged upon juft caufe ; while, at
the lame time, by means of the compulfory procefs (of di-
Jlringus, or habeas corpora) the caufe is not like to be retard¬
ed through defebt of jurors. Thirdly, as to the place of
their appearance : which in caufes of weight and confe-
quence is at the bar of the court ; but in ordinary cafes at
the affiles, held in the county where the caufe ot adfion
anies, and the witneffes and jurors live ; a orovifion moft ex¬
cellently calculated for the laving of expence to the parties..
For though the preparation of the caufes in point of plead¬
ing is tranfadled at Weftminfter, whereby the order and
uniformity of proceeding is preferved throughout the king¬
dom, and multiplicity of forms is prevented ; yet this is no
great charge or trouble, one attorney being able to tranfadl
the bufineis of go clients. But the troublefome and molt
expenlive attendance is that of jurors and witneffes at the
trial; which therefore is brought home to them, in the
4 county
C 565 1
T R I [ 566 ] T R I
Trial, county wliere mofl: of them inhabit. Fourthly, the perfons
'r~ before whom they are to appear, and before whom the trial
is to be held, are the judges of the fupeiior court, if it be a
trial at bar; or the judges of aflize, delegated from the comts
at Weftminfler by the king, if the trial be held in the coun¬
try : perkms, whofe learning and dignity fecure their jurif-
didlion from contempt, and-the novelty and very parade of
■whofe appearance have no fmall influence upon the multi¬
tude. 1 he very point of their being flrangers in the coun¬
ty is of infinite fervice, in preventing thofe fadtions and
parties which would intrude in every caufe of moment, were
it tried only before perfons refident on the fpot, as jufiices
of the peace, and the like. And the better to remove all fuf-
picion of partiality, it was wifely provided by the llatutes
4 Edw. III. c. 2. 8 Ric. II. c. 2. and 33 Hen. VIII. 0^24.
that no judge of afiife fhould hold pleas in any county where¬
in he was born or inhabits. And as this conftitution pre¬
vents party and fadfion from intermingling in the trial of
right, fo it keeps both the rule and the adminiftration of
the laws uniform. Thefe juftices, though thus varied and
fhifted at every affifes, are all fworn to the fame laws, have
had the fame education, have purified the fame ftudies, con
verfe and conifilt together, communicate their decifions and
refolutions, and prefide in thofe courts which are mutually
connedfed, and their judgments blended together, as they
are interchangeably courts of appeal or advice to each other.
And hence their adminiftration of juftice, and condudf of
trials, are confonent and uniform ; whereby that conlufion
and contrariety are avoided, which would naturally ariie
from a variety of uncommunicating judges, or from any
provincial eftablifhment. But let us now return to the af-
iizes.
When the general day ef trial is fixed, the plaintiff or his
attorney muff bring down the record to the afiizes, and en¬
ter it with the proper officer, in order to its being called on
in courfe.
Thefe fteps being taken, and the caufe called on in court,
the record is then handed to the judge, to perufe and ob-
ferve the pleadings, and what iffues the parties are to main¬
tain and prove, while the jury is called and fworn. To this
end the Iheriff returns his compulfive procefs, the writ of
b.aleas corpora., or dijlringas, with the panel of jurors annex¬
ed, to the judge’s officer in court.
The jurors contained in the panel are either fpecial or
common jurors. Special juries were originally introduced
in trials at bar, when the caufes were of too great nicety for
the difcuffion of ordinary freeholders ; or where the fheriff
■was fufpedted of partiality, though not upon fuch appa¬
rent caufe as to warrant an exception to him. He is in
fuch cafes, upon motion in court, and a rule granted there¬
upon, to attend the prothonotary or other proper officer
■with his freeholder’s book ; and the officer is to take indif¬
ferently 48 of the principal freeholders, in the prefence of
the attorneys on both fides : who are each of them to ftrike
off 12, and the remaining 24 are returned upon the panel.
By the ftatute 3 Geo. II. c. 25. either party is entitled
upon motion to have a fpecial jury ftruck upon the trial of
any iffue, as well at the affizes as at bar, he paying the
extraordinary expence, unlefs the judge will certify (in pur-
luance of the ftatute 24 Geo, II. c. 18.) that the caufe re¬
quired fuch fpecial jury.
A common jury is one returned by the fheriff according
to the dire<£tions of the ftatute 3 Geo. II. c. 25. which ap-
points, that the fheriff or officer (hall not return a feparate
panel for every feparate caufe, as formerly ; but one and the
fame panel for every caufe to be tried at the fame affizes,
containing not lefs than 48, nor more than 72, jurors : and
that their names being written on tickets, fhali be put into
a box of glafs ; and when each caufe is called, 11 of thefe Trial,
perfons, whofe names {hall be firft drawn out of the box,
fhali be fworn upon the jury, unlefs abfent, challenged, or
excufed ; or unlefs a previous view of the meffuages, lands,
or place in queftion, fhall have been thought neceffary by
the court ; in which cafe, fix or more of the jurors return¬
ed, to be agreed on by the parties, or named by a judge
or other proper officer of the court, fhall be appointed by
fpechrl writ of habeas corpora or dijh i igas, to have the mat¬
ters in queftion fhown to them by two perfons named in
the writ; and then fuch of the jury as have had the view, or
fo many of them as appear, fhall be fworn on the in-
queft previous to any other jurors. Thefe afts are well
calculated to-reftrain any fufpicion of partiality in the fhe-
riff, or any tampering with the jurors when returned.
As the jurors appear when called, they fhall be (worn,
unlefs challenged by either party. See the article Chal¬
lenge.
If by means of challenges or other caufe, a fufficient num*
ber of unexceptionable jurors doth not appear at the trial,
either party may pray a tales.
A ta/es is a fupply of fuch men as are fummoned upon
the firft panel, in order to make up the deficiency. For this
purpofe a writ of decern tales, otio tales, and the like, was
wont to be iffued to the fheriff at common law, and muft be
ftill fo done at a trial at bar, if the jurors make default.
But at the affizes, or nlfi pr/us, by virtue of the ftatute 35
Hen. VIII. c- 6. and other fubfequent ftatutes, the judge
is empowered at the prayer of either party to award a tales
de circumjlantibus of perfons prefent in court, to be joined
to the other jurors to try the caufe ; who are liable, how¬
ever, to the fame challenges as the principal jurors. This
is ufually done till the legal number of f 2 be completed 5
in which patriarchal and apoftolical number Sir Edward
Coke hath difeovered abundance of myftery.
When a fufficient number of perfons impanelled, or tales¬
men appear, they are then feparately fworn, well and truly
to try the iffue between the parties, and a true veidifit to
give according to the evidence ; and hence they are deno¬
minated “ the 'yxxy” jurat a, and “ furors,” fc. juratores.
The jury are now ready to hear the merits ; and to fix
their attention the Gofer to the fafts which they are impa¬
nelled and fworn to try, the pleadings are opened to them
by counfel on that fide which holds the affirmative of the
queftion in iflfie. For the iffue is faid to lie, and proof is
always firft required upon that fide which affirms the matter
in queftion : in which our law agrees wnth the civil, ei in-
cumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat ; cum per rerum natu-
ram fadum-negantis probatio nulla Jit. The opening counlel
briefly informs them what has been tranfa&ed in the court
above ; the parties, the nature of the adfion, the declaration,
the plea, replication, and other proceedings; and lalily,
upon what point the iflfie is joined, which is there fent
down to be determined. Inftead of w'hich, formerly the
whole record and procefs of the pleadings were read to them
in Englifh by the court, and the matter of ifiue clearly ex¬
plained to their capacities. The nature of the cafe, and
the evidence intended to be produced, are next laid before
them by counfel alfo on the fame fide ; and when their evi¬
dence is gone through, the advocate on the other fide opens
the adverfe cafe, and fupports it by evidence ; and then
the party which began is heard by way of reply. See
Pleadings.
Evidence in the trial by jury is of two kinds ; either that
w'hich is given in proo!-, or that which the jury may receive
by their own private knowledge. 1 he former, or proofs,
(to which in common fpeech the name 01 evidence is uiually
confined) are either written or parol; that is, by word of
mouth.
1
T R I
Trial, mouth. Written proofs, or evidence, are, I
"■y 12. Ancient deeds of years Handin^r, vvlucli prove thvm-
f elves; but, Modern deeds; and, 4. Other writings,
mud be attefted and verified by parol evidence of witnefles.
With regard to parol evidence or witnefles; it muft firft be
remembered, that there is a procefs to bring them in by
writ of fubpcsnn ad iejlificanclvm ; which commands them, lay¬
ing afide all pretences and excufcs, to appear at the trial on
pain of 100 1. to be
forfeited to the king
to which the fta-
tute 9 Eliz. c. 9. has added a penalty of 101. to the party
aggrieved, and damages equivalent to the lofs fuflained by
want of his evidence. But no witnels, unlefs his reafon
able expences be tendered him, is bound to appear at
all ; nor, if he appears, is be bound to give evidence till fuch
charges are adlually paid him ; except he relides within the
bills ot mortality, and is fummoned to give evidence within
the fame. This compulfory procefs, to briit j in unwilling
witncffes, and the additional terrors or an attachment 111 cafe
of difobedience, are of excellent ute in the thorough invtdi-
gation of truth : and, upon the fame principle, in the Athe¬
nian courts, the witneffes who were fummoned to attend the
trial had their choice of three things : either to fwear to the
tiuth of the fadt in queftion, to deny or abjure it, or the to
pay a fine of I oco drachmas.
All witneffes, of whatever religion or count«y, that have
the ufe of their reafon, are to be received and examined, ex¬
cept fuch as are infamous, or fuch as are interefted in the
event of the cau(e. All others are competent witneffes ;
though the jury from other circumfiances will judge of their
credibility. Infamous perfons ate inch as may be challen¬
ged as jurors, propter dehSum : and therefore never (hall be
admitted to give evidence to inform that jury, with whom
they were too fcandalous to affociate. Interelted witneffes
may be examined noon a vo>r dire, if fufpefted to be fecretly
concerned in the event ; or their intereft may be proved in
court. Which laft is the only method of fupporting an
objection to the former clafs ; for no man is to be examined
to prove his own infamy. And no counfel, attorney, or
other perfon, intruded with the fecrets ot the caufe by the
party himfeb, fhall be compelled, or perhaps allowed, to
give evidence of fuch converfation or matters of privacy as
came to his knowledge by virtue of fuch truft and confi¬
dence : but he may be examined as to mere matters of taft,
as the execution of a deed or the like, which might have
come to his knowledge without being intrufted in the
caufe.
One wknefs (if credible) is fnfneient evidence to a jury
of any fingle fact: though undoubtedly the concurrence ot
two or more corroborates the proof. Yet our law confiders
that there are many tranfaftions to which only one perfon
is privy ; and therefore does not always demand the tefti-
mony of two. Pofitive proof is always required, where,
from the nature of the cafe, it appears it might poffibly have
been had. But, next to pofitive proof, circumftantial evi¬
dence, or the dodtrine of prefumptions, muft take place : for
when the fa£t itfelt cannot be demonftratively evinced, that
which comes neareft to the pi oof of the ia£t is the proof of
fuch circumflances which cither neceffarily or ufually attend
fuch faffs ; and thefe are called prefumptions, which are only
to be relied upon till the contrary be aflually proved.
The oath adminiflered to the witnefs is not only that
what he depofes fhall be true, but that he fhall alio depofe
the whole truth : fo that he is not to conceal any part of
what he knows, whether interrogated particularly to that
point or not. And all this evidence is- to be given in open
court, in the prefence of the parties, their attorneys, the
counfel, and all byflanders ; and before the judge and jury :
each party having liberty to except to its competency,.
f 567 ] T R 1
Records; and which exceptions are publicly flated, and by the judge are ^
openly and publicly allowed or difallowed, in the face of the
country: which muft curb any fecret bias or partiality
that might atife in his own breaft.
When the evidence is gone through on both fides, the
judge, in the pretence of the parties, the counfel, and all
others, fums up the whole to the jury ; omitting all fuperflu-
ous circumflances, obferving wherein the main queftion and
principal iffue lies, Hating what evidence has been given to
fupport it, with fuch remarks as he thinks neceffary for them
direction, and giving them his opinion in matters of law ari.
fing upon that evidence.
The jury, after the proofs are fummed up, unlefs the cafe
he very clear, withdraw from the bar to conftder of their
verdift ; and in order to avoid intemperance and caufelef*
delay, are to he kept without meat, drink, fire, or candle,
unlefs by permiflion of the judge, till they are unanimouf-
ly agreed. A method of accelerating unanimity not wholly
unknown in other conflitutions of Europe, and in matteia
of greater concern. I'or by the golden bull of the em¬
pire, if, after the congrefs is opened, the eledlors delay the
eledlion of a king of the Romarrs for 30 days, they fhall be
fed only with bread and water till the fame is accomplifhed>.
But if’our juries eat or drink at all, or have any eatables
about them, without content of the court, and before ver-
didl, it is fineable ; and if they do fo at his char - e for whom
they afterwards find, it will fef afide the verdict. Alfo, if
they fpeak with either of the parties or their agents after
they are gone from the bar, or if they receive any frefh evi¬
dence in private, or if, to prevent dilputes, they caft lots for
whom they ihall find, any of.thefe circumitances will en¬
tirely vitiate the verdidt. And it has been held, that if the
jurors do not agree in their verdict before the judges are
about to leave the town, though they are not to be threat¬
ened or imprifoned, the judges are not bound to wait tor
them, but rgay carry them round the circuit from town to-
town in a cart. This neccffity of a total unanimity feems
to be peculiar to our own conflitution ; or at leaft, in the
ntmbda or jury of the ancient Goths, there was required
(even in criminal cafes) only the confent of the major part;
and in, cafe of an equality, the defendant was held to be ac-*
quitted.
When they are all unanimouffy agreed, the jury return,
back to the bar ; and before they deliver their verdict, the
plaintiff is bound to appear in court, by-himfelf, attorney,,
or counfel, in order to aniwer the amercement to which by.
the old law he is liable, in cafe he fails in his fuit, as a pu-
nifhment for his falfe claim. To be amerced, or a merciey
is to be at the king’s mercy with regard to the fine to be
impofed ; in mifericordia domini regis pro falfo clamore Juo.
The amercement is difufed, but the-form Hill continues; and
if the plaintiff does not appear, no verdict can be given ; but
the plaintiff is faid to be nonfuit, non Jequitur clamorem fuum.
Therefore it is ufual for a plaintiff, when he or his cou,nfel
perceives that he has not given evidence fufficient to
maintain his iffue, to be voluntarily nonfuited, or with*
draw himfelf: whereupon the crier is ordered to call the
plaintiff; and if neither he, nor any body for him, appears,
he is nonfuited,the jurors are difeharged, the action, is at a;*
end, and the defendant fhall recover his coafts. The reafon.
cf this-prafifice is, that a nonfuit is more eligible for tha
plaintiff than a verdith againil him : for after a nonfuit,
which ie only a default, he may commence the fame fuit
again for the fame caufe of adlion.; but after a verdidt hadj
and judgment, confequent thereupon, he is for ever barred
from attacking the defendant upon the fame ground of com*
plaint. But in cafe the plaintiff appears, the jury by their
foreman, deliver in their veidid,.
A
Trial.
Trial.
| Montef-
guicu, Spir
L. ii. 6.
T R I [568
A verdift, vere dl8um, is either privy or public. A pri¬
vy verdift is when the jud^e hath left or adjourned the
court : and the jury, being agreed, in order to be delivered
from their confinement, obtain leave to give their verdidf pri¬
vily to the jud,re out of court: which privy verdict is or no
force, unlefs a'tervvards affirmed by a public verdidt given
openly in court ; wherein the jury may, if they pleate, vary
from their privy verdict. So that the privy verdict is indeed
a mere nullity ; and yet it is a dangerous praftice, allowing
time for the parties to tamper with the jury, and therefore
very feldora indulged. _ But the only effeaual and legal ver-
didt is the public verdidt: in which they openly declare to
have found the iffue for the plaintiff, or for the defendant ;
and if for the plaintiff, they affefs the damages alfo fultained
by the plaintiff, in confequence of the injury upon which
the adtion is brought.
When the jury have delivered in their verdidl, and it is
recorded in court, they are then difcharged ; and fo ends
the trial by jury: a trial which ever has been, and it is ho¬
ped ever will be, looked upon as the glory of the Englifh
law. It is certainly the moft tranfcendant privilege which
any fubjedf can enjoy or wifh for, that he cannot be affedfed
-either in his property, his liberty, or his perfon, but by the
unanimous confent of 12 of his neighbours and equals. A
conilitution that we may venture to affirm has, under provi¬
dence, fecured the juft liberties of this nation for a long fuc-
ceffion of ages. And therefore a celebrated French writer
who concludes, that becaufe Rome, Sparta, and Carthage,
have loft their liberties, therefore thofe of England in time
muft perifh, fhould have recolkdfed, that Rome, Sparta, and
Carthage, at the time when their liberties were loft, were
flrangers to the trial by jury.
Great as this eulogium may feem, it is no more than this
admirable conftitution, when traced to its princioles, will be
found in fober reafon to deferve.
The impartial adminiftration ofjuftice, which fecures both
our perfons and our properties, is the great end of civil fo-
ciety. But if that be entirely entrufted to the magiftracy,
a feledt body of men, and thofe generally feledted by the
prince or fuch as enjoy the higheft offices in the ftate, their
decifions, in fpite of their own natural integrity, will have
frequently an involuntary bias towards thofe of their own
rank and dignity : it is not to be expedled from human na¬
ture, that the few fhould be always attentive to the interefts
and good of the many. On the other hand, if the power
ot judicature were placed at random in the hands of the
multitude, their decifions would be wild and capricious, and
a new rule of adtion would be every day eftablifhed in our
courts. It is wifely therefore ordered, that the principles
and axioms of law, which are general propofkions flowing
from abftradted reafon, and not accommodated to times or
to men, fliould be depofited in the breafts cf the judges, to
be occafionally applied to fuch fades as come properly afeer-
tained before them. For here partiality can have little fcope;
the law is well known, and is the fame for all ranks and de¬
grees : it follows as a regular conclufion from the premiffes
of fadt pre-eftablifhed. But in fettling and adjutting a que-
Ition of fadt, when intrufted to any Angle magiftrate, parti¬
ality and injuftice have an ample field to range in, either by
boldly aflerting that to be proved which is not fo, or more
artfully by fuppreffing fome circumftances, ftretching and
v/arpmg others, and diftinguifhing away the remainder.
Here therefore a competent number of fenfible and upright
jurymen, chofen by lot from among thofe of the middle
rank, will be found the beft inveftigacors of truth, and the
fureft guardians o^ public juftice.
1 T R I
tadt of his oppreffion rr.uft be examined and decided by 12
indifferent men not appointed till the hour of trial ; and
that when once the fad is afeertained, the law muft of courfe
redrefs it. I his therefore preferves in the hands of the
people that fhare which they ought to have in the admini¬
ftration of public juftice, and prevents the encroachments of
the more powerful and wealthy citizens.
Criminal Trials. The regular and ordinary method of pro¬
ceeding in thecourts of criminal jurifdidtion maybe diftributed
under 12 general heads, following each other in a p-ogrefiive
order: viz. 1. Arreft; 2. Commitment and bail; 3. Profecution;
4. Procefs ; 5. Arraignment, and its incidents ; 6. Plea, and
iffue ; 7. Trial, and conviction; 8. Clergy; 9. Judgment,
and its confequences ; 10. Reverfal of judgment ; 11. Re-
prieve, or pardon; 1 2. Execution. See Arrest, Com¬
mitment, Presentment, Indictment, Information,
Appeal, Process upon an Indiftment, Arraignment, and
Plea ; in which articles all the forms which precede the
trial are deferibed, and are here enumerated in the proper
order.
'] he feveral methods of trial and convi&ion of offenders,
eftablifhed by the laws of England, were formerly more nu¬
merous than at prefent, through the fuperftition of our Sa¬
xon anceftors; who, like other northern nations, were ex¬
tremely addicted to divination ; a charafter which Tacitus
obferves of the ancient Germans. They therefore invented
a confidcrable number of methods of purgation or trial, to
prelerve innocence from the danger of falte witnefi'es, and
in confequence of a notion that God would always interpofe
miraculoufly to vindicate the guiklefs ; as, 1. By Ordeal ;
2. By Corsned ; 3. By Battel. See thefe articles.
4. A fourth method is that by the peers of Great Britain^
in the Court of Parliament ; or the Court of the Lord
High Steward, when a peer is capitally inditfted ; for in
cafe of an appeal, a peer fhall be tried by jury. j his differs
little from the trial per patriam, or by jury ; except that the
peers need not all agree in their verdifit ; and except alfo,
that no fpecial verdidt can be given in the trial of a peer ;
becaute the lords of parliament, or the lord high fteward (if
the trial be had in his court), are judges fufficiently compe¬
tent of the law that may arife from the faft ; but the greater
number, confifting of 1 2 at the kaft, will conclude, and bind
the minority.
The trial by jury, or the country, per patriam, is alfo that
trial by the peers of every Briton, which, as the great bul¬
wark of his liberties, is fecured to him by the great charter:
nullus fiber homo capitatur, vel imprifonetur, aut exulet, aut ali-
quo alio mods dejlruatur, niji per legale judicium parium fuorum,
T>el per legem terra.
When therefore a prifoner on his Arraignment has
pleaded not guilty, and for his trial hath put him felt upon
the country, which country the jury are, the flier iff’ of the
county muft return a panel of jurors, liberos et legates homines,
de viceneto ; that is, freeholders without juft exception, and
of the vifne or neighbourhood ; which is interpreted to be
of the county where the faff is committed. I! the pro¬
ceedings are betoie the court of king’s bench, there is time
allowed between the arraignment and the trial, for a jury to
be impanelled by writ of venire facias to the fheriff, as in cr-
vil caufes ; and the trial in cafe of a mifdemeanor is had at
nif pt ius, unkfs it be of fuch confequence as to merit a trial
at bar ; which is always invariably had when the prifoner is
tried for any capital offence. But, before commiffioners
of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery, the fheriff, by virtue
of a general precept dircdled to him beforehand, returns to
the court a panel of 48 jurors, to try all felons that may
Trial,
o'- public juitice. For the mofl powerful
individual in the ftate will be cautions of committing any be called upon their trial "at that feffion ; and therefore it is
flagrant invaflon of another’s right, when he knows that the there ufuaf to try all felons immediately or foon after their
T R I
[ 569 1
T R 1
Trial, arraignment. But it is not cuftomary, nor agreeable to the
—-v”— general courfe of proceedings, unlefs by confent of parties,
to try perfons indidled of fmaller mildemeanors at the fame
court in which they have pleaded not guilty, or traverfed
the indi&ment. But they ufually give fecurity to the
court to appear at the next afiifes or feflion, and then and
there to try the traverfe, giving notice to the profecutor of
the fame.
In cafes of high-treafon, whereby corruption of blood may
enfue (except treafon in counterfeiting the king’s coin or
feals), or mifprilion of fuch treafon, it is enafted by ftatute
7 W. III. c. 3. firft, that no perfon {hall be tried for any
fuch treafon, except an attempt to affaffinate the king, un¬
lefs the indi&ment be found within three years after the
offence committed : next, that the prifoner (hall have a copy
of the indictment (which includes the caption), but not the
names of the witneffes, five days at lead before the trial,
that is, upon the true conftru&ion of the a£f, before his ar¬
raignment ; for then is his time to take any exceptions there¬
to, by way of plea or demurrer : thirdly, that he (hall alfo
have a copy of the panel of jurors two days before his trial:
and, laftly, that he fhall have the fame compulfive procefs to
bring in his witnefies for him, as was ufual to compel their
appearance againlt him. And by ftatute 7 Ann. c. 21.
(which did not take place till after the deceafe of the late
pretender) all perfons indiCted for high-treafon, or mifpri-
fions thereof, (hall have not only a copy of the indictment,
but a lift of all the witnefles to be produced, and of the ju¬
rors impanelled, with their profeflions and places of abode,
delivered to him ten days before the trial, and in the pre¬
fence of two witnefles, the better to prepare him to make
his challenges and defence. And no perfon indiCted for
felony is, or (as the law ftands) ever can be, entitled to fuch
copies before the time of his trial.
When the trial is called on, the jurors are to be fworn as
they appear, to the number of 12, unleis they are challenged
by the party.
Challenges may here be made, either on the part of the
king* or on that of the prifoner ; and either to the whole ar¬
ray, or to the feparate polls, for the very fame reafons that
they may be made in civil caufes. But in criminal cafes,
or at leaft in capital ones, there is, in favarem vita, allowed
to the prifoner an arbitrary and capricious fpecies of chal¬
lenge, to a certain number of jurors, without {bowing any
caufe at all; which is called a peremptory challenge ; a pro-
vifion full of that tendernefs and humanity to prifoners for
which our Englifh laws are juftly famous. This is ground¬
ed on two reafons, 1. As every one muft be fenfible what
fiudden impreffions and unaccountable prejudices we are apt
to conceive upon the bare looks and geftures of another;
and how neceffary it is that a prifoner (when put to defend
his life) fhouldhave a good opinion of his jury, the want of
which might totally difconcert him ; the law wills not that
he. mould be tried by any one man againft whom he has con¬
ceived a prejudice, even without being able to aflign a rea-
lon for fuch .his diflike. 2. Becaufe, upon challenges for
caufe fhown, if the reafon affigned prove infufficient to let
afide the juror, perhaps the bare queftioning his indifference
may fometimes provoke a refentment; to prevent all ill con-
fequences from which, the prifoner is {till at liberty, if he
pleafes, peremptorily to let him afide.
The peremptory challenges of the prifoner muft, however,
have fome reafonable boundary ; otherwife he might never
be tried. This reafonable boundary is fettled by'the com¬
mon law to be the number of 35 ; that is, one under the
number o)- three full juries.
I by reafon of challenges or the default of the
Vol. XVIII. part II.
e jurors, a
fufficient number cannot be had of the original panel, a tales
may be awarded as in civil caufes, till the number of 12 is
fvvorn, “ well and truly to try, and true deliverance make,
between our fovereign lord the king and the prifoner whom
they have in charge ; and a true verdidl to give, according
to their evidence.”
When the jury is fworn, if it he a caufe of any confe-
quence, the Indictment is uiually ooened, and the evi¬
dence marfhalled, examined, and enforced by the counfel
for the crown or profecution. But it is a fettled rule at
common law, that no counfel (hall be allowed a prifoner up¬
on his trial upon the general iflite, in any capital crime, unlefss
fome point of law {hall arife proper to be debated. A rule
which (however it may be palliated under cover of that
noble declaration of the law, when rightly underftood, that
the judge {hall be counfel for the prifoner ; that is, (hall fee
that the proceedings againft him are legal and ftricftly regu¬
lar) feems to be not at all of a piece with the reft of the
humane treatment of prifoners by the Englilh law. For
upon what face of reafon can that affiftance be denied to
fave the life of a man, which yet is allowed him in profe-
cutions for every petty trefpafs ? Nor indeed is it, ftri&iy
fpeaking, a part of our ancient law ; for the Mirrour, having
obferved the necefiky of counfel in civil fuits, “ who know
how to forward and defend the caufe by the rules of law,
and cuftoms of the realm,” immediately afterwards fubjoins,
and more neceffary are they for defence upon indiddments
and appeals of felony, than upon other venial caufes.” And,
to lay the truth, the judges themfelves are fo fenfible of this
defedl in our modern'practice, that they feldom fcruple to
allow a pritoner counfel to ftand by him at the bar, and to
inftruft him what queftions to afk, or even to alk queftions
for him, with regard to matters of fad ; for as to matters of
law arifing on the trial, they are entitled to the affiftance of
counfel. But ftill this is a matter of too much importance
to be left to the good pleafure of any judge, and is worthy
the inlcrpofition of the legiflature; which has drown its in¬
clination to indulge prifoners with this reafonable affiftance.,
by enacting, in ftatute 7 W. III. c. 3. that perfons indid-
ed for fuch high-treafon as works a corruption of the blood
or mifpriiion thereof (except treafon in counterfeiting the
king’s coins or feals), may make their full defence by coim-
fel, not exceeding two, to be named by the prifoner, and af¬
figned by the court or judge; and this indulgence, by ftat-
tute 20 Geo. II. c. 30. is extended to parliamentary im¬
peachments for high-treafon, which were excepted in the for¬
mer ad.
When the evidence on both fides is clofed, the jury can¬
not be difeharged (unlefs in cafes of evident neceffity) till
they have given in their verdict. If they find the prifoner
not guilty, he is then for ever quit and difeharged of the
acculation, except he be appealed of felony within the time
limited by law. And upon fuch his acquittal, or difeharge
for want of profecution, he (hall be immediately fet at large
without payment of any fee to the gaoler. But if the jury
find him guilty, he is then faid to be convided of the crime
whereof he ftands indided. See the article Conviction ;
and, fubiequent thereto, the articles Judgment, Attaind¬
er, Forfeiture, Execution, alfo Benefit of Clf.rgt, Re¬
prieve, Pardon.
Trial, in Scotland. See Scots Lav?.
IRIANDRIA (from, “ three,” and “ a maa
or hufband),” the name of the third clafs in Linnaeus’s fex-
ual.fyftem, confiding of plants with hermaphrodite flowers,
which have three ftamina or male organs.
TRIANGLE, in geometry, a figure of three fides and
three angles.
4 C TRIBE,
Trial
.u r
Triangle.
T R I
f 57° ]
T R I
Tribe
-. II
Trichecus.
TRIBE, in antiquity, a certain quantity or number of
perfons, when a divifion was made of a city or people into
quarters or diftrifts. rn- r
TRIBRACHYS, in ancient-poetry, afoot confifting ot
three fyllables, and thefe all fhort ; as, mtllus.
TRIBUNAL, in general, denotes the feat of a judge,
called in our courts bench.
TRIBUNE, among the ancient Pvomans, a magiftrate
chofen out of the commons, to protect them againft the op-
preffions of the great, and to defend the liberty of the people
againft the attempts of the fenate and confuls.
The tribunes of the people were firft eftablifhed in the
year of Rome 259. The firft defign of their creation was to
fhelter the people from the cruelty of ufurers, and to engage
them to quit the Aventine mount, whither they had retired
in difplealure.
Their number at firft was but two ; but the next year,
tinder the confulate of A. Pofthumius Aruncius and Caf-
fius Vilcellinus, there were three more added; and this
nunv er of five was afterwards mereafed by L- Irebonius
to ten.
Military Tribune, an officer in the Roman army, com¬
mander in chief over a body of forces, particularly the divifion
of a legion ; much the fame with our colonel, or the French
maitre de camp.
TRIBUTARY, one who pays tribute to another, in or¬
der to live in peace with him or fhare in his protection.
TRIBUTE, a tax or impoft which one prince or ftate
is obliged to pay to another as a token of dependence, or in
virtue of a treaty, and as a purchafe of peace.
TRICEPS, in anatomy. See there, Table of the Mu»-
cles. . . .
TRICHECUS, Walrus; a genus of aquatic animals
belonging to the clafs o-1 mammalia, and order of bruta. This
genus has no fore-teeth, when full grown : has two great
tufks in the upper ydw, which point downwards : has grin¬
ders on each fide in both jaws, whicn are compofed of iiir-
rowed bones. The body is oblong ; the ups are doublet!;
and the hind legs are ftretched backwards, and, as it
were, bound together, forming a kind of tail fitted for
fwimming. There are three fpecies; the rofmarus, dugon,
and manatus.
I, The rofmarus, morfe, or fea-horte, has a round head ;
fmall mouth ; very thick lips, covered above and below with
pellucid briftles as thick as a ftraw ; fmall fiery eyes ; two
fmall orifices in dead of ears ; fhort neck ; body thick in the
middle, tapering towards the tail; (kin thick, wrinkled, with
fhort brawnifh hairs thinly difperfed ; legs fhort, five toes on
each, all connedled by webs, and fmall nails on each : the
hind feet are very broad ; each leg loofely articulated ; the
hind legs generally extended on a line with the body : the
tail is very fhort; penis long: length of the animal from
nofe to tail fometimes 18 feet, and 10 or 12 round in the
thickeft part: the teeth have been fometimes found of the
weight of 30 lb. each. Teeth of this fize are only found
on the coaft of the Icy Sea, where the animals are feldom
molefted, and have time to attain their full growth. See
Plate DX. fig. 1.
They inhabit the coaft of Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla,
Hudfon’s Bay, and the gulph of St Lawrence ; and_the Icy
Sea, as far as Cape Tfchuktfchi. They are gregarious ; in
feme places appearing in herds of hundreds. They are fhy
animals, and avoid places which are much haunted by man¬
kind ; but are very fierce. If wounded in the water, they
attempt to fink the boat, either by rifing under it, or by
ftriking their great teeth into the fides ; they roar very
loud, and will follow the boat till it gets out of fight. Num¬
bers of them are often feea fleeping on an illand of ice ; if
awaked, they fling themfelves with great impetuofity into Trichecus,
the fea ; at which time it is dangerous to approach the ice,
left they fhould tumble into the boat and overfet it. They
do not go upon the land till the coaft is clear of ice. At
particular times they land in amazing numbers : the moment
the firft gets on fhore, fo as to lie dry, it will not ftir till
another comes and forces it forward by beating it with its
great teeth; this is ferved in the fame manner by the next ;
and fo in fucceffion till the whole is landed ; continuing tum¬
bling over one another, and forcing the foremoft, for the fake
of quiet, to remove farther up.
They are killed for the fake of their oil, one walrus pro¬
ducing about half a tun. The knowledge of this chace is of
great antiquity; O&her the Norwegian, about the year
890, made a report of it to king Alfred, having, as he lays,
made the voyage beyond Norway, for the more commodities
of fifhtng of horfe-avhales, which have in their teeth bones ^
of great price and excellen y, whereof he brought fame at his ^ y0^
return unto the king. In fadf, it was m the northern j.j,
world, in early times, the fubftitute to ivory, being very
white and very hard. Their fkins, O&her fays, were good
to cut into cables. M. de Buffon fays, he has feen braces
for coaches made of the fkin, which were both ftrong and
elaftic.
They bring one, or at moft two, young at a time : they
feed on fea herbs and fifh ; alfo on fhells, which they dig out
of the land with their teeth : they are faid alfo to make ufe
of their teeth to afeend rocks or pieces ot ice, fattening them
to the cracks, and drawing their bodies up by that means.
Befides mankind, they feem to have no other enemy than
the white bear, with whom they have terrible combats;
but generally come off vi&orious, by means of their great
teeth.
In Captain Cook’sVoyages we have the following affeefting
account of their parental attachment to their young. ‘‘On the
approach of the boats towards the ice, they took their young
ones under their fins, and attempted to efcape v/ith them into
the fea. Some, whofe cubs were killed or wounded, and left
floating uoon the furface ot the water, rofe again, and car¬
ried them* down, fometimes juft as our men were on the
point of taking them into the boat; and could be traced
bearing them to a confiderable diftance through the water,
which was ftained with their blood. They were afterwards
obferved bringing them, at intervals, above the furface, as if
for air, and again plunging under it, wuth a horrid bellow-
The female, in particular, whofe young one had been
killed, and taken into the boat, became fo furious, that fhe
even ftruck her two tufks through the bottom of the cutter.”
2. The dugon, or Indian walrus, is diftin'mifticd by the
tufks which extend out of the mouth from the upper jaw
being placed near each other. It inhabits the feas lying be¬
tween the Cape of Good Hope and the Philippine iflands.
This animal, fo far as can be known, refembles the morfe
very much : the head is, however, more lengthened and nar¬
rower ; the noftrils are large, and placed higher ; like the for¬
mer fpecies, there are no tuiks in the under jaw, but thofe
in the" upper jaw, as has been already obferved, are placed
near each other, bent outwards, and refemble cutting teeth,
only that they are near fix inches long ; there are four grin¬
ders on each fide in the upper jaw, and three in the lower ;
thefe laft are diftant from the tufks, and are br°3a^r th3u
thofe of the morfe : the female has two teats on the brealt;
the chin has a briftly beard ; the ears are fhort ; the teet
broad; and the kgs lo fhort that the belly trads on the
ground. When full grown, the animal is fix uls in length,
the male being rather larger than the female, whtch has
breads like a woman : It feeds on a green fca mofs or
weed, which grows near the tore, the figure, manners.
T R I
 <-*> T
L 5 / “
Trichscus and hiftory, of this animal, are very imperfe&ly known ; but
v—'* we are informed that its flefh eats like beef.
3. Manatus, fifb-tailed walrus, or fea-cow, has no tulles,
and no hind feet. Of this fpecies there are two varie¬
ties ; the auftralis or lamantin, and the borealis or whale¬
tailed manati. The lamantin inhabits the African and A-
merican feas, particularly near the mouths of rivers, which
they frequently enter, feldom going far from the fhore. The
lamantin varies in iize from eight to feventeen feet long, is
fix or feven in circumference, and from 500 to 8oo pounds
weight: the fldn is of a dark or black afh colour ; there are
nine fquare lhaped grinders on each hde in each jaw, which
are covered with a glafly cruft of enamel; the back bone
has 50 joints or vertebras : it is a thick clumfy animal, ha¬
ving no properly diftinft neck, as the body continues almoft
of an equal thicknefs to the head. The female has two
teats placed near the arm-pits. This animal never comes
on Ihore, but frequents the mouths of large rivers, bronzing
on the grafs which grows clofe to the water. There feems
to be two varieties, differing confiderably in fize. The lar¬
ger frequents the leas near the mouths of large rivers ; and
the fmaller is found higher up the fame rivers, and in inland
frefh water lakes, but never goes to the fea.
We are told that this animal is often tamed by the na¬
tive inhabitants of America, and that it delights in mufic ;
hence, according to fome authors, it is probably the delphi-
nus or dolphin of the ancients: and fome believe, that what
has been written concerning mermaids and hrens muft be re¬
ferred to this animal. It has a voracious appetite, and is
perpetually eating : it is monogamious, or lives in families
of one male, one female, a half grown and a very fmall
young one ; copulates in the fpring, the female at firft hy¬
ing in various playful circles, and then throwing herfelf on
her back to receive the male : When pafturing on the aqua¬
tic plants, the back is often above water; and, as the fkin
is full of a fpecies of loufe, numbers of fea fowls perch on
them, to pick out the infedts. They bellow like bulls:
their fight is very weak, but their hearing extremely acute ;
the fore-feet are palmated and fin-lhaped, almoft like thofe
of a fea-turtle ; and inftead of hind-feet they have a horizon¬
tal tail; they have no external ears ; the noftrils are diftindt,
and at a diftance from each other; the females have two
teats about the bread ; the upper lip is full of fharp, prick¬
ly, rigid briftles. This animal has great affinity to the
whale and feal tribes. The fltffi is very good eating.
The whale-tailed manati inhabits the north-weft coaft of
America, the north-eaft of Afia, and the illands which lie
between thefe two coafts. Tins animal very often enters
the mouths of the rivers; is fometimes 23 feet long, and
weighs 8coo pounds ; the fkin, while wet, is of a brown co¬
lour, but becomes black when dry. Inftead of grinders,
this Ipecies has, on each fide of each jaw, a large rug¬
ged bone. The back-bone has 60 vertebrae 01 joints :
the body is very clumfy, and much deformed ; its circum¬
ference at the ftroulders is 12 feet, at the belly 20, and near
the tail only four; the neck is near feven feet round, and the
head only 3 1 inches-
They live perpetually in the water, and frequent the
edges of the fhores ; and in calm weather fwim in droves
near the mouths of rivers: in the time of flood they
come fo near the land, that a perfon may ftroke them
with his hand : if hurt, they fwim out to fea j but prefently
return again- The females oblige the young to fwim be¬
fore them, while the other old ones furround, and as it were
guard them on all Tides. The affedtion between the male
and female is very great: for if fhe is attacked, he will
defend her to the utmoft ; and if fhe is killed, will follow
her corple to the very fhore, and fwim for fome days near
T R I
the place it has been landed at. They copulate in the TnchCvUv
in the fame manner as the human kind, efpecially in calm .H
weather, towards the evening. The female fwima gently ,Tl lderr‘ '
about; the male purfues; till, tired with wantoning, fne
flings herfelf on her back, and admits his embraces. Stel-
ler thinks they go with young about a year; it is certain
that they bring but one young at a time, which they fuckle
by two teats placed between the breaft. 'They are vaftly vo¬
racious and gluttonous ; and feed not only on the fuel that
grow in the fea, but fuch as are flung on the edges of the
fhore. When they are filled, they fall afleep on their backs.
During their meals, they are fo intent on their food, that
any one may go among them and choofe which he likes heft.
Peter Martyr gives an inftance of one that lived in a lake
of Hifpaniola for 25 years, and was fo tame as to come to
the edge of the fhore on being called ; and would even per¬
form the part of a ferry, and carry feveral people at a time
on its back to the oppofite fhore.—Their back and their
Tides are generally above water.
They continue in the Kamtfchatkan and American feas
the whole year ; but in winter are very lean, fo that you
may count their ribs. They are taken by harpoons faftened
to a ftrong cord; and after they are ftruck, it requires the
united force of 30 men to draw them on ffiore. Sometimes
when they are transfixed, they will lay hold of the rocks
with their paws, and flick fo faft as to leave the fkin behind
before they can be forced off. When a manati is ftruck,
its companions fwim to its afliftance ; fome will attempt to
overturn the boat by getting under it; others will prefs
down the rope, in order to break it; and others will ftrike
at the harpoons with their tails, with a view of getting it
out, in which they often fucceed. They have not any
voice ; but make a noife by hard breathing like the fnorting
of a horfe.
The fldn is very thick, black, and full of inequalities, like
the bark of oak, and fo hard as fcarce to be cut with an
axe, and has no hair on it : beneath the hair is a thick blub¬
ber, which taftes like oil of almonds. The flefh is coarfer
than beef, and will not foon putrify. The young ones tafte
like veal. The flcin is ufed for fhoes, and for covering the
fides of boats.
TRICHOMANES, in botany ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of cryptogarnia, and order of Jiiices. The
parts of fruftification are folitary, and terminated by a ftyle
like a briftle, on the very edge of the leaf. There are 1 3
fpecies; of which two are natives of Britain, the pixidiferum
and tunbrigenfe.
I. Pixuhferumy or cup-trichomanes, has fub-bipinnated
leaves, the pinnae being alternate, clofe-lobed, and linear.
It is found among flones in wet grounds in England. 2.
<Tunbrigmfe> or Tunbridge trichomanes, has pinnated leaves,
the pinnae being oblong, dichotomous, decurrent, and den-
tated. It is found in the fiffures of moift rocks in Wales,
and in many rocky places in Scotland.
TRICOCCEiE ( Tffif “ three,” and “ a grain”),
the name of the 38th order.in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a
Natural Method, confifting of plants with a fingle three-cor¬
nered capfule, having three cells, or internal divifions, each
containing a fingle leed. See Botany, vol. iii. page 466.
TRICOSAN FHES, in botany : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs of monad a, and order of fyngenejia ; and
in the natural fyftem ranging under the 34th order, Cucur-
bitacea. There are four fpecies ; only one of which is cul¬
tivated in the Britifh gardens, tire anguina or fnake-gpurd,
which is a native of China, an annual, and of the cucumber
tribe.
TRIDENT, an attribute of Neptune, being a kind of
feeptre which the painters and poets put into the hands of
4 C 2 that
T R I
SSTricnnial
h . !|
Tnfolium.
that god, in form of a fpear or fork with three teeth; whence
the word.
TRIENNIAL, an epithet applied chiefly to officers or
employments which'laft for three years.
TRIENS, in antiquity, a copper money of the value of
one third of an as, which on one fide bore a Janus’s head,
and on the other a water rat.
TRIENTALIS, Chickweed winter-green, in bo-
I 1
T R I
Trigs
tany : A genus of plants belonging to the clafs of heptan-
aria, and order of monogynia; and in the natural fyftem
ranging under the 2©th order, P.otaceit. The calyx is hep-
taphyllous ; the corolla is equal and plane, and is divided
into feven fegmtnts ; the berry is unilocular and dry. There
is only one fpecies, the europaa ; which is indigenous, and
the only genus of heptandria that is fo.
the Italk is Angle, five or fix inches high, terminated
with five, fix, or feven, oval pointed leaves ; from the centre
of which arile on long footflalks commonly two white ftarry
flowers, each generally confifting of feven oval and equal pe¬
tals, fucceeded by a globular dry berry, covered with a thin
white rind, having one cell, and containing feveral angular
feeds.
TRIERS, or Treves. See Treves.
TRIFOLIUM, Trefoil, or Clover, in botany : A ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the clafs of diadelphia, and order
of decandna; and in the natural fyftem ranging under the
32a order, Papllionace#. The flowers are generally in round
heads ; the pod is fcarcely longer than the calyx, univalve,
not opening, deciduous. The leaves are three together.
According to Murray’s edition of Linnaeus, there are 46
fpecies; of which 17 are natives of Britain. We (hall deferibe
feme of the molt remarkable of thefe :
1. Meldoti officinalis, or melilot, has naked racemous pods,
•difpermohs, wrinkly, and acute, with an eredt {talk. It
grows in corn-fields and by the way-fides, but not common.
T. he (talk is eredt, firm, ftriated, branched, and two or three
feet high : the leaves ternate, fmooth, obtufely oval, and fer-
rated : the flowers are fmall, yellow, pendulous, and grow in
Jong clofe fpikes at the tops of the branches : the pod is
very ffioit, turgid, tranfverfely wrinkled, pendulous, and
contains either one or two leeds. The plant has a very pe¬
culiar flrong feent, and difagreeable, bitter, acrid tatte, but
fuch, however, as is not difjgreeable to cattle. The flowers
are Tweet-feented. It has generally been efteemed emollient
and digeftive, and been uftd in fomentations and cataplafms,
particularly in the plafier employed in dreffing blitters ; but
is now lard afide, as its quality is found to be rather acrid
and irritating than emollient or refolvent. It communicates
a moft loathlpme flavour to wheat and other grain, fo as to
render it unfit for making bread. It grows in corn-fields.
2. Trifolium repens, white creeping trefoil, or Dutch clo¬
ver, has a creeping*ftalk, its flower gathered into an umbel-
lar head, and its pods tetrafpermous. It is very common in
fields and paftures. It is well known to be excellent fodder-
for cattle ^ and the leaves are a good ruftte hygrometer, as
they are always relaxed and flaccid in dry weather, but ere<R
in moift or rainy.
3. Trifolium pratenfe, purple or red clover, is diftingmflted
by der.fe fpikes, unequal corollas, by bearded ftipulas, attend¬
ing ftalks, and by the calyx having four equal teeth. This
•/s the botanical defeription of this fpecies given by Mr Af-
xelius, who, in a paper of the fit ft volume of the Linnsean
Tranfarihons, has been at much pains to remove three fpecies
e f the tnfeluim fiom the confufion in which they have been
long involved ; namely, the pratsnfe, medium, and alpeftre.
r.l he red clover is common in meadows and paftures, and is
the fpecies which is generally cultivated as food for cattle.
Ii abounds in every p.art of Europe, in North America, and
even in Siberia. It delights moft in rich, moift, and funny
places ; yet flourifhes in dry, barren, and fhady places. For 11
an account of the mode of cultivating it, fee AGRicuL-Trig0Pe!la’
TORE, n° 177. ° •*—
, 4- ■dlpejlre* long-leaved purple trefoil, or mountain clover,
is thus characterized by Mr Afzelius. The fpikes are denfe;
the corollas fomewhat equal; the ftipulas are briftly and di¬
vergent ; the leaflets lanceolated ; the ftalks ftiff, ftraight,
and very Ample. It grows in dry, mountainous, woody
places, in Hungary, Auftria, and Bohemia, &c. ; but is not
faid by Mr Afzelius to be a native of Britain.
5. The medium, according to Mr Afzelius, has alfo been
confounded with the two fpecies laft mentioned ; but it is to
be diltinguifhed from them by having loott fpikes, corollas
fomewhat equal, ftipulas'tubulate and connivent, and ftalks
flexuole and branched. It is found in dry elevated fitua-
tions, efpecially among fhrubs, or in woods where the foil is
chalky or clay, in England, Scotland, Sweden,Denmark, &e.
For a botanical defeription of the other fpecies of the'
trifolium, fee Lightttot’s Plora Scotica, Berkenhout’s Sy-
nopfis of the Natural Hiftory of Great Britain and Ireland,
and Withering’s Botanical Arrangements.
I RIGA, in antiquity, denotes a kind of carr or chariot
drawn by three hortts; whence the name.
TRIGLA, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties belonging
to the order of thoracici. The head is loricated with rough
lines, and thefe are feven rays in the membranes of the gills.
There are 1 1 fpecies ; of which the principal are the gurnar-
dus, or grey gurnard ; the cuculus, or red gurnard ; the ly-
ra, or piper ; and the hirundo, or fapphirine gurnard,
TRIGLOCHIN, in botany : A genus of plants belong-
mg to the clafs of- hexandna, and order of trigynia / and in
the natural fyftem ranging under the fifth order, Tripelatoi-
dee. The calyx is triphyllous ; the petals are three; there-
is no ftyle ; the capfule opens at the bafe. There are three
fpecies ; of which the paluftre and maritimum are Britilh.
1. Palujlre, or arrow-headed grafs, has an oblong trilo-’
cular capfule. The ftalk is Ample, eight or ten inches
high; the leaves long and narrow ; the flowers are greenithg
and grow at the end of a long ipike. It is frequent in'
moift ground.
2. Marilimum, or fea fpiked grafs, has ovate fexlocuiar
capfules ; the ftalk is fhort; the Ipike long, and flowers pur-
plilh. Jt is frequent on the fea-coafts. Linnsus fays that-
cattle eat thefe two fpecies with avidity.-
TRIGLYPHS, in arehite&ure, a fort of ornaments re-
peated at equal intervals, in the Doric freeze.
Dialing Tricon. See Dialing.
TRIGONALIS. See Pi la.
TRIGONELLA, Fen uGreek, in botany: A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of diadelphia, and order of </f-
candria.; and'in tire natural fyftem arranged under the 3 2d
order, Papilionacee. The vexillum and aim are nearly equal-
and patent, rettmbiing a tripetalous corolla. There are 1 2-
fpecies ; of which the moft remarkable is the feenumgrcecum,
or fenugreek, a native of Montpener in France.
Fenugreek is an annual plant, which riles with a hollow,
branching, herbaceous ftalk, a foot and a half long, gaf-
nilhed with trifoliate leaves, placed alternately, whofe lobes-
are oblong, oval, indented on their edges, and have broad1
furrowed footftalks.
Fenugreek feeds have a ftrong difagreeable fnaell, and an
iin<£tuous farinaceous tafte accompanied with a flight bitter-
ifhnefs. The principal ufe ef thefe feeds is in cataplafms
and fomentations, for foftening, maturating, and difeufiing
tumors; and in emollient and carminative glyiters. They
are an ingredient in the oleum e mucilaginibus of the Ihops,
to which they communicate a coKlidcrablc fliare of their fnielh
rl R.I-
L 573 1
T R I G O N O M E T R Y,
Pfane. HE art of meafuring the f:des and angles of triangles,
—V-"”- either plane or fpherical, whence it is accordingly
called either Plane Trigonometry, or Spherical Tri¬
gonometry.
Trigonometry is an art of the greatefl ufe in the mathe¬
matical fciences, efpecially in aftronomy, navigation, iurvey-
ing, dialin r, geography, &c. &c. By it we come to know
the magnitude ot the earth, the planets and {tars, their di-
ftances, ‘motions, eclipfes, and almoft all other ufe£ul arts
and fciences. Accordingly we find this art has been culti¬
vated from the earlieit ages of mathematical knowledge.
Trigonometry, or the refolution of triangles, is founded
on the mutual proportions which fubfiit between the fxdes
and angles of triangles; which proportions are known by
finding the relations between the radius of a circle and cer¬
tain other lines drawn in and about the circle, called cords,
fines, tangents, and fecants. The ancients, Menelaus, Hippar¬
chus, Ptolemy, &c. performed their trigonometry by means
of the cords. As to the fines, and the common theorems
relating to them, they were introduced into trigonometry
by the Moors or Arabians, from whom this art palled into
Europe, with feveral other branches of fcience. The Eu¬
ropeans have introduced, fince the 15th century, the tan¬
gents and fecants, with the theorems relating to them.
The proportion of the fines, tangents, &c. to their radius,
is fometimes expreffed in common or natural numbers, which
conftitute what we call the tables of natural fines, tangents,
andJccants. Sometimes it is exprefied in logarithms, being
the logarithms of the faid natural fines, tangents, &c. ; and
thefe conftitute the table of artificial fines, &c. Laltly,
fpmetirnes the proportion is not expreffed in numbers; but
the feveral fines, tangents, &c. are adlually laid down upon
lines of fcales ; whence the line of fines, of tangents, tkc.
In trigonometry, as angles are meafured by arcs of a
circle defcribed about the angular point, fo the whole cir¬
cumference of the circle is divided into a great number of
parts; as 360 degrees, and each degree into 60 minutes,
and each minute into 60 feconds, &c.; and then any angle
is laid to coniift of fo many degrees, minutes, and feconds,
as are contained in the arc that meafures the angle, or that
is intercepted between the legs or fides of the angle.
Now the fine, tangent, and fecant, &c. of every degree
and minute, &e. of a quadrant, are calculated to the radius
2, and ranged in tables lor ufe ; as alio the logarithms of
the fame ; forming the triangular canon. And thefe num¬
bers, fo arranged in tables, form every fpecies of right-angled
triangles; fo that no fuch triangle can be propofed, but one,
fimilar to it may be there found, by comparifon with which,
the propofed one may be computed by analogy or propor¬
tion.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY,: .
There are ufually, three methods of refolding triangles,
or the cafes of trigonometry ;-viz. geometrical conftrudtion,,
arithmetical computation, and inftrumental operation. In
the 1 ft method, the triangle in quefiion is conftrudled by
drawing and laying down the feveral parts of their magni¬
tudes given, viz. the fides. from a fcale of equal parts, and
the angles from a icale of cords or other inlirument; then
the unknown parts are meaiured by the fame fcales, and fo
they become known.
In the 2d method, having Hated the terms of the propor-
iiijn according to rule, which terms confiiV partly of the To-fine angle-D 12o0431
numbers of the given fides, and partly of the fine*, &c. of Plane,
angles taken from the tables, the proportion is then refolved *-*—
like all other proportions, in which a 4th term is to be
found from three given terms, by multiplying the 2d and
together, and dividing the produft by the ift. Or, in work¬
ing with the logarithms, adding the logarithm of the 2d
and 3d terms together, and from the firm fubtrafting the
logarithm 01 tne ifl term ; then the number anfwering to
the remainder is the 4th term fou ght.
To work a cafe inftrumentally, as fupoofe by the loga1-
rithm lines on one fide of the two foot fcales : Extend the
compaftes from the ill term to the 2d or 3d, which hap¬
pens to be of the fame kind with it; then that extent will
reach from the other teim to the 4th. In this operation,
for the fides of triangles, is ufed the line of numbers (mark¬
ed Num.) ; and for the angles, the line of fines or tangents
(marked fin. and tan.) according as the proportion refpt&s
fines or tangents. See Sector.
In every cafe of plane triangles there muft be three parts,
one at leaft of which muff be a fide. And then the diffe¬
rent circumftances, as to the three parts that may be given,
admit of three cafes or varieties only ; viz.
iff, When two of the three parts given are a fide and its
opppofite angle. 2d, When there are given two fides and
their contained angle. 3d, And, thirdly, when the three
fides are given.
To each of thefe cafes there is a particular rule or pro.
portion adapted for refolving it by.
iff, The Rule for the if Cafe, or that in which, of the
three parts that are given, an angle and its oppofite fide are
two of them, is this, vfz. that the fides are proportional to
the fines of their oppofite angles ; that is,
As one fide given
To the fine of its oppofite angle
So is another fide given
To the fine, of its oppofite angle.
Or,
As the fine of an angle given
To its oppolite fide
So is the fine of another angle
To its oppofite fide. '
So that, to find an angle, we muft begin the proportion
with a given., fide that, is oppofite to a given angle ; and ta
find a fide, we muff begin with an angle bppofite to a given
fide; - .
. Example, Suppqfe in the .triangle EDO (fig. 1.) there bepia.e DX
given the fide BC=:io6, DBr= 63, and the angle BCD 3 '
49' g*ven 5 t0 finci angle BDC obtufe and the fide CD,
1. Geometrically by Conflruftion.
Draw the line BC equal to 106, at C make an angle of
310 49' by drawing CD, take 65 in your compafl'es^ and-
with one foot in B lay the. other upon the line CD in D *
draw the line BD, and it is done ; Tor the angle D will bT
12°° 43T the angle B 27° 28', and the fide DC 56.0 as
was required.
2. Arithmetically by Logarithms, '
As the Tide BB.65 - - - Log. r.81291, <
Is to fine angle C 31° 49' - , . . o.72
So is the fide BC 106 , - ... 2.02 ^21,
given
11.74729
1.8 1291
9-93438
To .
574 TRICON
Plane. To find DC. j 180.0
Asfincang-, C 3ic'4-9' 9.72ig8Thefupp. 59.17 of ang. D
Is to the fide ED 65 1,8x291
So is fine ang. 13 27.28 9.66392
1 x.47683
9.72198
To the fide DC 56.88 1,75485
120.43 angle D.
31.49 angle C.
152.32 their fum.
180.0
152.32 fum fubt.
27.28 anf^le B.
- Here it may be proper to obferve, that if the given angle
be obtufe, the angle fought will be acute ; but when the
given angle is acute, and oppofite to a leffer given fide, then
the required angle is doubtful, whether acute or obtufe ; it
ought therefore to be determined before the operation. For
it is plain the above proportion produces 590 17' for the re¬
quired angle ; but as it is obtufe, its fupplement to 180 de¬
grees r.uft be taken, viz. i20°43'.
By Gunter.
‘c The extent from 65 to 106 on the line of numbers will
reach from 3 i0 49' to 59J 17' on the line of fines.”
2dly, “ The extent from 310 49' to 270 2%' on the line of
fines will reach from 6, to 56.88 on the line of numbers.”
Case IT. When there are given twro fides and their con¬
tained angle, to find the reft, the rule is this:
As the fum of the two given fides :
Is to the difference of the fides : :
So is the tangent of half the fum of the two oppofite
angles or cotangent of half the given angle :
To tang, of half the diff. of thofe angles.
Then the half diff. added to the half fum, gives the great¬
er of the two unknown angles ; and fubtradted leaves the
lefs of the two angles.
Hence, the angles being now all known, the remaining
3d fide will be found by the former cafe.
Example. The fide BC = 109, BD = 76 (fig. 2.), and
the angle CBD ioi° 3c/ given, to find the angle BDC or
BCD, and the fide CD.
1. Geometrically ly ConJlruBion.
Draw the line BC 109, and BD, fo as to make an angle
wiih BC of xoi° 30', and make BD equal to 76 ; join BC
and BD with a right line, and it is done ; for the angle D
being meafured by the cord of 6o°, will be 470 32', angle C
30°58', and the fide DC 144.8, as was required.
2. Arithmetically by Logarithms.
Side BC 109 - 109 - i8o° o'
BD 76 - 76 - 101 30
Their fum 185 33 their diff. 78 30 fum of the ang.
     D and C.
\ Sum 39 15 then
-To find the angles D and C.
As the fum of the fides BC and BD = 185 2.26717
Is to their dift’erence - - 33 1.51851
So is tang, of 4 the fum of the anglesC andD39°i5' 9.91224
11.43075
2.26717
To the tang of I the diff. of the anglesCandD8°i7' 9.16358
To half the fum of the angles D and C - 390 15
Add half the difference of the angles C and D 817
O M E T R Y.
To find BC.
A0 fine angle D 470 32'
Is to the fide BC 109
So is fine angle B ioi° 30' -
To the fide DC required 144.8
3. By Gunter.
1 ft, “ The extent from 185 to 33 on the line of numbers will
reach from 390 15' to 8° 17' on the line of tangents. 2dly,
The extent from ancrle D 47° 32' to 78° 30' (the fupple¬
ment pf angle B) on the line of fines, will reach from the
fide BC [09 to 144.8, the fide DC required, on the line of
numbers.”
Case III. Is when the three fides are given, to find the
three angles ; and die method of refolving this cafe is, to
let a perpendicular fall from the greateft angle upon the
oppofite fide or bafe, dividing it into two fegments, and the
whole triangle into two fmaller right-angled triangles : then
it will be,
As the bafe or fum of the two ferments :
Is to the fum of the other two fides : :
So is the difference of thofe fides :
To the difference of the fegments of the bafe.
Then half this difference of the two fegments added to
the half fum, or half the bafe, gives the greater fegment,
and fubtrafted gives the lefs. Hence, in each of the two
right-angled triangles, there are given the hypothenufe, and
the bafe, befides the right angle, to find the other angles
by the firft cafe.
Example. The fides BC (fig. 3.) =105, BD = 85, and
CD = 50, given to find the angles BDC, BCD, or CBD.
T. Geometrically by Conftru8ion.
Draw the line BC equal to 105, take CD 50 in your
compaffes, and with one foot in C deferibe an arch ; then
take BD 85 in your compaffes, and with one foot in
B cut the former arch in D, join BD and DC, and it is
done; for the angle B, being meafured, will be found 28°
4', angle C 530 7', which being added together, is 8i° 11'*
their fum fubtradted from 180, leaves angle D 98° 49' as
was required.
2 Arithmetically by Logarithms.
The two fhorteft fides are BD ( = 85) and CD (= 50),
the fum of which is 135, and their difference 35. The feg¬
ments of the bafe BC are found in this manner :
As the fide BC 105 log. 2.02119
Is to the fum of the fides BD & DC =135 2.13033
So is their difference 35 1.54407
To the difference of the feg. of BC = 45 1.65321
Thus the fum and difference of the fegments of the bafe BC
being known, we have only to add half this fum = 524- to
half the difference ~ 22^, and we ftrall obtain the greater
fegment, which is = 75 ; which fubtradted from 105, gives
30 =1 the fmaller fegment. Then
To find the angle BDA.
As the hypothenufe BD = 85 log. 1.92942
Isto radius = 10.00000
So is the greater fegment — 75 1.87506
To the fum of the angle BDA = 9-945^4
The angle BDA therefore is equal to 6i° 56'
Let us now find the angle ADC, which is done thus.
As the hypothenufe DC —50 '•69897
Is to radius = xo.ocooo
So is the fmaller fegment ^ 3° T*47712
To the fine of ADC — 9-77^I5
The angle ADC therefore is equal to 53', and the
whole angle BDC 2^98° 49'.
6
Ware.
9.86786'
2.03743
_ 9-99119
12.02862
9.86786
2.16076
Gives the greater angle D 47 32
Subtradicd, gives the leffer angle C 30 58
To
TRICON
To fin<3 the angle at B, we have only to fubtra£t the angle
BD/\ { = 61° 56') from 90°, and the rem. 28° 4' is the
angle fought. The angle at C is equal to 53° y.
3. By Gunter.
iy?, ‘The extent from 105 to 135, will reach from 35 to
45 on the line of numbers.’ 2^/y, ‘The extent from 85
to 75900 the line of numbers, will reach from radius to 61°
36', the angle BDA on the line of fines.’ 'idly, ‘ The
extent from 50 to 30 on the line of numbers, will reach
from radius to angle ADC 36° $ 3' on the line of fines.’
The foregoing three cafes include all the varieties of
plane triangles that can happen, both of- right and oblique-
ansded triangles. But befides thefe, there are fome other
theorems that are uieful upon many occafions, or fuited to
fome particular forms of triangles, which are often more
expeditious in ufe than the foregoing general ones; one
of which, for right-angled triangles, as the cafe for which it
iervesfo often-occurs, may be here inferted, and is as follows.
Case IV.When, in a right-angled trian. le, there are given
the angles and one leg, to find the other leg, or the hypo-
then ufe. Then it will,
As radius :
To given leg AB : :
So tang, adjacent the angle A :
To the oppofiteleg BC, and : :
So fee. of fame angle A :
To hypot. AC :
Example. In the triangle ABC (fig. 4.), right-angled
at B,
Given the leg AB 162
and the angle A =. 535’ 7' 48'
confeq. the angle C = 36 52 12
1. Geometrically.—Draw the leg ABzridi : Kredl the
indefinite perpendicular BC : Make the angle A at: 53°^-,
and the fide AC will cut BC in C, and form the triangle
ABC. Then, by meafuring, there will be found AC =
270, and BC = 216.
2.. Arithmetically.
As radius =10 - - log. lO'OOOCOOO
To AB — 162 - - 2,209<;i5o
So tang. A ^ J3° 7r 48" - lo* 249372
to find BC
and AC.
To BC =216
2’3344522
So fee. A = 530 7' 48"
10*2218477
To AC - = 270
2'4313627
3. By Gunter.
Extend the compaffes from 450 at the end of the tan¬
gents (the radius) to the tangent of 53°-g-; then that extent
will reach, on the line of numbers, from 162 to 216, for
BC. Again, extend the compaffes from 36° 52' to 90 on
the fines ; then that extent will reach, on the line of num¬
bers, from 162 to 273 for AC.
Note, Another method, by making every fide radius, is
often added by the authors on trigonometry, which is thus :
The given right angled triangle being ABC, make firft
the hypothenufe AC radius, that is, with the extent ot AC
as a radius, and each of the centres A and C, deferibe arcs CD
and AE (fig. j.) ; then it is evident that each leg will re-
prefent the fine of its oppofite angle, viz. the leg BC ihe line
of the arc CD or of the angle A, and the leg AB the line
ol the arc AE or of the angle Cl Again, making either
leg radius, the other leg will reprefent the tangent of its
oppofite angle, and the hypothenufe the fecant of the lame
angle; thus, with radius AB and centre A deferibing the
O M E T R Y.
arc BF, BC reprefents the tangent of that arc, or of the
angle A, and the hypothenufe AC the fecant of the fame ;
or with the radius BC and centre C deferibing the arc
BG, the other leg AB is the tangent of that arc BG or
of the angle C, and the hypothenufe CA the fecant of the
fame.
And then the general rule for all thefe cafes is this, viz.
that the fides bear to each other the fame proportions as the
parts or things which they reprefent. And this is called
making every fide radius.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
Spherical Trigonometry is the art whereby, from
three given parts of a Ipherical triangle, we dilcover the
relt ; and, like plane trigonometry, is either right-angled or
oblique angled. But before vve give the analogies for the
folution of the feveral cales in either, it will be proper to
premife the following theorems:
Theorem I. In all right-angled, fpherical triangles, the
fign of the hypothenufe : radius : : fine of a leg : fine of its
oppofite angle. And the fine of a leg : radius : : tangent
ot the other leg: tangent of its oopofite angle.
Demonjlration. Let EDAFG (ibid, fig, 6.) reprefent
the eighth part of a fphere, where the quadrantal planes
EDFG, EDBC, are both perpendicular to the quadrantal
plane ADFB ; and the quadrantal plane ADGC is per¬
pendicular to the plane EDFG ; and the fpherical triangle
ABC is right-angled at B, where CA is the hypothenufe,
and BA, BC, are the legs.
1 o the arches GF, CB, draw the tangents HF, OB,
and the fines GM, Cl, on the radii DF, DB ; alio draw
BL the line of the arch AB, and CK the fine of AC ;
and then join IK and OL. Now HF, OB, GM, Cl, are
all perpendicular to the plane ADFB. And HD, GK,
OL, lie all in the fame plane ADGC- Alf© FD, IK, BL,
lie all in the fame plane ADGC Therefore the rightl
angled triangles HFD, CIK, ODL, having the equa-
angles HDF, CKI, OLB, are fimilar. And CK : DG : :
Cl : GM ; that is, as the fine of the hypothenufe : rad. : :
fine of a leg : fine of its oppofite angle. For GM is the fine
of the arc GF, which meafures the angle CAB. Alfo, LB :
DF :: BO : FH ; that is, as the fine of a leg : radius : :
tangent of the other leg : tangent of its oppofite angle.
Qc,E D-.
Hence it follows, that the fines of the angles of any
oblique Ipherical triangle ACD (fig. 7.) are to one another,
diredfly, as the fines or the oppofite fides. Hence ir alfo
follows, that, in right-angled fphencal'triangles, having the
fame perpendicular, the lines of the bales will be to each
other, inverfely, as the tangents or the angles at the bafes.
Theorem II. In any right-angled Ipherical triangle
ABC (fig. 8.) it will be, As radius is ta the co fine of one
leg, io is the co-fine of the other leg to the co-line of the
hypothenufe.
Hence, if two right-angled fpherical triangles ABC,
CBD (fig. 7.) have the fame perpendicular BC, the co-fiiles
of their hypothenufes will be to each other, directly, as the
co-fines ol their bafes.
Theorem III. In any fpherieal triangle it will be, As
radius is to the fine of either angle, fo is the co-line of the
adjacent leg to the co-line of the oppolite angle.
Hence, in right-angled fpherical triangles, having the
fame perpendicular, the-co-fine* of the angles at the bale
will be to each other, diredtly, as the lines of the vertical
angles.
Theorem IV* In any right-angled fpherical triangle-
£76 T R TG ON
Spherical. {(• radius is to the co-fine of the hypothenufe,
^ v” fo is the tangent of either angle to the co-tangent of the
other angle. ,
As the fiim of the fines of two unequal arches is to their
difference, fo is the tangent ©f half the ium of thofe arches
to the tangent of half their difference: and as the fum of
the co-fines is to their difference, fo is the co->tangent of
hair the fum of the arches to the tangent of half the dif¬
ference of the fame arches.
Theorem V. In any fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 9 and
10..) it will be, As the co-tangent of half the fum of half
their difference, fo is the co-tangent of half the bafe to the
tangent of the diftance (DE) of the perpendicular from the
middle of the bafe.
Since the laft proportion, by permutation, becomes co-
AC + BC ^ AC—BC.
tang.-  —co-tang. AE : : tang. * tang.
O M E T R Y.
DE, and as the tangents of any two arches are, invcrfely, Sphrlni.
as their co-tangents ; it follows, therefore, that tana-. AF • —
AC + BC AC-BC * ^
tang. ^ :: tang.-   : tang. DE ; or, that
the tangent of half the bafe is to the tangent of half the fum
of the Tides, as the tangent of half the difference of the tides
to. the tangent of the diltance of the perpendicular from the
middle of the bafe.
Theorem VI. In any fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 9.)
it will be, As the co-tangent of half the fum of the angles
at the bafe is te the tangent of half their difference, fo is^he
tangent of half the vertical angle to the tangent of the angle
which the perpendicular CD makes with the line CF bifec-
ting the vertical angle.
Cafe
10
11
12
14
*5
16
Th Solution of the Cases of right-angled fpherical Triangles, (fig. 8.).
Given
Sought
Solution
\
The hyp. AC and
one angle A
The oppofite leg
BC
The hyp. AC and
one angle A
The adjacent leg
AB
The hyp. AC and
one angle A 
The hyp. AC and
one leg AB
The other angle
C
As radius : fine hyp. AC : : fine A : fine
BC (by the former part of theor. 1.)
As radius : co-fine of A ; s tang. AC. :
tang. AB (by the latter part of theor. 1.)
The other leg
BC
As radius : co-fme of AC
tang. C (by theorem 4.)
tang. A : co-
As co-fine AB : radius : :
co-fine BC (by theorem 2.)
co-fine AC
The hyp. AC and
one leg AB
The oppofite an¬
gle C
The hyp. AC and
one leg AB
The adjacent an-
gle A
As fine AC : radius : : fine AB : fine C
(by the former part of theorem 1.)
One leg AB and the
adjacent angle A
The other leg
BC
As tang. AC : tang. AB
fine A (by theorem 1.)
radius : co-
As radius : fine AB : : tangent A
gent BC (by theorem 4.)
tan-
One leg AB and the
adjacent angle A
The oppofite an¬
gle C
As radius : fine A : : co-fine of AB
fine of C (by theorem 3.)
One leg AB and the
adjacent angle A
The hyp.
AC
As co-fine of A : radius : : tang. AB
tang. AC (by theorem 1.)
One leg BC and the
oppofite angle A
The other leg
AB
One leg BC and the
oppolite angle A
The adjacent an¬
gle C
As tang. A : tang. BC
AB (by theorem 4.)
radius : fine
As co-fine BC : radius
fine C (by theorem 3.)
co-fine of A
One leg BC and the
oppofite angle A
The hyp.
AC
As fine A : fine BC
(by theorem 1.)
radius : fine AC
Both legs
AB and BC
The hyp.
AC
As radius : co-fine AB : : co-fine BC
fine AC (by theorem 2.)
Both legs
AB and BC
An angle, fuppoie
A
As fine AB : radius
A (by theorem 4.)
tang. BC : tang.
Both angles
A and C
A kg, i’uppoie
AB
As fine A : co fine C
AB (by theorem 3.)
radius : co-line
Both angfes
A and C
The hyp.
AC
As tang. A : co-tang. C
fine AC (by theorem 4.)
randius : co-
Note, The 10th, nth, and 12th cafes are ambiguous ; fince it cannot be determined by th
data, whether A, B, C, and AC, be greater or kfs than 90 degrees each.
Cafe
5
5
Spheric al TIUGOXOME TBT.
\
Spherical.
TRIGONOMETRY,
The Solution of the Cases of oblique fphsrioal Triangles, (fig. 9 and 10.)
577
Spherical*
Cafe
Given
Sought
Solution
Two fides AC, BC,
and an angle A oppo-
fite to one of them.
The angle B
oppofite to
the other
As fine BC : fine A : : fine AC : fine B [by theorem t.)
Note, this cafe is ambiguous when BC is lefs than AC;
I fince it cannot be determined from the data whether B be
| acute or obtufe.
Two fides AC, BC,
and an angle A oppo-
fitc to one of them
The included
angle ACB
Upon AB produced (if need be) let fall the perpendicular
CD ; then (by theorem 4.) rad. : co-fine AC : : tang. A :
co-tang. ACD ; but (by theorem 1.) as tang. BC : tancr.
AC :: cofine ACD : co-fine BCD. Whence ACB-ACD
BCD is known.
As rad. : co-fine A : : tang. AC : tang.” AD* (by theor. 1)
and (by theor. 2.) as co-fine AC : co-fine BC : : co-fine AD
: co-fine BD. Note, this and the lali cafe are both ambi¬
guous when the firft is fo.
Two fides AC, BC,
and an angle oppofite
to one of them
The other fide
AB
Two fides AC, AB,
and the included
angle A
The other fide j As rad. : co-line A : : tang. AC : tang. AB (by theor. ,).)
BC | whence AD is alio known ; then (by theor. 2.) as co-fine
! AD : co-fine BD : : co-fine AC : co-fine BC.
Two fides AC, AB,
and the included
angle A
Either of the j As rad. : co-fine A : : tang. AC : tang. AD (by theor. 1.)
other angles, I whence BD is known ; then (by theor. 4.) as fine BD : fine
fuppofe B I AD : : tang. A : tang. B.
Two angles A, ACB,
and the fide AC
betwixt them
The other angle
B
J As rad. : co-fine AB : : tang. A : co-tang. ACD (by theo-
Irem 4.) whence BCD is alfo known ; then (by theor, 3.)
as fine ACD : fine BCD : : co-fine A : co fine B.
Two angles A, ACB,
and the fide AC
betwixt them
Two angles A, B, and
a fide AC oppofite to
one of them
Either of the
other-fides,
fuppofe BC
As rad. : co-fine AC : : tang. A : co-tang. ACD (by theo¬
rem 4.) whence BCD is alio known : then, as co-fine BCD
: co-fine ACD : : tang. AC : tang. BC (by theor. 1.)
10
II
12
The fide BC
oppolite the
other
j As fine B : fine AC :: fine A : fine BC (by theorem 1.)
Two angles A, B, and
a fide AC oppofite to
one of them
Two angles A, B, and
a fide AC oppofite to
one of them
The fide AB | As rad. : co-fine A : : tang. AC: tang. AD (by theor. 1.)
betwixt them j and as : tang. B : tang. A : : fine AD : fine BD (by theo-
I rem 4.) whence AB is alfo known.
AH the three fides
AB, AC, and BC
The other angle | As rad, : co fine AC : : tang. A : co-tang. ACD (by theo-
ACB j rem 4 ) and as co-fine A : co-fin'e B : : fine ACD ; fine BCD
I (by theor. 3.) whence ACB is alfo known.
An angle,
fuppofe A
As tang. 4AI3 : tang,
AC+BC
: taag.
AC—BC
tang.
All the three angles
A, B, and ACB
A fide, fuppofe
AC
2 0 2
DE, the dillance of the perpendicular from the middle of
the bafe (by theorem 6.) whence AD is known : then, as
tang. AC : tang. AD : : rad, : co fine A (by theor. r.)
As co-tang.
ABC-f A
tang.
ABC-
A xiCB
—:: tang. :tan-
2 & 2 3 2
of the angle included by the perpendicular and a line bifec-
ting the vertical angles; whence ACD is alfo known : then
(by theorem 5.) tang. A : co-tang. ACD : : rad. co-fine
AC.
The following propofitions and remarks, concerning fphe-
flutton't rical triangles (feledted and commulicated to Dr Hutton
Muthcmati- by the reverend Nevil Mafkelyne, D. D. Ailronomer Royal,
F* R* s.), will alfo render the calculation of them perfpi-
cuous, and free from ambiguity.
1. A fpherical triangle is equilateral, ifofcelar, or fcalene,
according as it has its three angles all equal, or two of them
equal, or all three unequal ; and vice verfa.
2. I he greateft fide is always oppofite the greateft angle,
and the fmalleft fide oppofite the fmalleft angle.
^3^ Any two fides taken together are greater than the
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
4. If the three angles are all acute, or all right, or all
obtufe ; the three tides will be, accordingly, all lefs than
90°, or equal to 90°, or greater than 90° ; and vice verfa.
5. If from the three angles A, B, C- of a triangle A BC, Fig. 11.
as poles, there be deicrihed, upon the furface of the fphere,
three arches of a great circle DE, DF, FE, forming by
their interfe&jons a new fpherical triangle DEF; each^fide
of the new triangle will be the fupplement of the angle
at its pole; and each angle of the lame triangle will be
the fupplement of the fide oppofite to it in the triangle ABC.
6. In any triangle ABC, or A^C, right-angled in A, 1/?, Fig. 1$,
The angles at the hypothenufe are always ol the fame kind
4 D ^ as
57s
TRICON
Sphtrica!, ;,s their oppofite fides} The hypothenufe is lefs or
greater than a quadrant, according as the fides including the
right angle arc of the fame or different kinds ; that is to fay,
according as thefe fame Tides are either both acute or both ob-
tufe, or as one is acute and the other obtufe. And vice verja,
O M E T R Y.
iy?, The Tides including the right angle are always of the fame Spherbi.
kind as their oppofite anglos : idly, The hdes including the i'mm“
% right angle will be of the fame or different kinds, according
as the hypothenufe is leis or more than 90° ; but one at leafl
of them will be of 90°, if the hypothenufe is fo.
T R I
Trihflate TRIHIL ATiE. from tres “three,’’and h\hm “anexternal
_ J1 mark on the feed the name of the 2 ^d clafs iii'iLinnaeus’s
T''’nga‘ , Fragments of a Natural Method ; confiding of plants with
three feeds, which are marked with an external cicatrix or
fear, where they are fattened within the fruit. See Bo¬
tany, Se&. 6.
TRIM, implies in general the ftate or difpofition by
which a (hip is beft calculated for the feveral purpofes of
navigation.
Thus the trim of the hold denotes the moft convenient
and proper arrangement of the various materials contained
therein relatively to the fhip’s motion or ftability at fea.
The trim of the mails and fails is alfo their moft appofite
fituation with regard to the conftru&ion of the fhip and
the effort of the wind upon her fails. See Seamanship.
TRINGA, Sandpiper ; a genus of birds belonging to
the order of gralU. The bill is fomewhat tapering, and of
the length of the head ; the noftrils are fmall; the toes are
four in number and divided, the hind toe being frequently
raifed from the ground. According to Dr Latham there
are 4 if fpecics, of which 18 are Britifh. We fhall deferibe
fome of the moft remaikable.
X. Vanellus, lapwing, or tewit, is diftinguilhed by having
the bill, crown of the head, creft, and throat, of a black co-
lour ; there is alfo a black line under each eye; the back
is of a purplith green ; the wings and tail are black and
white, and the legs red : the weight is 8 ounces and the
length 13 inches. It lays four eggs, making a flight neft
with a few bents. The eggs have an olive call, and are
fpotted with black. The young, as foon as hatched, run
like chickens : the parents fhow remarkable folicitude for
them, flying with great anxiety and clamour near them,
ftriking at either men or do s that approach, and often
fluttering along the ground like a wounded bird,to aconfider-
able diftance from their neft, to, delude their purfuers; and
to aid the deceit, they become more clamorous when moft re¬
mote from it : the eggs are held in great efteem for their deli¬
cacy, and are fold by the London poulterers for three {hillings
the dozen. In winter, lapwings join in vaft flocks ; but
at that feafon are very wild : their fiefh is very good, their
food being infecls and worms. During O&ober and No¬
vember, they are taken in the fens in nets, in the fame man¬
ner that ruffs are ; but are not preferved for fattening, be¬
ing killed as foon as caught.
’2. Pugnax. The male of this fpecies is called ruff, and
the female reeve. The name ruff is given to the males be-
caufe they are furnifhed with very long feathers, Handing
out in a remarkable manner, not unlike the ruff worn by
our anceftors. The ruff is of as many different colours as
there are males; but in general it is barred with black ; the
weight is fix or feven ounces ; the length, one foot. 1 he
female, or reeve, has no ruff; the common colour is brown ;
the feathers are edged with a very pale colour; the breaft:
and belly white. Its weight is about four ounces.
Thefe birds apnear in the fens in the earliefl fpring, and
difappear about Michaelmas. The reeves lay four eggs in
T R 1
a tuft of grafs, the firft week in May, and fit about a month.
The eggs are white, marked with large nifty fpots. Fowlers
avoid in general the taking of the females ; not only be-
caufe they are fmaller than the males, but that they may be
left to breed.
Soon after their arrival, the males begin to hill, that is,
to colled on fome dry bank near a fplafti of water, in expec¬
tation of the females, who refort to them. Each male keeps
pofleflion of a fmall piece of ground, which it runs round
till the grafs is worn quite away, and nothing but a naked
circle is left. When a female lights, the ruffs immediately
fall to fighting. It is a vulgar error, that ruffs muff be fed
in the dark left they fhould deftroy each other by fighting on
admiffion of light. The truth is, every bird takes its ftand
in the room as it would in the open fen. If another in¬
vades its circle, an attack is made, and a battle enfues.
They make ufe of the fame aftion in fighting as a cock,
place their bills to the ground and fpread their ruffs. Mr
Pennant fays, he has fet a whole room-full a-fighting, by
making them move their flations ; and after quitting the
place, by peeping through a crevice, feen them refume their
circles and grow pacific.
WThen a fowler difeovers one of thofe hills, he places his
net over night, which is of the fame kind as thofe that
are called clap or day nets ; only it is generally Tingle, and
is about 14 yards long and four broad. The fowler reforts
to his ftand at day-break, at the diftance ©f one, two, three,
or four hundred yards from the nets, according to the time
of the feafon ; for the later it is, the fhyer the birds grow.
He then makes his firft: pull, taking fuch birds as he finds
•within reach: after that he places his fluffed birds or flales to
entice thofe that are continually traverfing the fen. When
the ftales are fet, feldom more than two or three are taken
at a time. A fowler wall take 40 or 50 dozen in a feafon.
—Thefe birds are found in Lincolnfhire, the ifle of Ely,
and in the Eaft Riding of York. They vifit a place called
Martin-Mere in Lancafhire the latter end of Maich or begin¬
ning of April; but do not continue there above three weeks ;
where they are taken in nets, and fattened for the table with
bread and milk, hempfeed, and fometimes boiled wheat ;
but if expedition is required, fugar is added, which will
make them in a fortnight’s time a lump of fat : they then
fell for two {hillings or half a crown a-piece. They are dref-
fed like the woodcock, with their ir.teftines ; and when kil¬
led at the critical time, fay the Epicures, are the moft de¬
ft rinei.
licious of all morfels.
3. Canutus, or knot, has the forehead, chin, and lower
part of the neck, brown, inclining to aih-colour ; the back
and fcapulars deep brown, edged with afh colour; the co¬
verts of the wings white, the edges of the lower order deeply
fo, forming a white bar ; the breaft, fides, and belly white,
the two firft ftreaked with brown ; the coverts of the tau
marked with white and dufky Ipots alternately ; the tail
afh coloured, the outmoft feather on each fide white ; the
legs of a bluilh grey ; and the toes, as a fpecial maik, di¬
vided to the very bottom ; the weight four ounces and 1
0 halt.—
Trinita¬
rians.
T R V f 579
Tringa half,—Thefe birds, when fattened, are preferred by fame
to the ruffs themfelves. They are taken in great numbers
on the' coatts of Lincolnfhire, in nets fuch as are employed in
taking ruffs ; with two or three dozens of ftales of wood
painted like the birds, placed within ; 14 dozens have been
taken at once. Their feafon is from the beginning of
Aug uft to that of November. They difappear with the frit
frofts. Camden fays they derive their name from king Ca¬
nute, ICnute, or Knout, as he is fometimes called ; probably
becaule they were a favourite difh with that monarch. We
know that he kept the feaft of the purification of the Vir¬
gin Mary with great pomp and magnificence at Ely ; and
this being one of the ten-birds, it is not unlikely but he met
with it there.
4. The hypoleucosy or common fandpiper, except in pair¬
ing time, is a folitary bird : it is never found near the fea,
but frequents rivers, lakes, and other frefh waters. Its head
Is brown, ftreaked with downward black lines; the neck
an obfeure ?.fti-c@lour j the back and coverts ot the wings
brown, mixed with a gloffy green, elegantly marked with
tranfverfe dulky lines ; the breaft and belly are ot a pure
v'hite ; the quill-feathers and the middle feathers of the tail
are brown ; the legs ot a dull pale green.
5. The alpina, or dunling fandpiper, is at once diftin-
guiihed from the others by the Angularity ot its colours.
The back, head, and upper part ot the neck, are ferru¬
ginous, marked with large black fpots ; the lower part of
the neck white, marked with ftiort dufky ftreaks ; the co¬
verts or the wings ath-colour; the belly white, marked with
large black fpots, or with a black crctcent pointing towards
the thighs; the tail is ath-coloured ; legs black ; toes di¬
vided to their origin. In fize it is luperior to that of a
lark. Thefe buds are found on our fea-coafts ; but may
be reckoned among the more rare kinds. I hey lay tour
eggs of a dirty white colour, blotched with brown round
the thicker end, and marked with a tew imall foots ot the
fame colour on the imaller end. They are common on the
Yorkfhire coafts, and efttemed a great delicacy.
6. The cimlus, purre, or (tint, is in length 7t inches ;
the head and hind part of the neck are ath-coloured, mark¬
ed with dufley lines ; a white ftroke divides the bill
and eyes; the back is of a brownith ath-colour; the breaft
and belly white; the coverts of the wings and tail a
dark brown, edged with light afii colour or white ; the up¬
per part of the quill-feathers dufley, the lower white ; the
legs of a dufley green; the toes divided to-their origin.
The bill an inch and a half long, {lender, and black ; irides
dufley.— i'hefe birds come in prodigious flocks on our fea-
coafts during the winter : in their flight they perform their
evolutions with great regularity ; appearing like a white
or a dufley cloud, as they turn their backs or their breafts
towards you. They leave our thores in Ipring, and retire
to fome unknown place to breed. They were formerly a
well known diflr at our tables.
TRINIDAD, an ifland in the gulf of Mexico, feparated
from New Andalufia, in Terra Firma, by a ftrait, about
three miles over. The foil is fruitful, producing iugar,
cotton, Indian corn, fine tobacco, and fruits; but the air
is unhealthy. It was taken by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595,
and by the French in 1 676, who plundered the ifland and
then left it. It is about 62 miles in length, and 45 in
breadth ; and was difeovered by Chriftopher Columbus in
1498. There is a bituminous lake in this itland ; for an
1 account of which, fee the article Petroleum, p. 252.
note B.
TRINITARIANS, thofe who believe in the Trinity ;
thofe who do not believe therein bang called Antitrini-,
tartans.
J 4 T R !
TRINITY, Si theology, the ineffable myftery of three
perfons in one God ; Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. See
Theology. n° 6i.
TniNiTr-Houfe. See London, n° 49.
TuiNiTr-Sunday, a feftival obterved on the Sunday next
after Whitfunday, in hon- ur of the holy Trinity. The
obfervation of this feftival was firft enjoined in the council
of Arles, anno 1260.
TRINOBANTES, (anc. geog.) a people of Britain,
fuppoftd to have occupied Middlefex and Efiex.
TRIO, in muftc, a part of a concert wherein three per¬
fons fing ; or, more properly, a mufical compofition conlift-
ing of three parts.
TRIPHTHONG, in grammar, an affemblage or con-
courie of three vowels in one fyllable ; as qu&.
TRIPLE, in mufic, is one of the fpecies of meafure or
time. See Music.
TRIPOD, in antiquity, a famed facred feat or ftool,
fupported by three feet, whereon the priefts and fybils were
placed to render oracles. It was on the tripod that the
gods were faid to infpire the Pythias with that divine fury
and enthufiafm wherewith they were feized at the delivery
of their predi£tions.
TRIPOLI, a country of Africa, in Barbary; bounded
on the north by the Mediterranean fea ; on the fouth, by
the country of the Beriberies; on the weft, by the king¬
dom of Tunis, Biledulgerid, and a territory of the Gadamis;
and on the eaft, by Egypt. It is about 925 miles along
the fea coaft ; but the breadth is various. Some parts of
it are pretty fruitful; but that towards Egypt is a iandy
defert. it had the title or a kingdom ; but is now a repu¬
blic, governed by a dey. He is not abtolute, foi a Turkifh
bafhaw refides here, who receives his authority fr®m the
grand feignior, and has a power of controling the dey, and
levying taxes on the people. The dey is elefted by the
foldiers, who make no icruple of depofing him when they
pleafe.
Tripoli, a confiderable town of Africa, and capital of
a republic of the fame name in Barbary, and under protec¬
tion of the grand feignior, with a cattle and a fort. It is
pretty large, and the inhabitants are noted pirates. It was
taken by Charles V. who fettled the knights of Malta
there ; but they were driven away by the Turks in 1551.
It was formerly very flourithing ; and has now fome trade
in fluffs, faffron, coin, oil, wool, dates, oflrich feathers, and
fltins : but they make more of the Chriftian flaves which
they take at fea; for they either fet high ranfoms upon
them, or make them perform all forts of work. It is feated
on the coaft of the Mediterranean, in a fandy foil, and fur-
rounded by a wall, ftrengthened by other fortifications. E.
Long. 13. 12. N. Lat. 32. 34.
Tripoli, called Tripolis of Syria, to diftinguifh it from
Tripoli in Barbary, received its name from its being an¬
ciently formed of three cities at a fmall diftance from each
other, one of which belonged to the Aradians, or ancient
kingdom of Arad, the fecond to the Sidonians. and the
third to the Tyrians, perhaps as a common mart to thofe
maritime powers. 1 he preient town of Tripoli is built at
the diftance of a mile and a halt from the other, upon the
declivity of a hill facing the iea, in 340 20' north latitude,
and in 35“ 50' eaft longitude from Greenwich. It is fur-
rounded with walls, fortified with ieven high ftron-{ towers,
and a cattle, all of Gothic architecture ; but the ftr ets are
narrow, and the houffs low. The city contains about 8oc o
houfes, and near 60,000. inhabitants, confifting ot Turks,
Chriftians, and Jews. Tfm bafha, or pacha, who refides in
the cattle, where their is a ^arrifon ot 200 janizaries, go
eras the adjacent territory, in which there is plenty of fruit,
v 4 D 2 and
T R I [ jBo ] T R I
Tripoli and a great number of mulberry-trees, which enable the in-
habitants to carry on a filk manutadture. from which they
draw conKderable profit.
All the environs of Tripoli are laid out in orchards, where
the mopal grows fpontaneoufly, and the white-mulbeiTy is
cultivated for the filk-worm ; the pomegranate, orange, and
lemon trees for their fruit, which is here very fine. The
country, though delightful to the eye, is unhealthy ; from
July to September, epidemic fevers, like thofe of Scande-
roon and Cyprus, prevail, and are principally caufed by the
artificial inundations made for the purpofe of watering the
mulberry trees, to enable them to throw out their fecond
leaves, and from a want of free circulation of air, the city
being open only to the weftward.
Tr ipoli, a genus of argillaceous earth, much nfed in the
polifhing of metals. It has its name fiom Tripoli in Bar¬
bary, from whence it was formerly brought to us, and has
the following properties: /. It does not effervefee with
any ©f the acids. 2. It hardens in the fire ; and by a con-
fiderable heat, its furface becomes vitrified. 3. Every kind
of it, excepting that found in England, becomes red by
calcination. 4. It is fufible by mixture with calcareous
earth, as well as by means of borax and microcofmic fait.
5. Generally no fait can be extracted by wafhing, though
jlometimes the marine and vitriolic acid may be extracted by
diftillation. 6. When crude it imbibes water, but is not
diffufible in it. 7. It taftes like common chalk, and feels
fandy between the teeth, though no fand can by any means
be extracted from it.
Iripoli is found of two different kinds : x. Solid, and of
a rough texture ; brown, yellowifh, and fpotted like marble.
2. Friable and compadt; granulated, brown, or yellowifh ;
this laft being the kind met with in England. This laft
kind has alfo been found in Scotland ; but the rotten ftone
found in Derbyfnire, and likewife much ufed in polifhing,
is quite another fubftance. According to Ferber, the rot¬
ten ftone is tripoli mixed with a calcareous earth. In the
memoirs of the academy at Paris, for 1769, it is afferted,
that tripoli is a volcanic product. In proof of this, we
are there informed, that a coal mine at St Eftienne having
accidentally taken fire, and the fire having extended to fome
beds of ichiftus and bitumen, tripoli was found in the burnt
parts of the ttrata, but nowhere elfe. Cronftedt is of opi¬
nion, that 100 parts of it contain 90 of fdicfous earth, 7
of argill, and 3 of iron ; but the red fort probably contains
more iron.
TRIPTOLEMUS,.laws of. See Mysteries, n“ 74.
TRIQUETROUS, among botanifts, expreffes a fruit
©r leaf that has three fides or faces all flat.
TRIREMIS, in antiquity, a galley with three ranks of
oars on a fide.
TRISMEGISTUS, an epithet or furname given to one
of the two Hermefes. See Thoth.
TRISMUS, the locked jaw. See Medicine, n° 280.
TRISSYLLABLE, in grammar, a word coniifting of
three. Syllables. 4
TRITICUM, wheat, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of Iriandi ia, and order of digynia ; and
in the natural lyftem ranging under the 4th order, Gratnina.
The calyx is bivalve, folitary, and generally containing three
florets ; the corolla is bivalve, one valve being bluntifh, the
other acute. There are 15 fpecies ; the ajiivum, fummer
or fpring wheat; hybernum, winter Lammas, or common wheat;
compofitum, turgidumy or cone-wheat ; polonium, or Polifh
wheal;y^e/m,orfpelt wheat; mimifom^orone-grainedwheat;
projlratum, or trailing wheat-grafs; pumilum, or dwarf wheat-
grafs; junceum, or rufli wheat-giafs; repensf or couch-grafs;
tenelhtft, er tender wheat-grafs; maritimum, er fea wheat. THtieum*
grafs ; unilatera/e, or fpiked lea-wheat; unioloides, or linear  ^
fpiked wheat-grals.—Of what country the firlt £x fpecies
are natives, cannot now be determined: the proflratum is
a native of Siberia; the junceum, repens, unilaterale, and
maritimuin, are natives of Britain ; the tenellum is a na¬
tive of Spain ; and the unioloides is a native of Italy. It
may alfo be obferved, that the firA nine are annuals, the relt
are perennials. See Agriculture, n° 122 ; and Husban¬
dry, Part I.
Linnaeus comprehends the different kinds of wheat cul¬
tivated at prefent under fix fpecies ; but cultivation has pro¬
duced a great many varieties from thefe.
1. Triticum ajlivum, or fpring-wheat, hath four flowers
in a calyx, three of which moflly bear grain. The calyces
Aand pretty diAant from each other on both fides a fiat
fmooth receptacle. The leaves of the calyx are keel fhaped,
fmooth, and they terminate with a fhort arifia. The glumes
of the flowers are fmooth and bellying, and the outer leaf of
three of the glumes in every calyx is terminated by a long
arifia, but the three inner ones are beardlefs. The grain is
rather longer and thinner than the common wheat. It is
fuppofed to he a native of fome part of Tartary. The far¬
mers call it Spring Wheat, becaufe it will come to the fickle
with the common wheat, though it be iown in February or
March. The varieties of it are : Triticum ajiivum /pica et
gratia rubente. Spring wheat, with a red fpike and grain.
Triticum ajlivum rubrum, fpica alba. Red fpring wheat, with
a white fpike. Triticum ajlivum, jpica et grana alba. Spring
wheat, with a white Ipike and grain. — 2. Triticum hybernum,
winter or common wheat, has alfo four flowers in a calyx,
three of which are moflly productive. The calyces Aand
on each fide a fmooth flat receptacle, as in the former
fpecies, but they are not quite fo far atunder. The leaves
of the calyx are bellying, and f© fmooth that they appear
as if polHhed, but they have no arifia. The glumes of the
flowers too are fmooth, and the outer ones near the top of
the fpike are often tipped with fliort arifix. The grain is
rather plumper than the former, and is the fort mofi gene¬
rally fown in England ; whence the name of common vuhsaU
Its varieties are : Triticum hybernum, fpica et grana rubente.
Common wheat, with a red fpike and grain. Triticum hy-
bermtm rubrum, fpica alia. Common ted wheat, with a
white fpike. Triticum hybernum, fpica et grana alba. Common
wheat, with a white fpike and grain.—3. Trituum turgidum,
thick fpiked or cone-wheat, is eaiily difiinguifhed from ei¬
ther of the former ; for though it has four flowers in a ca¬
lyx after the manner of them, yet the whole calyx and the
edges of the glumes are-covered with loft hairs. The caly¬
ces too Hand thicker on the receptacle, which make the
fpike appear more turgid. Some of the outer glumes near
the top of the fpike are terminated by Ihort ariflis, like thofe
of the common wheat. The grain is fhorter, plumper, and
more convex on the back than either of the former fpecies.
Its varieties are numerous, and have various appellations in
different counties, owing to the great affinity of feveral of
them. Thofe rnofi eafily to be difiinguifhed are : Triticum
turgidum c'onkum album. White cone wheat. Triticum tur¬
gidum conicum rubrum. Red cone wheat. Triticum turgidum
arjhferum. Bearded cone wheat. Triticum turgidum, fpica
multiplici. Cone wheat, with many ears. The third variety
is what the farmers call clog wheat, fquare wheat, and rivets.
The grain of this is remarkably convex on one fide, and
when ripe the awns generally break in pieces and fall off.
This foit is very produftive, but it yields an interior flour
to what the former two fpecies do.— 4. Triticum Polo-
nicum, or Bolifh wheat, has i'ome refemblance to the turgi-
1 dum,
T R I [ 58
Tr’ten dum, but fceth grain and fpike are longer. The ealyx con-
. it tains only two flowers, and the glumes aie furnifhed with
J UimP very long ariflae; the teeth of the midrib are bearded. As
~ Y this fort is feldom fown in England, there is no telling what
varieties it produces.—5, 'Tniicum Spetta, fpelt or German
wheat. At firft view this has a great refemblance to barley,
but it has no involucrum. '1 he calyx is truncated; that is,
it appears as if the ends were fnipped off, and it contains
four flowers, two of which are hermaphrodite and the
glumes bearded, but the intermediate ones are neuter.
There are two rows of grain as in barley, but they are
fhaped like wheat. It is much cultivated in France,
Germany, and Italy. 6. ‘Triticum monococcum, St Peter’s
corn, or one-grained wheat, has three flowers in each
calyx alternately bearded, and the middle one neuter. The
fpike is fhining, and has two rows of grain in the man¬
ner of barley. Where it grows naturally is not known, but
it is cultivated in Germany ; and in conjunftion with fpelt
wheat is there made into bread, which is coarfe, and not fo
nourifhing as that made of common wheat. Malt made of
any of our wheats is often put into beer, and a fmall quan¬
tity of it will give a large brewing a fine brown tranfparent
tintlure.
TRITON, a fea demigod, held by the ancients to be an
officer or trumpeter of Neptune, attending on him, and car¬
rying his orders from fea to fea.
TRITURATION, the a£t of reducing a folid body in¬
to a fubtile powder; called alfo pulverifation and levigation.
TRIUMPH, in Roman antiquity, a public and folemn
honour conferred by the Romans on a victorious general by
allowing him a magnificent entry in the city.
The greater triumph, called alfo curulis, or limply the tri¬
umph, was decreed by the fenate to a general, upon the con¬
quering of a province or gaining a fignal victory. The day
appointed for the ceremony being arrived, fcaffolds were erec¬
ted in the forum and circus, and all the other parts of the
city where they could belt behold the pomp : the fenate went
to meet the conqueror without the gate called Capena or
Triumphalis, and marched back in order to the Capitol; the
ways being cleared and cleanfed by a number of officers and
tipitaffs, who drove away fuch as thronged the pafl'age or
ftraggled up and down. The general was clad in a rich
purple robe, interwoven with figures of gold, fetting forth
his great exploits ; his bufkins were befet with pearl; and
he wore a crown, which at firft was only laurel, but after-
wards gold; in one hand he bore a branch of laurel, and in
the other a truncheon. He w^as carried in a magnificent
chariot, adorned with ivory and plates of gold, drawn ufu-
ally by two white horfes ; though fometimes by other ani¬
mals, as that of Pompey, when he triumphed over Africa,
by elephants; that of Marc Antony by lions ; that of Heli-
©gabalus by tygers; that of Aurelian by deer, &c. His
children were at his feet, and fometimes on the chariot-
hories. The proceffion was led up by the muficians, who
played triumphal pieces in ptaife of the general: thefe were
followed by young men, who led the vidlims to the facrifice,
" with their horns gilded, and their heads adorned with ri¬
bands and garlands; next came the carts and waggons, load¬
ed with all the fpoils taken from the enemy, with their horfes,
chariots, &c.; thele were followed by the kings, princes, and
’ generals, who had been taken captives, loaded with chains :
•after thefe appeared the triumphal chariot, before which, as
it.paffed, they all along ftrew'ed.flowers, and the people with
loud acclamations called out, lo triumphs! The chariot was
followed by the fenate, clad in white robes; and the fenate
by fuch citizens as had been fet at liberty or ranfomed ; and
the proedLon was doled by the prieits and their officers and
1 1 T R O
utenfils, with a white ox led along for the chief victim. In Triumvir
this order they proceeded through the triumphal gate, along Trocy.;]us
the via facra, jto the Capitol, where the vidtims were ilain. . }
In the mean time all the temples were open, and all the al¬
tars loaded with offerings and incenfe ; games and combats
were celebrated in the public places, and rejoicings appeared
every where.
TRIUMVIR, one of three perfons who govern abfolute*
ly, and with equal authority, in a ftate. It is chiefly ap¬
plied to the Roman government: Caefar, Pompey, and Craf-
lus, were the firft triumvirs who divided the government
among them. There were alfo other officers fo called ; as ,
the triumviri or trefviri capitales, who were tht keepers of
the public gaol; they had the office of puiiifhing malefadftors;
for which purpofe they kept eight lidors under them.
TROAS, a country of Phrygia in Alia Minor, ot which
Troy was the capital. When Troas is taken for the whole
kingdom of Priam, it may be faid to contain Myfia and Phry¬
gia Minor ; but if only applied to that part of the country
where Troy was fituated, its extent is confined within very
narrow limits. Troas was anciently called Dardania. bee
Troja.
TROCHiEUS, in profody, a foot confifling of a long
and fhort fyllable.
TROCHANTER, in anatomy. See there, n° 58.
TROCHE, in pharmacy, a fort of medicine made of glu¬
tinous fubftances into little cakes, and afterwards exficcated.
See Pharmacy, n° 560—569.
TROCHILUS, Humming Biro, a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order oipica. The roflrum is fubulate, fili¬
form, and longer than the head, the apex being tubular; the
upper mandible {heaths the lower. The tongue is filiform
and tubulous, the two threads coalefcing; the feet are {len¬
der and fit for walking ; the tail has ten feathers. There
are 65 foecies, none of which are natives of Britain. They
are all remarkable for the beauty of their colours, and molt
of them for the fmallnefs of their fize, though fome are eight
or nine inches in length.—They are divided into two fami¬
lies, viz. thofe with crooked bills, and tkofe with itraight
bills. Of thefe we fhall deferibe the four following ipe-
cies:
i. The exilis, or little humming bird, has a crooked bill,
is an inch and a half in length; frequently weighing lefs than
50 grains. i he bill is black, and half an inch in length ;
the body greenifh.brown, with a red, fhining, inimitable glofs:
the head is crefted with a fmall tuft, green at bottom, but of
a fparkling gold colour at top : quills and tail fine black, it
is a native ot Guiana ; and the velocity of it in flying is fo
great, that the eye can fcarce keep pace with its motion.
-2. The mofehitus, or ruby-necked humming-bird, accord¬
ing to Marcgrave is the moft beautiful of the whole genus,-
Its length is three inches four lines; the bill ftraight, eight
lines long, and blackifh : the top of the head and hind part
of the neck are as bright as a ruby, and of the fame colour:
the upper parts of the body are brown, with a faint mixture of
green and gold : the throat and fore part of the neck are the
colour of the moft brilliant topaz: the belly, fides, and thighs
are brown ; but on the lower part of the belly, on each fide,
is a fpot of white : the tad is rufous purple, inclining to vi¬
olet at the ends; the two middle feathers are fhoiteft :■ the legs
and claws blackifh. The female has only a dafh ox golden
or topaz on the bread: and fore part of the neck; the reft of
the under parts are greyifh white- This fpeeies is found in
Brazil, Curaffoa, Guiana, and Surinam.
3. The minimus, or leaft humming-bird, is exceeded, both
weight and dimen lions, by feveral fpecies of bees. 'The
m
total len
fth is one inch and a quarter; and. when killed,.
weighs
T R O
C 582 1
T R O
Trochilu?. weighs no more, according to Sir Hans Sloane, than 20
t'—“"'V'—''' grains. The bill is ftraisrht and black, three lines and a half
in length : the upper parts of the head and body are of a
greenilh gilded brown, in fome lights appearing reddifh :
the under parts are greyifh white ; the wings are violet-
brown ; the tail of a bluifh black, with a glofs of polilhed
metal; but the outer feather except one on each fide, is grey
from the middle to the tip, and the outer one wholly grey;
leers and claws .brown. The female is lefs than the male :
the whole upper fide of a dirty brown, with a flight glofs of
green ; the under parts of a dirty white. Thefe birds are
found in various parts of South America and the adjacent
iflands.—Our author received it Irom Jamaica.
4. Supercilkifus, white {haft, or fupercilious humming¬
bird, has a bill twenty lines long ; the feathers of the tail
next the two long fhafts are alfo the longeft, and the lateral
ones continually decreafe to the two outermoft which are the
fhortelf, and this gives the tail a pyramidical fhape: its quills
have a gold glofs on a grey and blackifh ground, with a
whitiflr edge at the point, and the two {hafts are white
through the whole projedfing portions ; all the upper fide
of the back and head gold colour ; the wing violet-brown ;
and the under fide o'- the body white-grey.
Thefe birds fubfill on the nedtar or fweet juice of flowers;
they frequent thofe moft which have a long tube ; particu¬
larly the impatiens noli me tangere, the monarda with crimfon
flowers, and thofe of the convolvulus tribe. They never
fettle on the flower during the adtion of extradfing the juice,
but flutter continually like bees, moving their wings very
quick, and making a humming noife ; whence their name.
They are not very fhy, fuffering people to come within a
foot or two of the place where they are, but on approach¬
ing nearer fly off like an arrow out of a bow. They often
meet and fight for the right to a flower, and this all on the
wing : in this Hate they often come into rooms where the
windows Hand open, fight a little, and go out again. When
they come to a flower which is juicelefs, or ©n the point of
withering, they pluck it off as it were in anger, by which
means the ground is often quite coveied with them. When
they fly againft each other, they have, befides the humming,
a fort of chirping noife like a fparrow or chicken. t hey do
not feed on infedfs nor fruit; nor can they be kept long in
cages, though they have been preferved alive for feveral weeks
together by feeding them with water in which lugar had been
diffolved.
This bird moft frequently builds in the middle of a branch
of a tree, and the neft is fo fmall that it cannot be feen by a
perfon who Hands on the ground; any one therefore defirous
of feeing it, muH pet up to the branch, that he may view it
from above : it is for this reafon that the neHs are not more
frequently found. The neH is of courfe very fmall, and quite
round ; the outfide, for the mofl part, is compofed of green
mofs, common on old pales and trees; the infide of foft down,
moHly colle&ed from the leaves of the great mullein, or the
filk-grafs ; but fometimes they vary the texture, making ufe
of flax, hemp, hairs, and other foft materials : they lay two
eggs of the lize of a pea, which are white, and not bigger
at one end than the other.
The above account of the manners will in general fuit all
the birds of this genus; for as their tongues are made for
fudlion, it is by this method alone that they can gain nou-
rifhment: no wonder, therefore, they can karcely be kept
alive by human artifice. Captain Davies, however, inform¬
ed our author, that he kept thde birds alive for four months
fey the following method : —He made an exaft imitation of
fome of the tubular flowers with paper, faHened round a to¬
bacco-pipe, and painted them of a proper colour; thefe were
placed in the order of nature, in the cage wherein thefe little
creatures*were confined ; the bottoms of the tubes were fill¬
ed with a mixture of brown iugar and water as often as
emptied ; and he had the pleafure of feeing them perform Troilius
• fnr tViev nrrp\tr familiar*, anrl tnnlr blip nnn.  
Troglff,
dytej
every aftion; for they foon grew familiar, and took the nou-
rifliment in the fame manner as when ranging at large, though
clofe under his eye.
TROGLODYTES, in the ancient geography, a people
of Ethiopia, faid to have lived in caves underground. Pom-
ponius Mela gives a ftrange account of the Troglodytes: he
fays, they did not fo properly fpeak as {hriek; and that they
lived on ferpents.
TROGUS (Pompeius), Latin univerfal hiHorian to the
time of AuguHus Caffar, of whom we have only an abridge¬
ment by Jullin, fiourifhed about 41 B. C.
TROJ 1, the capital city of Troas, or, according to
others, a country of which Ilium was the capital. It was
built on a fmall eminence near mount Ida, and the promon¬
tory of Sigaeum, at the diflance of about four miles from the
fea-fhore. Dardaims the firfi king of the country built it,
and called it Dardania^ and from Tros one of his fucceffors
it was called Troja, and from Hus Ilion. i his city has been
celebrated by the poems ot Homer and Virgil; and of all the
wars which have been carried on among the ancients, that of
Troy is the moil famous.
A defeription of the plan of Troy has been lately publilh-
ed in French in the 3d volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
a&ions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, written by M.
Chevalier. The city of Troy, according to him, Hood on the
prefent fite of the modern village of Bounarbachi, diHant
four leagues from the lea, and which is the rdidence of an
Aga, ruling with abfolute fway the inhabitants of the Tro¬
jan plain and the inferior Agas, to whom they are immedi¬
ately fubjeft. Bounarbachi is fituated on the fide of an
eminence, expofed to every wind, at the termination of a
fpacious plain, the foil of which is rich and of a blackifh
colour. Clofe to the village is to be feen a marfh covered
with tall reeds ; and the fituation is impregnable on all tides
except at Erin (Homer’s the hill of wild jig trees,
which extended between the Scaean gate and the fources of
the Scamander. Thefe circumtlances, agreeing with Ho¬
mer’s deferiptions, Hrongly fupport M. Chevalier’s opinion
concerning the fituation of Troy. A very intereHing part
of this work is the account of conical mounds or barrws,
feveral of them 100 feet in diameter at the bale ; and which
the author maintains to be the identical tombs raifed.over
the afhes of the heroes of the Trojan war ; feme of them
he deems more ancient. He deierrbes particularly the
tombs of Efyetes, Hus, Ajax, He&or, Achilles, Patro-
clus, and Antilochus.
1 his diHertation, which runs to the length of 92 quarto
pages, is.replete with erudition and ingenious reafoning,
and is illuHratcd and embelliflied by maps of the plan of
Troy and feveral t bles of inferiptions. it has been traiif-
lated with much ccuracy and care by Mr Dalzel profefibr
of Greek in the Univerfity of Edinburgh, and accompanied
with large notes and rllufirations.
TROLLIUS, Globe-flower, or Lucken Cowan, in
botany : A geirus of plants belonging to the clafs of polyan-
dria and order of polygynia ; and in the natural fyfiem
ranging under the 26th order, Muhjiliqu<z, ihe calyx is
wanting; there are about 14 petals; the capfules are very
numerous, ovate, and monolpernrons. 1 here are two fpe-
cies, the afiaticus and eurepasus; the latter of which is a Rri-
tifh plant. ~"
Europaus, or European globe-flower, has its corollets con-
nivent, and from 9 to 16 nedfaria, of the length of the fla-
mina, linear, plane, incurvated, and perforated at the infide
of the bafe. The leaves are divided firlt into five fegments
down
T R O [ 583 ] T R U
Tromp down to the bafe; the fegments are again divided, each about They wrote poems on love and gallantry ; on the illuftri-
II half way, into two or three lobes, which are fharply indent- ous charafters and remarkable events of the times ; fatires
Tnmba- eci 0n the edges. The italk is a foot high,-and fcarcely which were chiefly direded againft the clergy and monks;
J(^ur8' . branched : the flower is yellow, globofe, and fpacious. It and a few didadic pieces. The troubadours were great fa-
grows at the foot of mountains, and by the Tides of rivulets, vourites in different courts, diffufed a tafte for their lan-
The country people in Sweden drew their floors and pave- guage and for poetry over Europe, which was about that
xnents on holidays with the flowers, which have a pleafant time funk in ignorance and rudenefs ; they difappeared in
fmell, and are ornamental in gardens. the 14th century. A hiftory of the troubadours in 3 vo-
TROMP (Martin Happen2, Van), a celebrated Dutch lumes i2mo, was begun by M. de Sainte 1’alaie, and finifli-
admiral, was born at the Bailie^ in Holland. He raifed ed by the Abbe Millot. See Music, n° 23.
himfelf by his merit, after having diftinguiihed himfelf on TROVER, in law, an adion that a man hath againft one
many occafions, efpecially at the famous engagement near that, having found any of his goods, refufeth to deliver them
Gibraltar in 1607. Tie paffed for one of the greateft fea- upon demand.
men that had till that time appeared in the world; and was
declared admiral of Holland, even by the advice of the
prine of Orange. He in that charader defeated a large
Spanifh fleet in 1630, and gained 32 other vidories at fea;
but was killed when under deck, in an engagement with the
Englifh in 1653. ftales-general caufed medals to be
ftruck to his honour, and lamented him as one of the great-
eft heroes of their republic. Van Tromp, in the midft of
the greateft glory, conftantly difeovered a remarkable mo-
defty ; for he never aflumed a higher charader than that of
a burgher, and that of being the father of the failors.
TRONAGE, an ancient cuftomary duty or toll, for
weighing @f wool. According to Fleta, trona is a beam to
weigh with, mentioned in the flat. Weftm. 2. cap. 25. And
tronage was ufed for the weighing wool in a ftaple or public
mart, by a common trona or beam ; which, for the tronage
of wool in London, was fixed at Leaden-Hall. The mayor
and commonalty of London are ordained keepers of the beams
and weights foi weighing merchants commodities, with power
to aflign clerks and porters, &c. of the great beam and ba¬
lance; which weighing of goods and wares is called tronage 1
and no ftranger fliall buy any goods in London before they
are weighed at the king’s beam, on pain of forfeiture.
TRONE-weight, the moft ancient of the different
weights ufed in Scotland ; and, though now forbidden by
feveral ftatutes, is ftill ufed by many for home-commodities,
and that in a very irregular manner ; for the pound varies in
different places, and for different purpofes, from 20 to 24
Dutch ounces. The common allowance is 2i4r oz. for wool,
2o{- for butter and cheefe, 20 for tallow, lint, hemp, and
hay. It is divided into 16 of its own ounces, and 16 pounds
make a ftone.
TROOP, a final] body of horfe or dragoons, about 50
or 60, lometimes more, fometimes lefs, commanded by a
captain, lieutenant, cornet, quarter-mafter, and three corpo¬
rals, wh© are the loweft officers of. a troop. ,
TROPE. See Oratory, 52—66.
TROPHONIUS cave, or Orach (anc. geog.), a cave
near Lebadia in Bceotia, between Helicon and Chseronea
(Strabo) : fo called from Trophonius, an enthufiaftic di¬
viner ; who, defending into this cave, pretended to give
anfwers and pronounce oracles; and was hence called Ju¬
piter Trophonius. Such as went down to this cave never
after fmiled ; hence the proverbial faying of a man who has
loft his mirth, that he is come out of Trophonius’s cave.
Though Pauianias, who writes from experience, contradifts
this; affirming that perfons came out of the cave affe&ed
indeed with a ftupor, but that they foon after recovered
themielves. See Oracle.
TROPHY (Tropaum), among the ancients, a monument
of viftory.
TROPIC-Bird. See Phaeton.
TROPICS. See Geography, n°40.
1 ROUBADOURS, poets that flourifned in Provence
during the 12th century*.
TROUT. See Sa LMO.
TROY. See rJ LROJA.
Trot-IVeight, one of the moft ancient of the different kinds
ufed in Britain. I he ounce of this weight was brought from
Grand Cairo in Egypt, about the time of the crufades, into
Europe, and firft adopted in Troyes a city of Champagne;
whence the name.
Ihe pound Engljh Troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760
grains. It was formerly ufed tor every purpofe; and is ftill
retained for weighing gold, filver, and jewels; lorcempound-
ing medicines ; for experiments in natural philofophy ; and
for comparing different weights with each other.
Scots TRor-Weight was eftablifhed by James VI. in ths
year 1618, who enacted, that only one weight fhould bs
ufed in Scotland, viz. the French Troy ftone of 16 pounds,
and 16 ounces in the pound. The pound contains 7600
grains, and is equal to 17 oz. 6 dr. avoirdupois. The cwt.
or 112 lb. avoirdupois, contains only 103 lb. 2j- oz. of this
weight, though generally reckoned equal to 104 lb. This
weight is nearly, if not exaftly, the fame as that of Paris and
Amfterdam ; and is generally known by the name of Dutch
•weight. Though prohibited by the articles of union, it is
ftill ufed in weighing iron, hemp, flax, moft Dutch and Bal¬
tic goods, meal, butcher-meat, unwrought pewter and lead,
and fome other articles.
TRUE -love, in botany. See Paris.
1RUFFT.ES. See Lycoperkon.
1 RUMPET, a mufical inftrument, the moft noble of all
portable ones of the wind kind ; ufed chiefly in war, among
the cavalry to diredt them in the fervice. Each troop of ca¬
valry has one. The cords of the trumpets are of crimfon,
mixed with the colours of the facings of the regiments.
As to the invention of the trumpet, fome Greek hiftori-
ans aferibe it to the Tyrrhenians; but others, with greater
probability, to the Egyptians ; from whom it might have
been tranfmitted to the Ifraelites. The trumpet was not in
ufe among the Greeks at the time of the Trojan war; though
it was in common ufe in the time of Homer. According
to Potter {Arch. Grac.voX. ii. cap 9.), before the invention
of trumpets, the firft fignals of battle in primitive wars were
lighted torches; tothefe fucceeded (hells of fiflies, which were
founded like trumpets. And when the trumpet became com¬
mon in military ufe, it may well be imagined to have ferved
at firft only as a rough and noify fignal of battle, like that
at prefent in Abyffinia and New Zealand, and perhaps with
only one found. But, even when more notes'were produ¬
ced from it, fo noify an Jnftrument muft have been an unfit
accompaniment for the voice and poetry ; fo that it is pro¬
bable the trumpet was the firft folo inftrument in ufe among
the ancients. a
Trumpet, articulate, comprehends both tivt fpealing and the
hearing trumpet, is by much the moft valuable inftrument, and
has, in one of its forms, been ufed by people among whom we
fnould hardly have expedted to find fuch improvements.
That %\\(t fpeaTrng trumpet, of which the objedt is to iiicreafe
the
Trover
n
Trumpet.
TmrnffS
T R U
the force of articulate founds, fhould have been known to the
ancient Greeks, can excite no wonder; and therefore we eafily
admit the accounts which we read of the horn or trumpet, with
which Alexander addreffed his army, as well as of the whilper-
in^ caverns of the Syraculan tyrant. But that the natives of
Peru wrere acquainted with this inftrument, will probably fur-
prife many of our readers. The fadt however feems incontro¬
vertible.
In the Hi dory of the Order of Jefuits, publifhed at Naples
in 1601 by Beritaria, it is faid, that in the year 1595 a fmall
convent of that order in Peru, fituated in a remote corner,
was in danger of immediate deftruftion by famine. One
evening the fuperior Father Samaniac, implored the help of
the cacique ; next morning, on opening the gate of the mo-
naftery, he found it furrounded by a number of women, each
of whom carried a fmall balket of provifions. He returned
thanks to heaven for having miraculoufly interpofed, by in-
fpiring the good people with pity for the diftrefs ot his
friars. But when he exprefied to them his wonder how they
came all to be moved as if by mutual agreement with thefe
benevolent fentiments, they told him it was no fuch thing ;
that they looked on him and his countrymen as a pack of
infernal magicians, who by their forceries had enflaved the
country, and had bewitched their good cacique, who hi¬
therto had treated them with kindnefs and attention, as be¬
came a true worfhipper of the fun ; but that the preceding
evening at funlet he had ordered the inhabitants of fuch and
fuch villages, about fix miles off, to come that morning with
provifions to this neft of wizzards.
The fuperior afked them in what manner the governor
had warned fo many of them in fo fhort a time, at fuch a
diftance from his own refidence ? They told him that it
was by the trumpet; and that every perfon heard at their
own door the diftinft terms of the order. The father had
heard nothing; but they told him that none heard the trum¬
pet but the inhabitants of villages to which it was direfted.
This is a piece of very curious information ; but, after allow-
ing a good deal to the exaggeration of the reverend Jefuits,
it cannot, we think, be doubted, but that the Peruvians ac¬
tually poffeffed this ftentorophonic art. For we may obferve
that the effeft deferibed in this narration refcmbles what we
now know tp be the effeft of fpeaking trumpets, while it is
unlike what the inventor of fuch a tale would naturally and
ignorantly fay. Till fpeaking trumpets were really known,
we fhould expert the found to be equally diffufed on all lides,
which is not the cafe; for it is much ftronger in the line of
the trumpet than in any direction very oblique to it.
About the middle of the laft century, Athanafius Kircher
turned his attention to the philofophy of found, and in dif¬
ferent works threw out many ufeful and fcientific hints on
the conftru&ion-of fpeaking trumpets (fee Acoustics and
Kircher); but his mathematical illtaftrations were fo vague,
and his own character of inattention and credulity fo noto¬
rious, that for fome time thefe works did not attraft the no¬
tice to which they were well intitled.
About the 1670 Sir Samuel Morland, a gentleman of
great ingenuity, fcience, and order, took up the fubjeft,
and propofed as a queftion to the Royal Society @f London,
What is the beft form for a fpeaking trumpet ? which he
called a ftentorophonic horn. He accompanied his demand
with an account of his ov/n notions on the fubjeft (which
he acknowledged to be very vague ond conje&ural), and an
exhibition of fome inftruments conftrufted according to his
snews. They were in general very large conical tubes, fud-
T R U
denly fpreading at the very mouth to a greater width, Their Trumpet
effect was really wonderful. They were tried in St James’s “v-»
park ; and his Majefty K. Charles II. fpeaking in his ordi¬
nary colloquial pitch of voice through a trumpet only ^ feet
long, was clearly and moft diftinftly heard at the diftance of
a thoufand yards. Another perfon, fele&ed we fuppofe for
the loudnefs and diftindlnefs of his voice, was perfectly un-
derftood at the diftance of four miles and a half. The
fame of this foon i'pread ; Sir Samuel Morland’s princi¬
ples were refined, confidering the novelty, of the thing, and
differ confiderably from father Kircher’s. The aerial undu¬
lations (for he fpeaks very accurately concerning the nature of
found) endeavour to diffufe themfelves in fpheres, but are
flopped by the tube* and therefore redundulate towards the
axis like waves from a bank, and, meeting in the axis, they
form a ftrong undulation a little farther advanced along the
tube, which again fpreads, is again refledled, and fo on, till
it arrives at the mouth of the tube greatly magnified, and
then it is diffufed through the Gpen air in the fame manner,
as if all proceeded from a very fonorous point in the centre
of the wide end of the trumpet. The author diftinguifhes
with great judgment between the prodigious reinforcement
of found in a fpeaking trumpet and that in the mufical trum¬
pet, bugle-horn, conch-fhell, &c. ; and {hows that the differ¬
ence confifts only in the violence of the firft fonorous agita¬
tion, which can be produced by us only on a very fmall ex¬
tent of lurface. The mouth-piece diameter therefore of the
mufical trumpet muft be very fmall, and the force of blaft
very confiderable. Thus one ftrong but iimple undulation
will be excited, which muft be fuhje&ed to the modifica¬
tions of harmony, and will be augmented by iifing a coni¬
cal tube (a). But a fpeaking trumpet muft make no change
on the nature of the ftrft undulations ; and each point of the
mouth-piece mull be equally confidered as the centre of fo¬
norous undulations, all of which muft be reinforced in the
fame degree, othervvife all diflindlnefs of articulation will he
loft. The mouth-piece muft therefore take in the whole of
of the mouth of the fpeaker.
When Sir Samuel Morland’s trumpet came to be generally
known on the continent, it was foon difeovered that the fpeak¬
er could be heard at a great diftance only in the line of the
trumpet ; and this circumftance was by a Mr Caffegrain
(yourn. des Sgavans 1672, p. 131) attributed to a deleft in
the principle of its conftruftion, which he faid was not accord¬
ing to the laws of fonorous undulations. He propofed a
conoid formed by the revolution of a hyperbola round its
affymptote as the beft form. A Mr Hafe of Wirtemberg,
on the other hand, propofed a parabolic conoid, having the
mouth of the fpeaker placed in the focus. In this conftruc-
tion he plainly went on the principle of a refleftion fimilar
to that of the rays of light; but this is by no means the
cafe. The effeft of the parabola will be to give one re¬
fleftion, and in this all the circular undulations will be
converted into plane waves, which are at right angles to
the axis of the trumpet. But nothing hinders their fub-
fequent diffufion ; for it does not appear that the found
will be enforced, becaKfe the agitation of the particles on
each wave is not augmented.
The fubjeft is exceedingly difficult. We do not fully
comprehend on what circumftance the affeftion or agita¬
tion of our organ, or limply of the membrana tympani,
depends. A more violent agitation of the fame air, that is,
a wider ofcillation of its particles, cannot fail to increafe the
impulfe on this membrane. The point therefore is to find what
concourfe
[ sU ]
(a) Accordingly the found of the bugle-horn, of the mufical trumpet, or the French horn, is prodigioufly loud, viheu
©re confider the fmall paffage through which a moderate blaft is feat by the trumpeter.
//
Jrnmp
T R U [ 585
roncoarfe of feeble undulations v. ill produce or be equiva¬
lent to a great one. The reafonings of all thefe reftorers
of the fpeaking trumpet are almoft equally fpecious, and each
point out fome phenomenon which fliould charafterife the
■principle of conftruftion, and thus enable us to lay which is
moft agreeable to the procedure of nature.—Yet there is
hardly any difference in the performance of trumpets of equal
dimenfions made after thefe different methods.
The propagation of light and of elaftic undulations feem
to require very different methods of management. Yet the
ordinary phenomena of echoes are perfedfly explicable by the
acknowledged laws either of optics or acouftics ; ftill how¬
ever there are fome phenomena of found which are very un¬
like the genuine refults of elaftic undulations. If founds are
propagated fpherically, then what comes into a room by a
fmall hole fhould diff'ufe itfelf from that hole as round a centre,
and it fhould be heard equally well at twelve feet diftance from
the hole in every diredfion. Yet it is very fenftbly louder
when the hearer is in the ftraight line drawn from the fono-
rous body through the hole. A perfon can judge of the di¬
rection of the founding body with tolerable exadtnels. Can¬
non difcharged from the different ftdes of a fhip are very ea-
fily diftinguifhed, which ftrould not be the -cafe by the New¬
tonian theory ; for in this the two pulfes on the ear fhould
liave no fenftble difference.
The moft; important fa<5t for our purpofe is this: An
echo from a fmall plane furface in the midft of an open field
is not heard, unlefs we ftand in fuch a fituation that the
angle of refk&ed found may be equal to that of incidence.
But by the ufual theory of undulations, this fmall furface
fhould become the centre of a new undulation, v/hich fhould
ipread in all directions. If we make an analogous experr-
xnent on watery undulations, by placing a final! flat furface
fo as to projeft a little above the water, and then drop in a
fmall pebble at a diflance, fo as to raife one circular wave,
we fhall obferve, that when this wave arrives at the projeft-
ing plane, it is difturbed by it, and this difturbance ipreads
from it or, all fides. It is indeed fenfibly ftronger in that
line which rs drawn from it at equal angles wuth the line
drawn to the place where the pebble was dropped. But in
the cafe of found, it is a faft, that if we go to a very fmall
diftance on either fide of the line of refle&ion, we fhall hear
nothing.
Here then is a faff, that whatever may be the nature of tire
elaftic undulations, founds are reflected from a fmall plane
in the fame manner as light. We may avail ourfelves of
vhis faCf as a mean for enforcing found, though we cannot
explain it in a fatisfaCtory manner. We fhould expeft
from it an effeCt fimilar to the hearing of the original found,
along with another original found coming from the place
from which this reflected found diverges. If therefore the
reflected found or echo arrives at the ear in the fame inftant
with the original found, the effeCt will be doubled ; or at
Icaft it will be thf lame with two fimultaneous original
jounds. Now we know that this is in fome fenfe equiva¬
lent to a ftronger found. For it is a faCt, that a number of
voices uttering the fame or equal founds are heard at a much
greater diftance than a Angle voice) W^e cannot perhaps
explain how this happens by mechanical laws, nor aflign the
exad proport ion in which 10 voices exceed the effeCf of cue
voice ; nor the proportion of die diftances at which they
feem equally loud. We may therefore, for the prefent,
iuppofe that two equal voices at the fame diftance are twice
loud, three voices three times as loud, See. Therefore if,
by means of a fpeaking trumpet, we can make 10 equal
10e® ^rr‘ve at the ear at the fame moment, we may
uppofe its cffeCt to be to increafe the audibility 10 times:
Vop. XVIII. part XI. ^
1 T R TJ
and we may exprefs this ffiortly, by calling the found 13 Trumpet^
times louder or more intenfe. — v 1 lf
But we cannot do this precifely. We cannot by any
contrivance make the found of a momentary fnap, and thofe
of its echoes, arrive at the ear in the fame moment, becaufc
they come from different diftances. But if the original
noife be a continued found, a man’s voice, for example," ut¬
tering a continued uniform tone, the firft echo may reach
the ear at the fame moment with the fecond vibration of the
larynx ; the fecond echo along with the third vibration, and
fo on. It is evident, that this will produce the fame effeCI.
The only difference will be, that the articulations of the
voice will be made indiftinCf, if the echoes come from very
different diftances. '1 hus if a man pronounce the fyllable
taw, and the ic fucceffive echoes are made from places
which are 1 <0 feet farther off, the roth part of a fecond
(nearly) will intervene between hearing the firft and the
laft. 1 his will give it the found of the fyllable tAaw, or
perhaps ruw, becaufe r is the repetition of /. Something
like this occurs when, Handing at one endxof a long line
of foldiers, we hear the mufkets of the whole line difeharged
in one inftant. It feems to us the found of a runningfire.
The aim therefore in the conftruftion of a fpeaking trum¬
pet may be, to caufe as many echoes as poflrble to reach a
diftant ear without any perceptible interval of time. This
will give diftindtnefs, and fomething equivalent to loudnefs.
/’urt loudnefs arifes from the violence of the Angle aerial un¬
dulation. To increafe this may be the aim in the conftruc-
tion of a trumpet; but we are not fufficiently acquainted
with the mechanifm of thefe undulations to bring this about
with certainty and precifion ; whereas we can procure this
accumulation of echoes without much trouble, fince we
know that echoes are, infaS, rtfle&ed like light. We can
form a trumpet fo that many of thefe lines of refleAed found
fhal! pafs through the place of the hearer. We are indebt¬
ed to Mr Lambert of Berlin for this Ample and popular
view of the fubjeft ; and (hall here give an abftradt of his
moft ingenious Differtation on Acouftic Inftruments, pub-
lifhed in the Berlin Memoirs for 1763.
Sound naturally fpreads in all diredtions; but we know
that echoes or refledted founds proceed almoll ftridlly in cer¬
tain limited diredtions. If therefore we contrive a trumpet
in fuch a way that the lines of echo fhall be confined within
a certain ipace, it is reafonable to fuppofe that the found
will become more audible in proportion as this diffufion is
prevented. Therefore if we can oblige a found which, in
the open air, would have diffufed itfelf over a hemifphere,
to keep within a cone of 120 degrees, we fhould expeA it
to be twice as audible within this cone. This will be ac-
complifhed, by making the refleAions fuch that the lines of
refleAed found fhall be confined within this cone. N. B.
We here fuppofe that nothing is loft in the refkAion. Let
us examine the effeA of a cylindrical trumpet.
Let the trumpet be a cylinder ABED (fig. 1.), and let p,
C be a founding point in the axis. It is evident that all DXlh
the found in the cone BCE will go forward without any
refledtion. Let CM he any other line of found, which we
may, for brevity’s fake, call a fonorous or phonic line. Be-
mg refleAed in the points M, N, O, P, it is evident that
it wiH at laft efcape from the trumpet in a direAion PQ,
equally diverging from the axis with the line CM. The
fame muft be true of every other fonorous line. Therefore *
the echoes will all diverge from the mouth’of the trumpet in
the iame manner as they would have proceeded from C with¬
out any trumpet. Even fuppofing, therefore, that the echoes
are as ftrong as the original iound, no advantage is gained
by fuch a trumpet, but that of bringing the found forward
4 E from
T R U
[
mpet. from C to c. -This is quite trifling when the heaver is at
Y* a diftance. Yet we fee that founds may be heard at a very
great didance, at the end of long, narrow, cylindrical, or
prifmatical galleries. It is Known that a voice may be di Hindi-
ly heard at the diftance of fevera] hundred feet in the Roman
aquedufts, whofe fides are perfectly ftraight and fmooth,
being plaflered with ftucco. The frrooth furface of the ftill
water greatly contributes to this effedb. Cylindrical or prif-
niatical trumpets mull therefore be rejected.
Let the trumpet be a cone BC/V (fig. 2.), of which CN
is the axis, DK a line perpendicular to the axis, and DFPII
the path of a refledltd found in the plane of the axis. The
laid angle of refleclion III \ is equal to the lafl ancle of in¬
cidence FLIC. The angle BFM, or its equal CFD, is
equal to the angles FF.ID and FCH ; that is, the angle ot
incidence CFD exceeds the next angle of incidence FHC
by the angle FCD ; that is-, by the angle of the cone. In
like manner, FDH exceeds CFD by the fame angle FCD.
Thus every fucceeding angle, either of incidence or reflec¬
tion, exceeds the next by the angle of the cone. Call the
angle of the cone a, and let 1/ be the firft angle of incidence
PDC. The fecond, or DFC, is b — a. The third, or
FHC, is b — 2 a, &c. : and the /zth angle of incidence or
refledlion is — n a, after n refleftions. Since the angle
diminiihes by equal quantities' at each fubfequent refieftion,
it is plain, that whatever be the firft angle of incidence, it
may be exhaufted by this diminution; namely, when n times
a exceeds or is equal to b. Therefore to know how many re-
dedtions of a found, whofe firft incidence has the inclination
b, can be made in an infinitely extended cone, whofe angle is
a, divide b hy a\ the quotient will give the number n of
reflections, and the remainder, if any, will be the laft angle
of incidence or refledtion lefs than a. It is very pl?.m, that
when an angle of refledtion IHA is equal to or lefs than
the angle BCA of the cone, the refledted line HI will no
more meet with the other fide CB of the cone.
We may here obferve, that the greateft angle of incidence
is a right angle, or 90°. This found would be refledted
back in the fame line, and would be incident on the oppo-
fite fide in an angle 90°— a, See.
. Thus we fee that a conical trumpet is well fluted ’■or con-
lining the found : for by prolonging it fufficiently, we can
keep the lines of refledted found wholly v/ithin the cone.
And when it is not carried to fuch a length as to do this,
when it allows the founding line GH, for example, to efcape
without farther refledtion, the divergency from the axis is
lefs than the laft angle of refledtion BGH by half the angle
BCA of the cone. Let us fee what is the connedtion be¬
tween the length and the angle of ultimate refledtion
We have fin. b
fin. b    
r == and fin. b — 2a: fin. ^ — a = CF
fin. b— <2’
CH
fin. b
CFX^
fin, b
~ = CD X
2 a
a : fin. £ = CD : CF, and CF=CD X
CH, and
8(5 1 T It U
refledtion, we c?.n give the length which will give the one Trumpet,
immediately preceding, whole angle with the fide of the
cone is a. Let Y be this length. Wc have Y = CD X
fin. b r, .
Tins length will allow every line of found to be re-
fledled as often, faving once, as if the tube were infinitely
long. For fuppofe a fonorous line to be traced backwards, •
as if a found entered the tube in the diredtion i h, and were
reflected in the points h, f, d, <5, D, the angles will be
continually augmented by the conftant angle a. But this
augmentation can never go farther than 90 ' -fi- j a. For if
it reaches that value at D, for inftance, the refledled line DK.
will be perpendicular to the axis CN ; and the angle ADK
will be equal to the angle I)KB, and the found will come
out again. This remark is of importance on another ac¬
count.
Now fuppofe the cone to be cut off at D by a plane per¬
pendicular to the axis, KD will be the diameter of its
mouth piece ; and if we fuppofe a mouth completely occu¬
pying this circle, and every point of the circle to be fono¬
rous, the refledted founds will proceed from it in the fame
manner as light would from a flame which completely occu¬
pies its area, and is refledted by the infukof the cone. The
anode FDA will have the greateft poffible fine when it is a
light angle, and it never can be greater than ADK, which
is rr 90 -f- y a. And fince between 90° 4- i o, and 90 —■
\ a, there muft tall tome multiple of a\ call this multiple b.
Then, in order that every found mayr be refledted as mten as
poffible, faving once, we muft make the length ot it X
S, b
CD X -—
, ft, a
Now fince the angle of the cone is never made very great,,
never exceeding 1 o or 12 degrees, b can never differ from
90 above a degree or two, and its fine cannot differ much..
CD,
from unity, h hereiore X will be very neatly equal to q—
CD
which is alfo very nearly equal to ——; becaufe a is
fmall, and the fines of final! arches.are neatly equal and pro¬
portional to the arches themfelves. There n> even a fmali
compenfation of errors in this iormula. For as the line of
90° is fomewhat too large, which woold give X too great,,
2 S, y a is alfo larger than the fine of a. Thus let a be
12° :. then the neareft multiple of a is 84.or 96^, both of
which are as far removed as poffible from 90°, and the
error is as great as poffihle, and is neatly T^-vh of the
whole.
‘ This approximation gives us a very Ample conftruction.
Let CM be the required length of the trumpet, and draw-
ML perpendicular to the axis in O. It is evident that 8,.
MO
MCO : rad. = MO : CM, and CM ; or X
fin b fin. ^ — a
fin. 1 — a fin. b— 2a,
LM
but X —
CD
2 S, y a'
b, 1 a’.
and therefore LM is equal tO'
2= CD X 7—7 , &c.
fin. b — 2 a
Therefore if we fuppofe X to be the length which will
fin. b
give us n refledtions, we fhall have X := CD X 7
fin. b — n a'
He nee we fee that the length increafes as the angle l—na
diminifhes ; but is not infinite, unlefs na is equal to b. In
this cafe, the immediately preceding angle of refledtion mult
be a, becaufe thefe angles have the common difference a.
Therefore the laft reftedted found was moving parallel to the
oppofite fide of the cone, and cannot again meet it. But
tkough we cannot affign the length which will give the nth
2 f>,
CD. . -
If therefore the cone be of fuch a length, that its diame¬
ter at the mouth is equal to the length of the part cut oft,
every line of found will have at leaft as many reflections,,
k-.e one, as if the cone were infinitely long ; and the laft:
refledted line will either be parallel to the oppofite fide of
the cone, or lie nearer the axis than this parallel ; confe-
quently fuch a cone will confine all the refledted founds
within a cone whofe angle is 2 <?, and will augment the
found in the proportion of the fpherical bafe of this cone
to a complete hemiipherical fur race. Defcribe the circle
DKT round C, and making DT an arch of 90, draw the
chord DT. Then fince the circles deferibed with the radii
DKi
T R U [ 537 ] . T R U .
Trumpet. DK, DT, are equal to the fpherical furfaces generated by ¥ af ei the path of a line of found lying in the plane of the Trumpet.
the revolution of the arches DK and DKT round the axis
CD, the found will be condenfed in the .proportion of DK2
to DT2.
This appears to be the bed general rule for conitru&ing
the inilrument; for, to procure another refkcfion, the tube
muft be prodigioufly lengthened, and we cannot fuppofe
that one refleftion more will add greatly to its power.
It appears, too, that the length depends chiefly on the
anale of the cone; for the mouth-piece may be confidered
as nearly a fixed quantity. It mult be of a fize to admit
the mouth when fpeaking with force and without conftraint.
About an inch and a half may be fixed on for its diameter.
When therefore we propofe to confine the found to a cone
feblion.
In the great circle of the fphere take KQ^r: KP, DR
~ DQ, and K8 KR. Draw QJB h ; alio draw Qjf n
parallel to DA ; and draw PB, P A PA.
1. Then it is evident that all the lines drawn from P,
within the cone APB, proceed without refledlion, and are
difmfed as if no trumpet had been ufed.
2. All the fonorous lines wdiich fall from P on KB are
reflefted from it as if they had come from (T_
3. All the fonorous lines between BP and d¥ have dif¬
fered but one refleftion ; for d n will no more meet DA A'
fo as to be reflefted a rain.
4. All the lines which have been refledfed from KB, and
of twice the angle of the trumpet, the whole is determined afterwards from DA, proceed as if they had come from R.
* , k-ri . * r T .  1 ota i:'„. 1:   c  ttit if u^A
by that angle. For fince in this cafe LM is equal to CD,
we have DK : CD ^ LM (or CD).: CM and CM sr
CD1
DK’
But
and
therefore
2 S,
2 S, r
4S,2,
CM =
1 rr DK : CD,
1 ~ CD : CM j
1 in DK : CM,
dk m
 0 
2 S,2 a'
DK,
” S, i u
From
And cm = very nearIy- Antl
4 O, -J- O ^5 a
fince DK is an inch and a half, we get the length in inches,
I T
counted from the apex of the cone — or“
this we mull cut off the part CD, which is
, DK 3
very nearly g^, or TiJ—
3
mufl. make the mouth of the fame width Jg-
On the other hand, if the length of the trumpet is fixed
on, we can determine the angle of the cone. For let the
q _J_
2 b,* a —
meafured in inches, and we
length (reckoned from C) be L ; we have
or S,2a = ~4 > and S>, a— / -A-.
2L’ s/ 2 L
Thus let 6 feet or 7 2 inches be chofen for the length of
the cone, we have S, a— /-A— — / J—, 1= 0,14434.,
V 144 V 48
n: fin 8° 17' for the angle of the cone; and the width at
3
the mouth is ; ^ ^ rr 10,4 inches. This being taken
from 72, leaves 61,6 inches for the length of the trumpet.
And fince this trumpet confines the reflefted founds to
DT%
a cone of 16° 34', we have its magnifying power 2= JT]?3
iDT2  S,245°
= TDK2 ~~ S 2 4TM “ nearIy« ^ t;here^ore conden-
ies the found about 96 times ; and if the diftribution were
uniform, it would be heard V96, or nearly 10 times far¬
ther off. For the loudneis of founds is fuppofed to be in-
nrieiy as the fquare of the diffance from the centre of un¬
dulation.
But before we can pronounce with precifion on the perform¬
ance of a fpeaking trumpet, we mult examine into the man¬
ner in which the refie&ed founds are diflributed over the
fpaqe in which they are all confined.
Let BKDA (fig. 3.) be the feftion of a conical trumpet
by a plane through the axis; let C be the vertex of the
cone, and CW us axis ; let TKV be the fedtion of a
fphere, having its ctmre in the vertex of the cone ; and let
P be a fonorous poipt on the iurface of the fphere, and
For the lines refledled from KB proceed as if they had
come from Qj and lines coming from Qjmd refiedled by
DA, proceed as if they had come from R. Therefore draw
R. A 0, and alfo draw Rgw parallel to KB, and draw
CD; A y, QJ^, Pr, and P 3. Then,
5. All the lines between b P and c P have been twice re-
fledted.
Again, draw SBy, B r R, r « S x A, R y x, Q_5y.
6. All the lines between u P and s P have fufiered three
refledlions.
Draw the tangents T A t, VB v, crofirng the axis in W.
7. The whole founds will be propagated within the cone
t W /. For to every fonorous point in the line KD there
cotrefponds a point fimilar to regulating the firft reflec¬
tion from KB ; and a point fimilar to R, regulating the fe-'
cond reflection from DA ; and a point S regulating the
third refledlion from KB, &c. And fimilar points will be
found regulating the fit ft refledtion from DA, the iecond
from KB, and the third from DA, See. ; and lines drawn
from all thefe through A and B mult lie within the tan¬
gents TA and VB.
8. Thus the centres of refledlion of all the fonorous lines
v/hich lie in planes pafiing through the axis, will be found
in the furface of this fphere ; and it may be confidered as
a fonorous fphere, whofe founds firft concentrate in W, and
are then diffufed in the cone vW t.
It may be demonftrated nearly in the fame manner, that
the fonorous lines which proceed from P, blit not in the
plane pafiing through the axis, alfo proceed, after various
refledlions, as if theyr had come from points in the furface of
the fame fphere. The only difference in the demonftration
is, that the centres Qj. R, 8 of the fucceffive refledlions are
not in one plane, but in a fpiral line winding round the lur-
face of the fphere according to fixed laws. The foregoing
conclufions are therefore general for all the founds which
come in all diredtions from every point in the area of the
mouth-piece.
Thus it appears, that a conical trumpet is well fitted
for increafing the force of founds by dimimfhing their final
divergence. For had the fpeakcr’s mouth been in the open
air, the founds which are now confined within the cone
v) "WV would have been diffufed over a hemifphere : and we
fee that prolonging the trumpet muff confine the founds ftill
more, becaufe this will make the angle BWA ftill fmaller;
a longer tube muff alfo occafion more refledlions, and con-
fequently fend more fonorous undulations to the ear at a di«
fiance placed within the cone •u WV.
We have now obtained a very connedled view of dhe
whole effedl of a conical trumpet. It is the fame as if the
whole fegmentTKDV were founding, every part of it with
an intenfity proportional to the denfity of the points Q, R,
S, &c. correlponding to the different points P of the mouth¬
piece. It is eafy to fee that this cannot be uniform, but
4 E 2 muft
T R U
Fig- 3-
Trumpet, muft be much rarer towards the margin of the fegment. It
*” * would require a good deal of difcuffion to Ihow the denfity
of thefe fiftittous founding points ; and we fhail content our-
felves with giving a very palpable view of the diftribution of
the fonorous rays, or the denfity (fo to fpeak) of the
echoes,, in the different fituations in which a hearer may be
placed.
We may obferve, in the mean time, that this fubftitu-
tion of a founding fphere for the founding mouth-piece
has au exadt parallel in Optics, by which it will be greatly
illuftrated. Suppofe the cone BKD A to be a tube polilh-
ed in the infide, fixed in a wall B perforated in BA, and
that the mouth-piece DK is occupied completely by a flat
flame. The efleft of this on a fpedfator will be the fame
if he is properly placed in the axis, as if he were looking
at a flame as big as the whole fphere. This is very evi¬
dent.
It is eafy to fee that the line / e S is equal to the line
/ e fa P; therefore the refle&ed founds alio come to the
ear in the fame moments as if they had come from their re-
fpedlive points on the furface of the fubffituted fphere. Un-
lefs, therefore, this iphere be enormoufly large, the dillindt-
nefs of articulation will not be fenfibly affected, becaufe the
interval between the arrival of the different echoes of the
fame fnap will be infenlible.
Our limits oblige us to content ourfelves with exhibiting
this evident fimilarity of the progrefs of echo from the fur-
face of this phonic fphere, to the progrefs of light from the
fame luminous fphere fhining through a hole of which the
diameter is AB. The diredt inveftigation of the intenfity
of the found in different direftions and ditlances would
take up much room, and give no clearer conception of the
thing. The intenfity of the found in any point is precifely
fimilar to the intenfity of the illumination of the fame point;
and this is proportional to the portion- of the luminous fur-
face feen from this point through the hole dire&ly, and to
the fquare of the diflance inverfely. The intelligent reader
will acquire a diftindl conception of this matter from fig. 4.
which reprefents the diftribution of the fonorous lines, and
by confequence the degree of loudnefs which may be expell¬
ed in the different fituations of the hearer.
x\s we have already obferved, the effeft of the cone of
the trumpet is perfedlly analogous to the refle&ion of light
from a polifhed concave, conical mirror. Such an inftru-
ment would be equally fitted for illuminating a diftant ob-
jeft. We imagine that thefe would be much more power¬
ful than the fpherical or even parabolic mirrors commonly
ufed for this purpofe. Thefe laft, having the candle in the
focus, alfo fend forward a cylinder of light of equal width
with the mirror. But it is well known, that oblique reflec¬
tions are prodigioufly more vivid than thofe made at greater
angles. Where the inclination of the refle&ed light to the
plane of the mirror does not exceed eight or ten degrees, it
refletts about three-fourths of the light which falls on it.
But when the inclination is 80, it does pot refled one-fourth
part.
We may alfo obferve, that the denfity of the reflefted
founds by the conical trumpet ABC (fig. 4.) is precifely
fimilar to that of the illumination produced by a luminous
fphere TDV, fhining through a hole AB. There will be
a fpace circuinfcribed by the cone formed by the lines TB/
and VAu, which is uniformly illuminated by the whole
fphere (or rather by the fegment TDV), and on each fide
there is a fpace illuminated by a part of it only, and the il¬
lumination gradually decreafea towards the borders. A
fpedator placed much out of the axis, and looking through
[ 5SS ]
T R TT
the hole AB, may not fee the whole fphere. In like man- Trumpet,
ner, he will not hear the whole founding fphere: He may
be fo far from the axis as neither to- fee nor hear any part
of it.
Affifting our imagination by this comparifon, we perceive
that beyond the point w there is no place where all the re-
fledted founds are heard. Therefore, in order to preferve
the magnifying power of the trumpet at any diftance, it is
neceffary to make the mouth as wide as the fonorous fphere.
Nay, even this would be an imperfedt inflrument, becaufe its
power would be confined to a very narrow fpace ; and if it
be not accurately pointed to the perfon liftening, its powes
will be greatly diminifhed. And we may obferve, by the
way, that we derive from this eircumftance a ftrong confir¬
mation of the juftnefs of Mr Lambert’s principles ; for the
effedts of fpeaking trumnecs are really oblerved to be limb
ted in the way here described.—Parabolic trumpets have
been made, and they fortify the found not only in the cy¬
lindrical fpace in the diredtion of the axis, but alfo on each
fide of it, which fliould not have been tlie cafe had their
effedt depended only on the undulations formed by the pa¬
rabola in planes perpendicular to the axis. But to pro¬
ceed.
Let BCA (fig. 5.) be the cone, ED the mouth-piece,
TEDV the equivalent fonorous iphere, and TBAV the cir-
cumferibed cylinder. Then C A or CB is the length of
cone that is neceffary for maintaining the magnifying power
at all diftances. We have two conditions to be fulfilled.
The diameter ED of the mouth-piece muft be of a certain
fixed magnitude, and the diameter AB of the outer end
mnft be equal to that of the equivalent fouorous iphere.
Thefe conditions determine all the dimenlions of the trum¬
pet and its magnifying power. And, fiift, with refpedt to
the dimenfions of the trumpet.
The fimilarity of the triangles ECG and BCF gives
CG : ED z=CF: AB ; but CG =: BF, = 4-AB, and CF
= CG -f GF, = GF + T AB ; therefore ^AB : ED =
GF + iAB: AB, and AB : ED = 2 GF + AB : A3 ^
therefore 2 GF X ED + AB X ED = AB1, and 2 GF X
ED = AB1, — AB X ED, = AB X AB — ED, and GF
AB X AB — ED
And, on the other hand, becaufe
2 ED
AB1 —XEBAD = 2GFXED, we have AB1 —AB
X ED + 4 ED1 = 2GF X ED -K or AB — 4rED*
= 2 GFX ED -KED2, and AB^yL GFx ED -j-£ED*
+ t ED.
Let x reprefent the length of the trumpet, y the diame¬
ter at the great end, and m the diameter of the mouth-piece.
Then x —Z-?*, and y = >/2 x m-\- ^ Thus
2 m
the length and the great diameter may be had reciprocally.
The uieful cafe in pra£tice is to find the diameter for a pro-
pofed length, which is gotten by the laft equation.
Now if we take all the dimenfions in inches, and fix m at
an inch and a half, we have 2 x m zz x, and ^m2~o,5625,
and 4 m = 0,75; fo that our equation becomes y =
v"3 * ft-0,5625-{■* °>75‘ Th6 following table gi "s the
dimenfions of a fufficient variety of trumpets. The firft co¬
lumn is the length of the trumpet in feet; the fecynd co¬
lumn is the diameter of the mouth in inches; the third co¬
lumn is the number of times that it magnifies the found;
and the fourth column is the number ot tiaies that it in-
creafes the diftance at which a man may be diftindftly heard
by its means; the fifth contains the angle of the cone.
GF
T R U
[ j89 1
T R U
Trumpet.
GF
feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
xo
11
l 2
I 9
18
21
24
AB
inches.
Magnifying.
6,8
9»3
I 1,2
12,8
14.2
i5>5
16.6
18.8
19.8
20.7
21,5
24,
26.2
28.3
3°,2
42.6
77>8
112.4
X46,6
180.4
214.2
247>7
281.3
314.6
347.7
380,9
414,6
5’3>6
612.3
71 r,2
810, j
Extending
6.7
8.8
10.6
12,1
13«4
14.6
1.9,7
l6,8
I7>7
18.6
i9»5
20.4
22.7
24.7
26,6
28.5
ACB.
24-53
18.23
15.18
13-24
12.04
11.0c
10.18
9.40
9.08
8.42
8 18
7.58
7.09
6-33
6.05
5.42
ED in all is — 1,5.
The two lad columns are conftrufted on the following
confiderations: We conceive the hearer placed within the
cylindrical fpace whofe diameter is BA. In this fituation
he receives an gcho coming apparently from the whole fur-
face TGV ; and we account the effeft ot the trumpet as
equivalent to the united voices of as many mouths as would
cover this furface. Therefore the quotient obtained by di¬
viding the furface of the hemifphere by that of the mouth¬
piece will exprefs the magnifying power of the trumpet.
If the chords^ E, g T, be drawn, we know that the 1'phe-
rical furfaces T^V, E^D, are refpeftively equal to the
circles defcribed with the radii T ^ E^, and are therefore
as T^1 and E^2. Therefore the audibility of the trumpet,
when compared with a lingle voice, may be exprefi’ed by
T^2
jf-pr- Now the ratio of T^2 to E^2 is eafrly obtained.
For if E/ be drawn parallel to the axis, it is plain that
_ BA—ED
B/= ~ , and that E/ is to /B as radius to the
tangent of BCF ; which angle we may call a. Therefore
y—m
tan. a ~ ^ * ", and thus we obtain the angle a. But if
the radius CE be accounted 1, T^ is = 2, and Eg is
2= 2 fin. —. Therefore ^2- = ^——, and the magnifyine
2 2 fin. — ■ ° ^ S
power of the trumpet is = — , sr   . The
qfm.2— 2iin.2 —
1 1
numbers, therefore, in the third column of the table ate
each 2=  .
2 fin,2 —
a
But the more ufual way of conceiving the power of the
trumpet is, by confidering how much farther it will enable
us to hear a voice equally well. Now we fuppofe that the
audibility of founds varies in the inverie duplicate ratio of
the dittance. Therefore if the diftance </, at which a man
tnay be diftin&ly heard, be increafed to z, in the propor¬
tion of EG to T the found will be lefs audible, in the
proportion of T<j2toEG2. Therefore the trumpet v/ill
be as well heard at the diftance z as the fimole voice is
heard at the diftance a ^ ^Therefore will exprefs the <?*- ticular, the hyperbolic, propofe
  _ -/l1 Trumpet.
tending power of the trumpet, which is therefore =5 “j—“J
2 in. -
In this manner were the numbers computed for the fourth
column of the table.
When the angle BCA is fmall, which is always the cafe
in fpeaking trumpets, we may, without any fenfible error,
conftder EG as = . And TG =: FC X -v/2> ;:=
z *
AB AB y . c
—- a/2 = —7- = -7-- This gives a very eafy com-
2 V 2 * . . CL
putation of the extending and magnifying powers of the
trumpet.
y
The extending power is = 2
. . * y2
The magnifying power is = 2 ——.
We may alfo eafily deduce from the premifes, that if the
mouth-piece be an inch and a halt in diameter, and the
length x be meafured in inches, the extending power is very
nearly = -s/y*! and the magnifying power = -f-
An inconvenience ftill attends the trumpet of this con-
ftruftion. Its complete audibility is confined to the cylin¬
drical fpace in the direction of the axis, and it is more
faintly heard on each fide of it. This obliges us to diredft
the trumpet very exactly to the fpot where we wiftv it to be
heard. This is confirmed by all the accounts we have of
the performance of great fpeaking trumpets. It is evident*
that by lengthening the trumpet, and therefore enlarging
its mouth, we make the lines TB/ and VAu expand (fig.
4.) ; and therefore it will not be fo difficult to diredt the
trumpet.
But even this is confined within the limits of a few de--
grees. Even if the trumpet were continued without end*
the founds cannot be reinforced in-, a wider fpace than th&
cone of the trumpet. But it is always advantageous to in-
creafe its length ; for this makes the extreme tangents em¬
brace a greater portion of the fonorous fphere, and thus-
increafes the found in the fpace where 'it is all refiedled..-
And the limiting tangents TB, VA, expand ftill more, and
thus the fpace of full effect is increated. But either of
thele augmentations is very fmall in comparifon of the aug¬
mentation of fize. If the trumpet of fig. 5. were made an
hundred times longer, its power would not be increafed
one half.
We need not therefore aim at much more than to pro*-
duce a cylindrical ipace of full effect; and this will always
be done by the preceding rules, or table ol conftruftions.
We may give the trumpet a third or a fourth part more
length, in order to fpread a little the fpace of its full effeft*
and thereby make it more eafily directed to the intended
©bjedl. But in doing this we muft be careful to increafe
the diameter of the mouth as much as we increaie the
length ; otherwife we produce the very oppolite cffeOl, and
make the trumpet greatly inferior to a fhorter one, at all
diftances beyond a certain point. For by increafing the
length while the part CG remains the fame, we caufe the
tangents TB and VA to meet on fome diftant point, be¬
yond which the found diffufes prodigioufty. The conftruc-
tion of a fpeaking trumpet is therefore a problem of iome
nicety ; and as the trials are always made at fome coniider-
able diftance, it may frequently happen that a trumpet,
which is not heard at a mile’s diftance, may be made very-
audible two miles off by cutting off a piece at its wide end..
After this minute confideration of the conical trumpet,,
vve might proceed to confider thofe of other forms. In par¬
ticular. the hvoerbolic, oronofei by Csffegraiu, and the
parabolic,
T R TJ [ 590 ] T R U
Trumpet, parabolic, propofed by Haafe, feem to merit confuleration.
v~~- |>ut if we ex?,raine them merely as refkttors of echoes, we
fhall find them inferior to the conical.
With rdpeft to the hyperbolic trumpet, its inaptitude
is evident at firil fight. For it mu(t di flip ate the echoes
more than a conical trumpet Indeed Mr Callegrain pro¬
ceeds on quite different principles, depending on the me¬
dian ifm of the aerial undulations: his aim was to increafe
the agitation in each pulfe, fo that it may make a more for¬
cible impulfe on the ear. But we are too imperfe&ly ac¬
quainted with this fubjedt to decide a priori; and expe¬
rience fhows that the hyperbola is not a good form.
With refpeCt to the parabolic trumpet, it is certain that
if the mouth-piece were but a point, it would produce the
moft favourable reflection of all the founds; for they would
-all proceed parallel to the axis. But every point of an open
mouth muff be confidered as a centre of found, and none
of it mult be kept out of the trumpet. If this be all ad¬
mitted, it will be found that a conical trumpet, made by
the preceding rules, will difiipate the reflected founds much
lefs than the parabolic.
Thus far have we proceeded on the fair eonfequences of
•the well known faCt, that echoes are reflected in the fame
manner as light, without engaging in the intricate inveili-
gation of aerial undulations. Whoever confiders the New¬
tonian theory of the propagation of found with intelligence
and attention, will fee that it is demonftrated folely in the
cafe of a Angle row of particles ; and that all the general
corollaries refpeCzing the lateral diffufion of the ehftic un¬
dulations are little more than fagacious guefles, evety way
worthy of the illuftrious author, and beautifully confirmed
by what wre can moft diftinCtly and accurately obieive in
the circular waves on the furface of ftill water. But they
are by no means fit for becoming the foundation of any
dotfrine which lays the fmalleft claim to the title of accurate
fcience. We really know exceedingly little of the theory
■of aerial undulations ; and the conformity of the phenomena
of found to thefe guefles of Sir Ifaac NewTton has always
been a matter of wonder to every eminent and candid ma¬
thematician : and no other ftrould pretend to judge of the
. matter. This wonder has always been acknowledged by
Daniel Bernoulli; and he is the only perfon who has made
any addition to the fcience of founds that is-worth men¬
tioning. For filch we muft always efteem his doCtrine of
the feeondary undulations of mufical cords, and the fecondary
pulfes of air in pipes. Nothing therefore is more unwarrant¬
able, or more plainly fhows the precipitant prefumption of
modern fciolifts, than the familiar ufe of the general theory
of aerial undulations in their attempts to explain the abftrufe
phenomena of nature (fuch as the communication of lenfa-
tion from the organ to the fenforium by the vibrations of a
nervous fluid, the reciprocal communication of the volitions
from the fenforium to the mulcle, nay, the 'whole pheno¬
mena of mind), by vibrations and vibratiunculae.
Such attempts equally betray ignorance, prefumption,
and meannels of foul. Ignorance of the extent to which
the Newtonian theory may be logically carried, is the ne-
ceffary confequence of ignorance of the theory itfelf. It
is prefumption to apply it to the phenomena of the intd-
ledtual world ; and furely he has an abjedt foul who hugs
and cherifhes the humble thought, that his mind is an un¬
dulating fluid, and that its all-grafping cornprehenfion, and
all its delightful emotions, are nothing more than an ethe-
rial tune.—“ Pol me occidiftis amentes.” This whim is
older than Hartley : It may be found in Robinet’s Svfleme de
lu Nature. This by the by made its firft appearance as a
difcourfe delivered by Brother Orateur in the lodge of the
grand Orient at Lyons; from which fource have proceeded
all the cofmopolitical focieties in Europe, and that illumi- TW,p»*
nation by which realon is to triumph over revelation, and
liberty and equality over civil government. We crave par¬
don of our readers for this ebullition of fpleen ; and we
hope for ic from all thofe who can read Newton, and who
efteem his modefty.
Thofe who have endeavoured to improve the fpeakmg
trumpet on mechanical principles, have generally aimed at
increafing the violence of the eiaftic undulations, that they
may make a more forcible impulfe on the ear. This is
the objed in view in the parabolic trumpet. All the undu¬
lations are converted into others which are in planes perpen¬
dicular to the axis of the inftrument; fo that the fame little
mafs of air is agitated again and again in the fame diredion.
From this it is obvious to conclude, that the total agitation
will be more violent. But, in the firft place, thefe violent agi¬
tations muft diffufe themfelves laterally as foon as they get
out of the trumpet, and thus be weakened, in a proportion
that is perhaps impofiible for the moft expert analyft to
determine. But, moreover, we are not fufficiently acquaint¬
ed with the mechanifm of the very firft agitations, to be able
to perceive what conformation of the trumpet will caufe the
refleded undulations to increafe the firft undulations, or to
check them. For it muft happen, during the produdion
of a continued found in a trumpet, that a parcel of air,
which is in a ftate of pro'greffive agitation, as it makes a
pulfe of one found, may be in a ftate of retrograde agita¬
tion, as it is part of a pulie of air producing„another found.
We cannot (at kaft no mathematician has yet done it) diferi-
minate, and then combine thefe agitations, with the intel¬
ligence and precifion that arc neceflary for enabling us to
fay what is the ultimate accumulated effed. Mr Lambert
therefore did wifely in abftaining from this intricate invefti-
gation ; and we are highly obliged to him for deducing
Inch a body of denronftrable dodrine from the acknow¬
ledged, but ill underftood, fad of the refledion of echoes.
We know that two founds adually crofs each other with¬
out any mutual diliurbance ; for we can hear either of them
diftindly, provided the other is not fo loud as to ftun our
ears, in the lame manner as the glare of the fun dazzles
our eyes. We may therefore depend on all the conic-
quences which are legitimately deduced from this ffd, in
tiie lame manner as we depend on the fcience of catoptrics,
which is all deduced from a fad perfedly fimilar and as
little underftood.
But the preceding propofitions by no means explain or
comprehend all the reinforcement of found which is really
obtained by means of a fpeaking trumpet. In the firft
place, although we cannot tell in what degree the aerial
undulations are increaled, we cannot doubt that the reflec¬
tions which are made in diredions which do not greatly de¬
viate trom the axis, do really increafe the agitation of the
particles of air. We fee a thing perfedly fimilar to this in
the waves on water. Take a long flip of lead, about two
inches broad, and having bent it into the form of a parabola,
fet it into a large flat trough, in which the water is about an
inch deep. Let a quick fucceffion of fmall drops of water
tall precifely on the focus of the parabola. We thall fee
the circular waves proceeding trom the focus all converted
into w'aves perpendicular to the axis ; and we thall fre¬
quently fee thete ftraight w aves confiderably augmented in
their height and force. We fay generally, for we have
iometimes obferved that thefe refleded waves were not ien-
fibly ftronger than the circular or original waves. We do
not exadly know to what this difference muft be aferibed :
we ate difpofed to attribute it to the frequency of the drops.
This may be fuch, that the interval of time between each
drop is precifely equal, or at kail commenfurabk, to the
tisne
Tr imptt
T U U [
time In wliicli the waves run over their own breackii. _ _
is a pretty experiment; and the ingenious mechamcian
mav make others of the fame, kind which vnl gijatly d-
luftrate feveral difficult points in the fcience of founds. Vv.e
may conclude, in general, that the rtfle&ion ot founds, in
a trumpet of the ufual flrapes, is accompanied by a real
jncreafe of the aerial agitations ; and in feme particular
cafes we fnd the founds prodigioufly increafed. Ihus,
when we blow through a muiical trumpet, and allow the
air to take that uniform undulation which can be heft main¬
tained in it, namely, that which produces its mufical tone,
where the whole tube contains but one or two undulations,
the agitation of a particle muft then be very great; and it
mull deferibe a very confiderable line, in its ofcillations.
When we fuit our blaft in fuch a manner as to continue
this note, that is, this undulation, we are certain that the
fubfequeut agitations conipire with the preceding agitation,
and augment it. And accordingly we hnd that the found
is increafed to a prodigious degree. A cor de chafie, or a
bugle horn, when properly winded, will almoft deafen the
ear ; and yet the exertion is a mere nothing in comparifon
with what we make when bellowing with all our force, but
with not the tenth part of the noile. We alfo know, that if
we fpeak through a (peaking trumpet in the key which
eorrelponds with its .diraenfions, it is much more audible
than when we fpeak in a different pitch. Thefe obferva-
tions {how, that the loudneis of a fpcaking trumpet ariies
from fomethino more than the foie refledfion of echoes conh-
dered by Mr Lambert—the very echoes are rendered louder.
in the next place, the founds are increafed by the vibrations
of the trumpet itfelf. d he tlaffic matter of the trumpet is
thrown into tremors by the undulations which proceed from
the mouth-piece. Thefe tremors produce pulfes in the con¬
tiguous air, both in the infide of the trumpet and on that
which fu('rounds it. Thefe undulations within the trumpet
produce original founds, which are added to the refleffed
founds: for the tremor continues for fome little time, per-
Jhans the time of three or four or more pulfes. Ibis muft
ircreafe the loudnefs of the fubfequent pulfes. We cannot
fay to what degree, becaufe we do not know the force of
the tremor which the part of the trumpet acquires : but
we know’ that thefe founds will not be magnified by the
trumpet to the fame degree as if they had come from the
mouth piece ; for they are refieAcd as if they had come
from the furface of a fphere which paffes through the agi¬
tated point of the trumpet. In fhort, they are magnified
only by that part of the trumpet which lies without them.
The whole founds of this kind, therefore, proceed as ii they
came from a number of concentric fpherical furfacea, or
from a (olid fphere, whofe diameter is twice the length of
the trumpet cone.
All thefe agitations arifrng from the tremors of the trum¬
pet tend greatly to hurt the diftin&ntfs of articulation;
becaufe, coining from different points of a large fphere, they
arrive at the ear in a fenfible fuccefiion ; and thus change a
momentary articulation to a lengthened found, and give the
appearance of a number of voices uttering the fame words
in fuccefiion. It is in this way that, when we clap our
.hands together near a long rail, we get an echo from each
poll, which produces a chirping found of forne continuance.
Ifor thefe reafons it is found advantageous to check all tre¬
mors of the trumpet by wrapping it up in woollen lifts.
This is alfo neceffary in the mufrcal trumpet.
With lefpeft to the undulations produced by the tre¬
mors of the trumpet in the air contiguous to its outfide,
tney alfo hurt the articulation. At any rate, this is fo
much oi tire fonorous momentum ufelefsly employed; be-
591 3 T It U
This caufe they are diffufed like common founds, and receive Trumpet-
no augmentation from the trumpet.
It is evident, that this inftrument may be ufed (and ac-Hearing
cordingly was fo) for aiding the heaving ; for the fonoroustrunifet*
lines are refie&ed in either direction. We know that all
tapering cavities greatly increale external nodes; and we
obferve the brutes prick up their ears when they want to
hear uncertain or faint founds. They turn them in fuch
direffions as are beft fuited for the refie&ion of the found
from the quarter whence the animal imagines that it comes.
Let us apply Mr Lambert’s principle to this very inte-
rellirig cafe, and examine w'hether it be pofiible to affift
dull hearing in like manner as the'optician has affifted im-
perfeff fight.
The fubjeft is greatly limplified by the ciicumftances of
the cafe ; for the founds to which we liften generally come
in nearly one direction, and all that we have to do is to
produce a confiipation of them. And we may conclude,
that the audibility will be proportional to this confiipation.
Therefore let ACB, fig. 6. be the cone, and CD its axis.
The found may be conceived as coming in the dire&ion
RA, parallel to the axis, and to be reftedted in the points
A, b, c, d, e> till the angle of incidence increafes to 90° ;
after which the fubfequent refleAions fend the found out
again. We muft there ore cut off a part of the cone ; and,
becaufe the lines increafe their angle of incidence at each
refiedtion, it will be proper to make the angle of the cone
an aliquot part of 90', that the kail incidence may amount
preciiely to that quantity. What part of the cone fiiould
be cut off may be determined by the former principles.
CA • fin. a
Call the angle ACD, a. We have Q. e ~ 7—7——--:—r—^
6 un. ( 2 « + 1) as
when the found gets the laft ufeml refledtion. Then we
have the diameter of the mouth AB rm 2 CA * fin. a, and
that of the other end ef — C e * 2 fin. a. Therefore the
founds will be conftipated in the ratio of CA2 to Ce2, and
the trumoet will bring the fpeaker nearer in the ratio of
CA to Ce-
When the lines of reflected found are thus brought to¬
gether, they may be received into a Imall pipe perfedtly
cylindrical, which may be inferted into the external car.
This will not change their angles of inclination to the axis-
nor their denfity. It may be convenient to make the in¬
ternal diameter of this pipe of an inch. Therefore C e * fin. a
is = | of an inch. This circumftance, in conjundlion with
the magnifying pow’er propofed, determines the other di-
meofions of the healing trumpet. For Cr —
CA'fm-* andCA = fia^2”+f^
6 fin.
fin. {2 n \ } a 6 fin.3
Thus the relation of the angle of the cone and the length,
of the inftrument is afeertained, and the found is brought
nearer in the ratio of CA to C e, or of fin, (2 n-{-i) a to fin.
a. And iceing that we found it proper to make (2n-bi)a
~ 9T> we obtain this very fimple analogy, 1 : fin. a zz
CA : Cf. And the fine of ( the angle of the cone is to
radius as 1 to. the approximating power of the inftrument..
T. bus let it be required that the found may be as audible
•r 1 • • . . CA
as it the voice were 12times nearer. This gives 7— = *.2.
C e
This gives fin. a =
1
12s
the cone
2+
9-34*
aud a = 40 47', and the angle of
Then CA
6 fin.2a 6t|5
Therefore the length of the cone is 24 inches.
144 _
6 J~
From>
thA
Trumpef.
T
CA
R U [ 59
2, and the length of the trumpet
take C e ~
] z
is 22 inches. The diameter at the mouth is 2 C e, =: 4
inches. With this inftrument one voice fliould be as loud
as 144.
If it were required to approximate the found only four
times, making it 16 times ftronger than the natural voice
at the fame diftance, the angle ACB mult be 290 ; Ae
muft be 2 inches, AB muft be i-fd inches, and e/muH be
■jd of an inch.
It is eafy to fee, that when the fize of the ear-end is the
fame in all, the diameters at the outer end are proportional
to the approximating powers, and the length of the cones
are proportional to the magnifying powers.
W e lliall find the parabolic conoid the preferable fhape
for an acouftic trumpet ; becaufe the founds come into the
inftrument in a diredtion parallel to the axis, they are re¬
flected fo as to pafs through the focus. The parabolic
conoid muft therefore be cut off through the focus, that
the founds may not go out again by the fubiequent reflec¬
tions ; and they muft he received into a cylindrical pipe of
of an inch in diameter. ITierefore the parameter of this
parabola is -^th of an inch, and the focus is -Ath of an inch
from the vertex. This determines the whole inftrument;
for they are all portions of one parabolic conoid. Suppole
that the inftrument is required to approximate the found
12 times, as in the example of the conical inftrument. The
ordinate at the mouth muft be 1 2 times the 6th of an inch,
or 2 inches; and the mouth diameter is 4 inches, as in the
conical inftrument. Then, for the length, obferve, that
DC in fig. 7. is ^th of an inch, and MP is 2 inches, and
AC is Ath of an inch, and DC2 : MP2 — AC : AP. This
will give AP = 12 inches, and CP = 11-Mths; whereas
in the conical tube it was 22. In like manner an inftru-
nient which approximates the founds 4 times, is only i-fd
inches long, and i-jd inches diameter at the big end. Such
imall inftruments may be very exactly made in the para¬
bolic form, and are certainly preferable to the conical. But
iince even thefe are of a very moderate fize when intended
to approximate the found only a few times, and as they
can be accurately made by any tin-man, they may be of
more general ufe. One of 12 inches long, and 3 inches
wide at the big end, ftiould approximate the found at leaft
9 times.
A general rule for making them.-—m exprefs the ap¬
proximating power intended for the inftrument. The length
of the inftrument in inches is —and the diameter
6
at the mouth is The diameter at the fmall end is al¬
ways |d of an inch.
In trumpets for aflifting the hearing all reverberation of
the trumpet muft be avoided. It muft be made thick, of
the leaft elaftic materials, and covered with cloth externally.
For all reverberation lafts for a fhort time, and produces new
lounds which mix with thofe that are coining in.
W e muft alfo ooferve, that no acouftic trumpet can fe-
parate thofe founds to which we liften from others that are
made in the fame dire&ion. All are received by it, and
magnified in the fame proportion. This is frequently a
very great inconvenience. 1
There is alfo another imperfection, which we imagine
cannot be removed, namely, an odd confufion, which can¬
not be. called indiftindtnefs, but a feeling as it we were in
the mid ft of an echoing room. The caufe feems to be
this : Hearing gives us fome perception of the diredion ©f
the founding objed, not indeed very precife, but fufficiently
J ] T R U
fo for mad. purpofa. In all inftrumeots which we hare T.umw
delcnbed for conftipating founds, the laft refledions are —
made m diredions very much inclined to the axis, and in¬
clined in many different degrees. Therefore they have the
appearance of coming from different quarters ; and initead
of the perception of a tingle fpeaker, we have that of a
founding furface of great extent. We do not know anv
method of preventing this, and at the fame time increafinfr
the found. . 5
i here is an obfervation winch it is of importance to make
on this theory of acouftic inftruments. Their performance
does not teem to correfpond to the computations founded
on the theory. When they are tried, we cannot think that
they magnify fo much : Indeed it is not eafy to find a
meafure by which we can eftimate the degrees of audibility.
When a man fpeaks to us at the diftance of a yard, and
then at the diftance of two yards, we can hardly think that
there is any difference in the loudnefs; though theory fays,
that it is four times lefs in the laft of the two experiments •
and we cannot hut adhere to the theory in this very fimplc
cafe, and muft attribute the difference'to the impoffibility
of meafuring the loudnefs of founds with precifion. And
becaufe we are familiarly acquainted with the found, we can
no more think it four times lefs at twice the diftance, than
we can think the vifibie appeal ance of a man four times lefs
when he is at a quadruple diftance. Yet we can completely
convince ourlelves of this, by obferving that he covers the
appearance of four men at that diftance. We cannot eafily
make the fame experiment with voices.
But, befides this, we have compared two hearing trum¬
pets, one of which fhould have made a found as audible at
the diftance of 40 feet as the other did at to feet diltance;
but we thought them equal at the diftance of 40 and 18!
Tne refult was the fame in many trials made by different
perfons, and in different circumltances. This leads us to
lufpeft fome miftake in Mr JLambert’s principle of calcula¬
tion ; and we think him miftaken in the manner of eftima-
ting the intenfity of the refle&ed founds. He conceives
the pioportion of intenfity of the fimple voice and of the
trumpet to be the fame with that of the lurface of the
mouth-piece to the furface of the fonorous hemifphere,
which he has fo ingenioufly fubftituted for the trumpet.
But this feems to iuppofe, that the whole furface, generated
by the revolution of the quadrantal arch TEG round the
axis CG (fig. 4.), is equally fonorous. We are affured
that it is not : For even if we fliould fuppofe that each of
the points Q^, R, and b (fig. 3.), are equally fonorous
with the point P, thefe points of refleftion do not ftand
fo denfe on the furface of the fphere as on the furface of
the mouth-piece. Suppofe them arranged at equal diftances
all over the mouth-piece, they will be at equal diltances alfo
on the fphere, only in the direftion of the arches of gleat
circles which pafs through the centre of the mouth-piece.
But in the direction perpendicular to this, in the circum¬
ference of imall circles, having the centre oi the mouth¬
piece for their pole, they muft be rarer in the proportion of
the fine of their diftance from this pole. This is certainly
the cafe with refpeft to all fuch lounds as have been re-
flefted in the planes which pals through the axis of the
trumpet ; and we do not fee (for we have not examined
this point) that any compenfation. is made by the reflec¬
tion which is not in planes pafiing through the axis. We
therefore imagine, that the trumpet does not increafe the
found in the proportion of £ E2 to g 'i'2 (rig. 5.), but in
, ^^E2 jpT2
that of to £7jT.
Mr Lambert feems aware of fome error in his calculation,
and propoles another, which leads nearly t® this conclufion,
but
1
Plate D XII •
Articulate TRl^MFE I .
t
I"-
'Trumpet
H
Tuam.
A . t 595
which we do not think in the pal fee.
T U
but founded on a principl
leaft applicable to the cafe of founds.
TkuMPET, Marine, is a mufical inftrufnent confifting- of
three tables, which form its triangular body. It has a
very long neck with one fingle firing, Very thick, mount¬
ed on a bridge, which is firm on one fide, but tremulous
On the other. It is ftruck by a bow with one hand, and
with the other the firing is preffed or ftopped on the neck
by the thumb.
It is the trembling of the bridge, when ftruck, that
makes it imitate the found of a trumpet, which it does to
that perfeftion, that it is fcarce poffible to diftinguifti the
one from the other. And this is what has given it the de¬
nomination of trumpet-marine, though, in propriety, it be
a kind of monochord. Of the fix divifions marked on the
neck of the inftrument, the firft makes a fifth with the
open chord, the fecond an oftave, and fo on for the reft,
correfponding with the intervals of the military trumpet.
Trumpet-Flower. See Bignonia.
TRUMPETER. See Psophia.
TRUNCATED, in general, is an appellation given to
ftich things as have, or feem to have, their points cut off:
thus, we fay, a truncated cone, pyramid, leaf, &c.
TRUNCHEON, a ftiort ftaff or baton ufed by kings,
generals, and great officers, as a mark of their command.
TRUNDLE, a fort of carriage with low wheels, where¬
on heavy and cumberfome burdens are drawn.
TRUNK, among botanifts, that part of the herb which
atifes immediately from the root, and is terminated by fruc¬
tification ; the leaves, buds, and auxiliary parts of the herb
not entering in its defeription.
TRUNNIONS, orTauNiONs, of a piece of ordnance,
are thofe knobs or bunches of metal which bear her up on
the cheeks of the carriage.
TRUSS, a bundle, or certain quantity of hay, ftraw, &c.
A trufs of hay contains 56 pounds, or half an hundred
weight: 36 trufles make a load.
Truss is alfo ufed for a fort of bandage or ligature made
of fteel, or the like matter, wherewith [to keep up the parts
in thofe wrho have hernias or ruptures.
.Trus s, in a fhip, a machine employed to pull a yard
home to its refpeftive maft, and retain it firmly in that po-
fition.
TRUSTEE, one who has an eftate, or money, put or
trufted in his hands for the ufe of another.
TRUTH, a term ufed in oppofition to falfehood, and
applied to propofitions which anfwer or accord to the natuie
and reality of the thing whereof fomething is affirmed or
denied.
TRYPHIODORUS, an ancient Greek poet, who lived
fome time between the reigns of Severus and Anaftafius.
His writings were very numerous ; yet none of them have
come down to us, except an epic poem, on which Mr Ad-
diion has made fome entertaining remarks in the Spectator,
N° 63.
The firft edition of this extraordinary work was publifh-
ed by Aldus at Venice, with Quintus Calaber’s Paralipo-
mena, and Coluthus’s poem on the rape of Helen. It has
been fince reprinted at feveral places, particularly at Franc-
fort in 1580 by Frifchlinus ; who not only corre&cd many
corrupt paftages, but added two Latin verfions, one in verfe
and the other in profe. That in verfe was reprinted in 1742,
with the Greek, at Oxford, in 8vo, with an Englifh tranf-
lation in verfe, and Notes, by Mr Merrick.
TUAM, a town of Ireland, in the province.of Connaught,
and county of Galway, with an archbifhop’s fee. It was
once a famous city, though now it is reduced to a village;
yet it ftill retains the title of a city, as being an archiepifco.
VOL. XVIII, Part II.
]
T U L
ft is feven miles from the borders of Mayo. W. Tub
Long. 8. 46. N. Lat. 53. 33. || 1
TUB, in commerce, denotes an indetermined quantity or ,
meafure : thus, a tub of tea contains about Co pounds ; and v " ' ”
a tub of camphor from 56 to 86 pounds.
TUBE, in general, a pipe, conduit, or canal ; a cylin¬
der, hollow within-fide, either of lead, iron, glafs, wood, or
other matter, for the air or fome other matter to have a
free conveyance through it.
Auricular Tube, or inftrument to facilitate hearing. See
Articulate Trumpet.
TUBERCLES, among phyficians, denote little tumors
which fuppurate and difeharge pus ; and are often found in
the lungs, efpecially of confumptive perfons.
TUCUMAN, a province of South America, in Paraguay;
bounded on the north by the provinces of Los-Chicas and
Chaco; on the eaft by Chaco and Rio de-la-Plata, on the
iouth by the country of Chicuitos and Pampes, and on the
weft by the bifiiopric of St Jago. The air is hot, and the
earth fandy : however, fome places are fruitful enough, and
the original natives have a good charadter. The Spaniards
poflefs a great part of this country.
TUFA, a ftone confifting of volcanic afhes concreted to¬
gether with various other fpecies of ftone. It is of various
colours, blackifft grey, bluifh grey, and yellow ; every colour
having a different mixture and folidity : but all of them have
the bad quality of mouldering down on long expofure to the
weather; notwithftanding which, they have been ufed in
buildings both ancient and modern. The yellow kind re¬
fills the air lefs than any other. *•
TULIPA, Tulip, in botany: A genus of plants belong¬
ing to the clafs of hexandria, and order of monogynia; and
in the natural fyftem ranging under the loth order Corona-
rig. The corolla is hexapetalous and campanulated, and
there is no ftyle. The fpecies of this genus arc four ; the
fyh'ejlrh, or Italian yellow tulip, a native of the fouth of
Europe ; the gefneriana, or common tulip, a native of the
Levant; the breyniana, or cape tulip, a native of the Cape
of Good Hope ; and the biflora.
1. The fylvejlris, or wild European tulip, hath an oblong
bulbous root, fending up long narrow fpear-lhaped leaves ;
and a (lender (talk, fupporting at top a fmall yellow flower,
nodding on one fide, having acute petals.
2. The gefneriana, Gefner’s Turky tulip of Cappadocia,
or common garden-tulip, hath a large, oblong, tunicated,
folid, bulbous root, covered with a brown (kin, fending Up
long oval fpear-lhaped leaves ; an upright round (talk, from
half a foot to a yard high, garnilhed with a few leaves, and
its top crowned with a large bell-fnaped eredl hexapetalous
flower, ot almoft all colours and variegations in the different
varieties.
This tulip, and its vaft train of varieties, is the fort fo ge¬
m-rally cultivated lor the ornament of ©ur gardens, and fo
much admired by all for its great variety and beautiful ap¬
pearance : It grows freely in the open ground in any com¬
mon foil of a garden, and proves a very great decoration to
the beds and borders of the pleafure-ground for fix weeks
or two months in fpring, by different plantings of early and
late lorts; planting the principal part in autumn, and the
reft towards Chnftmas, and in January or February. The
autumn plantings will come earlieft into bloom, and flower
the ftrongeft: and the others will fucceed them in flower¬
ing. In fummer, when the flowering is pall, and the leaves
and ftalks affume a Hate oi decay, the bulbs of the choiceft
varieties are generally taken up, the offsets feparated, and
the whole cleaned from filth ; then put up to dry till Octo¬
ber or November, and then planted again for the future
year’s bloom,
4 E
Of
T U L
T 594 ]
TUN
Tulipa. Of tills fpecies, which is the florifls delight, the varieties
*—V—" may be divided into tv/o principal clafies, viz. x. Early or
dwarf fpring tulips (pracocea). 2. Late-flowering tall tulips
(ferotina). 1. Early tulips. The early tulips are among
florifts diftinguifhed by the appellation of pracoces (early),
becaufe they flower early in the ipring, a month or more
before the others ; are much fhorter {talked, and the flowers
fmalier ; but are in greater reputation for their early bloom
and their gay lively colours, both of fdf-colours, and broken
into flaked variegations ; fuch as reds, crimfon, fcarlet, car¬
nation, violets, purples, yellow, &c. with flowers of each,
edged and flaked with red, yellow, and white, in many
diverfities. 2. Late-fiowering common tulips.—This clafs is
denominated late-Jlonvtringy and by the florilts called ferotinest
becaule they blow later in the fpring, a month or more,
than the prsecoces, i. e. not coming into flower before the
end of April, May, and June. They are all of tall growth,
fupporting large flowers, and furnilh an almoft endlefs varie¬
ty in the vail divertky of colours, after they break from
whole blowers into variegations and ftripes, exceeding all
others of the tulip kind in beauty and elegance of flower.
Both thefe fpecies of tulipa are hardy perennials, durable
in root, or at kail, although the old bulb decays annually,
it perpetuat|s its fpecies by off-fets, and is annual in leaf
and ilalk ; which riling from the bulb early’’ in the ipring,
arrives to a flosvering Hate in April and May. All the va¬
rieties are fucceeded by plenty of ripe feed in-July and Au-
guft, contained in an oblong capfule of three cells, having
the feeds placed on each other in double rows. By the
feeds many new varieties may be raifed, which however will
not attain a flowering ilate till they are feven or eight years
old; and after that will require two or three years or more
to break into variegations, whets the approved varieties may
be marked, and increafed by off-fets of the root, as directed
in their propagation.
The colours in greateft eftimation in variegated tulips,
are the blacks, golden yellows, purple-violets, role, and
vermilion, each of which being varieeated various ways;
and fuch as are ftriped with three different colours diflintt
and unmixed, with flrong regular llreaks, but with little or
no tinge of the breeder, may be called the moll perfect
tulips. It is rare to meet with a tulip pofTefling all thele
properties.
As to the manner of obtaining this wonderful variety of
colours in tulips, it is often accomplifhed by nature alone,
but is fometimes affiiled and forwarded by fome fimple opera¬
tions of art; fuch as that, in the firfl place, when the ieed-
' ling bulbs of the whole blower or breeder are arrived to
full fize, and have flowered once, to tranfplant them into
beds of any poor dry barren foil, in order that by a defect
of nutriment in the earth the natural luxuriance of the plant
may be'checked, and caufe a weaknefs in their general
growth, whereby they generally in this weakened or infiiux
llate gradually change and break out into variegations, fome
the firff year, others not till the fecond or third; and ac¬
cording as they are thus broke, they ihould be planted in
beds of good earth.
Another method to affifl nature in effedling the marvel¬
lous wmrk of breaking the breeding tulips into diverfifled
colours, is to make as great a change as poffible in the foil ;
if they were this year in a light poor foil, plant them the
next in a rich garden mould, and another year in a compoft
of different earths and dung; or tranfpiant them from one
part of the garden to another, or into different gardens, &c.
or from one country to another ; all of which contributes in
aflilling nature in producing this defirable diverlity of colours
and variegations.
The double tulip is alfo a variety of the common tulip,
and is very beautiful, though not in fuch eflimation among Tulip*
the florifts as the common Angle variegated f©rts, not pof. II '
feffmg fuch a profufion of variegations in the colours and Tungflen>
regularity of flripes: they however exhibit an elegantly
ornameptal appearance, as they rife with an upright, talllfh,
firm item, crowned with a very large double flower compo-
fed of numerous petals, multiplied in feveral feries one within
another like a double peony, but far more beautiful in their
diverfity of colours, variegations, and {tripes of white and red,
yellow and red, &c. fo that they highly deferve culture, both
in beds alone near the other forts to increafe their variety,
alfo to plant in patches about the borders, in affemblage
with the late variegated tulips, as they blow nearly about
the fame time, 1. e. April and May.
Tulip-roots are fold in full collection, confiding of nume¬
rous varieties, at moll of the nurferies and feeds-mens, who
both propagate them themfelves by off-fets and feed, and
import vail quantities annually from Holland ; the Dutch
being famous for railing the grandefl collections of the finefl:
tulips, and other bulbous flowers, in the greateft perfec¬
tion, for the ftipply of almoft all the other European gar¬
dens ; diftinguilhing every variety in their vail collections
by fome pompous name or other, arranged in regular cata¬
logues, charging prices in proportion to their eftimation ;
which formerly was fo great, among the Hollanders them¬
felves in particular, that there are accounts of a Angle root
being fold for from 2000 to 5500 guilders ; but fome time
ago they were more plentiful, and were fold at from 5s. or
los. to fo many pounds per hundred, and even per root for
very fcarce capital forts.
Tulip-Tree. See Liriodendron.
TULL (Jethro), an Oxfordfhire gentleman who farmed
his own land, and introduced a new method of culture, to
raife repeated crops of wheat from the fame land without
the neceflity of manure : the principles of which he publifh-
ed about 30 years fince, in A Treatife on Horfe-hoeing'
Hufbandry.
TUMBRELL, Tumbrellum, or Turbiihetum, is an
engine of punifhment, which ought to be in every liberty
that hath the view of frank-pledge, for the corre&ion of
fcolds and unquiet women.
TUMEFACTION, the ad of fwelling or rifing into a
tumor.
TUMOR, in medicine and furgery, a preternatural
rifing or eminence in any part of the body.
Tumors, in farriery. See there, $ 26.
TUN, a large veffel or cafk, of an oblong form, biggell
in the middle, and diminilhing towards its two ends, girt
about with hooos, and ufed for flowing feveral kinds of mer-
chandife for convenience of carriage ; as brandy, oil, fugar,
fkins, hats, &c.
Tun is alfo the name of a meafure. A tun of wine is
four hogfheads ; of timber, a fquare of 40 folid feet; and
of coals, 20 cwt.
Tun is alfo a certain weight whereby the burden of {hips,
&c. are eftimated.
TUNBRIDGE, a town of Kent in England, fituated
on a branch of the river Medway, over which there is a
bridge. It is a large well built place, noted for the mineral
waters four or five miles louth *of the town. E. Long, o-
20. N. I.at. 51. 14.
TUNE. See Music and Tone.
TUNGSTEN; or lapis roNDEROSUSjagenus of calcare¬
ous earth. It contains about one half its weight of calcareous
earth, and the remainder iron, and a peculiar acid of an
earthy appearance, now known by the name of the tungjlen
acid. When pure, it is of a grey colour and lamehated texture ^
its fpecitic gravity being from 4,99 to .
TUNICA^
TUN [ 505 ] T U R
Tunka, TUNICA, a kind of waiilcoat or under garment, in ufe
Tunis, jKtiong the Romans. They wore it within doors by itfelf,
— and abroad under the gown. The common people could
not afford the toga, and fo went in their tunics ; whence
Horace calls t\icm populus tunicatus.
Tcnica, in anatomy, is applied to the membranes
which inveft the veffels, and divers others of the lels folid
parts of the body ; thus the inteftines are formed of five
tunics or coats.
TUNIS, a large and celebrated town of Africa, in Bar¬
bary, and capital of a kingdom of the fame name. It is
feated on the point of the Gulph of Goletta, about eight
miles from the place where the city of Carthage ffood. It
is in the form of a long fquare, and is about four miles in
circumference, with 10 large ftreets, 5 gates, and 35
mofques. The haufes are all built with ftone, though but
one ffory high ; but the walls are very lofty, and flanked
with fcveral ftrong towers. It has neither ditches nor
See Cb/erv kaft*ons> kut a g0°d citadel, built on an eminence on the weft
on the City fide of the city. It is laid to contain 300,000 inhabitants,
of Tunis by of whom 30,000 are Jews. The divan, or council of ftate,
Air Stanley,aflembles in an old palace ; and the dey is the chief of the
vol*' rePubfic> who refides there. The harbour of Tunis has a
iv.p. 18.* very narrow entrance, through a fmall canal. In the city
they have no water but what is kept in cifterns, except one
well kept for the bafhaw’s ufe. It is a place of great trade,
and is to miles from the fea. E. Long. 10. 16. N. Lat.
36. 42.
Tunis, a country of Africa, bounded on the north and eaft
by the Mediterranean Sea and the kingdom of Tripoli, on
the fouth by feveral tribes of the Arabs, and on the weft
by the kingdom of Algiers and the country of Efab ; being
300 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 250 in breadth
from north to fouth. This country was formerly a mo¬
narchy ; but a difference arifing between a king and his fon,
one of whom was for the protection of the Chriftians, and
the other for that of the Turks, in 1574 the inhabitants
ihook off the yoke of both. From this time it became a
republic under the protection of the T urks, and pays a cer¬
tain tribute to the balhaw who relides at Tunis. The air
in general is healthy; but the foil in the eaflern parts is in¬
different for want of water. Towards the middle the
mountains and valleys abound in fruits ; but the weftern
part is the molt fertile, becaufe it is watered with rivers.
The environs of Tunis are very dry', upon which account
corn is generally dear. The inroads of the Arabs oblige
the inhabitants to fow their barley and rye in the fuburbs,
und to inclofe their gardens with walls. However, there
aie plenty of citrons, lemons, oranges, dates, grapes, and
other fruits. There are alfo olive-trees, rofes, and odori¬
ferous plants. In the woods and mountains there are lions,
wild beeves, oftriches, monkeys, cameleons, roebucks, hares,
pheafants, partridges, and other forts of birds and beads.
The raoft remarkable rivers are the Guadilcarbar, Magrida,
Magerada, and Caps. The form of government is arillo-
cratic ; that is, by a council, whofe prefident is the deygiiot
unlike the doge of Venice. The members of the divan or
council are chofen by the dey, and he in his turn is elefted
by the divan ; which is competed of foldiers, who have
moie than once taken off the dey’s head. The balhaw is a
Turk, refiding at Tunis; whole bufinefs is to receive the
tribute, and protect the republic : the common revenues are
only 400,000 crowns a-year, becaule the people are very
poor; nor can they fend above 40,000 men into the
field ; nor more than 1 2 men of war of the line to fea,
even upon the moft extraordinary occafions. There are
generally about 1 2,000 Chriftian Haves in this country ; and
the inhabitants carry on a great trade in linen and woollen
cloth. In the city of Tunis alone there are above 3000
clothiers and weavers. They alfo have a trade in horfes,
olives, oil, foap, oftriches eggs and feathers. The Maho¬
metans of this city have nine colleges for Undents, and 86
petty fchools. The principal religion is Mahometanifm ;
but the inhabitants confrft of Moors, Turks, Arabs, Jews,
and Chrifti»n flaves. However, the Turks, though leweft
in number, domineer over the Moors, and treat them little
better than Haves.
TUNKERS, a religious fe& of baptifts in Pennfylvania,
fo called from the word tunker^ to put a morlel in fauce.
They are alio called tumblers, becaufe in performing baptifm
they plunge the perfon' into the water with the head firft.
As the Germans found the letters /-and b like d and p, the
words tankers and tumblers, have been fometimes written
dunkers and dumplers. Their church-government and difei-
plineare the fame with thafe of the Englifh baptifts, except
that every brother is allowed to ipeak in the congregation,
and the belt fpeaker is ufually ordained to be their minifter.
They are a harmlefs, well-meaning people.
TUNNAGE. See Tonnage.
TUNNY, in ichthyology. See Scomber.
TUNNY-Fishing. See F^herv.
TURBAN, the head-drefsox molt of the eaftern nations.
It confifts of two parts, a cap and falh of fine linen or taf-
fety, artfully wound in divers plaits about the cap. The
cap has no brim, is pretty flat, though roundilh at top, and
quilted with cotton ; but does not cover the ears. There
is a good deal of art in giving the turban a fine air ; and the
making of them is a particular trade. The falh of the
Turks turban is white linen; that of the Perfians red
woollen. Thefe are the diftinguifliing marks of their diff
ferent religions. Sophi king of Perfia, being of the fedl o-
Ali, was the firft who affumed the red colour, to diftinguilh
himfelf from the Turks, who are of the feet of Omar, and
whom the Perfians elteem heretics.
TURBINATED, is a term applied by naturalifts to
fhells which are fpiral or wreathed conically, from a larger
bafis to a kind of apex.
TURBITH-mineral. See Chemistry, n° 705, and
Pharmacy, n0 303.
TURBO, the wreath, in zoology, a genus of infefts
belonging to the order of vermes tajlacea. The animal is of
the fiiail kind ; the fhell confifts of one fpiral folid valve, and
the aperture is orbicular. There are 116 fpccies ; of which
the moft remarkable are, 1. The Ixttoreus, or periwinkle.
This is abundant on moft rocks far above low-water mark.
The Swedilh peafants believe, that when thefe {hells creep
high up the rocks, they indicate a ftorm from the fouth.
They are eaten by the poor people in moft parts of this
kingdom. Young lobfters are faid to take up their lodging
in the empty Ihells of thefe animals, which has given occa-
fion to a notion that periwinkles are changed intd lobfters.
2. The clathrus, or barbed wreath, has a taper fhell of eight
fpires, diftinguiftied by elevated divifions running from the
aperture to the apex. There is a variety pellucid, with
very thin edges. It is analogous to that curious and expen-
five fliell, the tventle-trap.
TURBOT, in ichthyology. See Pleuronectes.
TURC-xE, or Turci, (Mela) ; fuppofed to be the Tufci
of Ptolemy ; whom he places between Caucafus and the
Montes Ceraunii. The name is faid to denote, “ to defo¬
late, or lay wafte.” Herodotus places them among the
wild or barbarous nations of the north. There is a very
rapid river called Turk, running into the Cafpian Sea, from
which fome fuppofe the Turks to take their name. They
made no figure in the world till towards the 7th century ;
about the beginning of which they {allied forth from the
4 F 2 Porta;
T ankers
1!
Turcrs.
Turd us.
T U R t 596
Turcjife Portae Cafpiai, laid wafte Perfiaj and joined the Romans
ag^inft Cliofroes kin^ of Perfia. In 1042 they fubdued
the Perfians, in whofe pay they ferved, and from whom they
derived the Mahometan religion : and afterwards pouring
forth, over-ran Syria, Cappadocia, and the other countries
of the riither Aha, under difiinft heads or princes, whom
Ottoman fubduing, united the whole power in himfelf,
which to this day continues in his family, and who fixed his
feat 01 empire at Prufa in Bithynia. His fucceffors fuhdued
all Greece, and at length took Conftantinople in 1453;
which pxit a period to the Roman empire in the Eaft, under
Conffantine the lart emperor. It is a Handing tradition or
prophecy amongi the Turks, that their empire will at
length be overturned by the Franks or Chriftians ; which
feems now to be drawing on apace towards accomplilhment.
> JRCOISE. See Turquoise.
TURCOMANIA, a province of Afiatic Turkey, an-
fwering to the ancient kingdom of Armenia.
1 URDUS, the thrufh ; a genus of birds belonging to the
older of pajfcres. 1 he bill is flraightifh, bending towards the
point, and flightly notched near the end of the upper man¬
dible. 1 he noftrils are oval, naked or half covered with a
membrane; the corners of the month are furnifhed with a
few /lender hairs, and the tongue is flightly jagged at the
end. 1 here are 136 fpecies; of which 7 are Britifh, the viici-
vorus, pilaris, iliacus, muficus, rofeus, merula, and torquatus.
1. 1 he vifclvorus, or mifiel, is the largellof the genus.
Its length is 1 f inches ; its breadth 16i. The bill is
fhorter and thicker than that of other thrufhes ; dufky, ex¬
cept the bafie of the lower mandible, which is yellow. The
irides are hazel. Head, back, and leffer coverts of the
wings, are of a deep olive brown. The lower part of the
back is tinged with yellow. The loweft order of lefl'er
coverts, and the gieat coverts, are brown ; the firft tipped
with white, the laft both tinped and edged with the fame
colour. The inner coverts of the wings white. The tail
is brown ; the three outermoft feathers tipped with white.
"I he cheeks and throat are mottled with brown and white;
the breail and belly are whitifh yellow, marked with large
fpots of black ; the legs are yellow.
Thefe birds build their nefts in bufhes, or on the fide of
fome tree,, generally an afh, and lay four or five eggs : their
note of anger or fear is very harfh, between a chatter and
fhriek ; from whence fome of its Englifh names. Its fong,
however, is very7 fine ; which it begins fitting on the fummit
cf a high tree, very early in the fpring, often with the new-
ycar, in blowing /bowery weather, which makes the inha¬
bitants of Hamp/hire to call it the Jlorm-cock. It feeds on
in/efts, holly and mi/feltoe berries, which are the food of all
the thrufh kind : in fevere fnowy weather, when there is a
failure of their ufual diet, they are obferved to fcratch out
the banks of hedges the root of arum, or the cuckoo
pint ; this is remarkably warm and pungent, and a provi/ion
fuitable to the feafon.
2. l\i<z pi/aru, or fieldfare, is in length 10 inches, in
breadth 17, The head is a/h coloured inclining to olive,
and fpotted with black ; the back and greater coverts of
the wings of a fine deep chefnut; the tail is black ; the
lower parts of the two middlemoft feathers, and the interior
tipper /ides of the outmoft feathers excepted ; the firft be¬
ing a/h coloured, the latter white. The legs are black ; the
talons very ftrong.
x his bird pa/fes the fummer in the northern parts of
Europe; alfo in Lower Auftria. It breeds in the large/t
trees; feeds on berries of all kinds, and is very fond of thofe
of the juniper. Fieldfares vifit our iflands in great flocks
about Michaelmas, and leave us the latter end of February
or the beginning of March.
] TOR
1 hefe birds and the redwings were the turdi of the Ro- Tardus*
mans, which they fattened with crumbs of figs and bread' —y—
mixed together. Varro informs us that they were birds of
paffage, coming in autumn, and departing in the fpring.
I hey muft have been taken in great numbers ; for, accord¬
ing to Varro (lib. 3. c. 5.) they were kept by thoufands to¬
gether in their fattening aviaries. They do not arrive in
I ranee till the beginning of December
3. The mit/icur, or throftle, is in length 9 inches, in
breadth 13-. In colour, it fo nearly refembles the miflel-
thru/h, that no other remark need to be added, but that it
is lefs, and that the inner coverts of the wings are yellow.
I he throftle is the fineft of our finging birds, not only
for the fweetnefs and variety of its notes, but for the long
continuance of its harmony ; for it obliges us with its fong
for near three parts of the year. Like the jniffel-bird, it
delivers its mufic from tire top of fome high tree ; but to
form its neft defeends to fome low bu/h or thicket : the pe/t
is made of earth, mo/s, and ftraw, and the inlide is curioufly
plaftered with. clay. It lays five or fix eggs, of a pale
blui/h green, marked w7ith du/ky foots.
4. The iliacus, or redwing, has a very near refemblance
to the throftle; but is lefs: their colours are much the
fame ; only the frdes under the wings and the inner coverts
in this are of a reddi/h orange, in the throftle yellow ; above
each eye is a line of yellowifti white, beginning at the bill
and pa/fing towards the hind part of the head.
Thefe birds appear in Great Britain a few days before the
fieldfare ; they come in vaft flocks, and from the fame coun-
tries as the latter. Witluus they have only a difagreeable
piping note; but in Sweden, during the fpring, they fing
very finely, perching on the top of lome tree among thj
forefts of maples. They build their nefts in hedges, and
lay fix blui/h-green eggs fpotted with black.
5. The merula, ox black-bird, when it has attained its full
age, is of a fine deep black, and the bill of a bright yellow;
the edges of the eyelids yellow. When young, the bill is
du/ky, and the plumage of a rufty black, fo that they are
not to be diftingui/hed from the females; but at the age of
one year they attain their proper colour.
This bird is of a very retired and folitary nature ; fre¬
quents hedges and thickets, in which it builds earlier than
any other bird : the neft is formed of mo/s, dead grafs,
fibres, &c. lined and plaftered with clay, and that again
covered with hay or fmall ftraw. It lays four or five eggs
of a blui/h-green colour, marked with irregular du/ky fpota..
The note of the male is extremely fine, but too loud for any
place except the woods : it begins to ling early in the
Ipring, continues its mufic part of the fummer, deiifts in the
moulting feafon, but refumes it for feme time in September
and the firft w’inter-months.
6. The torquatus, or ring-ouzel, is fupenor in fize to the
blackbird; the length is it inches, breadth 17. The
bill in fome is wholly black, in others the upper half is yel¬
low ; 6n each fide the mouth are a few briftles; the head
and whole upper part of the body are dufky, edged with
pale brown ; the quill-feathers and the tail are black. Tire
coverts of the wings, the upper part of the breaft, and the
belly, are du/ky, flightly edged with afli-colour. The mid¬
dle of the breaft is adorned with a white crefcerrt, the horns
of which point to the hind part of the neck. In fome birds
this is of a pure white, in others of a dirty hue. In the
females and in young birds this mark is wanting, which
gave occafion to fome naturalifts to form two fpecies of
them.
The ring-ouzel inhabits the Highland hills, the north of
England, and the mountains of Wales. 1 hey are alfo
England, and the mountains
found to breed in Dartmoor, in Devon/hire, and
banks
on
5
T U R
t J97 1
T tJ R
Tiirenne on the Tides of ftreams. The places of their retreat are not
I) known. In Scotland and Wales they breed in the hills,
Turgot- but defcend to the lower parts to feed on the berries of the
mountain-afh. They migrate in France at the latter fea-
fon ; and appear in fmall flocks about Monthard in Bur¬
gundy, in the beeinning or October, but feldom flay above
two or three weeks.
To thefe we (hall add the defcription of the polyglottus,
or mocking thrulh, which is a native of America. It is
abgut the fize of a thrufh, of a white and grey colour, and a
reddifh bill. It is poffefl'ed not only of its own natural
notes, which are mufical and folemn, but it can aflume the
tone of every other animal in the wood, from the wolf to
the raven. It feems even to iport itfelf in leading them
aftray. It will at one time allure the leffer birds with the
call of their males, and then terrify them when they have
come near with the icreams of the eagle. I here is no bird
in the ioreil but it can mimick ; and there is none that it
has not at times deceived by its call. But, unlike fuch as
we ufually lee tamed for mimicking with us, and who have
no particular merit of their own, rhe mock-bird is ever fureft
to pleale when it is moft itfelf. At thofe times it ufually
frequents the houfes of the American planters ; and fitting
all night on the chimney-top, pours forth the fweetefl and
the molt various notes of any .bird whatever. It would
feem, if accounts be true, that the deficiency of moft other
long-birds in that country is made up by this bird alone.
They often build their nefts in the fruit-trees about houfes,
feed upon berries and other fruits, and are eafily rendered
domeftic.
TURENNE (Vifcount). See Tour.
TURF, peat, a blackifh earth uied in feveml parts
of England, Holland, and Flanders, as fuel. I urf, as
diftiutMi’^ed frcm peat, confifts of mould interwoven with
the roots of vegetables; when thofe roots are of the bul¬
bous kind, or m a large proportion, they form the loofer and
worfe kind of turf ; but when mixed with a conliderable pro¬
portion of peat, they form what is calledJlone-turJ ; it at
fir ft hardens, but at laft crumbles by long expofure to the
air.
TURGESCENCE, among phyficians, denotes a fwell-
ing or growing bloated.
TURGOT (Anne Robert James), the famous financier,
was born at Paris May 10. 1727, of a very ancient Norman
family. His father was for a long time provoft of the cor¬
poration of merchants. During this period he was the
objedf of general admiration ; and the regularity and eco¬
nomy of his adminiftration procured him the particular re-
fpeft of the citizens. M. Turgot was the youngeft of
three brothers. The eldeft was intended for the rank of
magiftracy, which had been the ftation of his family for
feveral generations; the fecond wras deftined for the army;
and Robert for the church. He had Icarcely attained the
age at which refleftion commences, when he refolved to ia-
crifice all temporal advantages to liberty and confcience, and
to purine his ecclcfiaftical ftudies without declaring his re¬
pugnance to their propofed obje£t. At the age of 23
years he took his degree, and was elefted prior of the Sor-
bonne.
The time when it was necefTary for him to declare that
he would not be an eccltfiaftic was now arrived. He an¬
nounced this refolution to his father by letter, flowing the Turgot,
motives which induced him to decline the clerical order. v““
His father confented, and he w^as appointed mafter of re-
quefts. M. Turgot prepared1 himfelf for this office by
particular application to thofe parts of fcience which are
moft connefted with its funftions and duties, viz, the ftudy
of natural philofophy, as far as it relates to agriculture and
manufadhires, to the fubjedts of merchandile, and the exe¬
cution of public works, together with fuch parts of mathe¬
matical knowledge as lead to a praftical application of natu¬
ral philofophy, and facilitate the calculations that are fre¬
quently necefl’ary in politics, commerce, and law.
About this period he wrote fome articles for the Encyclo*
pedie, of which the moft capital were, Etymology, Exijtence^
Expanjtbility, Fair, and Foundation. He had prepared fe¬
veral others, but thefe five only were inierted ; the perfecu-
tion fet on foot againft the Encyclopcdie hindered him from
continuing to write in it, being unwilling that his opinions
fhould be oublifhed in a work which was received with dif-
approbation by fome of the moft diftinguifhed people of that
time.
In 1761 M. Turgot was appointed intendant of Limoges.
In this office he did much good. He gave aftivity to the
fociety of agriculture eftabliffied at Limoges, by dire&ing
their efforts to important objefts : he opened a mode of pu¬
blic inftruftion for female profeflbrs of midwifery : he pro¬
cured for the people the attendance of able phyficians du¬
ring the raging of epidemic difeafes : he eftablifhed houies
of induftry, fupported by charity (the only fpecies of alms¬
giving which does not encourage idlenefs) : he introduced
the cultivation of potatoes into his province, &c. &c.>
While M. Turgot proceeded with unremitting activity and
zeal, in promoting the good of the people over whom he
was placed, he meditated projetfts of a more txtenfive na¬
ture, fuch as an eqiual diftribution of the taxes, the conftruc-
tion of the roads, the regulation of the militia, the preven¬
tion of a fcareity of provilion, and the protedtion of com-'
merce.
At the death of Louis XV. the public voice called M.
Turgot to the firit offices of government, as a man who
united the experience refulting from habits of bufinefs to
all the improvement which ftudy can procure. After be¬
ing at the head of the marine department only a ffiort time,
he was,>Viguft 24. 1774, appointed comptroller general of
the finances. During his difeharge of this important office,
the operations he carried on are aftonifhing. He fupprefTed
23 kinds of duties on neceffary occupations, ufeful contracts,
of merited compenfations. He aboliihed the corvee (a)
for the highways, faving the nation thirty millions of livreS
annually.—He fet afide another kind of corvee, which re-
fpedted the carriage of military (lores and baggage—He
abated the rigour in the adminiftration of indiredt impolL
tions, to the great profit of the contributors, the king, and
the financiers.—He foftened the mode of collediing the ter¬
ritorial impofts.—He flopped the progrefs ol a plague
among cattle.—He fupprefied a Edition conducted with
art.—He provided for the equal diftribution of tubfiflence.
— He gave the utmoft encouragement to the cultivation of
the three chief productions of France, viz. wheat, cattle,
and wine, and to the commerce thence refulting. — He re¬
formed a nuniber of abufes. Tome of which viclded a profit
(a) The word corvee feems to be derived from cum via, i. e. “ the care of the roads.” It fignifies the call made on
individuals to furnifh labour and materials in kind for the conftru&ion and repair of roads. The fame exiits to this day,
in England, under the name ofJlatute duty. It is indeed with us under proper reftriftioris ; but in France, where there
are no turnpikes, all the roads, which are very good, were made and repaired by the corvee alone; whence it became an
intolerable burden to the labourers.
Turpot,
T urin.
T U R
to the place he filled.—He aholifhed as much as he could
the fale of ^offices.—He formed many ufeful ellablifhments.
He paid the penfions of the poorer fervants of the ftate,
who were four years in arrear.—He fupplied the expences
of a coronation, the marriage of a princefs, and the birth of
a prince. He facilitated payments as far as India.— He fet¬
tled a part of the colony debts, and put the reft in order.—
He found the public borrowing at five and a half per cent.
and reduced the rate to four. — He leffened the public en¬
gagements 84 millions. — He found the revenue 19 millions
deficient, and left a furplus of three millions and a half.—
All thefe he accomplifhed within the fpace of 20 months,
during Ceven of which fevere fits of the gout totally inca¬
pacitated him for bufinefs.
At length, however, by the artifices of the courtiers, his
office was taxen from him ; but when removed to a private
ftation, M. Turgot did not experience that frightful void
which is the juft but dreadful pumfhment of ambitious men
when deferted by fortune. The fciences and the belles let-
tres, which he had cultivated in his youth, afforded him con-
folation, while an aftive fphere of life was denied him. Na¬
tural philofophy and chemiftry were his favourite puri'uits;
yet he hequently entertained himfelf with poetry, efpecially
with trim Hating Virgil into French verfe. “ We know (fays
the Marquis de Condorcet) but of one Latin verfe compofed
by M. 1 urgot, and winch was intended for a pnfture of Hr
Franklin.
JLrlpuit ctclo fulmen, mote feeptra tyrannis”
The attacks of the gout, under which he had long labour¬
ed, becoming more frequent and exceffive, forewarned him
of the approaching moment, when, in conformity to the
laws of nature, he was going to fill, in a higher order of be¬
ings, the rank which thefe laws deftined for him. He died
March 20. 1781.
kora more ample account of this illuftrious ftatefman,
we refer the reader to the Hiftory of his Life, written by
the Marquis de Condorcet.
. TURIN, an ancient, populous, ftrong, handfome, flou-
rifhing city of Italy, and capital of Piedmont, where the fo-
vereign refides, with an archbifhop’s fee, a ftrong citadel,
and an univerfity. It is feated on a vaft plain, at the con¬
fluence of the rivers Doria and Po. It is one of the hand-
fomeft place? in Italy ; but the air is unhealthy in the au¬
tumn and winter on account of the thick togs. One half
of this place is lately built; and the ftreets are ftraight and
clean, being wafhed by an aquedudt. The two largeft
ftreets are the New-ftreet and that of the Po, which are
lighted in the winter-time. The houfes are handfome, and
all built of the fame height. The ducal palace confifts of
two magnificent ftrgdfures, joined together by a gallery, in
which are feveral ftatues, all forts of arms, the genealogy of
the dukes of Savoy, a reprefentation of the celeftial figns,
a royal library, and many other curiofities. Befides thefe
two ftruflures, there is the palace of the prince of Carignan,
the hofpital of St John, the feminary of the Jefuits, the royal
lio.pital, and the metropolitan church of St John, wherein
they pretend to keep the cloth in which is the print of the
face of Jefus Chrift. i’hefe are all fuperb ftru&ures. When
the plague reigned atMarfeilles in 1720, a great number of
artificers withdrew to Turin ; infomuch that there are now
above 87,000 inhabitants, and 48 churches and convents.
Turin is very well fortified, and extremely ftrong ; as the
Fiench found by experience in 1706, v/ho then befieged It
a long while to no purpofe. The citadel, which is flanked
with five baftions, is without doubt a mafterpiecc of archi-
tedure. There are very fine walks on the ramparts, which
require two hours to pafs round them. There are alfo very
[ J98 1
T U R
fine gardens on the fide of the river Po ; and the houfe com* Turkey,
monly called Ln Chante is remarkable, as there is room for -J
3000 p‘or people, I he college of the academy is very
large ana wen built, and has a great number of ancient in-
feriptions.- In the royal library are 19,000 manuferipts,
befides 30,000 printed books. It is charmingly feated at
the foot of a mountain, 62 miles north eaft of Genoa, 72
fouth-weft of Milan, and 280 north-weft of Rome. E. Long.
7. 45- N. Lat. 44. 30.
TURKEY, in ornithology. See Meleagrib.
Turkey, a very extenfive empire, comprehending fome
of the richeft countries in Europe, Afia, and Africa. See
Turcje.
Under the article Constantinople, n° m, et feq, wec 4 .
have given an account of the origin and progrefs of thenopleb?
Turks, as far as feemed neceffary for underftanding the fub-comes the
fequent and more important part of their hiftory. In 1453 caPital °f
they made themfelves mafters of the city of Conftantinople,^6 *u•Iki,!,
which from that time became the capital of their empire. UOmim0n,‘
Mohammed II. at that time the fultan, after having treated
the inhabitants with the greateft cruelty, began to think of
adding Servia to his dominions. Accordingly, in 1454, he
entered that country at the head of 20,000 men, and obli¬
ged the inhabitants to pay him an annual tribute oP 40,000
ducats. On his return to Adrianople, Mohammed re¬
peopled the towns and villages about Conftantinople with
4000 men and women who fell to his fhare ; and going to
that city, built a palace eight ftadia in compafs, which he
lined with lead taken from the monafteries. Next year a 3
fleet was fent againft the Hands of Rhodes and Chios ; butUnfuccefs-
the attempt on both proved unfuccefsful: however, the Hand ful attemPt
Cos was reduced, and fome other places ; after which theon.Rpudts
fultan, turning his arms towards Hungary, laid fiegc to
Belgrade. At fir ft he met with fuccels ; beat down part
ol the wall, and flopped the navigation of the river with 60
veffels: but the celebrated John Hunmades, happening to
arrive at that critical jundlure, made a furious Tally, entirely
routed the Turkiflr aimy, wounded Mohammed himfelf in
the thigh, and burnt all his (hips. Hunniades himfelf didMohL-
not long furvive this engagement, dying foon after of a wound med repsl-
he had received therein according to fome, er of the plague^" at Be!"
according to others. grade.
Mohammed being thus repulfed from Belgrade, fet about 4 ,
the entire conqueft of the Morea, the ancient Peloponnefus. f
The Grecian princes, among whom were two of the empe- Moru.
ror’s brothers, Thomas and Demetrius, were fo terrified by
the taking of Conftantinople, and the great progrefs of the
Turks, that they prepared to retire into Italy ; upon which
the Albanians feized on the country, chooling one Manuel
Cantacuzenus, a Greek, for their prince. Then falling 011
the Greeks who remained, they made an offer to the fultan
of the cities and fortreffes, provided he would allow them
to keep the open country ; for the Albanians were fhep-
herds, who had no fixed habitation. At this time, however,
the fultan chofe rather to fupport the Greeks than to let the
country fall into the hands of fuch barbarians ; and having
defeated the Albanians, was content to accept of a tribute
from the Greeks. But the danger was no fooner over, than
the Grecian princes revolted anew ; upon which Moham¬
med entering the country with a power'ul army, prince
Thomas, with his family, fled to Italy ; while Demetrius S
thought it moft eligible to fubmit to the fultan, by vvhomO116
he was carried away, with many of the moft confMerable^.^jfui,.
perlons of Lacedaemon, Achaia, &c. where Turkifir gover-lnits.
nors were appointed. Two thouland families were alfo car¬
ried away from the Morea, in order to be fettled at Con¬
ftantinople, and 2000 young men to be enrolled among the
fultan’s troops. Many cities at this time fell into the hands
6 of '
T U R
Turkey, of the Turks, among which the principal were Corinth and
i-—v—' Athens. The Greeks, however, {till made Tome faint
ftruggles; but all in vain: for by the year 1459 t^ie whole
6 country was fubdued, excepting fome maritime places held
The whole ^ yenet;jans ; ancl prince Thomas was obliged finally
fubdued. to ta^e UP ^ls ah°de at Rome, where he was lodged in the
pope’s palace, and had a penfion of 3000 livres a-year allow¬
ed him for his expences.
Mohammed now purlued his good fortune ; and having
[ J99 1
T U R
willingly made another incurfion into the Turkrfii dominions, Turkey.
ravaged Scrvin, and carried off a vait number of prifoners 
with a great booty.
In the mean time, Mohammed, fearing left Scanderbeg
ftiould be declared generaliffimo ofthe Chriftian forces, lent
to him, defiring a renewal of the league between them. But
this being refuted, the war was renewed with the utmoft vi¬
gour. Many Turkith armies were fent againft this hero ; but
Mohammed now purlued his good iortune ; and having they were utterly defeated and difperfed, till the year 1466, r3 *
made war on the emperor of Trebizond, he fubdued his do- when by his death the fultan was freed from the moft for-
iYi.ni'r>no .-.nr Ulm tr. /IpQth W.'o ,x,na nudable enemy he had ever encountered.
The death of Scanderbeg was followed by the entire re-Epirus and
duftion of Epirus and Albania. The Venetians in 1469 Albariia re *
defeated the Turks in a pitched battle; but were drivenduced*
out of Negropont, at that time the itrongeft city in Europe:
after which they entered into an alliance with Ferdinand
king of Naples, Lewis king of Cyprus, and the grand ma¬
iler of Rhodes, at the fame time that they fent amballadors
to Uzun HafTan king of Perfia, in order to perfuade him
to attack the Turkifh dominions on the eaft fide. Moham-
War with minions, and put him to death. His career, however, was
Scanderbeg for fame time flopped by Scandeibeg the Epirote. This
prince had already defeated an army of 12.000 Turkiih
g horfe, of whom only 5000 elcaped the flaughter ; and dif-
His fuccefs Perfe(l another, with the lofs of their general, and 4120 of
againft the his men killed on the foot. Encouraged by this fuccefs, he
Turks, laid fiege to Belgrade, which it feems was now in the hands
of the Turks : but, through the treachery of his fcouts, his
army was defeated, and 5000 of his men killed; upon
which, one of his generals, by name Mojes, went over to
the Turks.
Scanderbeg, not at all difpirited by this misfortune, pro-
fecuted the war with the utmoft vigour. His firlt enter-
prife was againft his perfidious general Mofes, who had been
immediately put at the head of an army by the fultan. This
army was by Scanderbeg totally deilroyed, excepting about
4000 men ; upon which Moles fell into fuch difgrace with
the Turks, that he returned to his old mailer, who forgave
his treachery, and reftored him to all his former pells.
The bad iuccefs of Mofes did not prevent Amefa, the
nephew of Scanderbeg, from following his example. Mo¬
hammed received him kindly, and fent him with Ifhak ba-
fhaw of Conilantinople ; whom he intrulled with an army of
50,000 men againft his uncle. Scanderbeg, with only 6coo
men, retired towards Lyfla, a maritime city of the Vene¬
tians. 1 he Turks purfued, contrary to the advice of Ame¬
fa ; and being furprifed by Scanderbeg, were utterly defeat¬
ed, with the lois of their camp, 20,000, or, according to
others, 30,000 men killed on the fpot, and the treacherous
Amefa taken prifoner. With the like good fortune Scan¬
derbeg defeated three other Turkifh armies, one of 20,000,
another of 30,000, and the third of 18,000 men. On this
9 Mohammed fent againft him an old experienced commander,
Peace con- at the head of 40,000 chofen troops ; but as he likewife was
eluded. 1 * ’ ’
10
Other con-
•luefts of
Moham¬
med.
able to atchieve nothing, the fultan thought proper to con¬
clude a peace with Scanderbeg in 1461.
Mohammed being thus freed from fuch a troublefome
enemy, completed the conqueft of the Greek iflands ; fub¬
dued Wallachia, Boinia, and Illyria, extending his empire
nearly to the confines of Italy. But as it was eafy to fee
that no conquefts would latisfy the Turkifh ambition, the
dahle Venet:ms, who found themfelves ill-treated by their warlike
binationa. ne4lhbeurs, entered into an alliance with the Hungarians,
gain ft the to rePrefs the overgrown power of the Turks, and prevent
the weftern parts 6f the world fr om being totally over run
by them ; and into this alliance Scanderbeg was foon drawn,
notwithftanding his treaty with Mohammed already men¬
tioned. The Hungarians invaded the Turkifh dominions
on the weft fide, defeated fome troops, and.carried off
20,000 flaves : the Venetians invaded the Morea, where they
   made fome conquefts, but were foon obliged to abandon
with vari- them : however, they recovered the ifland of Lemnos ; hut
ou, fucctfj. being defeated in two engagements at-land, they were obli¬
ged to folicit alliftance from France, Germany, and Spain.
Having obtained confiderable fapplies from thofe parts,
they again entered the Morea ; but meeting with ftill worfe
fuQcefs than before, they applied for afBftance to Matthias
the fon 0f J0im Huniuades king of Hungary. Matthias
11
A form!
gainft the
Turkiih
powers.
12
The war
carried on
IS
ined did not lofe his courage at the number of his enemies Jtiaiis obli-*
but having defeated the Periians, reduced the Venetians togedtofue
fuch diftrefs, that they were obliged to conclude a treaty mf°r peace.
1479-
In 1481 the war was renewed, and the city of Rhodes
befieged, but without fuccefs; however, the city of Cepha-
lonia was taken from the Venetians, Italy invaded, and the t6
city of Otranto taken. This was the laft of the exploits of Death of
Mohammed II. who died this year of the gout, and was^ukan Mo—
fucceeded by his fon Bayezid, or Bajazet 11. Under this hamme4-
prince a war commenced with the Mamalukcs of Egypt,
which, under his fucceflbr Selim I. ended in the total fub-
jedtion of that country. Bajazet, however, greatly faeili- U
tated Selim’s conqueft by the reduction of Circafita, whence
the Mamalukes drew their principal refources. Cara-of'thT 3
mania and Croatia were totally reduced; the cities of Le-Turks,
panto, Modon, and Durazz, taken by the Turks, though
the Venetians recovered Cephalonia ; Syria on the eaft, and
Moldavia on the weft, were invaded and ravaged by the vie- Peacre8
torious armies of the fultan ; till at laft a peace was concludedduS.00"'"
with the European powers in 1503. ^ i9
The year 150913 remarkable for a dreadful earthquakeEarth-
at Conilantinople, which overturned a great number 0f(lj,akesar'<i
houfes, and deilroyed 13,000 people ; being alfo followedcSanti-
by an epidemic diftemper, which carried oft great numbers, nopie.
About this time alfo the fultan, finding the infirmities of old 20
age drawing on, and being defirous of palling the remain-•Sultai, CriW
der of his days in quiet, relolved to refign the throne to hisiolfofrel
eldeil fon Achmed. But having engaged in this affair withugningin
too great precipitation, and before fte had gained over thefav‘>ur of
grandees, his fecond Ion Selim, whom he hW made gover-}us dcktt
nor of Trabezond, hallily cruffing the Euxine lea, dethro- °n*2I
necl and put to death his father, in the year 1512. Is depofe<i„
The new emperor, who had not icrupled to fncrififce hi&antl put to
father to his ambition, did not hefitate at eftablifhing him- iiea|.h b5:
felfon the throne by the death of his brother alfo. Accoid-f^sSim'
ingly, as Achmed, knowing he could be nowhere fafe, re-
fulved to Hand on his defence, Selim with a powerful army
marched againft him ; and having defeated the few forces of
his brother, took him prifoner, and put him to death. Ha-SrUm^
vmg thus fecured himlelf, he ntarched a jaintb the Perfians,feats the
whom he overthrew in a great battle : after which he took Peffians,
the city of iaurus ; made fome other conquefts ; and iiavinn re4uc8>
fecured tranquillity on the eaftern fide of his dominions^ gypt*‘
turned liis arms againft Sultan Gauri ol Egypt. Hina he
reduceu in the manner related under the article Egypt, n ’
1 o 1 • His farther defignsoi conqueft were fruftrated by hi3 1
death, which happened in the year
Sdim
T U R
[ 6co ]
Turkey.
fvjlm was fucceedcd by his fon Solyman I. fuinamed Ka~
'to—~v. i' nuri^ or The Lawgiver, who proved no lefs ambitious and
TffVa-eded wai hke than his father. Having defeated and killed the
by Solyman governor of Damafcus, who had rebelled againft him, he at¬
tacked the European princes with a defign to extend his do¬
minions as far to the well ward as he poffeffed to the ealt-
ward of his capital. In 1520 he fet out with a great army
to conquer Hungary. The city of Belgrade v/as immedi¬
ately inverted, and in a Ihort time taken. Rhodes alfo be-
war’ike
prince,
4*
Rhodes 1 e-
duced.
defeated
and killed.
■Georgia.
Bagdad,
&c. redu
ced.
Viennabe-
fuftuccefs." greateII ftraits, the lultan was obliged to abandon the fiege
by the coming on of the autumnal rains ; which, however,
he did not without barbaroully maflacring all his prifoners.
The raifing the fiege of Vienna was followed by an en¬
tire repulfe of the- Turks from the German territories : on
which Selyman, refolving to extend his dominions on the
eaft, fubdued the country of Georgia, and made himfelf ma¬
iler of the city of Bagdad ; at the fame time that his admiral,
the celebrated Barbarofla, ravaged the coafts of Italy, and
took the cities of Biferta and Tunis in Africa. But, in
1536, he was obliged to retire before Charles V. of Spain,
dilced by w^° veto<)ktlie city of Tunis. Solyman, to revenge this dif-
Charles V. grace, lu Ip ended for a time the war in Perfia, in order to
turn all his forces againft Italy: but while this country was
in danger of being totally overwhelmed, a Venetian captain
having ralhly taken and funk fome Turkifh velfels, Solyman
changed his defign of attacking Italy into that of chaftiling
the Venetians. However, after fome trilling encounters, a
peace was concluded in 1540.
&unK°ry This year the war was renewed in Hungary : the tranf-
reduced to aftions were very unfortunate for the Chriftians, and ended
a Turkifli in the entire reduction of the kingdom to a Turkifh pro-
The kingdom of France, being oppreffed by its
enemies, entered into an alliance with Solyman, who was
now grown fo powerful, that the whole European powers
feemed fcarce able to refill him. However, in 156he
Malta be- was baffled by the knights of Malta, as is related under
ficged im- that article; and in 1566 an end was put to his ambition
fuccelsfully an(j ^ conquefts by death.
Solyman was fucceeded by his fon Selim II. furnamed
3a Mejl, or “ ri he Drunken.” Under him the empire at firft
Account of nothing of its luftre ; but in 1571 the maritime power
the battle of of the '
Burks was almoft entirely deftroyed at Eepanto,
where one of the moll remarkable fea-engagements mention¬
ed in hiftory took place. The Chriltian fleet was command¬
ed by Doria the Venetian admiral; and confifted of 78 Spa-
nilh and 3 Maltefe galleys, under Don John of Auftria, na¬
tural fon to the emperor Charles-V. Befzdes thefe, under
Venieri, a Venetian officer, were 108 galleys, 6 galleafles,
2 tall (hips, and a great many fmall galliots. Colonna, a
kinfman of the pope, had alio 12 of his galleys under his
command. On board this fleet were 20,000 good foldiers,
many of them perfons of great quality, who went volunteers
province. villce>
31
I-epanto.
T U R
in the expedition. Though the Turkifli fleet confifted of Turkey.
335 fail, the moll experienced officers were againft fighting't—
The city oi jng attacked by a great force by Tea and land, was obli¬
ged to fubmit, after a moll defperate refiftance, as is related
under that article, n° 33. et feq.; and Solyman entered the
city in triumph on Chriftmas day 1522. Elis conquetls
for fome time were Hopped by a rebellion in Egypt ;
but this being foon quaflied, the war with Hungary was
The king renewed in 1 325. King Lewis having ralhly enga-
of Hungary geg the Turkifli army of 200,000 men with only 25,000,
was utterly defeated, himfelf drowned in a ditch, and
his whole army, excepting a few horfe, cut in pieces.—
This defeat was followed by the furrender of Buda, which,
however, the Hungarians retook in 1528; but next year
it was again taken by the Turks, and foon after both the
Moldavias fubmitted to their jurii'diftion. The city of Vi¬
enna was then inverted : but after being reduced to the
at that time, confidering the great flrength of the confede¬
rates, and that there was no neceffity for an engagement.
But the opinion of All Pallia, the chief admiral, who was
for a battle, prevailing, Parteu Pafha, the next in command,
took on board x2,000 janifaries and fpahis, drawn out of
the neighbouring garrifons; befldes 4000 other foldiers.
Then putting out of the gulf, the fleet fleered their courfe
for the ille of Corzalates, of old Echinates, half-way between
Lepanto and Patras; and the Chriftians moving towards
them, both fleets came in fight, Oftober 7. afternoon.
Hereupon Don John, having ordered the great enfigns of
the confederates, which was the fignal for engaging, to be
hoifted, clad in armour, went in his long boat to encourage
the fe.veral fquadroRS of the centre under his command (
while Doria did the like in the right wing, and Barbadico,
the Venetian proveditor-general, in the left.
Thai fignal was no fooner given, than the Turks, with a
hideous cry, fell on ftx galleafles which lay at anchor near
a mile a-head of the confederate fleet; but thofe Ihips fired
fo brilkly on them, firft from their forecaftles and then as
they parted by, fo galled their galleys with whole broad-
fides, that feveral of them were funk, which made the reft
bear farther off. The wind likewife chopped about to the
weft, and incommoded the Turks with the fmoke. How¬
ever, they foon rallied their difordered fquadrons, and came
on with furprifing refolutfon. The adlion w?s continued
for feveral hours with equal bravery on both lides; but vic¬
tory at lalt declared for the confederates. ^
The number of Turks flain in this famous naval fight The Turks
could not with certainty be known. An author who wrote ^efeated
an account of this war, makes their number 32,000 belides^^1^*1
prifoiiers, who were about 3500. The galleys taken from
them amounted to 161. Forty more were funk or burnt;
and of galliots, with other fmall veffels, about 60 were taken. 34
Notwithftanding the prodigious lofs fuftained by the^ktlead-
Turks on this occalion, the confederates reaped but littlevanta??
advantage from this viftory ; and next year Kilij Ali Pa-the chri-
Iha, who had lucceeded to the poll of high admiral, fitted (Hans from
out a fleet of 250 galleys, with which he ravaged the coaftsd16 vkkrt’
of Chriitendom wherever he came, and maintained his ground
fo well, that the confederates could never gain the leaft ad¬
vantage over him. ^
The Turkifh power from this time, however, began to Decline of1
decline. The progrefs of civilization being much more the Turkic
quick among the weftern nations, and their improvements Power-
in the art of war very confiderable, the Turks found it not
only impoffible to extend their dominion over Germany, but
even a matter of fome difficulty to withftand the power of
the weftern princes. During the remainder of the reign of
Selim, the war was carried on in Hungary with little advan¬
tage on either fide ; but under his fucceffor, fultan Morad
III. the Turks met with feveral fevere checks from the Ger¬
mans.
In 1^94, Mohammed III. having fucceeded his father
Morad, deflroyedhis 19 brethren, in order to fecure himfelf
on the throne ; and for the fame reafon catifed 10 of his
father’s wives and concubines to be thrown into the fea, left
any of them Ihould prove with child. I he emperor Ro-
dolph II. having entered into a confederacy againft him with ^
the princes of Tranlylvania, Walachia, and Moldavia, de-thcmi
feated the Turks and their Tartar auxiliaries in feveral en¬
gagements, and took many cities; while fo grievous a fa¬
mine and plague raged in Flungary, that of 85,000 Tartars 3^
who had entered the country the year before, fcarce 8000 tl)pes0f the
remained alive, ft his was followed by new niisfoi tunes ; ft* Turk*.
that
T U R
T'U'kev, that in the yea? following the Turks were entirely driven
v—out of Tranfylvania, Moldavia, and Walachia.
38 . ~ in 1621, under Othman or Ozman II. we find the
I>?hn7 m Turks firfi engaged in a war with Poland ; but a peace was
' 9' concluded the fame year ; the chief article of which was,
The Voles that the Poles fhould have a free trade in the Turkifh do-
firft allow- minions, and that for this their merchants fhould pay
e,l to trade iejCOO feqU1'nSf The Turkifh affairs continued pretty much
in the fame way till the year 1673, when a dreadful war
broke out with Germany, Ruffia, and Poland, whole army
was at that time commanded by the celebrated Je>hn Sobi-
efki. The year before, hoftilities had commenced on ac¬
count of the Poles having endeavoured to detach the Cof-
facks from their allegiance to the fultan At this time
the Turks were fuccefsful, through the diffenfions which
reigned among the Poles ; and the latter were obliged to
pay an annual tribute of 20,000 rixdollars, and to deliver
up 48 towns and villages in the territory of Kaminieck.
However, the articles of this treaty were never executed ;
for, in 1673, the ftates of Poland fent a letter to Kyopiili
Ahmed Pafha, the vizir at that time, informing him that
they confidered as null the conditions of the treaty, being
concluded without their confent, and that they would ra¬
ther fuffer death than fubmit to the infamy of paying one
Angle farthing by way of tribute. On this the fultan, Mo¬
hammed IV. determined to take a fevere revenge on their per¬
fidy, fet out with a great army ; but was entirely defeated,
with the lofs of 20,000 men killed on the fpot, all the bag¬
gage, 25,000 waggon loads of provifion and ammunition,
The Turks and 2000 purfes of money for paying the army. Soon af-
defeated, v;^ory^ fohn wa* proclaimed king of Poland : but
his fubjefts, jealous of his adory, refufed to fupport him pro¬
perly in profecuting his advantage ; fo that, four years af¬
ter, a treaty was concluded, by which the Poles for ever re-
figned their pretenfions to Kaminieck and to the dominion
of the Coflacks in Podolia.
But though peace was thus made with Poland, the war
and Tana swas carried on very unfuccefsfully with Ruffia. In 1678,
deferred 1 yan army 0f the Tartars was entirely cut in pieces or taken
e u u near the city of Cherin ; which fo intimidated another army
of 40,000 Turks, who had waited for the arrival of thefe
auxiliaries, that they threw away their arms, and fled with¬
out ftoppin;*- till they had croffed the river Bog. This de¬
feat inclined the fultan to peace ; but the negotiations pro¬
ving ineffe&ual, he, in 1679, again fent a powerful army of
80,000 Turks, 30,000 Tartars, and 4000 Coflacks, under
the command of the vizir, to retrieve his lofi honour. This
army, however, fuceeeded little better than the former : for
grcatdi t0 vlz‘r was defeated in feveral engagements ; and at laft,
iireis. according to cuftom, put to death on account of the bad
fuccefs of the war. In 1684 the Venetians again declared
war, while the Poles and Germans continued their hoftilities
with the utmofl violence. i he Turks were forced to yield
to the fuperior fortune and valour of their adverlaries ; they
were defeated in a great number of engagements, and loft
many places of importance. In fhort, their affairs feemed
to be totally going to wreck, when, in 1688, they were re¬
trieved by the new vizir Ahmed Kyoprili, a man o^ great
fkill and experience in war, as well as of the moft upright
and blamelefs chara&er. Having prevailed in the divan to
have the war carried on, he applied his whole care to the
raifing of an army, and providing warlike ftores. But find-
the people everywhere intimidated and unwilling to oppofe
the enemy, the treafury exhaufted, and an univerfal langour
prevailing, he made a new kind of proclamation, in which he
told the people, that “ as he found it necefiary to truft the
fidfmof thecommand of the army againftthe haughty Germans to none
*>C0*) e' but himfelf, lo he would not employ in this expedition any
V01. XVIII. Part II.
to Turkey
4°
War with
R1 flia,
Germany,
andTu-
iaiid.
4i
The Poles
defeated,
and become
tributary.
44
The ftate
refufed to
ratify the
treaty.
43
ai d peace
concluded.
44
Tire Turks
StP.S:
45
'Another
arrtiy de-
fe ted, an
46
War w;th
the Vene¬
tians.
*7
The Turk
iih dfaii-!,
retrieved
by Kyo-
prili.
T 48
He rnufes
the enthu
[got J T U R
foldier forced into the fervice; knowing that the will was Turkry,
of more value with God than the deed : that he would only
put the Muflulmans in mind, that, by the precepts of God
and his prophet, every one is commanded neither to avoid
martyrdom, nor to defpair of fuccefs againft infidels, &c.
Having thus once rouied the enthufiafm of the common peo¬
ple, they flocked in great numbers to his ftandard ; after
which, having reformed many abufes both in the civil and mi¬
litary departments, he led them againft the enemy. The good
effefts of his reformations were evident. Great numbers of
the enemy were cut off, and almoft all the important places ^
taken which had been loft before, when, in 1691, he was fs at laft
defeated and killed by the Germans at Tfiankamen. After deb at ed
his death the Turkifh affairs again fell into diforder ; and,an<* killed,
thouoh the utmoft efforts were ufed by fucceeding vizirs,
no progrefs could be made ; and, in 1697, a prodi-ious 50
overthrow was given them by Prince Eugene atZenta. Ate>eace con*
laft, in 1698, all parties being weary of fuch an expenfive'’^611,
and ruinous war, a pacification took place at Carlowitz, but
on different terms with the different nations who had been 5*
at war with the Tuiks. The emperor made a truce for 25Te ms
years, upon condition that all Tranfylvania fnould be re-^^6 Wlt^
ligr.ed to him: the city of Temefwaer was to be reftored toro^e‘ni;Ci"
the Turks, and the navigation of the Teiffe and Maros ri¬
vers be free to both nations ; that the country between the
Danube and the Teiffe, called Bachhak, remain in the em¬
peror’s hands ; that the boundary of the eaftern part of Hun¬
gary, belonging to the emperor, fnould be a riahtline drawn
from the mouth ©f the Maros towards the banks of the river
Teiffe to the mouth of the Boffut, where it falls into the
Saave ; that towards the fouth the Saave fhould part the
Turkifh from the Imperial limits, till it receives the Unna ;
and that no new caftles befides Belgrade and Peterwaradin
fhould be erefted, or old ones fortified, anywhere within
thefe boundaries.
The Ruffian ambaffador made a truce only for two years, With the
upon the foot of each party pofTeffing what he had taken. Fxuflians.
The Poles made a truce on the like terms with the fultan;
namely, that they ftiould have Kaminieck, Podolia, and U-
krania, reftored to them, in the fame extent as pofieffed by
them before fultan Mohammed’s firft expedition into Po¬
land ; and, on the other hand, refign Soczava, Nemoz, and 53
Soraka, in Moldavia, to the Turks. The Venetians obtain-With the
ed thefe conditions : that all the Morea, as ’ar as Hexalm-'^enetlal,8•
los, fhould belong to them ; and that the firm land, with Nau-
paktum (or Lepanto), Prevefa, and the callle of Romania,
which had been dtmolifhed, fhoull be reftored to the Turks;
that the bay of Corinth fhould be common to both, and the
Venetians poifefs Lenkade wuth the adjacent iflands. The
yearly tribute paid by the iflands in the Archipelago to the
Venetians wss to be abolifhed ; and Z ikinth to be declared
free from the like burden by the Turks. In Dalmatia,
Knin, Cing, Kiklut, Verlika, Duare, and Vergoraz, were
to be |fft to the republic, and fixed as the boundaries of
their dominions on that fide. The Ragufians were to con¬
tinue free, and the Venetians to retain the caftles of Caftle-
nuovo and Rifano, with v/hat they poffeffed in the neTh-
bourhood. Both parties were allowed to fortify their bor¬
ders with new fortreffes ; or to repair thofe which were de¬
cayed, excepting Naupaktum, Pievefa, and the cattle of Ro¬
mania before mentioned. 54
From the conclufion of the peace of Carlowitz to theTirkiili
year 1769, nothing very remarkable occurs in the i’urkifh^*1^®
hiftory, excepting their recovery of the Morea from the^^
Venetians by the treaty of Paflarowitz. (See the article Ve¬
nice). Their war with the Ruffians under Peter the Great
has Teen taken notice of under the article Russia ; thofe
afterwards with Persia, under that article. None of thefe,
4 G indeed,
T U R
[ 602 1
T U R
55.
War with
Kuilla.
56
Afoph
taken by
the Ruffi¬
ans.
57
Turkey. Indcec!, were of any great confequence ; but, In T'769, a war
“ commenced with Rufiia, which threatened the Ottoman em¬
pire with deftru&ion, and which has given it fuch a fevere
check as it can fcarcely recover. The origin of this war
is given under the article Poland, n° 101 ; and during the
courfe of it, an almofl uninterrupted train of fuccefs attend¬
ed the Ruflian arms.—About the enl of March 1769, a
body of Ruffian troops made themfelves matters of the im¬
portant fortrefs of Afoph, at the mouth of the river Don.
In the end of April, prince Gallitzin, commander in chief
of the Ruffian army on the frontiers of Poland, paffed the
river Niefter, hoping to take the fortrefs of Choczim by fur-
prife ; but being difappointed, he was obliged to return.
Near the beginning of July, however, he again paffed that
river, and on the i 3th attacked and defeated the van- of the
The Turks grand vtzir’s army, confifting of about jc,coo or 60,000
defeated, men. Thirteen thoufand of the fugitives entered Choc¬
zim ; which was next day invetled by the Ruffians : hut
they were at laft obliged to raife the fiege and repafs the
Nittler; which they could not effeft without conhderable
lots.
In the mean time, both the Ottoman and Ruffian courts
58 were difpleafed with the con daft of their generals. The
The Turk- Turkifh grand vizir was deprived of his command, and af-
heade^'!e"terwards beheaded ; and was fucceeded by Moldovani Aga
Pacha, ?. man of a bold and enterprifing fpirit. On his
firft taking the command of the army, finding it imooffible
to fubfiil where he was, he attempted to force a paflage
over the Niefter ; but being three times repulfed with great
lofs, lie made a precipitate retreat towards Bender, at the
fame time drawing the troops out of Choczim, which the
Ruffians immediately took poffeffion of.
Prince Gallitzin was now fuperfeded by general Roman-
zow, who took the command of the army on the 29th of
September. Soon after lus arrival, he received news of the
fuccefs of general Elmpt, who, with a body of 10,000 men,
yaffy11^ ° had reduced the province ofYafty. He invefted Bender;
but finding the feafon of the year too far advanced, he foon
61 withdrew his troops, and put them into winter quarters.
XJnluccefs- This firft campaign had proved fo unpropitious to the
ful negotia- Turkifh affairs, that the court would gladly have concluded
a peace, if they could have obtained it upon honourable
terms ; but the Ruffians infilling upon the entire ceffion of
Moldavia and Walachia as a preliminary article, the nego¬
tiations tame to nothing. A new campaign was therefore
refolved on ; and this proved Hill more unfuccefsful than be¬
fore. The grand Ruffian army under general Romanzow
paffed the Niefter in the month of May 1770 ; and, having
affembled at Choczim on the 3d of June, marched towards
Pruth ; at the fame time, their fecond army, commanded by
general Panin, arrived before Bender. The plan of opera¬
tion was, that the latter fhould form the fiege of Bender, and
Romanzow ffiould cover it.
On the 18th of July, general Romanzow atta#ked an
, I ^ army of 80,000 Tnrks and Tartars, commanded by the
ed by Ge- Kffias of Crimea, and ftrongly intrenched on an almoft in-
acceffible mountain, forced their intrenchments, and obliged
them to flee in the utmoft confufion, leaving an immenfe
quantity of ammunition and provifions, See. in their camp ;
which they totally abandoned to the viftors.—After this
viftory, the Ruffian general pufhed on towards the Danube;
Tbe grand and on the 2d of Auguft attacked another Turkifh army,
vizir de- commanded by the grand vizir in perfon, and totally defeat-
feated w>the£j making himfelf mafter of their camp, ammunition, 143
flau^hter. Pieces °*f Cannon, anc above 7000 carnages loaded with pro¬
vifions. 1 he lof® of the Turks on this occafion was not
reckoned lefs than 40,000 men, and fome accounts railed it
to 6q,qqq.—During the courfe of this fummer alffi, the tor-
59
Choczim
taken by
the Ruffi
ans.
60
They re¬
duce the
peace.
6 a .
Benderin¬
vefted.
63
The Turks
and Tar-
nerai Ro-
manzow.
64
trefs of Kilia Nova, at the moft northerly mouth of the Da- Turkey,
nube, furrendered by capitulation ; and likevvife that of Ac-
kerman, or Bialogorod, near the mouth of the Niefter. Ben-B{.n(j5,
der was taken by ftorm on the 27 th of November ; and the ken, and *
Ruffians, enraged at the obftinate refiftance they had met the inhaM,
with, made a terrible {laughter of their enemies. It wastul1ts mab
computed that 30,000 Turks perifhed on this occafion. The‘aCre^’
fortrefs of Brailow, fituated on the northern fide of the Da¬
nube, was invefted on the 26th of September ; and the gar- 66
rifon were fo much intimidated by the taking of Bender, Taft num-
that they abandoned the place, and moft of them were drown- '3er can*
ed in croffing the river. —During this campaign, it was rec* by th'eRul;
koned that the Ruffians took 1000 pieces of cannon from funs,
their enemies. 67
This year alfo a Ruffian fleet of 16 or 18 fhips entered 3. Ruffian
the Mediterranean, and landed a body of troops on the Mo- an^s
rea. Thefe being joined by the Greeks, committed greatljn
cruelties on the Turks, and made themfelves mafters of almoft rea.
the whole country. At laft, however, the Porte, notwith-
ftanding their bad fuccefs in other parts, found means to fend
a force into the Morea fufficient to overpower the Ruffians.
The Greeks now fuffered in their turn ; and the Ruffians,
hearing that a Tuikifh fleet had paffed the Dardanelles,
abandoned the Morea, and failed to meet their antagonifi.s. 68
A battle enfued, in which the Turks were defeated ; and^W’k"
having imprudently retired into a neighbouring harbour,
were next day entiiely dellroyed by the Ruffian fire-fhips,
except one {hip of 64 guns, which was taken. This fleet
confifted of 15 fhips of the line, from 96 to 60 guns, three
large frigates, and feven large armed veftels, befides galleys.
After this viftory, the Ruffian fleet blocked up the mouth
of the Dardanelles, interrupted the Turkifh trade, prevent¬
ed the carrying of provifions to Cqnftantinople by fea, and
raifed contributions from moft of the iftands in the Archi¬
pelago. 69
In 1771, matters did not at firft go on fo fuccefsfully onTheTurla
the part of the Ruffians. On the fide of the Danube, they^ja:‘ ^ome
were obliged to keep on the defenfive. Another army, un- 1 ®
der prince Dolgorueki, had better fuccefs; they reduced the
whole peninfula of Grim Tartary in Ids than a month, though 70
defended by an army of 50,000 men. — During thefe tranf-They take
aftions the Turks made themfelves mafters of the fortrds of0”ir|l^T
Gt urge wo; which enabled them to become fo formidable onGc,era| 1
the fide of Walachia, that prince Repnin durft not attack
them. Upon his refufal to do fo, he was deprived of his
command; which was given to General Effen. On the 17th
of Auguft, he attacked the Turkifh intrenchments; but, after
a defperate engagement of four hours, was defeated, with the
lofs of upwards of 3000 men.
This was the only engagement of any confequence in which
the Turks had proved viftorious fince the beginning of the
war ; and, after it, their ulual bad fortune attended them.
In confequence of their viftory, they determined to winter
on the northern fide of the Danube, which would have been
of the utmoft fervice to them ; and with which view they 7!
confiderably reinforced their army in Walachia. But ge-
nerai Romanzow, by a train of mafterly difpofitions, n°fGeneral
only thwarted all their fehemes, but furpriftd them on their ^ man-
own fide of the river. They had divided their army intozow-
two great bodies, which were ftationed in the neareft and
moft important pofts on the Turkifh fide of the Danube. -pwJj'urt]
On the ;oth of Oftober, one of thefe bodies was furpriledilh ui.nU;j
at Tuliza by general Weifman, and another at Maczin by coully de-
general Milarodowits. The event was the lame in both Rated,
places. The intrenchments were forced, the. L urks totally
routed, and their artillery, ftores, and magazines taken, to¬
gether with the two towns and their caftles. Next day ge¬
neral Weifxnan attacked the grand viair hiinfelf, with the
5
Turkey-
mount
mus.
chia, &c.
75
They fue
for peace.
T U R
like fuccefs. The intrenchments were forced, a vaft quan¬
tity of artillery taken, and likewife the town and caftle of
75 ,Babadagh; while the vizir, with the remains of his army,
vTJir dc-*11 fled 30 miles to feek refuge at Mount Hemus, A few days
feated, and afterwards general Effen defeated another body of Turks,
driven be- ancj retook the fortrefs of Giurgewo, driving the enemy to-
^0n<1 He-ta^ out Walachia. The Ruffian fleet this year fpread
ruin and defolation through the defencelefs iflands of the Ar¬
chipelago and the coafts of Alia, linking terror into the city
TheTurks Condantinople itfelf. A dreadful pellilence raged this
driven out year in the Turkiih army; and in the autumn broke out at
if Waia- Mofcow, where it deftroyed vaft numbers.
The affairs of the Tmks were now in fuch a defperate
condition, that they very eagerly fued for peace. The only
conditions on which this could be obtained, however, were,
that the Crimea, Budziac Tartary, and all that vaft tradl of
country on the coaft of the Black Sea, as far as the north
fhore of the Ejanube, fhould continue for ever under the do¬
minion of Ruffia ; that the Ruffians (hould enjoy an unlimi¬
ted freedom of navigation on the Black Sea, together with
the poffeffion of the city of Afoph, on the mouth of the
Don; and that a fum of money fhould be paid them by way
of indemnification for the expences of the war. Thefe terms,
however, were rejeded ; and the negotiations, which conti¬
nued through the whole year 1772,31 laft came to nothing.
The commiffioners on both lides retired from Buchareft, the
place where the congrcfs was held, on the 2 2d of March
1773. For fome time a defultory kind of war was carried
on between detachments from the two armies. But as this
was very prejudicial to the Ruffians, who could net be fo ea-
fily recruited as the Turks, about the middle of June, Ro-
Rom'anzow manzow made preparations for paffing the Danube with the
pallet the grand Ruffian army, confifting of 87,000 men: which,how¬
ever, he did not accomplifh till the 24th ; and then marched
with his army, in large divifions, towards the city of Siliftria.
lie was terribly haraffed on his march by large bodies of the
I urkifh cavalry, of whom the grand vizir had detached
27*000 for this purpofe. At laft, however, they arrived
before the city, which was ftrongly fortified, and defended
by a body of troops conlifting of about 24,000 men. On
76
Negotia¬
tions bro¬
ken off.
77
Danube.
feated by
General
Welfman,
79
ATurkifh tA6 29th of June, this body was defeated by general Weif-
army de- man, who commanded the van of the Ruffian army, and forced
to retire into Siliftria. I he grand vizir then detached 50,000
men to the relief of the place: upon this the Ruffians found
it ncceffary to retreat; which .was not accomplifhed with¬
out very great difficulty and lofs. In this retreat general
Who iskil-Weifman wa.s killed, and the army left all their magfazines
ied- behind them.
Many other fevere conflifts happened this campaign, which
proved lefs glorious to the Ruffians than any of the former
ones. In. 1774, however, their arms were attended with
better fuccefs. Romanzow’s army was reinforced by 40,000
men; and, on the night between the 16th and 1 7th of June,
The Turk« pafled the Danube in fpite of all oppofition. A continued
where de le”CS en?aSements then happened between the Ruffian ge-
fcaud. C ncra^6 anc* different bodies of the Turks. In thefe the latter
were always defeated; and at laft became fo much difpirited,
that a body of 40,000, or, according to fome accounts, of
70,000 Turks, fled at the firft fight of a body of their ene¬
mies greatly inferior in number, leaving behind them all their
tents and basrgage, with a fine train of brafs artillery. From
this time, diforder, mutiny, and difmay, feized all the Turk-
ifh armies, and they abfolutely rerufed to face their enemies.
They plundered the baggage, robbed and murdered their of¬
ficers, delerted by thoufands, taking the road to Conftanti-
aijd committing every kind of outrage by the way.
I he minifters of ftate, after having tried all methods to in¬
duce tills lawlefs crew to return to their duty, were obliged
603 ] T U R
to furnifh them with veflels for their tranfportation into A- Turkey,
fia. According to fome accounts, no fewer than 146,000 '"'v? r?
of the Turkifh troops deferted in this manner. Even in the _4imoa tm*
grand vizir’s camp at Schunla, matters went on in the lame whole ar-
manner. He was abandoned by his whole cavalry ; his Eu-my deferts.
ropean and Aliatic troops quarrelled, and cut cue another to
pieces before his face ; and, in fhort, the vaft army he com¬
manded was reduced almoft to nothing. The Ruffian gene¬
ral did not fail to take advantage of thefe misfortunes. Ha
placed the different divifions of his army in fuch advantage¬
ous fituations, that he totally cut off all communication be- ’
tween the Turkifh camp and every mean of fubfiftence. The
unfortunate vizir, therefore, was obliged at laft to fubmit to gj
the terms which K.omanzow dictated to him. The princi- Romanzaw
pal articles were, the independency of the Crimea; theabfo-^‘;'“Le\
lute ceffion of Kilburn, Kerche, and Jenickala, and all the, eace>
country between the Bog and the Nieper; a free navigation
in all the Turkifh leas, in which was included the paffage
through the Dardanelles, with all the privileges and immu¬
nities which were granted to the moft favoured nations.
Ruffia gave up all her conquefts, except Afoph and Tagan-
rok. There were, befides, feveral ftipulations in fave » of
the inhabitants of Moldavia and Walachia, and the Greek
iflands which were reftored by Ruffia. ' g*
Soon after this period an extraordinary alarm was excited Appear-
at the Porte by the hidden appearance or a new prophet in u-ce ofa
Upper Alia, ‘i bis man, whole name was She'tk Manfour, jjp^r
pretended that he was predoomed by the eternal and imtnu-fu.
table decrees of Heaven to fill up the meafure of Divine re¬
velation to mankind ; and that as he was to be the laft, lo
he was the greateft of the prophets. The feene of his mi-
niftry was in the wide and defolate regions on the borders of
theCafpian Sea; and though the firft rumour of his proceed¬
ings reprefented him as at the head of a multitude of armed
enthufiafts ready to overturn the eftablifhed government and
the religion of Mahomet, it was foon difeovered that all the
m.litary fury of his zeal was dire&ed againft the Chriftians.
He had even influence enough to form a combination of all
the nations of Cancafean Tartars againft the Ruffians, which
was certainly of fome fervice to the Turks in that war, which
the emprefs Catherine was now meditating againft them. 84
In the mean time, while this war was impending, the moft A rebellion
formidable rebellion broke out in Egypt, the granary of the m
Turkiih empire (fee Egypt, n'-* 125) ; but it was, after a
long, bloddy, and dangerous war, almoft fuppreffed by the
wife condudi and intrepid bravery of Haffan Bey, the Cap¬
tain Pacha or Grand Admiral, who, at the age of 70, fought
with all the ardour of youth, and all the fkill of the moft
oonfummate general. That veteran, however, was recalled
before he was able to carry all his patriotic dtfigns into exe- 85
cution, that he might aid the divan with his counfel, in the A new
critical fituation into which the empire was brought by thewajrw't‘i
arrogant claims of the court of Ruffia. The refult of the I8’
deliberations was a precipitate declaration of war againft that
court, contrary to the better judgment of the old Pacha.
The war commenced in autumn 1787, and the hordes of
Tartars which were firft brought into the field, headed by
the new prophet, were every where defeated by the fuperior 85
dilciplind of the Ruffian troops commanded by prince Po-And Au»
temkin. Some enterprizes which were undertaken by the
f urks againft the ifland of Tamen and the Crimea were at¬
tended with as little fuccefs as the attempts of the Tartars;
while the Emperor Jofeph declared to the Poite that he *
would affift his ally the emprefs of Ruffia with an army of
80,000 men. Four Auftrian armies were accordingly af-
fembled; one at Carlftadt in Croatia, under the command of
general de Vins; another at Peterwaradin in Hungary, com¬
manded by general Langlois; a third on the borders of Li-
4 G 2 thuania,
T U R
Tarkey.
[ 604 ]
T U R
S7 .
TheTurk<
at firft fuc-
cdsful.
88
General
l.audohn
takes the
Command
rf the Au-
ftrian ar¬
my.
thuania, vindcr general Febris; and the fourth in the Bucco-
wine, under the orders of the prince of Saxe Cobourg. Two
other generals, ten lieutenant-generals, and thirty major-ge¬
nerals, w'ere all ordered to prepare for a&ive fervice in the
frontier armies. If any thing had been yet wanting to fhow
the fixed determination of the court of Vienna, the meafure of
fending general Alvinzi to aft in and obferve the conduft
of the Ruffian armies during the war, and the receiving a
Ruffian officer of equal rank to aft the fame part in the
Aulirian, would have been alone a fufficient explanation.
The war between the l urks and Auftrians was carried
on-with various fuccefs. At firft the advantage was evi¬
dently on the fide of the Ottomans, and the imperial Jofeph
acquired no warlike renown. His declared purpofe was to
get poffeffion of Belgrade; from which however his enemies
repulfed him with dtfgrace. The prince of Saxe-Cobourg
in his department of the war difplayed indeed prodigies of
valour; but being oppofed to a fuperior force, he was long
obliged to aft only on the defenfive- At length, being join¬
ed by a body of Ruffian forces under general Soltikow, pre¬
parations were made for commencing in form the fiege of
Chct zim, which was furrendered to the allied armies on Mi¬
chaelmas day 1788, after a defence which would have done
honour to the abkft general in Europe. Still, however, fuc¬
cefs feemed to lean to the Turks. The grand vizir made a
fudden incurfion into the Bannat, and fpread confternation
and difmay to the very gates of Vienna. The Auftrian af¬
fairs feemed approaching to a very alarming crifis; not only
the fplendid views of conqueft which were beheld in the ima¬
gined partition of a tottering empire had totally diiappeared,
but had left in their place the fad and gloomy reverfe of a
difcontented and impoveriihed people, an exhaufted treafury,
and an army thinned by peftilence and defertion. The firft
campaign of an invafive war had already produced an impref-
iion on the territory of the invader.
In this fituation of affairs Marfhal Laudohn was with fome
difficulty drawn from his retirement to take the command of
the army in Croatia; and under his aufpices fortune began
to fmile on the Auftrian arms. He quickly reduced Dubic-
za and Nevi, though they were both defended with the
moft obftinate bravery. He then fat down before Turkiffi
Gradifca ; but the autumnal rains coming on with fuch vio¬
lence that the Saave overflowed its banks, he was compelled
to raife the fiege. During this period the war in the Ban¬
nat raged with the utmoft violence; torrents of blood were
fhed on both tides ; much defperate valour difplayed on the
cne fide, and many brave aftions performed on the other ;
while a very great part of that fine but unfortunate country
fuffertd ail the defoiation and ruin that fire and fword, under
the dominion of vengeance and animofity, could inflift. The
inhabitants were ofcjefts of commiferation ; but the injuftice
with which the emperor had commenced the war made his
perfonal Ioffes be confidered as nothing more than the due
reward of his conduft.
Hitherto the Ruffians had hardly7 entered into the war;
jbut at laft they began to aft with vigour both by fea and
land. They experienced however a very general coldnefs
with refpeft to their claims, pretenlions, and defigns, in al-
moft all the courts of Europe. The court of London pro¬
hibited Britilh feamen from entering into foreign fervice, and
declared its refolutioa to obferve the ftrifteft neutrality. The
united provinces of Holland purfued the fame line of con¬
duft ; and fome of the ambitious views of Ruffia were thus
blafted. In the mean time a vail Ruffian army, eftimated
at 150,000 men, appeared on the banks of the river Bog,
adjoining to the confines of Poland, Turkey, and Taitary,
and on the way to the Black Sea, under the orders of prince
Potemkin and general ilemanzow > thefe being affifted by
prince Repnin, general Soltikow, and other commanders of Turkey,
note. This great force was fupported by a field train of 137 '—“V—
pieces of artillery7,befides a vaft park of heavy battering cannon
and mortars, deftined for the fiege of Oczakow; and furnifh-
ed with that exuberance of powder, ball, ihells, and all man¬
ner of military machines, which are the ufual concomitants
of a Ruffian army. After the moft obftinate defence, Oc- Rufluns
zakow was taken on the 17th of December 1788, and theca^c Otz*.
governor baiha giaced the triumphant return of prince Po-ltoM"
temkin to Peterfburgh. In the mean time Ruffia found her-
felf attacked by a new and formidable enemy in the Swedifh
monarch, of whofe exploits vre have given an account elle-
where (fee Sweden, n° 246.) ; and by his interference her
conqucfts were certainly retarded. 90
Marflial Laudohn renewed his attemps upon Gradifca as St adifca
foon as the feafon would permit, and after a brave defence it
fell into his hands. This with fome other fucceffes roufed 5a
the emperor from his inaftivity, and made him ferioufly de-dohu.
termine upon the attack which he had long meditated upon
Belgrade. The enterprize was entrufted to Laudohn, who,
with that good fortune which feemed conftantly to attend
him, made himfelf mafter of the place in iefs than a month.
The reft of the campaign was little elfe than a fucceffion of
the moft important fucceffes; and a circumftance that did not
a little contribute to this, was the fyftem adopted by the
Auftrians and Ruffians, of fuffering the Turkifli troops to
march out of the feveral places they garrifoned without mo-
leftation. Accordingly, while one detachment of general
Laudohn’s, forces took poffeffion of Czernitz in Walachia,
another made itfelf mafter of Cladova in Servia. Buchareft,
the capital of the former of thele provinces, fell without op-
pofition into the hands of prince Cobours7; while Akerman
on the Black Sea was reduced by the Ruffians; and Bender
furrendered to prince Potemkin, not without fufpicion of
finifter praftices, on the 15th of November. 91
Soon after this, the emperor Jofeph died, and his fuccef-The empe-
for Leopold ffiowed a defirc for peace. After the redu&ion ™
of Orfova, therefore, which happened on the 16th of April)uccelyof
1790, the war was carried on with languor on the part of concludes
Auftria ; and in the month of June a conference was agreed a peace,
upon at Rrichenbach, at which the minifters of Pruffia,
Auftria, England, and the United Provinces, affifted, and at
which alfo an envoy from Poland was occafionally prefent.
After a negotiation, which continued till the 17th of Au-
guft, it was agreed that a peace fhould be concluded between
the king of Hungary and the Ottoman Porte; that the bafis
of this treaty fhould be a general furrender of all the conquefts
made by the former, retaining only Choczim as a fecurity till
the Porte fhould accede to the terms of the agreement, when
it was alfo to be reftored. Catherine was thus deprived of an
ally, but ftill (he continued the war. On the 2 2d of Decem¬
ber 1790, the fortrefs ot Ifmail was taken by ftorm by ge¬
neral Suwa row ; and it is faid that the fiege and the cap- 91
ture did not coft the Ruffians lefs than 10,000 men. TheSuccefs of
moft (hocking part of the tranfaftion is, that the garrifon rlie
(whole bravery merited, and would have received trom a ge
nerous foe, the higheft honours) were maffacred in cold
blood by the mercilefs Ruffians, to the amount of, by their
own account, upwards of 30,000 men ; and the place was
given up to the unreftrained fury of the brutal foldiery. Af¬
ter this bloody feene, the Ruffians went into winter quarters;
the vizir retired towards Conftantinople, and on his return
fell a facrifice to the fanguinary policy which has long dif-
graced the Ottoman counfels.
The campaign of 1791 opened on the part of Ruffia with
the taking of Maczin, on the 4th of April, by prince Gal-
litzin ; and in a fubfequent viftory on the 12th by the lame
general, in the neighbourhood of iirailow, the Turks loft not
lefs
T U R [ <5o
Turkey, lefs than 4000 men and upwards of ico officers, befides ma-
--v n/pieces of cannon. On the 14th the Ruffian arms expe¬
rienced a check, by which they loft about 70c men, and were
obliged to relinquifh the intention of befieging Brailovv. Af¬
ter reinforcing this place, the vizir proceeded to the banks
of the Danube near Siliftria; and, by means of a bridge
which he threw acrofs the river, his advanced pofts were
enabled to make incurfions on the oppoftte fide. The abi¬
lity of the vizir and the valour of the Turks were however
exerted in vain againft the difeipline and experience of Eu¬
ropean armies. In the month of June, 15,000 lurks were
defeated by a party of cavalry under general Kutufow. On
the 3d of July the fortrefs of Anape was taken by general
Gudowitfch, and the garrifon, to the amount of 6000 men,
made prifoners. This event was followed, on the 9th °f tfie
fame month, by a fignal vidtory which prince Repnin obtain¬
ed near Maczin over a body of 70,000, the flower of the
Turkifh army. The Ottomans left upwards of 4000 dead
upon the field of battle, and loft their entire camp equipage,
colours, and 30 pieces of cannon. The Ruflians are laid to
93 have loft only 1 50 men killed, and between 200 and 300
Peace is at wounded. At laft peace was reftored between the Porte and
laft conclu- principally through the mediation of Great Britain
and the northern powers. Catherine, who talked high at
firft, confined her views at length to the pofleffion of Ocza-
kow, with the diftrift extending from the Bog to the Nief-
ter, and even then providing for the free navigation of the
latter river. Thefe terms, confidering the ill fuccefs of the
war, cannot be accounted very difadvantageous to the Porte,
who has loft a fortrefs more ufeful for the purpofe of annoy¬
ing Ruffia than for defending their own territories; but cer¬
tainly of confiderable importance to Rufiia, which, by this
ceffion, has fecured the peaceable enjoyment of the Crimea.
Account of The Turkifh empire comprehends ieveral countries in Eu-
the Turk- rope, Afia, and Africa. I» Europe it is bounded on the fouth
by the Mediterranean ; on the north by Croatia, Sclavonia,
and Tranfylvania ; on the eaft by Poland, Ruflia, and Afia ;
and on the weft by the Adriatic and Dalmatia. 1. he prin¬
cipal countries of Turkey in Europe are Romania, Bulgaria,
Servia, Walachia, Moldavia, Beffarabia, Greece, Macedonia,
Albania, Theffaly, Levadia, Morea, and the Archipelago
iflands. Turkey in Afia is divided into Eaftern and.Weft-
ern. The Eaftern comprehends Georgia, Turcomania, and
Dearbekr; and the Weftern, Anatolia, or Afia Minor, Syria,
and Paleftine.—In Africa the Turkifh dominions are Egypt,
and fome diftri&s of Barbary. But for an account of thefe
different countries, fee the articles as they occur in the order
of the alphabet.
The grand fignior, or emperor of the Turks, is reftrained
See hTur-ky no ^aws or cornPa&s> government being purely mo-
tey. narchical: but if he indulges not the humours of the people,
and efpecially of the mutinous janifaries, he is in danger not
only of being depofed, but alfo of being put to death. Thofe
who have offices under the government he iqueez.es, difgraces,
and puts to death, upon the leaft fuggeftion of their dilaffec-
tion or mi'fcondudt, without giving them an opportunity of
anfwering for themielves, they being looked upon as more
immediately his Haves : but others feem to enjoy almoft as
great a degree of fecurity, both in their perions and proper¬
ties, as the fubje&s of other abfolute monarchies. Indeed,
in all fuch there is a gradation of governors and officers, of
which the higher fleece and opprefs thofe below them, and
the loweft make reprifals upon the common people. In the
fucceflion to the empire, no regard is paid to a e or birth¬
right, the Turks thinking it lufficient if, in their eleftions,
they keep to the family. Women are excluded from the
throne. The emperor’s council is either ordinary or extra¬
ordinary. The fitft, meeting every Sunday and Thurlday,
iih Comi
nions.
95
Of the go¬
vernment,
3 ] T U R
confiits of the great officers of ftate, and is called the gatibe Turkey.
diva n't. To the other, which is called ajack divani, are fum-
rr.oned all the great perfons and officers of the empire, and
even the oldeft and moft experienced foldiers. The fultan
hears what paffes from an adjoining chamber. At the head
of the miniftry is the grand vizir, who is as it were his lieu¬
tenant-general, with whom he divides, or rather to whom he
leaves, the care of the whole empire; he being entrufted not
only with the finances, with foreign affairs, and the admini-
ftration of juftice in civil and criminal matters, but alfo with
the conduft of the war, and the command of * the army.
Great and dangerous as this charge is, there have been men
who have executed it with fafety and fuccefs both in peace
and war, and have died quietly in their beds; but that js not
the cafe with the moft of them, it being the ufual policy of
the emperors to fhelter themfelves from the clamours of the
people by throwing the whole blame of any mal-adminiftra-
tion upon him, and giving him up to the public refentment.
Elis income, without any breach of probity, may amount to
6co,ooo dollars, exclufive of prefents and other perquifites.
Notwithftanding his high dignity, his palace is open to every¬
one, and he gives audience to the meaneft of the poor. When
the fultan names a grand vizir, he puts into his hand the feal
of the empire; and when he honours him with the command
of an army, he takes out one of the plumes of his own tur¬
ban at the head of the troops, and delivers it to him to place
it in his own. The other great officers of ftate are the kai-
makan, or vizir’s deputy, not to be confounded with the go¬
vernor of Conftantinople, who is alfo called kaimakan ; the
vizirs of the bench, or bafhas of three horfe-tails, becaufe
three horfe-tails are carried before them when they march,
and who fit in the divan or courts of juftice with him ; the
kadinlafquiers, or chief juftices of provinces; the beiglerbegs
or viceroys, of which the chief are thofe of Romelia, Nato-
lia, and Damafcus; the ordinary bafhas or governors of towns
and diftrifts under the beiglcrbegs; the reis effendi, or lord
chancellor and fecretary of ftate ; the tefterder or high trea-
furer ; the aga of the janifaries ; the aga of the fpahis ; the
aga of the filuds, &c. The chief officers of the feraglio are
the kiflaragafi, who is fuperintendant of the women, and has-
the command of all the black eunuchs; the capi aga, who
has the command of all the white eunuchs, and to whom all.
petitions to be prefented to the prnce are delivered. Both
thefe are alfo eunuchs, and of the fame complexion as thofe
of whom they have the command. Befides the women and-
eunuchs, there are in the feraglio the ichoglans and aza-
moglans, mutes, dwarfs, and buffoons. The ichoglans are-
young men bred up in the feraglio, not only to ferve about
the prince, but to fill in time the firft pofts of the empire.
The azamogkns are trained up there for inferior employ¬
ments.
No children are admittedjnto the feraglios of Conftanti¬
nople, Pera, or Adrianople, till they are firft reviewed and-
approved of by the grand fignior. They are generally ths
moft beautiful, well-made, and fprightly, that can be met
with. They are firft taught, after being circumcifed,
filence and a modeft humble behaviour. Then they are in-
ftrufted in the Mohammedan religion, to fpcak and write
the Turkifti language, and afterwards the Perfian and Ara-i
bic. As they grow' up, they are taught manly exercifes,
and whatever is thought requifite to qualify them for llate-
employments : but they are feldom preferred out of the
feraglio until the age of 40.
The ladies of the haram are a colledlion of young beauti¬
ful virgins, either the prefents of governors, purchafed, or
captives taken in war ; moft of them being the children of
Chriftian parents. They are taught mufic, dancing, and
other accompliffiments, and furniffied with the richeft clothe*
and.
T TJ R r 606 ] T U R
Turtey. and ornaments Some of them frequently play and dance
— before the grand lignior, while others divert him with their
converfation. They have a great many female flaves to
wait on them ; but are fcarce ever fuffered to go abroad,
except when the grand fignior changes his place of reli-
dence; when a troop of black eunuchs convey them to the
boats, which are enclofed with lattices : and when they go
by land, they are put into clofe chariots, and iignals made
at certain diltances, to give notice that none may approach
96 the road through which they are to pafs.
£ The Turks are generally robuft and well-fhaped, of a
&c. of the g00^ mjen> and patient of hardfhips, which render them fit
Turks. for war. They (have their heads ; but wear their beards
long, except the military and thofe in the feraglio, who wear
only whifkers. They cover their heads with a white linen
turban of an enormous fize, and never pull it oft but when
they fleep. None but Turks mull prefume to wear a white
turban. Their breeches or drawers are of a piece with
their {lockings ; and they have flippers inftead of {hoes,
which they pull off when they enter a temple or houfe.
They wear fhirts, with wide fleeves, not gathered at the
wrifts, and over them a veil tied with a lalli; their upper
garment being a loofe gown, fomething ihorter than the
veil.
The 'women’s drefs pretty much refembles that of the
men ; only they have a {liffened cap with horns, fomething
like a mitre, on their heads initead of a turban, and wear
their hair flowing down. "When they go abroad, they are
fo wrapped up, that their faces cannot be feen.
The Turks fit, eat, and fleep, according to the cuflom of
the call, on fophas- or cufhions, mattrefies, and carpets.
Rice is their moll general food, and coffee their common
drink. Their moil ufual falutation is to bow the head a
little, laying the right hand on their breafts ; but to perfons
of rank theyjloop fo low' as to touch the border of their veil.
The women are kept under a rigorous confinement. They
have generally delicate {kins, regular features, black hair
-and eyes, with an admirable cheft. Many of them are com¬
plete beauties. Their cleanlinefs is extraordinary ; for they
bathe twice a-week, and fufler not the fmallefl hair or the
leafl foil to be upon their bodies. As to the qualities of their
minds, they are faid to want neither wit, vivacity, nor tender-
ncls; and to be exceedingly amorous. It is no doubt for
this reafon that the men never fuffer their wives faces to be
feen, not even by the deareil friend they have in the world.
There is no need of much wit to behave one’s felf well
here ; for a good mien and gravity fupply the place of merit
in the call, and much gaiety would fpoil all. Not that the
Turks want wit; but they fpeak little, and pride themfelves
in fincerity and modeily more than eloquence. The Turks
ufe no unneceflary words, whereas the Greeks talk inceflant-
ly. I hough thele two nations are born under one climate,
their tempers are more different than if they lived in the
moft diftant countries. ’I he Turks make profeflion of can¬
dour and faithfulncfs, and are a charitable good-natured
people, jealoufy excepted, and very fober. On the other hand,
they are extremely proud, infolent, indolent, fuperftitious,
and covetous. I hey are alfo much addicted to unnatural
lulls ; and defpife all other nations in general, cfpecially thofe
which are not of their religion. The common appellation
that they give the Chriftians is that of dogs. An uniformi¬
ty runs through all the aftions of the Turks, and they never
change their manner of living. They feem to have no kind
of genius for the improvement of the arts and fciences,
though they live under the influence of the fame heaven,
and poffefs the fame countries, as the ancient Grecians did.
They generally loiter away their time, either among the
women in the haiam, or in fmoking or taking opium ; and
though they herd together, you will obferve as little cor- Turkey,
verfation among them as amongfl fo many horfes in a liable.
d. hey feldom travel, or ufe any exercile or rural fports ;
and difcover little or no curiofity to be informed of the flate
of their own or any other country : but Turkey, after all,
is not without men of parts, probity, and honour ; nor with¬
out benevolent, liberal, converfible, and ingenious people.
They behave very commendably to their flaves and fervants,
and frequently better than the Chriftians do to theirs.
There are no hereditary governments or titles of nobility in
Turkey; and indeed the commonalty there enjoys the
greatefl liberty.
The languages fpoken in Turkey in Europe are the^an“'ua?e»
Turkifh and Tartarian, which have a great affinity to one?nd *earn*
another; the modern Greek, wfoich differs widely from theUlb*
ancient ; the Sclavonian, and Walachian. The Arabic is
the language of the learned. Learning is at a very low
ebb among the Turks : however, they have feme fchools,
colleges, and academies; but they are on a very different
footing from thofe among us. Not many years fince a
printing-houfe was fet up at Conftantinople, where books of
all kinds were allowed to be printed, except on matters of
religion. The moft ingenious Muffelmen employ themfelves
in reading the Alcoran and the commentators upon it, to
which almoft all their learning is confined. Some of them
amufe themfelves with poetry, in which they are faid to
fucceed very well. Other Turks delight in mufre, and fpend
the whole day in playing upon an inftrument, without be¬
ing tired, though they only repeat the fame tune. It is
faid there are a great many manuferipts in the Turkiffi, A-
rabian, and Perfian languages, among the Turks ; but it is
not to be fuppofed that they contain any very deep, folid,
ingenious, or uleful learning. ^.
The Turkifh regular troops are the fpahis and timar-
fpahis, who are light-horfe. The latter, who have eftates
in land affigned them inftead of pay, are obliged to bring a
certain number of flaves into the field with them. The tri¬
butary princes of Moldavia and Walachia, and the Crim
Tartars, are alio obliged to fend auxiliaries. But the flower
of the Turkifh army confifts of the janifaries, who amount
to about 40,000, and are all infantry. They have parti¬
cular privileges, being fubjeft to no jurifdi£lion but that of
their aga or commander T heir pay is three afpers a-day,
befides vi&uals, and a fuit of clothes every year. They arc
all lodged at Conftantinople together in a fort of barracks,
having been educated in the feraglio, and trained up to the
exercile of arms from their infancy. Befides the janifaries,
there is another body of foot called caph. The whole
Turkifh army, regulars and irregulars, amounts to above
300,000 men. Belides the true janifaries, or janifaries of
the perte, and in ablual pay, there are great numbers all
over the empire, who procure themfelves to be re^iHered in
this body, in order to be entitled to their privileges. The
bachelors only are capable of bearing offices in the barracks
or chambers at Conftantinople. When any of the janifaries
are difabled in the fervice, they have an allowance for life.
To diftinguifh then), they wear a cap of a particular make.
The emperor’s guards are compofed of them, and they arc
feared and reipefted everywhere, though they carry only a
cane in their hand ; for arms are not delivered to them but
when they take the field. The chief commanders of the
army are diftinguifhed by two or three horfe-tails carried be¬
fore them. The Turkifh navy is not fo conliderable aa
might be expelled in fuch extenfive dominions, fituated on
feveral feas, and abounding in commodious harbours. By
their neglefting navigation and foreign commerce, they can
never find tailors to man a great fleet; and thofe they have
are unfkilful, as well as their pilots and officers. If they
would
T IT R
Turkey, would apply tliemfelves to navigation
v—^ their fituation and advantages, they could not tail to become
a very formidable maritime power. Their navy generally
confifts of about 40 large fhips, exclufive of galleys. In
time of war they hire or buy merchant-(hips, and others are
fent them from Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. The captain-
bafl'.a, or admiral, is the fecond officer in the empire, the
grand vizir being the only officer above him. His power
is abfolute when he is out of the Dardanelles ; and not
only the fea-officers, but all the governors of the maritime
provinces, receive orders from him. The pilots are mollly
Greeks, and the captains renegadoes. The captain-bafha
fails round the Archipelago, in fummer, to colledl the capi¬
tation-tax, and learn the ftate of affairs in thole parts.
The revenues of the empire are paid either into the pub¬
lic treafury, or into the fultan’s private treafury. The
former, called by the Turks deitahr.ali mujlimim, i. e. the
public money of the Mujfulmen, is not to be touched but on the
mod preffing exigency of the ftate. The other the fultan
may difpofe of at pleafure. Prince Cantimir fays, in his
time, 27,000 purfes, amounting to 13,000,000 and a half
of crowns, were annually returned to both treafuries ; ari-
fing from the produce of the cuftoms, demefne lands, the
capitation or tax paid by every fubjedl of the empire who
is not of the Mahometan religion ; the annual tributes paid
by the cham of the Crim Tartars, the princes of Moldavia,
Walachia, the little republic of Ragufa, and part of Min-
grelia ; together with half a million of money out of a mil¬
lion and a half levied annually in Egypt. Thefe are the
fixed revenues : but vaft fums are alfo raifed by the con-
fiications of the eftates and effedls of the bafhas and other
officers, and from the eftates of Turks dying without male
iffue.
The manufa&ures and commodities of Turkey are, filks,
carpets, goat’s hair, wool, camel’s hair, cotton-yarn, dimi-
*y> burdets, waxed linen, fhagreen blue, red, and yel¬
low Morocco leather; coffee, rhubarb, turpentine, ftorax,
gums, opium, galls, maftic, emery, lemnian bole, pomegra-
nate-fhells, fponges, dates, almonds, wine, oil, figs, raifins,
mother-of pearl, boxwood, faffron, &c. Thefe are export¬
ed in large quantities by the feveral European trading nations,
who import their own goods and purchafe thofe of the
country. The inland trade is carried on chiefly by the
Jews and Armenians ; and even the Turks fend merehan-
dife, both by land and water, from one part of the empire to
another, but not to foreign Chriftian countries. No nation
is more advantageoufly fituated for traffic than the Turkifh ;
having the navigation of the Black Sea, the Levant, and
the Red Sea ; and confequently greater opportunities of im¬
porting the rich merchandifes of the Eaft, and diftributing
them all over Europe, than any maritime power : but they
never attempt diftant voyages, and have but few merchant-
fhips, both their imports and exports being chiefly made
in foreign bottoms. Tyre, Sidon, and Alexandria, which
once commanded the navigation and trade of the world, are
in their poffeffion, but make no figure in commerce at this
day : and well it is for the Chriftians that the Turks are
fuch an indolent generation ; for their fituation and vaft
extent of empire would enable them to monopolize the trade
of the world, if they attended to it. Several European
Chriftian nations have envoys and refidents at Conftantino-
ple, and confuls in other ports. In this empire there
is a great traffic in the human fpecies: rot only male
flaves, but beautiful young girls, being publicly bought and
fold.
i he empire is ftyled the Ottoman kingdom or empire,
the Ottoman Porte, the Sublime Porte, the Sublime Sul-
tauian Porte, &c. The appellation of Forte is laid to be
[ 607 1 T U R
and make the m©fl of derived from the large gate built by Mohatnmetl II. at the Turmeric
entrance of the feraglio at Conftantinople ; though the
Orientals in general call a royal palace the king’s porte or gate
TURMERIC, in botany. See Curcuma.
TURNEBUS (Adrian), an eminent French critic, was
born in 1512. His true name was Turnbull. He was the
fon of a Scotchman, an officer in the Scotch troop of guards,
who married a Norman lady. The fon, who is the fubjedt of
this article, changed his name into Tourneboeuf; but this
name giving occafion for puns, he varied it to Turnebe, in
Latin Tiunebus. He acquired fo extenfive a reputation by
his learning, that he had great offers made him from Italy,
Germany, and England ; but we are told he preferred po¬
verty in his own country to riches in any other. He taught
polite literature fir ft at Touloufe ; but in 1547 went to be
Greek profeffor at Paris, whither his name drew fcholars to
him from all parts of Europe : in 1552, he took upon him
the care of the royal Greek prefs for three years, when he
quitted it on being admitted into the number of royal pro-
feffots. He died in 1565 ; and his works, which are all in
Latin, were printed at Strafburg, in one vol. folio, 1600.
His Adverfaria, 3 vols folio, had been printed at Paris be¬
fore.
TURNEP, in botany, a fpecies of Brassica. For the
culture of them, fee Agriculture, n° 151.
TuRNEP-Bread. See Bread.
TuRNEP-Fly. See Chrysomala.
TURNING, the art of forming hard bodies, as wood,
ivory, iron, into a round or oval fhape by means of a machine
called a lathe.
This art was well known to the ancients, and feems to
have been carried by them to a very great degree of per¬
fection ; at leaft, if we believe the teftimony of Pliny and
feveral other authors, who tell us, that thofe precious vafes
enriched with figures in half relief which ftill adorn our
cabinets, were turned on the lathe.
The art of turning is of confiderable importance, as it con¬
tributes effentially to the perfection of many other arts.
The architect ufes it tor many ornaments, both within and
without highly finifhed houfes. The mathematician, the
aftronomer, and the natural philofopher, have recourfe to it,,
not only to embelliflt their inftruments, but alfo to give them
the neceffary dimenfion and precilion. In (hort, it is an art
abfokitely neceffary to the goldfmith, the watchmaker, the
joiner, the fmith.
Turning is performed by the lathe, of which there are
various kinds, and feveral inftruments, as gouges, chifelsr
drills, formers, ferew tales, ufed for cutting what is to be
turned into its proper form as the lathe turns round. One
of the moft fimple kinds of lathe is reprefented in Plate DXL-
fig. 1. in which a is the footftool, b the cord, c the frarne.
of the lathe, dd the puppets, e e the points,/the fpanging-
tree.
The lathe fhould be fixed in a place very well lighted ; it
fhould be immoveable, and neither too high nor too low..
The puppets fhould neither boffi low as to oblige the wprk-
man to iloop in order to fee his work properly, nor fo high
that the little chips, which he is continually driving eff,
fhould come into his eyes.
The piece to be turned fhould be rounded (if it be wood)
before it be put on the lathe, either with a irnall hatchet
made for the purpofe, or with a plane,, or v/ith a file, fixing
it in a vice, and fhaving it down till it is everywhere almolt
of an equal thicknefs, and leaving it a little bigger than it
is intended to be when fin'ftied off. Before putting it on-
the lathe, it is alfo neceffary to find the centres of its two.
end furfaces, and that they (hould be exaCtly oppofite to.
each other, that when the pdnti of the puppets are applied.
tOB
Turning.
T U R
Tu?n!nf, to them, and the piece is turned round, no fid
out more than another. To find thele two centres, lay the
piece of wood to be turned upon a plank ; open a pair of
compafles to almoft half the thicknefs of the piece ; fix one
of the legs in the plank, and let the point of the other touch
one of the ends of the piece, brought into the fame plane
with the plank on which the compafies is fixed and very
near the fixed leg. Defcribe four arches on that end at
equal diflances from each other at the circumferer.ce of
the end, but interfecHng one another within ; the point of
interfeftion is the centre of the end. In the fame manner
muft the centre of the other end be found. After finding
the two centres, make a fmall hole at each of them, into
which infert the points of the puppets, and fix the piece fo
firmly as not to be fhaken out, andyetloofe enough to turn
round without difficulty.
The piece being thus fixed, it is neceffary in the next
place to adjuft the cord, by making it pafs twice round the
piece, and in fuch a manner that the two ends of the cord,
both that which is fixed to the fpang and to the foot-board,
come off on the fide on which the turner Hands, that the
piece many move againft the edge of the cutting.tool and
be turned. If the lathe be moved by a wheel, the manmer
of adjuftingthe cord needs no diredlions.
If the workman does not choofe to be at the trouble to
find the two centres of the piece in the manner delcribed
above, let him lay, as nearly as he can, the centre of one
end upon the paint of the left hand puppet, and then let him
pufh forward the right hand puppet, ftrlking it with a mallet
till its point is as near as he can in the centre of the other
end of the piece ; and then fixing the right hand puppet by
a gentle blow of the mallet ©n the key. let him turn round
the piece to fee by the eye if the centres have been proper¬
ly found. If any part of it bellies out, let him ftrike that
pare gently with the mallet till it goes properly ; then lei him
ffrike one of the puppets pretty fmartly to drive the points
into the piece, and afterwards fix the puppet by itriking
the key. If the workman cannot judge by the eye whether
the piece be turning properly round its centres or not, he
ffiould apply gently the point o<- an inftrument called a tri-
angu/ar graver., leaning it on the rifi, and it will mark by a
line the place where the piece is out or its centre; and by
ftriking upon this line with a mallet, the piece can eafily be
placed properly. f he rejl, of which we have juft fpoken,
ought to be placed upon the two arms of the lathe, and fixed
with ferews as near the piece as the workman pleafes.
The piece being fixed between the two points of the
puppets (or, as we call them in Scotland, the bead*), the
cord adjufted, and the reji fixed as near the work as poffible
without touching it; the workman is now to take a gouge
(fig. 2. in which a is the mouth and b the handle) of a pro¬
per fize in his left hand, and hold it by the handle a little
inclined, keeping the back of the hand lowermoft. With
his right hand, the back oi which is to be turned upwards,
he is to grafp it as near the end as pofllble on this fide of
the rfi; then leaning the gouge on the reji, he is to pre-
fent the edge ot it a little higher than the horizontal dia¬
meter of the piece, fo as to form a kind of tangent to its
circumference; then putting the right foot on the foot-board,
and turning round the wheel, and holding the gouge firmly
on the reji, the piece will be cut neatly. In the iame man¬
ner are the chifels, formers, and other inftrumenrs to be
jifed, taking care that the wood be cut equally, and that the
inftrument be not pufhed improperly, fometimes ftronger
than at others; and taking care alio that the inftrument
ufed do not follow the work, but that it be kept firmly in
the hand without yielding.
The young turner ought to endeavour to acquire the
[ 6c8 1 T U R
may belly management of the gouge and the chifel, which are the in-
ftruments by far the moft frequently ufed, and the moft '
neceffary in this art : by them, almoft entirely, are the foft
woods turned; for as for hard woods and other things, ag
box, ebony, horn, ivory, and the metals, they are hardly
ever turned except by fiaving of. In that cafe gravers are
to be ufed with fquare, round, or triangular mouths (fig. 3,
4, 5.). They fhould be held horizontally while applied to
the wood, and not obliquely as directed for the gouge and
the chifel.
After the work is completely turned, it is next to be
polifhed ; and this cannot be done with the inilruments
hitherto mentioned. Soft woods, as pear-tree, hazle, maple,
ought to be polifhed with fhark fkin or Dutch ruftres. There
are different fpecies of fharks ; feme of which have a greyifh,
others a reddifh fkin. Shark fkin is always the better to be
a good deal ufed ; at firft it is too rough for policing. The
Dutch-rujh is the equifetum hyemale of Linnaeus, which
grows in moift places among mountains, and is a native of
Scotland; it has a naked, fimple, round ftem, about the
thicknefs of a writing pen. The oldeft plants are the beft.
Before ufing them they fhould be moiftened a little, other-
wife they break in pieces almoft immediately, and render it
exceedingly difficult to polifh with them. They are par¬
ticularly proper for fmoothing the hard woods, as box, lig¬
num vitae, ebony, &c. After having cleaned up the piece
well, it fhould be rubbed gently either with wax or olive-
oil, then wiped clean and rubbed with its own rafpings or with
a cloth a little worn. Ivory, horn, filver, and brafs, are polifh¬
ed with pumice-ftone finely pounded and put upon leather
or a linen cloth a little moiftened ; with this the piece is
rubbed as it turns round in the lathe; and to prevent any dirt
from adhering to any part of it, every now and then it is
rubbed gently with a fmall bmfh dipt in water. To polifh
very finely, the workmen make ufe of tripoli, a particular
kind of earth, and afterwards of putty or calx of t>n. Iron
and fteel are polifhed with very fine powder of emery ; this
is mixed with oil, and put between two pieces of very tender
wood, and then the iron is rubbed with it. Tin and filver
are polifhed with a bursifher and that kind of red flone
called in France fanguine dune. They may be polifhed alfo
with putty, putting it dry into fhammy-fkin, or with the
palm of the hand.
To fucceed in turning iron, it is neceffary to have a lathe
-exceedingly ftrong in all its parts, and exceedingly well
fixed. The puppets fhould be fhort, and the nji well fixed
very near the work: the back of the reji fhould be two or
three lines lower than the iron to be turned.
The lathe and other inftruments being prepared, it is ne¬
ceffary to determine the length and thicknefs of the iron to
be turned according to the defign which is to be executed,
and to make a model of it in wood a little thicker than it
ought to be: Then one exadftly like this is to be forged
of the beft iron that can be procured ; that is to fay, it
muft not be new, but well prepared and well beaten with
hammers ; it muft have no flaws, nor cracks, nor pimpks.
New iron, which has not been well beaten, often contains
round drops of caft iron, called by the workmen grains,
which blunt the edges of the gouges, chifels, and other in¬
ftruments ufed for cutting ; break them, or make them Aide.
The iron being forged according to the model, it fhould be
annealed, that is, heated red hot and allowed to cool flowly
on the coals till the fire go out of itfelb borne people, to
foften the iron, cover it over with clay and allow it to cool.
The iron cylinder being thus made, it is next to be put
upon the lathe, finding the centres as formerly directed, and
boring a fmall hole in them that the iron many not efcape
from the points.
T«rn;ir|f,
The
Timing.
T U R [ 609 ] TUP.
The points ihould be oiled from time to time to prevent
their being exceflively heated and fpoiled while the iron is
turning. A crotikrt is then to be applied to the iron to be
turned, a little above its centre pretty gently, and by this
means the inequalities of the cylinder will be taken off.
Other inftruments are then to be applied to mold the iron
according to the model; and whenever any of them grow
hot, they are to be plunged into a bafon of water lying be-
i'de the workman. If the iron, after being properly turned,
is to be bored like a gun-barrel, one of the puppets is to be
removed and another fubftituted in its place, having a fquare
hole through it, into which the collar of the iron is to be fix¬
ed firmly, fo as not to fhake ; then borers are to be applied,
like thofe which lockfmiths ufe to bore keys; and begin¬
ning with a fmall one, and afterwards taking larger ones,
the hole is to be made as wide and deep as neceffary ; great
care mufl. be taken to held the borers firm on the rejl, other-
wife there is danger of not boring the hole ftraight. The
borer muft be withdrawn from time to time to oil it and to
clean the hole. Since it is difficult to make a hole quite
round wdth borers alone, it is neceflary to have alfo an in-
firument a good deal fmaller than the hole, one of the lides
o‘ which is fharp, very well tempered, and a little hollow in
the middle. This inltrument being fixed in a pretty long
handle, is to be applied with fteadinefs to the inner furface
of the hole, and it will entirely remove every inequality that
may have been there before its application.
We ihall now delcribe the manner of cutting a fetew
upon our cylinder. Some perfons make ufe of an inftru-
ment, confifting principally of a female ferew, for this pur-
pofe : but this is rather an improper inflrument ; for if one
preffes too violently, or inclines it ever fo little to the right
or left, he runs the greateft rifle of fpoiling the ferew. To
avoid this danger, lome perfons ufe it only to trace out the
lines of the ferew, and afterwards finifli it with a file. .But
there is a much better way of cutting a icrew; and it is this.
Take a tap for making a female Icrew, the threads of which
have been cut very accurately, and exaftly of the lize of the
ferew which you want; and having put it in the opening which
you have traced in the collar of the axis on which the ferew
is to be cut, folder it with tin, fal-ammoniac, and rofin, as
exa&ly correfponding to the axis as poffible. Take then a
puppet with a hole cut into a correfponding female ferew,
into which the male Icrew is to be put. The axis on which
the ferew is to be cut muft be placed exaftly horizontally
between the two puppets. The re// is then to be brought
as near as poffible to the place where the ferew is to be cut,
and a fmail hollow fhould be cut in that part of it which is
exaftly oppofite to the place where the ferew is to be cut,
to hold your inftrument finnly and prevent it from {baking.
The inftrument with which the ferew is to be cut ffiould be
very {harp, and its point {hould make an angle of 6o° wuth
the icrew to be cut; and if you wifh the ferew to be cut
very deep, it ffiould make an angle a little larger. The
lathe being now put in motion, the tap fixed at the end of
the axis will move gradually through the female ferew in the
puppet; and your inftrument in the mean time will trace a
fimilar male {crew on the axis fixed in the lathe. Many per¬
fons, after having in this manner drawn the outlines of the
ferew, finiffii it with a fcreu’-tale of three teeth correfpond¬
ing exaftly to the fize of the ferew, or with a triangular file;
but this laft method is rather improper.
This is the exafteft method of cutting ferews. There
is another method deferibed by F. Plumier, v'hich may
fometimes be or ufe. “ Cut (fays he) a fmall fillet of paper
large enough to cover that part of the axis which you mean
to cut into a ferew : then mark upon the two borders of
st, which join when it is rolled on the axis, the iargenefa
Vol, XVIII. Part II.
of the teeth of the ferew with a compafs. Having thus
marked the whole border at equal diftances, draw a ftraight
line from the firft point of the bolder to the fficond, from
the fecond to the third, and io on. You will have ieveral
oblique parallel lines equally diftaut from one another. Wra»
the fillet of paper thus marked upon the part of the axis
on which the ferew is to be traced, fo that the borders of
it touch without overlapping each other : then all the ex¬
tremities of theie lines meeting mutually, will trace out a
very exaft ferew ; and this you will mark upon the axis by
means of a knife formed into a-kind of fine faw by the ed^e
of another knife. This firft trace you are carefully to en¬
large with a fmall file till it becomes large enough to adm;t
the edge of a three-cornered file ; with which you cut a
little ; then, taking a proper ferew-tale, you introduce it
into the hollows already made ; and turning the lathe, you
are to follow the hollow of the icrew with this inftrument
till the ferew is finifhed.”
For turning ovals, a lathe of fomew'hat a different con-
ftruftion is uled. The axis or fpindie, having on it the
pulley over which the band-cord paffes for turning the lathe,
is fixed between the two puppets fo as to turn round eafily;
one end of it paffes through one of the puppets, and to it
is firmly fixed a circular plate of brafs, fo that it turns round
along with the fpindie. Upon this plate two brazen feg-
ments of circles are faftened, the circumferences of which,
cerrefpond to the circumference of the plate : their chords
are parallel, and equally diftant from the centre of the plate,
fo that they leave a diftance between them. They have a
groove in each of them : in thefe grooves another plate is
placed vffiich exaftly fills up the fpace between the two
grooves, but is fhorter than the diameter of the larger cir¬
cular plate on which it is laid. This plate is made to Aide
in the grooves. To its centre is fixed a fhort fpindie, on
which the piece of wood to be turned is fixed. When the
lathe is fet a going, the circular plate moves round, and
carries the piece along with it; the plate of brafs on which
the piece is fixed being fixed loofely in the grooves already
deferibed, Aides down a little every time that the grooves
become perpendicular to the floor (and therer-arc particular
contrivances to prevent it from Aiding down too far) ; and
by thefe two motions combined, the circular one of the
large plate, and the ftraight one of the fmall, the circum¬
ference of the piece of wood to be turned neceflarily de-
feribes an oval ; and gouges or other tools being applied in
the ufual manner fupported on the re/?, it is cut into an
oval accordingly. The fmall plate may be made to Aide
either more or lefs in the grooves ; and by this contrivance
the tranfverfe diameter of the oval, or rather ellipfe, may be
made longer or flrorter at pleafuie. Another, and ftill fimpler
method, if poffible, of turning ovals, is this : Take two
ovals of metal, exaftly of the fize ot the oval which you
intend to make ; fix them firmly on the fpindie of the lathe
fo as to turn round with it: fix between them the wood to
be turned ; and then it is eafy, by the help of chifels and
other tools, to cut it, as the lathe goes into exaftly the
figure of the external ovals. Or an oval may be formed
by placing the wood, or whatever is to receive that Ihaoe,
obliquely on the lathe. There are feveral other ingenious
methods of turning ; but our bounds do not permit us
to enter upon them. Wc fhall therefore conclude this ar¬
ticle with a number of receipts which every turner ought to
know.
1. The method of moulding boxes loth of Jhcll and horn.—
In the firft place, form a proper mould, which muft confift
of two pieces, vix. of a circle about halt an inch thick,
which ffiould Hope a little in order to draw out the mould¬
ed Aid] the more ealily j and a ring fitted to the outlide
4 H of
Turning,
TUB. [ 61
of the circle, fo that both together make the fhape of
a box. Thefe two pieces being adjufted. it is neceffary
to round the ihell to be moulded of fuch a fize that, when
moulded, it will be a little higher than the ring of the
mould, that there may be no deficiency. The mould is
then to be put into a prefs on a plate of iron, exaftly
under the fcrew of the piefs ; put then the (hell upon
the circle of the mould, fo that its centre alfo is exactly
©ppofite to the fcrew of the prefs : then take a piece of
wood formed into a truncated cone, and not fo thick' as the
diameter of the circle of the mould, nor fo deep as the ring:
then put a plate of iron above the cone, aH|l fcrew down
the prefs gently and cautioufly till the whole is well fixed :
then plunge the whole into a cauldron of boiling water
placed above a fire. In 8 or to minutes the ihell or horn
will begin to foften ; fcrew the prefs a little firmer that the
wooden cone may fink into the foftened fhell: repeat this
from time to time till the cone is quite funk in the mould ;
then take out the prefs and plunge it into col^i water.
When it is cold, take the box now formed out of the'mould,
and put into the infide of it a new mould of tin exa&ly of
the form you wish the infide of the box to be ; do the
-fame with the outfide, put it again into the prefs and plunge
it into boiling water; ferew the prefs gradually till the box
be fafhioned as you defire. , <
2. Method of preparing green wood fo that it will not fplit
in the turning.—Having cut your wood into pieces of a pro¬
per fize, put it into a veffel full of a ley made with wood afhes.
Toil it there about an hour ; then, taking the cauldron off
the fire, allow the ley to cool; then take out the ‘Wood and
dry it in the fhade.
3. Method of giving an elony-black to hard and fine woods.
•—After forming the wood into the deflined figure, rub it
with aquafortis a little diluted. Small thteads of wood will
rife in the drying, which you will rub off with pumice-ftone.
Repeat this procefs again, and then rub the wood with the
following compofition : Put into a glazed earthen veffel a
pint of ftrong vinegar, two ounces of fine iron-filings, and
half a pound of pounded galls, and allow them to infufe
for three or four hours on hot cinders. At the end of this
time augment the fire, and pour into the vefl'el four ounces
of.copperas (fulphat of iron), and a chopin of water having
half an ounce of borax and as much indigo diffolved in it ;
and make the whole boil till a froth rifes. Rub ieveial
layers of this upon your wood ; and when it is dry, polifh it
with leather, on which you have put a little tripoli.
4. Method of giving fo plum-tree the colour of bra%il wood.
— Slack lime with urine, and bedaub the wood over with
it while it is hot: allow it to dry ; then take off the coat
of lime and rub it with fhamoy ikin well oiled. Or, Iteep
your w’ood in water, having a quantity of alum difiblved rn
it : then, having allowed brazil wood to diffolve in water
five or fix hours, fteep your wood in it, kept lukewarm
during a night; and when it is dry, rub it, as before diredfi-
ed, with fhamoy fkin wrell oiled.
5. Method of giving a fine black colour to wood. — Steep
your wood for two or three days in lukewarm water in
which a little alum has been diffolved ; then put a handful
of logwood, cut fmall, into a pint of water, and boil it
down to lefs than half a pint. If you then add a little in¬
digo, the colour will be more beautiful. Spread a layer of
this liquor quite hot on your wood with a pencil, which
will give it a violet colour. When it is -cry, fpread on ano¬
ther layer ; dry it again and give it a third : then boil ver-
degrife at diferetion in its own vinegar, and fpread a layer of
it on your wood : when it is dry, rub it with a brufh, and
then with oiled fhamoy ikin. This gives a fine black, and
imitates perjt&ly the colour of ebony.
o ] TUB
6. Method of cleaning and whitening bones before ufing them. Turr.irg
—Having taken off with a law the ufelefs ends of the bones, II
make a ftrong ley of afhes and quick lime, and into a pailful t .01 e,|
of this ley put four ounces of alum, and boil the bones in it
for an hour ; then take the veffel containing the ley off the
fire and let it cool ; then take out the bones and dry them
in the fhade.
7. Method of fnldering Jhells.—Clean the two fides of the
fhells which you wifii to join together ; then, having joined
them, wrap them up in linen folded double and well moift-
ened; then heat two plates^of iron pretty hot that they
may keep their heat for fome time ; and putting your Hulls
rolled up between them under a prefs, which you mutt
fcrew very tight, leave them there till the whole is cold,
and they will be foldered. If you do not fucceed the firlt
time, repeat the procefs.
- 8. Method of moulding fsells.—Put fix pints of water into
a kettle ; add to it an ounce of o^ive or other oil; make
the water boil; then put in your fhdl, and it will grow foft.
Take it out and put it into a mould under a prefs, and
it will take the figure you want. 'This muft be done quick¬
ly ; for if the fhell cool ever fo little* the procefs will fail.
It will not require much preffure.
9. Method of tinging bones and ivory red.—Boil fhavings ,
of fcailet in water. When it begins to boil, throw in a
quarter of a pound of afhes made from the dregs of wine,
which will extratl the colour : then throw in a little rock
alu'm to clear it, and pafs the water through a linen cloth.
Steep your ivory or bone in aquafortis, and put it into the
water. If you wifh to leave white fpots, cove^ the places
deftined fer them with wax.
10. To tinge ivory black.—Steep the ivory during five
or fix days in water of galls with 'afhes made with dried
dregs of wine and arfenic; then give it two or three layers of
the fame black with which plum-tree is blackened, in order
to imitate ebony. Or, diffolve filver in aquafortis, and put
into it a little rofe water. Rub the ivory with this, and al¬
low it to dry in the fun.
11. Method of hardening wood to make pulleys.—After fi-
nifhing the pulley, boil it feven or eight minutes in olive oil,
and it will become as hard as copper.
12. To make Chinefe varnifh.— fake of gum lac in grains
four ounces ; put it into a ftrong bottle with a pound of
good fplvit of wine, and add about the bulk of a hazel nut
of camphor. Allow them to mix in lummer in the fun, or
in winter on hot embers for 24 hours, {baking the bottle
from time to time. Pafs the whole through a fine cloth,
and throw away what remains upon it. Then let it fettle
lor 24 hours, and you will find a clear part in the upper
part ol the bottle, which you muft feparate gently and
put in£o another vial, and the remains will ferve for the
firft layers.
TURNSTONE, in ornithology. See Tringa.
TURPENTINE, a tranfparent vifeous fubllance, flow¬
ing either naturally or by incifion from feveral unctuous or
refinous trees ; as the terebinthus, pine, larch, fir, &c. See
PinCts, p. 765 ; Chemistry -Index; Materia Medica,
the Table.
Oil of Turpentine. See Chemistry - Index ^ and Phar¬
macy, n° 174,
TURPETH, the cortical part of the root of a fpecies of
convolvulus, brought from the Eaft Indies. It is accounted
a pretty ftrong cathartic ; but it is very uncertain in its
ftrength, for fometimes a dole from a fcruple to a dram
purges violently^, while at other times a much greater dole
produces very little effedt.
TURQUOISE, is the tooth of an animal penetrated
with the blue ealx. of copper: it loies its colour when heated;
T U S [ 61
it is opaque, and of a lamellar texture, and fufceptible of
a fine polifh ; its fpecific gravity is from 2,5 to 2,908 ; feme
are of a deep blue, fome of a whitifh blue, but become ©f
a deeper when heated. This fubftance is found in Periia and
Languedoc. The copper may be extracted from it by di-
fiilled vinegar. According to Reaumur [Mem. Par. 17
nitrous acid will not diffolve that of Perfia, though it will
that of France, which (hows a difference between them.
TURRETIN (Francis), minifter and profeffor of divi¬
nity at Geneva, his native place, was born in 1623. Having
ftudied at Geneva, Leyden, Saumur, Montauban, and Nif-
mes, v/ith great fuccefs, he was admitted into the minillry in
1648, and ferved at the fame time the French and Italian
churches at Geneva. Two years after, he was offered the
profefforfhip of philofophy, whch he retuled ; but accepted
the invitation of the church of Lyons. He was recalled to
Geneva at a year’s expiration, becaufe he was wanted to
give leftures in divinity; which he began in 1653. He
was fent to Holland in 1661, to procure money which
the city of Geneva had occafron for. Fie had in that
journey all the fuccefs he could prornife himfelf; and gained
fuch a character there, that lie was ftrongly importuned
by the Walloon churches at the Hague and at Leyrden to
enter into their fervice. On his return he refumed the
functions of his place, and continued there till his death
with remarkable application. He died in 1687, with the
chaiafter of a man of great merit; eloquent, judicious, la¬
borious, learned, and zealous for orthodoxy. His works
wrere publifhed by his fon John Alphonfus, in 3 and in 4
vols 410.
TURRITIS, tower-mustard, in botany: A genus
of plants belonging to the clafs of tetradynamia, and to the
order of Jiliquofa ; and in the natural fyftem ranging under
the 39th order, Siliquofa. The filiqua is very long and
angulated ; the calyx connxvent and erefl ; the corolla is
alfo ereft. There are three fpecies ; two of which are na¬
tives of Great Britain, the glabra and hirfuta.
TURTLE, in ichthyology. See Testudo.
TuRTLR-Dove, in ornithology. See Columba.
TUSCAN order, in architefture. See Architec¬
ture, n° 42.
Tuscan Earth, a yellowifh kind of bole dug in many
parts of Italy, particularly about Florence, where there is
a ftratum of it eight or ten feet thick, at the depth of
five or fix feet from the furface. It is fuppofed to have an
aftringent property.
TUSCANY, a duchy of Italy, which makes part of the
ancient Hetruria, excepting fome fmall detatched parts, is
encompaffed by a part of the Mediterranean, called here the
Tufcan Sea ; the ecclefiaftical ftate ; the duchy of Mode¬
na ; and the republic of Lucca ; its extent from north to
fouth being about 1x6 Englifh miles, and from eaft to weft
about 80.
Though fome parts of it are mountainous, yet both the
hills and dales are covered with vines, olives, citron, lemon,
and orange trees, &c. The mountains yield alfo copper,
iron, alum, See. and fome quarries of the fineft marble and
porphyry. Here is alfo plenty of corn, rice, laffron, honey,
wax, wool, flax, hemp, with mineral waters, rich pafture,
falt-pits, fulphur, alabafter, chalcedony, lapis lazuli, borax,
amethyfts, cornelians, jafpers, quickfilver, cryftals, and black
flate. In fome places the elms and aflres yield manna.
T he principal river in Tufcany is the Arno, which has
its fource in the Appennine mountains, and falls into the
fea below Pifa. There are fome other fmaller rivers.
This duchy fell under the dominion of the Romans about
455 years before Chrift. The Oftrogeths poffeffed them-
ielves of it in the fifth century, and after them the Lom-
1 ] TUT-
bards, who were expelled by Charlemagne anno 800; in con-
fequence of which it became fubjeft to the German empe¬
rors, who appointed governors over it. At laft the cities
of Florence, Pifa, Sienna, and fome others, during the con¬
tentions between the pope and the emperor, and their re-
fpeftive adherents, the Guelphs and Gibbelines, withdrew
themfelves from the dominion of both, and erefted them-
felves into feparate commonwealths. In that of Florence,
John de Medicis, a popular nobleman, fo iuhnuated bimfelf
into the favour of his countrymen, that they inverted him
with fovereign power. Pope Pius V. conferred the title of
grand duke on Cofmo de Medicis anno 1570, in whole fa¬
mily the duchy continued until the death o.*- Gafton de Me¬
dicis, who died anno 1737. The duchy was then transfer¬
red to the duke of Lorrain, afterwards the emperor Francis
I. in lieu of the duchy of Lorrain, which, by the peace of
1736, was given to king Staniflaus during his life, and then
was to be annexed to France. Leopold, the fecond fon of
Francis I. and afterwards emperor of Germany, fucceeded
to this duchy. It is now enjoyed by Leopold’s fccond fon,
brother to the prefent emperor of Germany, Francis II.
The grand duke’s annual revenues are computed at about
500,000!. fterling, arifing chiefly from the tenths of all
eftates that are fold or alienated, and the ground-rents of
the houfes in Leghorn, and the duties on almoft all manner
of provifions.
The great duke is abfolute in his dominions. His {land¬
ing forces confift only of three regiments of foot and two
of dragoons, and his marine of a tew galleys and galeaffes ;
but, in cafe of neceflity, it is faid he can bring 30,000 men
into the field, and increafc his marine with 20 men of war ;
but it does not appear how he can man them.
The principal places are Florence, Pifa, Leghorn, Sienna,
Orbitello, Fiombino, and Arezzo.
TUSK, or Torsk, in ichthyology. See Gadus.
TUSSILAGO, Colt’s foot, in botany : A genus of
plants belonging to the clafs of Jyngenejia, and order of po*
lygamia fuperjlua; and in the natural fyftem ranging under
the 49th order, Compqfitx. The receptacle is naked ; the
pappus limple; the leales of the calyx equal, of the fame
height as the difk, and tomewhat membranaceous. There
are 1 2 fpecies ; three of which are indigenous to Britain,
the farfara, hybrida, and petafites.
The farfara, or common colt’s foot, grows plentifully
on the banks of rivulets, or in moift and clayey fells, in Eng¬
land and Scotland.—The leaves are fmoked in the manner
of tobacco, or a fyrup or decoQuon of them and the flow¬
ers (land recommended in coughs and other diforders of the
breaft and lungs. It feems now to be almoft entirely re¬
jected. The downy fubftance under the leaves, boiled in
a lixivium with a little faltpetre, makes excellent tinder,
The petafites, or common butter-bur, is frequent in wet
meadows and by the frdes of rivers. Its leaves are the lar-
geft of any plant in Great Britain, and in heavy rains af¬
ford a feafonable flicker to poultry and other imall animals.
The root dug up in the fpring is relinous and aromatic. A
drachm of it in a dole has been fometimes given as a
fudorific and alexipharmic ; but as it poffeffes thofe virtues
but in a fmall degree, it has loft its reputation in the (hops.
TUTENAGO, an ore of zinc, containing commonly
from 60 to 90 per cent, of zinc, tfie remainder iron, and a
fmall proportion of clay.
TUTOR, in the civil law, is one chofen to look to the
perfons and eftate of children left by their fathers and mo¬
thers in their minority. The different kinds of tutory efta*
bliflied among the Romans, and the powers and duties of
tutors, are deicribed in Injl, Leg. 1. T. XIII. feCl. 1. and 2.
to which the reader is referred* See alfo the article Guar-
4 K 3 £>xan.
Tutor
Twelfth-
Day.
* 
'J orth's
Life of
iLtaj'/nus.
T W E [ 612 ] T Y N
D3AN.— For the nature and effe&s of tutory in the Scotch
law, which is founded on that of the Romans, fee Scotch
L/)tv, Part III. Sett. 7.
Tutcr is alfo uftd in the En-Tlih univerfities for a member
of fume college or hall, who takes on him the inhrudling of
young {Indents in the arts and faculties.
'PUTTY, an argillaceous ore of zinc, found in Perfia,
formed on cylindrical moulds into tubulous p:eces, like the
hark of a tree, and baked to a moderate hardnefs; generally
of a brovvnifh colour, and full of fmall protuberances on the
outfule, fmooth and yellowifh within, fometimes whitifla,
and fometimes with a bluifh call. Like other argillaceous
bodies, it becomes harder in a ftrong fire; and after the zinc
has been revived and diffipateel by inflammable additions,
or extracted by acids, the remaining earthy matter affords,
with oil of vitriol, an aluminous fait.
Tutty is celebrated as an ophthalmic, and frequently em¬
ployed as feich in unguents and c-.-llyria. Sec Pharmacy,
TWEED, a river of Scotland, which rifes on the con¬
fines of the (hire of Clydefdale, and running e all ward thro*
Tweedale, and dividing the (hire of Merfe from Teviotdale
and Northumberland, falls into the German Sea at Berwick.
It abounds with falmon.
TWEED ALE, or Peebles, a county in the fouth of
Scotland. It has already been defcribed under the word
Peebles ; but in that article feveral inaccuracies were com¬
mitted, which a gentleman .of that county has been kind
enough to point out, and which therefore we take this op¬
portunity of correcting.
Tweedale is chiefly a grazing county, producing excellent
mutton from healthy black-faced fheep. It is remarkable, that
among this particular breed the rot or droplical difeafe, and
the trembling illnefs, are exceedingly rare, ualefs when they
happen to be imported by ftranger fheep.—The account
which we formerly gave of the vaft number of eels fwarming
in Weft-water Loch, and tumbling into the river Yarrow
at particular feafons, is a miftake. At preient no greater
number of eels is feen there than in other rivers and lochs.
This loch and Yarrow water are more than 20 miles afun-
der, and running different ways, fo that the account at any
rate was impoffible. The lake on the borders of Annandale
is at prefent called Loch Skeen, and not Loch G-ennet j the
cataract which it forms is called the G>ey Metre’s Till: the.
fall is into Moffat water. Douglas of Cavers ought not to
have been reckoned ar .ong the families of T weedale, as that
branch of the Douglafes belongs to a different county. Our
miftake proceeded from this circumftance— In very ancient
times all the country waffted by the Tweed went by the
name of Tweedale, and the Douglafes were wardens of that
diftrkft. Peebles lies in N. Lat. 55. 38. W. Long. 3.
TWELFTH-day, the feftival of the Epiphany, or the
manifeftation of Chrift to the Gentiles ; fo called, as being
the twelfth day, exclufive, from the nativity or Chriftmas- Twilight
day. - ’ 11
TWILIGHT, that light, whether in the morning be- 'tynd‘‘lej
fore fun-rife, or in the evening after fun-fet, luppofed to be- ~v ^
gin and end when the leaft ftars that can be feen by the
naked eye ceafe or begin to appear.
TWINKLING of the Stars. See Optics, n° 21.
TWINS, two young ones delivered at a birth, by an ani¬
mal which ordinarily brings lorth but one.
TWITE, in ornithology. See Fringilla.
TYGER, or Tiger, in zoology. See Feus.
TYLE, or Tile, in building, a fort of thin laminated
brick ufed on the roofs of houies : or, more properly, a kind
o:c fat clayey earth kneaded and moulded of a juft thicknefs,
dried and burnt in a kiln like brick, and ufed in the cover¬
ing and paving or houies.
TYMPAN, among printers, a double frame belonging
to flic prtfs, covered with parchment, on which the blank
fbeets are laid in order to be printed off. See Printing-
Prefs.
TYMPANUM, in mechanics, a kind o" wheel placed
round an axis or cylindrical beam, on the top or which are
two levers or fixed ftaves for the more ealily turning the axis
in older to raife a weight required. The tympanum is
much the fame with the peritrochium ; but that the cylinder
of the axis of the peritrochium is much fhorter and lefs than
the cylinder of the tympanum.
Tympanum, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 141.
TYMPANY, in medicine. See Medicine, nQ 337, and-
Surgery, n° 265.
TYNDALE (William), a zealous Englifh reformer,
and memorable for having made the fir ft Englifh ver-
fion the Bible, was born on the borders of Wales feme
time before 1500. He was of Magdalene-hall in Oxford,
where he diftinguifhed himfelf by fucking in early the doc¬
trines of Luther, and- by as zealoufly propagating thofe
dodtrines among others. Afterwards he removed to Cara-
bridge, and from thence went to live with a gentleman in
Gloucefterfhire in the capacity of tutor to his children.—
While he continued there, he fhowed himfelf fo furious for
Luther, and fo inveterate to the pope, that he was forced*,
merely for the fecurity of his perfon, to leave the place. Fie
next endeavoured to get into the fervice of Tonftall bifhop
of Durham, but did not lucceed. His zeal for Lutheran-
ifm made him defirous to tranftate the New Teftament into
Englifh.; and as this could not fafely be done in England,
he went into Germany, where, letting. ab®ut the work, he fi-
niftied it in 1527. He then began;with the Old Teftament, and-
finifhed the five books of Mofes, prefixing difcourfes to each
book, as he had done to thofe of the New Teftament (a).
At his firft going over into Germany, he went into Saxo¬
ny, and had much conference with Luther ; and then re¬
turning to the Netherlands, made his abode chiefly at Ant¬
werp.
(a) An anecdote is told of Rifhop Tonftal, which is amufing in itfelf, and does mnch honour to the Bifhop’s mode¬
ration. 'i’onftal being at Antwerp in 1529, he feut for one Packirigton an Engliih merchant there, and deiired him
to fee how many New Teftaments of Tyndale’s Franflation he might have for money. Packington, who was a fecret fa¬
vourer of Tyndale, told him what the Bifhop propofed. Tyndale was very glad of it; for, being convinced of fome faulto-
in his works, he was defigning a new and more correft edition.: but he was poor, and the former impreffton not being
fold off, he could not go about it: fo he gave Packington all the copies that lay in his hands ; for which the Biff.op.
paid the price, and brought them over, and burnt them publicly in Cheapfide.—Next year, when the fecond edition
was finifhed, many more were brought over ; and one Conftantine being taken in England; the lord chancellor, in a pri¬
vate examination, promifed him that no hurt fhould be done him if he would reveal who encouraged and fuppprted them
at Antwerp ; which he accepted of, and told them that the greateft encouragement they had was from the Lifhop of
London, who had bought up half the impreffion. This made all that heard of it laugh heartily, though more judici¬
ous perfons difcemed the great temper of that learned Biihop in it.
T Y P ' [ 61
Tyncfr'e, werp. Daring his peregrinations from one country to ano-
Typc- ther, he fuffered fhipwreck upon the co it of Holland, and
u** v— Jolt all his hooks and papers. His tranflations of the Sciip-
tares being in the mean time fent to England., made a great
noife there ; and, in the opinion of the cleroy, did fo much
mifchief, that a royal proclamation was iffued out, prohi¬
biting the buying or reading fuch tranflation or tranflations.
But the clergy were not fatished with this, they knew Tyn-
dale capable of doing infinite harm, and therefore thought
or nothing lei’s than removing him out of the way. For
this purpofe one Philips was fent over to Antwerp, who
infinuated himfelf into his company, and under the pretext
of friendlhip betrayed him into cullody. He was fent to
the cattle of Filford, about 18 miles from Antwerp ; amL
though the Englilh merchants at Antwerp did wdint they
could to procure his releafe, and letters were alfo fent from
lord Cromwell and others out of England, yet Philips be-
ftirred himfelf fo heartily, that he was tried and condemned
to die. Fie was iirft ftrangled by the hands of the common
hangman, and then burned near-Filford caftle, in 1536.
While he was tying to the Rake, he cried with a fervent
and loud voice, “ Lord, open the king of England’s eyes.”
TYPE (tutoca.i impredion, image, or repiefentation of
feme model, which is termed the antitype. In this fenle
the word occurs o ten in the writings of divines, who em¬
ploy it to denote that prefiguration of the great events of
man’s redemption which they have found or fancied in the
principal tranfadtions recorded in the Old I'eRament.
That the death of Chrift for the fins of men, and his re-
furreftion from the dead for their junification, were prefi¬
gured in the ritual wotlhip militated by Moles, is indeed
^ ,q Incontrovertible '* ; but when divines coniidei as a type eve-
^to^be Hell ’ XY mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures, in which an
active imagination can difeover the flighted refemblance or
analogy to any circumllance in tlie life, or death, or reiur-
rebtion, of ChriR, they expole the whole dodlrine of types
to the ridicule of unbelievers, and do a real injury to that
caufe which it is their profelTed intention to ierve. To con¬
tend. as feme of them have done, that the extraflion ol
Eve from the fide of Adam, while he was in a deep deep,
was intended as a type of the Roman loldier’s piercing our
Saviour’s fide while he dept the deep of death ; or that the
envy of the fons of Jacob to their brother Jofcph, was ty¬
pical of the envy of the Scribes and Phariiees to Jefus the
Mellxah, is to burlefque the Scriptures, and infult rearfon.
The nature of types feems indeed to be very little under-
ftood even by thole who pretend to have ftudied them with
care. They are generally compared to prophecies having
a double fenfe, and are thought to have been lo contrived
as to give information of the future events to which they
pointed ; but the information which they gave of Chriilia-
nity mull have been exceedingly obicure to thofe who lived
before the coming of Chrift, however plain it may appear to
us who can now compare the type with the antitype. A diffe¬
rent opinion has indeed been maintained, not only by my-
fi.ical cabbalifts, who will maintain any thing from which
common lenfe revolts, but alio by writers who, when treat¬
ing of other iubje&s, have drown that they poffeded very
found underftandings. One of the able ft defenders of re¬
velation, fpcaking of the purpofe for which the paffover
was inftituted, aiks, “ What is the price and worth oi: a
kmb, whofe blood infallibly gives life to thofe who are tin¬
ged with it, and the non-afperfion or negkcb of which is
lufficient to condemn Jew and Gentile to death without di-
ibin&ion ?” Taking it for granted that this queftion is
capable of no anfwer but one favourable to the conclufion
which he wifhes to draw from it, he then proceeds in the
following words: “ Though the Melfiah was no'
3 1 T Y p
come, who could doubt but that fuch a myftery typified him. Type,
fince he was to be the Saviour and Deliverer of his people? ^
and who would not be prepared to believe that he will de¬
liver his people, and fave them by the ejfufion of his blood,
when it is obvious that it is to the immolation of a lamb,
and the afperlion of its blood, chat all Ifrael owe their lives
and liberties ?” ,
That the facrifice of the pafchal lamb for the fafety of A' ^
the Ifraelites was typical of the facrifice of the Lamb of^e Chrijlian
God for the fins of the world, and that the refemblance or Religion.
analogy of the type to the antitype was in many retpe&s
exceedingly ftriking, are fafts known to every Chriftian ;
but they could not polfibly be known to the ancient He¬
brews before it was revealed to them that Chrift was to fuf-
fer. At (he inftltution.of the paftbver, nothing was faid
from which the great body of the people could infer that
they were to be redeemed from death and fin by the blood
of the Melfiah, as their fathers had in Egypt been deliver¬
ed from the deftroying angel by the blood of the immola¬
ted lamb. We readily agree with the ingenious writer,
that in the blood of a lamb there is no- worth to propitiate
the eternal God, and from him to purchafe life for the man
who is fprinkled with it; but the Ilraelites, at the era of
their departure from E rypt, held opinions very different
from his and ours. They thought grolsly of the Deity,
and believed, with their luperftitious mailers, that he put
the higheft value on animal facrifices. In the New Telia-
m^nt Chrift is called our Pafibver, and laid to have been la-,
crificed for us. Chriftians therefore cannot doubt but that
tire Jevvifh facrilice of the pafchal lamb was emblematical of
the great facrifice flain on the crofs-; but as the majority of
the ancient Hebrews were ignorant of all the circumltancea
of refemblance between the type and antitype, we can¬
not conceive how they fhould have dreamed of a future paf-
fover of which their own was but an empty figure.
Some learned men indeed feem-to irna nne, that-when
the rites of tire law were inftituted, the people were taught
to conlider them as of no value in themlelves, but merely as
fhadows of good things to come, and that by* means of
thefe fhadows a diilindt and even Heady view was given to
them of the fubftance; but this is a fuppofiticn which receives
no fupport from Scripture. That Abraham, who rejoiced
to fee Chvift’s day, and feeing it was glad-; that Mofes,
who was directed to make all things relating to the taber-
nacle according to the pattern fhowed to him in the mount;
and that fuch other individuals as, like him, could look up
to a God invilible, and perform at once a worlhip purely
fpiritual; that thefe men were admonifhed that the ritual
law was only the fhadow of a future and more periebl dif-
penfation —cannot, we think, be queftioned. Nay, that A-
braham, Moles, and a few others, may have had as accurate
notions of Chriftianity as we have at prelcnt, is a pofition
which we feel not ourfelves inclined to controvert; but that
the great body of the Flebrew nation was taught from the
beginning to confider their law as irnperfetb, or as deriving
any little value which it had from its being emblematical
of a purer worfhip to be revealed in the fulnels of time, is a
fuppofition which cannot be admitted without confounding
all the divine ditpenlaticns.
The law was a fchoolmafter given to the pofterity of Ja¬
cob, to guard them from idolatry, and to train them by
degrees ior the coming of Chilli. That it might anfwer
this purpofe the more effectually, prophets were raifed up
from time to time to pointoutits iecret and fpiritual mean¬
ing, as the people became able to receive it; and no reafom
can be affigned for the introduction of fo burdenfome and
carnal a ritual between the fall and the clear revelation of
redemption^ but became mankind at large were not at that
period
T Y P r 614. 1 T Y R
period capable of a more fpiritual and refined worfiiip. See
Theology, Part II. Se£t. iv.
If this be fo, bow abfurd is it to fuppofe that the an¬
cient Ifraelites fav/ through their facrifices tiie future facri-
hce of Chrift, and the iimple, though fublime, v/orfliip of
the Chrifu’an church ; that when their law promited tempo¬
ral rewards to the obedient, they looked for heavenly ones
through the Mefiiah ; and that w hen they were offering a
fin-offering for their tranfgrefiions, they had their eyes fix¬
ed on the crofs of Clnifl, being aware that the blood of
bulls and of goats could never take away fin ? Had the If¬
raelites, at their deliverance from Egyptian bondage, been
capable of all this faith, it is not to be fuppofed that the
Eatber of Mercies would have laid upon them fuch a yoke
of ordinances ; for that would have been in effect to fay,
though you are capable of worfhipping me in fpirit and in
truth, according to the difpenfation which fhall be revealed
to your poflerity, yet I command you to obferve a multi¬
farious ritual, which you know to be preparatory to that
difpenfation, and of no real value in itfelf!
The law therefore had only the Jhadow of good things
to come, and not fuch an image of them, as that merely from
beholding the type mankind could acquire an accurate notion
of the antitype. It was indeed io contrived as naturally to
lead the thinkingf part of the nation to the hopes of future
redemption ; but without the illnflrations of the prophets
it could not of itfelf have made them comprehend the means
by which that redemption was to be tffe&ed. Between
the types and the antitypes, the fhadow and the fubftance,
the refemblance, or, to fpeak more properly, the analogy,
is fo ftriking, that no unprejudiced perfon can now enter-
tertain a doubt but that the law and the gofpel are parts
of one great fcheme of providence, which, commencing with
the fall, was completed by the effufion of the Holy Spirit
on the day of pentecofl. But it would be as equitable to
condemn a Bacon or a Newton to fpend his time in the
amufements of children, as it would have been to place the
Jews under the ritual law, had they been capable of acqui¬
ring from the fhadows of that law adequate notions of the
fubilance of Chrittianity.
Type, among letter-founders and printers, the fame with
letter. See Letter.
Type is alfo uled to denote the order obferved in the in¬
tention and remifiion of fevers, pulfes, &c.
TYPHA, Cat’s tail, in botany : A genus of plants
belonging to the clafs of monacia, and order of triandria ;
and in the natural fyftem ranging under the 3d order, Ca-
lamaria. The amentum of the male flower is cylindrical;
the calyx is tripecalons, but fcarcely diflinguifhable ; there
is no corolla. The female has a cylindrical amentum below
the male ; the calyx is compofed of villous hair; there is
no corolla, and only one feed fixed in a capillary pappus.
There are two fpecies, both natives of Britain ; the latifolia
and anguflifolia.
1. Latifolia, great cat’s tail, or reed mace, is frequent in
pends and lakes, '['he ftalk is fix feet high; the leaves a
yard long, hardly an inch wide, convex on one fide : the
amentum, or cylindrical club, which terminates the italk, is
about fix inches long, of a dark brown or fifeous colour.
Cattle will iometimes eat the leaves, but Schreber thinks
them noxious : the roots have fometimes been eaten in fa-
lads, and the down of the amentum ufed to fluff cufhions
and matreffes. Linnaeus informs us, that the leaves are
ufed by the coopers in Sweden to bind the hoops of their
cafes.
2. Angujlifolia, narrow-leaved cat’s tail, is found in pools
and ditches. The leaves are femi-cylindrical, and the male
and female fpike are remote and flender.
TYPHQN. See Whirlwind,
Typhonj the devil of the ancient Egyptians. Sec Po- Tyjhen
LY THE ISM, n° 29. I!
TYPOGRAPHY, the art of printing. See Printing, yr^n'^
TYRANNION, a celebrated grammarian in Pompey’s
time, was of Amifus in the kingdom of Pontus. He was
the fcholar of Dionytius of I brace at Rhodes. He fell
into the ban Is of Lucullus, when that general of the Ro¬
man army defeated Mithridates, and fei?,ed his dominions.
This captivity of Tyrannion was no difad vantage to him,
fince it procured him an opportunity of being iilultrious a<t
Rome, and railing a fortune. He fpent it, among other
things, in making a library of above 30,000 volumes. He
died very old, being worn out with the gout. His care in
colledting books contributed very much to the prefervation
of Ariftotle’s works.
TYRANT, among the ancients, denoted limply a king
or monarch ; but the ill ufe which feveral perfons invefled
with that facred chara&er made of it, has altered the im¬
port of the word ; and tyrant now carries with it the idea
of an unjuft or cruel prince, who invades the people’s liber¬
ty, and rules in a more defpotic manner than the laws of na¬
ture or of the country allow.
TYRE, formerly a celebrated city of Afia, on the coaft
of Syria, fituated under the 54th degree of eaft longitude,
and 3 2d of north latitude. It was built, according to forne
writers, 2760 years before the Chriflian era. There were
two cities of that name ; the one called Palatyrns, lituated
'"on the continent; and the other the city of Tyre, built on
an ifland about half a mile from the fhore. It was about
19 miles in circumference, including Palxtyrus ; the town
on the ifiand was about four miles round. The buildings
of'Lyre were very magnificent; the walls were 150 feet
high, and broad in proportion. This city was at one pe¬
riod the mofl famous commercial city in the world. Of its
commercial tranfadlions, the moil particular account that is
to be found in ajiy ancient writer has been given by the
prophet Ezekiel, which at the fame time conveys a mag¬
nificent idea of the extenfive power of that ftate. It
refilled Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon for 13 years ; at
the end of which, wearied with endlefs efforts, the inha¬
bitants refolved to place the fea between them and their
enemy, and palled accordingly into the ifland. The new
city flood out againlt Alexander the Great for feven
months ; and before he could take it, he was obliged to fill
up the flrait which feparated the ifiand from the continent.
It was repaired afterwards by Adrian, and became the me¬
tropolis of the province. It afterwards fell into the hands
of the Arabs; and after being taken by Baldwin II. king
of jerufalem, it was deflroyed by the fultan of Egypt in
1289, and abandoned, never more to rile from its ruins. An
excellent account of its fituation and modern flate may be
found in Volney’s Travels, vol. ii. It now confills of a
finall village, compofed of wretched huts, containing about
50 or 60 poor families. The words @f Ezekiel are literally ful¬
filled, “ And they fhall make a fport of their riches.” ( E-
zek. xxvi. 12, 13, 14). Mr Bruce law this queen of the
nations converted into a place for nfhers to dry their nets
in. Its harbour, formerly fo famous for its fhipping, is
now almofl choaked up. It is called Sour or Tfour by the
Orientals.
TYRIAN Dye. See Murex and Purpura.
TYRONE, a county of Ireland, in the province of Ul-
fler, 46 miles in length and 37 in breadth ; bounded on
the north by Londonderry, on the eaft by Armagh and
Lough-Neagh, on the fouth by Fermanagh, and on the weft
by Donnegal. It is a rough and- rugged country, but to¬
lerably fruitful; contains 12,6^3 houfes, 30 parifbes, 4 ba¬
ronies, 4. borougha, and fends 10 members to parliament.
The principal town is Dungannon.
U, V,
VAC
[ 615 ]
V A I
U, V-
Uor u, the 20th letter and 5th vowel of our alphabet,
? is formed in the voice by a round configuration of the
lips, and a greater extrufion of the under one than in form¬
ing the letter o, and the tongue is alfo more cannulated.
The found is ihort in car/?, vnujl, tun, tub ; but is lengthened
by a final e, as in tune, tube, &c. In fome words it is rather
acute than long ; as in brute, JIute, lute, &c. It is moftly
long in polyfyllables; as in union, curious, &c. but in lome
words it is obfcure, as in nature, venture, &c. This letter
in the form of V or v, is properly a confonant, and as luch
is placed before all the vowels ; as in vacant, venal, vibrate,
&c. Though the letters v and u had always two founds,
they had only the form v till the beginning of the fourth
century, when the other form was introduced, the inconve¬
nience of expreffing two different founds by the fame letter
having been obferved long before. In numerals V Rands
for five ; and with a dafh added at top, thus V, it fignifies
5000.
In abbreviations, amongft the Romans, V. A. Rood for
V etc rani a/fignati; V. B. viro bono ; V. B. A. viri boni ar-
bitratu ; V. B. F. vir -bona Jidei ; V. C. vir confularis ;
V. C. C. F. va/e, conjux chariflime, ftliciter ; V. I). D. voto
dedicatur ; V. G. verbi gratia ; Vir. Ve. virgo vejlalis; VL.
videlicet; V. N. quint0 nonarum.
VACCINIUM, the w H0R.TLE-BERRY, or Bilberry, in
botany : A genus of plants of the clafs of oEiandria, and or¬
der of monogynia ; and arranged in the natural fyftem under
the rSth order, Bicornes. The calyx is fuperior ; the co¬
rolla monopetalous; the filaments inferted into the recep¬
tacle ; the berry quadrilocular and polyfpermous. There
are 15 fpecies; the mofl remarkable of which are,
1. The myrtillui, black whorts, whortle-berries, or bil¬
berries, growing in woods and on heaths abundantly. The
flowers frequently vary, with five fegmencs at the rim, and
with ten Itamina. The berries when ripe are of a bin-
ifh black colour ; but a lingular variety, with white berries,
was difcovered by the duke of Athol, growing in the
woods, about mid-way between his two feats of Dunkeld
and Blair. The berries have an aftringent quality. In
Arran and the Weftern Iflesthey are given in diarrhoeas and
dyfenteries with good tffeft. The Highlanders frequently
eat them in milk, which is a cooling agreeable food ; and
fometimes they make them into tarts and jellies, which laft
they mix with whifky, to give it a relifh to ftrangers.—
They dye a violet colour; but it requires to be fixed with
alum. The grous feed upon them in the autumn.
2. The uliginofum, or great bilberry bufh, is found in
low moift grounds, and almoft at the fummits of the High¬
land mountains. The leaves are full of veins, fmooth and
glaucous, elpecially on the under fide; the berries are eatable,
but not fo much efteemed as the preceding ; as they are apt,
if eaten in any quantity, to give the headach.
3. The vitis idaa, or red whortle-berries,' frequent in
dry places, in heaths, woods, and on mountains. The
berries have an acid cooling quality, ufeful to quench the
thirft in fevers. The Swedes are very fond of them made
into the mrm of a rob or jelly, which they eat with their
meat as an agreeable acid, proper to corredf: the animal al¬
kali.
4. The oxycoccus, cran-berries, mofs-berries, or moor-ber-
rres, frequent on peat-bogs in the Lowlands, but not fo
tommon in the Highlands of Scotland. The ftalks are
4
long, Render, woody, weak, and trailing : the leaves are Riff, Vacuum
acutely oval, glaucous underneath, their edges turned back, ||
and grow alternate ; two or three flowers grow fingly on, ^afilan^
long red footilalks out of the extremity of the branches ;
the flowers are red, divided deeply into four acute fegments,
which are rtflexed quite backwards ; the filaments are dow¬
ny ; the anthene ferruginous and longer than the filaments :
the berries red, and about the (ize of the hawthorn ber¬
ries At Longtown, on the borders of Cumberland, they
are made fo conliderable an article of commerce, that, at
the feafon wRien they are ripe, not lefs than 20 1. or 3ol.’s
worth are fold byr the poor people each market-day for five
or fix weeks together, which are afterwards difperfed over
different parts of the kingdom for making the wrell-known
cranberry tarts.
VACUUM, in philofophy, denotes a fpace empty or de¬
void of all matter or body.
It has been a matter of much difpute among philofopher^
whether there be in nature a perfedt vacuum, or fpace void
of all matter ; but if bodies confiR of’ mater^l folid atoms,
it is evident that there muft be vacuities, or motion would
be impofilble (See Metaphysics, nQ 193)- We can even
produce lomething very near a vacuum in the receiver ©f
an air pump and in the Torricellian tube (lee Pneumatics,
pa/fim) ; and it is very doubtful whether the panicles of
the denfeR bodies known be in perfect contact. See Op¬
tics, n" 63—68.
VADIUM, a pledge in law, is either vivum or mortuum.
Vadium Vivum, or Living Fledge, is when a man borrow’S
a fum (fuppofe 200I.) of another; and grants him an eRate,
as of 20 1. per annum, to hold till the rents and profits fiiall
repay the fum fo borrowed. This is an eitate conditioned
to be void as foon as fuch fum is raifed. And in this cafe
the land or pledge is faid to be living : it fubfiRs, and fur-
vives the debts ; and, immediately on the dilcharge of that,
refults back to the borrower.
Vadium Mortuum, or Dead Pledge. See Mortgage,
VAGABOND, or Vagrant, one wrho wanders illegally,
without a fettled habitation. Such perlons are cognizable
by the law’s. See Idleness.
VAGINA, properly fignifies a fheath or fcabbard ; and.
the term vagina is ufed in architefture for the part of a ter¬
minus, becaufe refembling a Iheath out of which the Ratue-
feems to iffue.
Vagina, in anatomy, a canal reaching from the external
orifice, or os pudendi, of women, to the uterus.
V A ILL ANT (John Foy), a phyfician. and great medal-
ifi, to w’hom, according to Voltaire, France was indebted for
the Icience of medals, and Louis XIV. for one half of hia
cabinet, w’as born at Beauvais in 1632. Through the means
of the miniRer Colbert he travelled into Italy, Greece, E*
gypt, and Perfia, to eollefl medals for the royal cabinet;
and returned wfith fo many as made the king’s cabinet fu¬
perior to any in Europe. In one of his voyages the fhip^
he failed in was fallen upon and taken by an Algerine cor-
fair. After a captivity of near five months he was permit¬
ted to return to France, and received at the fame time 20
gold medals which had been taken from him. He embark¬
ed in a veffel bound for Marfeilles, and w’as carried on with;
a favourable wind for two days, wdren another corfair ap¬
peared, which, in fpite of all the fail they could make, bore
down upon them within tire reach ©f cannon-fhot. Mr-
Vaillantr
V A L
[ 6i6 ]
V A Lj
Vaillant, dreading the miferies of a frefh fiavery, refolved,
however, to fecure the medals which he had received at Al¬
giers, and in order thereto fwallowed them. But a hidden
turn of the wind freed them from this adverfary, and oath
them upon the coafts of Catalonia ; where, after expe&ing
to run aground every moment, they at length fell among
the fands at the mouth of the Rhone. Mr Vaillant got
to fhore in a fkiff, but felt himfelf extremely incommoded
with the medals he had fv/allowed, which might weigh al¬
together five or fix ounces, and therefore did not pais like
Scarborough waters. He had recourfe to a couple of phyfx-
cians, who were a little puzzled with the fingularity of his
cafe ; however, nature relieved him from time to time, and
he found himfelf in pofleffion of the greatcif part of his
treafure when he got to Lyons. Here he explained, with
much pleafure to his friends, thofe medals which were al¬
ready come to hand, as well as thofe which were daily ex-
pefted ; among which lafl was an Otho, valuable for its ra¬
rity.—He was much carefled on his return ; and when
Louis XIV. gave a new form to the academy of infcrip
tions in 1701, Mr Vaillant was firft made affociate, and then
penfionary. He wrote feveral works relating to ancient
coins, and died in 1706.
VAIR, or Vaire, a kind of fur, formerly ufed for lining
the garments of great men and knignts of renown. It is re-
prefented in engraving by the figures of little bells reverfed,
ranged in a line. See Heraldry, Chap. IT. Seft. 2.
VAIRY, in heraldry, expreffes a coat, or the bearing? of
a coat, when charged or chequered with vairs.
VALAIS, a valley in Swifferland, which extends from
the fource of ihe river Rhone to the lake o1 Geneva. It is
near 100 miles in length, but the breadth is very unequal.
It is bounded on the north by the Alps, which feparate it
from the cantons of Bern and Uri, on the eaft by the moun¬
tains of Forche, on the fouth by the duchy of Milan and the
Val d’Aofle, and on the weft by Savoy and the republic of
Geneva. The inhabitants profels the Roman Catholic reli¬
gion, and are fubject to the fweliing of the throat called
bronchccele; and idiots are faid to abound among them more
than in any other place of the globe. They are naturally
hardy, enterprifing, and good-natured. It is furrounded on
all fides by very high mountains, moft of which are covered
with fnow and ic^ that never thaw. However, the foil is
fertile in corn, wine, and good fruit. The mufcat-wine,
which is produced here, is excellent, and well known all
over Europe. There arc mineral waters, plenty of game,
and fome mines. This country comprehends 55 large pa-
rifties, to which one bifhop only belongs, whole fee is at
Sion the capital. The mountains afford good pafture for
their cattle in fummer, and their harveft continues from May
to October ; it being fooner or later according to the fitua-
tion of the place.
VALANTIA, in botany : A genus of plants in the or¬
der monxeia, of the polygamici, and in the natural fyftern
arranged under the 41ft order, the afper folia. There is
fcarcely any calyx ; the corolla is monopetalous, flat, four-
parted; the ftamina four, with fmall antherse : the herma¬
phrodite flowers have a piftillum with a large germen, a bifid
ftyle, the length of the calyx, and one feed; the piftilla of the
male flowers are hardly difcernible. There are eight fpecies,
only one of which is a native of Britain, the cruciata ; the
ftalks of .which are fquare, the whole plant hairy, the leaves
oval and verticillate, four in a whirl; the flowers are yellow,
and grow on fhort peduncles out of the ake of the leaves.
The roots, like thofe of the galiums, to which it is nearly re¬
lated, will dye red. It is aftringent, and was once ufed as a
vulnerary.
VALENCIA, a province of Spain, which has the title
3
of a kingdom ; and is bounded on the eaft and fouth by the Valcnd
Mediterranean fea, on the north by Catalonia and Arragon,
and on the weft by New Caftile and the kingdom of Murcia.
It is about 165 miles in length, and 63 in breadth. It is
one of the moft populous and agreeable parts of Spain, and
where they enjoy almoft a perpetual fpring. The great
number of rivers wherewith it is watered renders it extreme¬
ly fertile, particularly in fruits and wine. There are very
rugged mountains in it, which contain mines of alum, and
other minerals.
Valencia, a city of Spain, and capital of the kingdom
of the fame name. It contains about 12,000 houfes, betides
thofe of the fuburbs and the fummer-houles round it. It
has an univerfity, and an archbifhop’s fee; and was taken
from.the Moors by the Chriftians in the 13th century. The
town is handfome, and adorned with very fine itru&ures. It
is not very ftrong, though there are fome baftions along the
fides of the walls. They have manufafturesjn wool and filk,
which bring in great lums to the inhabitants. It is feated
on the river Guadalaviar, over which there are five handfome
bridges; and it is about three miles from the fea, where there
is a harbour, 1 10 miles north of Murcia, and 165: eaft by
fouth of Madrid. This city furrendered to the earl of Pe¬
terborough in the year 1705; but it was loft again in 1707.
W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 39. 23.
VALENCIENNES, an ancient, ftrong, and confiderable
city of France, in the department of the North and late pro¬
vince of Hainault. It contains about 20,000 fouls. T he
Scheld divides it into two parts. It is a very important
place: the citadel and fortifications, the work of Vauban,
were conffrudled by order of Louis XIV. who took this
town fr@m the Spaniards. It was confirmed to him by the
treaty of Nimeguen, in 1678. In 1793, it furrendered to
the allies after a fevere fiege, but was afterwards abandoned;
and is now in the poffeffion of the French republicans. Be-
fides lace, this city is noted lor manufactories of woollen
fluffs and very fine linens. It is 20 miles vveft-fouth-weft of
Mens, 17 north-eaft of Cambray, and 120 north-eaftby north
of Paris. E. Long. 3. 37. N. Lat, 50. 21.
VALENS (Flavius), emperor of the Eaft, a great patron
of the Arians. Killed by the Goths in the year 379. See
Constantinople, n° 76.
VALENTINIAN I. emperor of the Weft, a renown¬
ed warrior, but a tyrant over his lubjeCts. See Rome, nS
52?-
Valentinian ILemperor of the Weft, a orince celebra¬
ted for his virtues, and above all for his moderation ; yet a
confpiracy was formerf1 againft him by Arbogaftes, the com¬
mander in chief of his armies; and he was ftrangled in the
year 392. See Rome, ^536.
VALENTINIANS, in church hiftory, a fed of Chriftian
heretics, who fprung up in the fecond century, and were lo
called from their leader Valentinus.
The Valentinians were only a branch of the Gnoftics, who
realized or perfonified the Platonic ideas concerning the
Deity, whom they called Pleroma or Plenitude. 'Their fyftem
was this : the firft principle is Bythos, i. e. Depth, which
remained many ages unknown, having with it Ennoe or
Thought, and Sige or Silence; from thefe fprung the Nous
or Intelligence, which is the only fon, equal to and alone ca¬
pable of comprehending the Bythos; the lifter of Nous they
called Aletheia or Truth; and thefe conftituted the firft qua-
ternity of seons, which were the fource and original of all
the reft : for Nous and Aletheia produced the World and
Life ; and from thefe two proceeded Man and the Church.
But befides thefe 8 principal sons, there were 22 more; the
laft of which, called Sophia, being delirous to arrive at the
knowledge of Bythos, gave herieli a great deal of uneafinefs,
which
Valerian
il
Valerius.
Wcndville s
Medical Bo-
“ny-
V A L [ 617 ] V A N
which created in her Anrer and if^ar, oF which was born
Matter. But the Horos or Bounder hooped her, preferved
her in the Pleroma, and reftored her to Perfedlion. Sophia
then produced the Chriil and the Holy Spirit, which broucht
the asons to their laft perfection, and made every one of them
contribute their utmoft to form the Saviour. Her Enthymefe,
or Thought, dwelling near the Pleroma, perfected by the
Chrilt, produced every thing that is in the world by its di¬
vers paffions. The Chrift fent into it the Saviour, accom¬
panied with angels, who delivered it from its paffions, with¬
out annihilating it J from thence was formed corporeal mat¬
ter. And in this manner did they romance concerning God,
nature, and the myiteries of the Chriftian religion,
VALERIAN, or Valerian us, (Publius Licinius), em¬
peror ot Rome, remarkable for his captivity and cruel treat¬
ment by Sapor I. king of Perlia. See Rome, nI * 3 49 1.
VALERIANA, in botany : A genus of plants belong¬
ing ro the clafs triandria and order monogynia, and in the na¬
tural lydcm arranged under the 48th order, aggregate. There
is hardly any calyx; the corolla is monopetalous, gibbous at
the b?.fe, fituated above the germen ; there is only one feed.
There ate 2 1 fpecies, only four of which are natives of Bri¬
tain, the officinalis, the kcuffa, the rubra, the dioica; of thefe
only the officinalis is ufefuL The root of this plant is per¬
ennial : the {talk is upright, fmooth, channelled, round,
branched, and rifes from two to four feet in height : the
leaves on the Item are placed in pairs upon fliort broad
fheathes; they are compofed of feveral lance-fhaped, parti¬
ally dentated, veined, fmooth pinnas, with an odd one at the
end, which is the largeft : the floral leaves are fpear-thaped
and pointed ; the flowers are fmall, of a white or purplith
colour, and terminate the ftem and branches in large bunch¬
es. It flowers in June, and commonly grows about hedges and
woods.
It is fuppofed to be the of Diofcorides and Galen, by
whom it is mentioned as an aromatic and diuretic : it was
firxl brought into eltimation in convuliive affeClions by Fa-
bius Columna, who relates that he cured himfelf of an epi-
lepfy by the root of this plant: we are told, however, that
Columna fuffered a relapfe of the diforder ; and no further
accounts of the efficacy of valerian in epilepfy followed till
thofe publilhed by Dominicus Panarolus fifty years after¬
wards, in which three cafes of its fuccefs are given. To
thefe may be added many other inftances of the good effe&s
of valerian root in this difeafe, fince publifhed by Cruger,
Schuchmann, Riverius, Sylvius, Marchant, Chomel, Sauva-
ges, Titfot, and others.
I he advantages faid to be derived from this root in epi-
lepiy caufed it to be tried in ieveral other complaints termed
r.er-vous, particularly thofe produced by increafed mobility
and irritability ot the nervous fyftem, in which it has been
found highly ferviceable. Bergius ftates its virtues to be
antifpafmodic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, diuretic, anthel¬
mintic. I he root in fubilance is moil effedtual, and is
ufually given in powder from a fcruple to a dram : its un
pleafant flavour may be concealed by a fmall addition of mace.
A tinfture of valerian in proof fpirit and in volatile fpirit are
ordered in the London Pharmacopoeia. — Cats arc very fond of
the fmell of this root, and feem to be intoxicated by it.
VALERIUS Maximus, a Latin hiftorian, fprung from
the families of the Valerii and Fabii, which made him take
the name of Valerius Maximus. He ftudied polite literature,
and afterwards followed Sextus Pompey to the wars. At
his return he compofed an account ot the actions and remark¬
able layings of the Romans and other great men ; and dedi¬
cated that work to the emperor Tiberius. Many of the learn¬
ed think that this is the fame that is now extant, and bears
:he name of Valerius Maximus; but others maintain, that
Vol. XVIII. Fait II.
what we have now is only an abridgment of the work written
by this celebrated hiftorian, and that this abridgment was
made by one Nepotian of Africa. However, this work is
v ell written, and contains a great number of memorable
adlions performed by the Greeks and Romans that are wor¬
thy of being read.
VALET, a French term, ufed as a common name for all
domeftic men fervants employed in the more fervile offices,
as grooms, footmen, coachmen, &c. But with us it is only
ufed in the phrafe valet de chambre, which is a fervant whole
office is to drefs and undrefs his mafter, &c.
VALETTA, a city of Malta, and capital of the ifland
(fee Malta, n° 26). It is fituated in E, Long. 14. 34.
N. Lat. 35. 54.
VALETUDINARY, among medical writers, denotes a
perfon of a weak and fickly conftitution, and frequently out
of order.
VALID, in law, an appellation given to afts, deeds,
tranfaftions, &c. which are clothed with all the formalities
requiiite to their being put into execution, and to their be¬
ing,admitted in a court of jutlice.
VALLADOLID, an ancient, large, and handfome city
of Spain, in Old Caftile, and capital of a principality of the
fame name, with a biftiop’s fee and an univerfity. It is fur-
rounded with ftrong walls, embelliftred with handfome build¬
ings, large public fquares, piazzas, and fountains. It is large
and populous, containing 11,000 houies, with fine long and
broad ftreets, and large high houfes, adorned with balconies.
T he market-place, called El Campo, is 700 paces in circum¬
ference, furrounded with a great number of convents, and is
the place where the fairs are kept. T'here is another fquare
in the middle of the city, furrounded with handfome brick
heufes, having under them piazzas, where people may walk
dry in all weathers. Within theie piazzas merchants and
tradefrr.en keep their (hops. All the houfes are of the lame
height, being four ftories; and there are balconies at every
window, of iron gilt. In the whole there are 70 monafte-
ries and nunneries ; the fineft of which is that of the Domi¬
nicans, remarkable f@r its church, which is one of the moft
magnificent in the city. The kings refided a long while at
this place ; and the royal palace, which ftill remains, is of
very large extent, though but two ftories high ; within are
fine paintings of various kinds, and at one of the corners a
curious clock, made in the fame manner as that of Strafourg.
The houfe of the inquifition is an odd fort of ftrufture, for
there are no windows, but a few holes to let in the light. The
environs of the city are a fine plain, covered with gardens,
orchards, vineyards, meadows, and fields. It is feated on the
rivers Elcurva and Pefuerga, in W. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat.
41. 50.
VALUE, in commerce, denotes the price or worth of any
thing.
VALVE, in hydraulics, pneumatics, &c. is a kind of lid
or cover of a tube or veflel fo contrived as to open one way,
but which, the more forcibly it is prefled the other way, the
cloler it ftuits the aperture ; fo that it either admits the en¬
trance of a fluid into the tube or veflel, and prevents its re¬
turn ; or admits its efcspe, and prevents its re-entrance.
Valve, in anatomy, a thin membrane applied on feveral
cavities and veflels of the body, to afford a paffage to certain
humours going one way, and prevent their reflux towards
the place from whence they came.
VAMPYRE, a fpecies of bat. See Vespertilio.
VAN, a term derived from the French v-.nt, or avaunt,
fignifying before or foremoft of any thing; thus we fay, the
van-guard of the army, &c.
VANBRUGPI (Sir John), a celebrated Englifh drama¬
tic writer and architect, -was dtlcended of a family in Che~
4 I fhire
VAN r 6
Vandeltia f^lrc vvliicK came from France, though by bis name be ap-
IJ , pears to have been orig-inally of Dutch extraction. He was
L bom about the middle of the reign of Charles II. and recei¬
ved a liberal education. His firil comedy, called the Relapfe,
or Virtue in Danger, was a died in the year 1697 with great
applaufe; which gave him inch encouragement, that he wrote
eleven more comedies. He was the friend of Mr Congreve,
whofe genius was naturally turned for dramatic performances;
and thefe two gave new life to the Englilh llage, and refto-
red its reputation, which had been for fome time linking : but
their making vicious perfons their moft amiable and finking
charadlers, and their bordering too much on obfcenity, could
be of no fervice to the caufe of virtue ; and therefore it w;as
not without reafon that they weie attacked by Mr Collier,
in his piece on the Immorality and Profanenefs of the Stage.
However, either the reputation Sir John gained by his co¬
medies, or his fkill in architecture, procured him very confi-
derable advantages. He was appointed Clarencicux king at
arms, which he afterwards difpoied of.. In 1716 he was ap¬
pointed furveyor of the works at Greenwich hofpital; he was
likewife made comptroller general of his majefly’s works, and
furveyor of all the gardens and waters He was an able ar¬
chitect ; but his performances in that w?.y are efteemed heavy.
Under his direction were railed Blenheim-houfe in Oxford-
Ihire, Claremont in Surry, and his own houf'e at Whitehall.
He died of a quinfey in 1726.
VANDELLIA, in botany; a genus of plants belonging
to the clafs didyramia and order angiofperm'm. The calyx is
fubquadrifid; the corolla ringent; the two exterior filaments
proceed from the difc of the lip of the corolla ; the antherae
are connected ; the capfule is unilocular and polyfpermous.
There is only one fpecies known, the dijfufa.
VAN-Diemen’s land. See Diemen.
VANDYCK (Sir Anthony), a celebrated painter, was
born at Antwerp in the year 1599. It is faid that Vandyck’s
mother w'as paffionately fond of embroidery, that (he excel¬
led in it, and embroidered feveral hiltorical lubjeCls with fuch
furprifing fkill, that they have been eiteemed mafterpieces by
proficients in that art. Being defirous to have her fon in-
ItruCled in the firil rudiments of grammar, fhe began by fend¬
ing him to fchool to learn reading and writing. As he had
ink, paper, and pens, at command, he amufed himfelf more
with drawing figures and other flight iketches, than with ma¬
king letters. One day his mailer having threatened to whip
one of his fchool-fellows, Vandyck poficively allured him, that
be need not fear his n ailer’s threats, as he would take care to
prevent his receiving the threatened correction.—“ How
io t” replied his fchool-fellow. “ I’ll paint (replied Van-
dyck) a lace on your polleriorswhich he did with fuch
fkill, that when the mailer drew up the curtain, he laughed
fo immoderately that he forgave the culprit. After giving
feveral eaily proofs of his excellent genius, he became the
difciple of the iliuflrious Rubens. In the church of the Au-
guftines at Antwerp, at the high altar, is a celebrated pic¬
ture of Rubens, reprefenting, in one part, the Virgin Mary
fitting with the child Jefus in her lap, and in another part
feveral faints, male and female, Handing. The breafl of one
of thefe, St Sebailian, is faid to have been painted by Van-
dyck when he was only a difciple of Rubens. This great
mailer being engaged one day abroad, his difciples went into
his painting-room, where, after having been iome time em¬
ployed in admiring his works, they began to play or romp
in iuch a manner, that the breafl of St Sebaltian, which was
not yet dry, was bfufhed away by a hat thrown at random.
This accident put an end to their play : they were very
anxious to reflore it, fearing that if Rubens difcovered it
they fhould all be difcarded. At length it was agreed that
Anthony fhould undertake to mead the faint’s bteaft, la
8 ] \r A N
fhort, taking his mailer’s pallet and brufhes, he fucceeded fo VandycJc,
well, that his companions imagined Rubens would overlook v—>
it. They were miftaken ; for Rubens at his return knew
immediately that fome one had touched upon his perform¬
ance : calling his difciples, he afked them why any one had
dared to meddle with his painting? They were fome time
doubtful whether they fhould confefs or deny the fad.
Threats at length prevailed : they owned that Vandyck had
thrown his hat upon it. Upon this, clofeting Vandyck,
inflead of chiding him, he told him, that “ it was proper
and even neceffary for him to travel into Italy, the only
fchool that produced excellent painters; and that, if he
would take his advice, he would arrive at the highefl per-
feclion.” Vandyck replied, that “ he was very defirous of
it; but that his purfe was not equal to fuch a journey, and
that he feared he fhould be obliged to fell his hat on the
road.” Rubens affured him that that fhould be his con¬
cern ; and accordingly, a few days after, he made him a
prefent of a purfe full of pifloles, and added to that gift
a dapple grey horfe, of great beauty, to carry him thither.
Iu return for this, Vandyck painted his mailer a chimney-
piece ; and afterwards fet out for Italy, about the year
1621, being then about 21 or 22 years of age. Having
ft aid a fhort time at Rome, he removed to Venice, where he
attained the beautiful colouring of Titian, Paul Veroneie,
and the Venetian fchool, which appeared from the many ex¬
cellent pictures he drew at Genoa.
After having fpent a few years abroad, he returned to
Flanders, with fo noble, fo eafy, and natural a manner of
painting, that Titian himfelf was hardly his luperior ; and
no other mafter could equal him in portraits. Soon after
his return, he accidentally met with D. 1 enters, who ac-
cofted him with great politenefs, and allied him whether he
had. much bufmefs fince he came from Rome ? “ What bu-
finefs, think you, can I have had time to do (replied Van¬
dyck) ? I am only juft arrived here. Would you believe,
that I offered to draw that fat brewer’s pifture who juft
paffed by us for two piftoles, and that the looby laughed in
my face, faying it was too dear ? I affure you, that if the
cards do not turn up better, I {hall make no long ftay at
Bruffcls.” Soon after this, he painted thole two famous
pidlures, the Nativity and a dying Chrift ; the firft in the
parifh-church, the leeond in that of the Capuchins, at Tei*
mond.
When he was in Holland he was very defirous to fee Fran¬
cis Hals the painter, who had great reputation then for por¬
traits. On entering his 100m, he afked to have his pidlure
drawn. Hals, who knew Vandyck only by fame, under¬
took it, and went to work. The latter feeing his head fi-
nifhed, rofe up, faying, that it was a ftriking likenefs. Af¬
terwards he propofed to Hals, that if he would fit in return,
he would alfo draw his pi&ure; to which Hals having agreed,
merely from curiofity, exclaimed, on feeing his pkfture lo foon
finifhed, “ Thou art the devil, or elfe Vandyck.” rI his pic¬
ture of Hals has been engraved by Cofter at the Ha >ue-
Vandyck, finding he could not make a fortune in his own
country, took a refoiution of going over into England. Ac-
cordingdy he borrowed fome guineas of Teniers, and let out,
furnifhed with letters of recommendation. His hiperior ge¬
nius foon brought him into great reputation ; and above all,
he excelled in portraits, which he drew with an inconceivable
facility, and for which he charged 3 very high price, accord¬
ing to the inftrudtions which had been given him on tnaS
head. It is affirmed, that for fome of them he received 4.00
guineas apiece. He foon found himfelf loaded with honours
and riches; and as he had a noble and generous heart, he
made a figure fuitable to his fortune. He married one of
the faireft ladies of the Englifh court, a daughter of the lord
Ruthven,
V A P [ 61
Vane Ruthven, earl of Gowry; and, though {he had but little
II fortune, maintained her with a grandeur anfwerable to her
Vapours.^ j-je himfelf was generally richly dreffed ; his coach-
es and equipage were magnificent, and his retinue was nu¬
merous ; his table was elegant, and plentifully furnifhed ;
and he often entertained his guefts after dinner with a con¬
cert performed by the belt Englifh muficians of London.
In fhort, his houfe was fo frequented by perfons of the
greateft quality of both fexes, that his apartments rather
refembled the court of a prince than the lodgings of a
painter. Notwithflanding this expcnce, he amafled great
wealth; when a chemill had the art to infinuate himfelf into
his efteem, and infpired him with a defire of converting cop¬
per into gold : but the fecret had no other effeft, than ma¬
king him convert his gold into fmoke. Rubens being in¬
formed of it, wrote to his difciple : he acknowledged his er¬
ror, and correfted it. At length Vandyck being at an early
age fubjedl to the gout, it undermined him by degrees, and
carried him to the grave in the year 1641, at the age of 42.
He was buried in St Paul’s ; and left to his heirs a confi-
derable ellate, which fome have made to amount 1040,000!.
fterling.
VANE, a thin flio of bunting hung to the maft-head, or
fome other confpicuous place in the fhip, to fhow the direc¬
tion of the wind. It is commonly fewed upon a wooden
frame called theJloik, which contains two holes whereby to
flip over the fpindle, upon which it turns about as the wind
changes.
VANILLA, or Vanillo. See Epidendrum.
VAPOUR, in ohilofophy, the particles of bodies rarefied
by heat, and thus rendered fpecitically lighter than the at-
mofphere, in which they rife to a conliderable height. See
Evaporation, Damp, Gas, &c.
Many kinds of vapour are unfriendly to animal life, but
the moil noxious are thofe which arife from metallic fub-
itances. In the fmeiting and refining of lead, a white va¬
pour arifes, which, falling upon the grafs in the neighbour¬
hood, imparts a poifonous quality to it, fo that the cattle
which Feed there will die ; and in like manner ftagnant wa¬
ters impregnated with this vapour will kill fifh. In fome
places the earth exhales vapours of a very noxious quality ;
inch as the Grotto del Cani, and other places in Italy, where
a mephitic vapour confiantly hovers overs the furface of the
ground, proving inftantly fatal to fuch animals as are im-
merfed in it. In fome parts of the world there have been
inftances of people killed, and almoft torn to pieces, by a va¬
pour fuddenly buT{ling out of the earth under their feet.
Of the aqueous vapour raifed from the earth by the fun’s
heat are formed the clouds; but though thefe are commonly
at no great diftance from the earth, we cannot from thence
determine the height to which the vapours afcend. Indeed,
confidering the great propeniity of water, and even quick-
filver, to evaporate in the moft perfect vacuum we can make,
it is by no means probable that any limit can be fixed for
this aicent. See Weather.
Vapours, noxious, method of difiipating. The following
ingenious method of diffipating the noxious vapours com-
monly found in wells and other fubterraneous pla.ces, is rela¬
ted in the Tranl. Philadei. by Mr Robinfon of Philadelphia
the inventor. “ Alter various unfaccefsful trials (fays he),
I was led to confider how I could convey a large quantity
of frefh air from the top to the bottom of the well, fuppo-
fmg that the foul would neceffariiy give way to the pure air.
With this view I procured a pair of fmith’s bellows, fixed
in a wooden frame, fo as to work in the fame manner as at
the forge. This apparatus being placed at the ed*e of the
well, one end of a le them tube (the hofe of a fire-engine)
was clofely adapted to the nofe of the bellows, and the other
9 ^ . V A R . .
end was thrown into the well, reaching within one foot of Vapours
the bottom. At this time the well was fo inferred, that a .yrar;Lor,
candle would not burn at a fhort d[fiance from the top; but,    ,,
after blowing with my bellows only half an hour, the candle
burned bright at the bottom; then, without farther difficulty,
I proceeded in the work, and finifhed my well. Wells are
often made in a very flight manner, owing to the difficulty
of working in them, and there have been feveral fatal in-
ilances of the danger attending the workmen ; but, by the
above method, there is neither difficulty nor danger in com¬
pleting the work with the utmoft felidity. It is obvious,
that in cleanfxng vaults, and working in any other fubterra¬
neous place, fubjefl to damps as they are called, the fame
method muft be attended with the fame beneficial effiedt.”
Vapours, in medicine, a difeafe properly called hyps, or
the hypochondriacaldifeafe; and in men particularly, the Jplcen.
See Medicine, n° 276 and 321.
VAPouR-Bath, in chemiftry, a term applied to a chemifl’s
bath or heat, wherein a body is placed fo as to receive the
fumes of boiling water. It con lifts o' two vefiels, difpofed over
one another in fuch manner as that the vapour taifed from
the water contained in the lower heats the matter inclofed in
the upper. It is very commodious for the diflilling of odo¬
riferous waters, and the drawing of fpirit of wine.
We alfo uie the term vapour-bath, when ?. fick perfon is
made to receive the vapours anfing from fome liquid matter
placed over a fire. Many contrivances have been propofed
for this pUrpofe ; and their expediency and utility are bed
known to thofe who are converfant in this bufinefs. A Lte
writer has iuggefled a new conftrudlion of vapour baths;
and the whole apparatus is reduced to a tin boiler, tin pipes
wrapped in flannel, and a deal box with a cotton cover, for
the reception of the body and circulation of the vapour.
VARI, in medicine, little, hard, and ruddy tumors,
which frequently infefl the faces of young perfons of a hot
temperament of body.
VARIATION of the Compafs, is the deviation of the
magnetic or mariner’s needle from the meridian or true
north and fouth line. On the continent it is called the
deilination of the magnetic needle ; and this is a better term,
for reafons which will appear by and by.
Our readers know, that the needle of a mariner’s com-
pafs is a fmall magnet, exaftly poifed on its middle, and
turning freely in a horizontal diredtion on a fharp point, fo
that it always arranges itielf in the plane of the magnetic
adlion. We need not add any thing on this head to what
has been delivered in the articles Compass and A%\muth
Compass.
About the time that the polarity of the magnet was
firfl obferved in Europe, whether originally, or as imported
from China, the magnetic diredlion, both in Europe and
in China, was nearly in the plane of the meridian. It was
therefore an ineftimable prefent to the mariner, giving him
a fure direftion in his courfe through the patluefs ocean. '
But by the time that the European navigators had engaged
in their adventurous voyages to far diftant (bores, the devi¬
ation of the compafs needle from the meridian was very
fenfible even in Europe ; and it is lomewhat furprifing that
the Dutch and Portuguele navigators did not obferve it on
their own coafls. The fon of Columbus p< fitively fays,
that it was obferved by his father in his firfl voyage to A-
meriea, and made his companions fo anxious left they fhould
not find the way back again to their own country, that '
they mutimed and retufed to proceed. It is furprifing that
any Ihouid doubt of its being known to this celebrated na¬
vigator, becaufe he even endeavours to account for it by
fuppofing the needle always to point to a fixed point of the
heavens, different from the pole of the world, which he calls
4 I 2 the
V A R
[ 620 ]
VAR
,n' the point attraBive. It is at any rate certain that Gonzales
Oviedo and Sebaftian Cabot obferved it in their voyages.
Indeed it could not pofiibly efcape them ; for in fome
parts of their feveral tracks the needle deviated above 25
degrees from the meridian ; and the rudeft dead reckoning,
made on the fuppofition of the needle pointing due north
and fouth, muft have thrown the navigators into the utmoft
confufion. It would indeed be very difficult for them, un¬
prepared for this fource of error, to make any tolerable
guefs at its quantity, till they got to fome place on fhore,
where they could draw a meridian line. But we know that
fpherical trigonometry was at that time abundantly familiar
»to the mathematicians of Europe, and that no perfon pre¬
tended to take the command of a ffiip bound to a diftant
port that was not much more informed in this fcjence than
moft mailers of ffiips are now-a-days. It could not be long,
therefore, before the methods wrere given them for difco-
vering the variation of the compafs by obfervation of Am¬
plitudes and Azimoths, as is pradlifed at prefent (fee
each of thefe articles). But the deviation of the compafs
from the meridian was not generally allowed by mathe¬
maticians, who had not yet become fenfible of the neceffity
of quitting the Ariftotelean trammels, and inveftigating na¬
ture by experiments. They rather chofe to charge the
navigators with inaccuracy in their obfervations than the
Ichoolmen with error in principles. Pedro de Medina at
Valladolid, in his /trie de Naviggar, publifhed in ( 545,pofi-
tively denies the variation of the compafs. But the concur¬
ring reports of the commanders of ffiips on diftant voyages,
in a few years, obliged the landfmen in their clofets to give up
the point; and Martin Cortez, in a treatife of navigation,
printed at Seville before 1556, treats it as a thing completely
eftabliffied, and gives rules and inftruments for difcovering
its quantity. About the year 1580 Norman publiffied his
difcovery of the dip of the needle, and fpeaks largely of
the horizontal deviation from the plane of the meridian,
and attributes it to the attraction of a point, not in the
heavens, but in the earth, and defcribes methods by which
he hoped to find its place. To the third, and all the fub-
fequent editions of Norman’s book (called the new attrac¬
tive), was fubjoined a differtation by Mr Burroughs, comp¬
troller of the navy, on the variation of the compafs, in
which are recorded the quantity of this deviation in many
places; and he laments the obftacle which it caufes to na¬
vigation by its total uncertainty previous to obfervation.
The author indeed offers a fort of rule for computing it a
priori, founded on fome conjecture as to its caufe; but,
with the modelly and candour of a gentleman, acknowledges
that this is but a guefs, and intreats all navigators to be affi-
duous in their oblervations, and liberal in communicating
them to the public ; conjuring them to confider, that an in-
terefted regard to their own private advantage, by conceal¬
ing their knowledge, may prove the ffiipwreck of thoufands
of brave men. Accordingly obfervations were liberally con¬
tributed from time to time, and were publiffied in the fub-
fequent treatifes on navigation.
But in 1635 the mariners were thrown into a new and
great perplexity, by the publication of a Difcourfe mathema¬
tical on the variation of the Magnetical Needle, by Mr Henry
Gillebrand, Greffiam profefTor of aftronomy. He had com¬
pared the variations oblerved at London by Burroughs, Gun¬
ter, and himfelf, and found that the north end of the mari¬
ner’s needle w-as gradually drawing more to the weftward.
Tor Norman and Burroughs had obferved it to point about
114 degrees to the eaft of the north in 1 ^8©; Gunter found
its deviation only 65 in 1622, and he himfelf had oblerved
only 40 in 1634 ; and it has been found to deviate more
and more to the weftward ever fince, as may '
the following little table in Waddington’s Navi
London.
be feen from
gat ion.
1576 Norman li0i5'Eaft,
1580 Burroughs 11.17
1622 Gunter 6.12
1634 Gillebrand 4. 5
1662 o. o
1666 Sellers 0.34 Weft
1670 2.06
1672 2.30
1700 9.40
1720 13.—
174° 16.10
176° 19.30
1774 22.20
1778 Phil. Tianf. 22.ir
Mr Bond, teacher of mathematics in London, and em¬
ployed to take care of and improve the impreffions of the
popular treatiles of navigation, about the 1650, decla¬
red, in a work called the “ Seaman’s Kalendar,” that he
had difeovered the true progrefs of the deviation of the
compafs ; and publiffied in another work, called the “ Lon¬
gitude Found,” a table of the variation for 50 years. This
was, however, a very gratuitous fort of prognoftication,
not founded on any well-grounded principles; and though
it tallied very well wuth the obfervations made in London,
which ffiowed a gradual motion to the wreftvvard at the rate
°f •1annually, by no means agreed wfith the obferva¬
tions made in other places. See Phil. Tranf. 1668.
But this glad news to navigators foon loft its credit : for
the inconfiftency with obfervation appeared more and more
every day, and all were anxious to difeover tome general
rule, by vyhich a near guefs at leaft might be made as to
the dire&ion of the needle in the moft frequented feas. Mr
Halley, one of the firil geometers and moft zealous philo-
fophers of the laft century, recommended the matter in the
moft earneft manner to the attention of government; and,
after much unwearied felicitation, obtained a ffiip to be fent
on a voyage of difcovery for this very purpofe. He got
the command of this ffiip, in which he repeatedly traverfed
the Atlantic Ocean, and went,as far as the yoth degree of
fouthern latitude. See his very curious fpeculations on this
fubjeft in the Phil. Tranf. 1683 and 1692.
After he had colle&ed a prodigious number of obferva¬
tions made by others, and compared them with his own, he
publiffied in /700 a fynoptical account of them in a very
ingenious form of a fea-chart, where the ocean was crofted
by a number of lines paffing through thofc planes where
tne compais had the fame deviation. Thus, in every point
of one line there was no variation in 1700; in every point
of another line the compafs had 20 degrees of eaft variation;
and in every point of a third line it had 20g of weft varia¬
tion. Thefe lines have fince been called Nalleyan liner,
01 curves. This chart was received with univerfal applaufe,
and wnas undoubtedly one ©f the moft valuable prefents that
fcience has made to the arts. But though recommended
with all the earneftnefs which its importance merited, it
was offered with the candour and the caution that charao
terifes a real philofopher ardently zealous for the propaga¬
tion of true knowledge. Its illuftrious author reminds the
public of the inaccuracy of obfervations colledled from every
quarter, many of them made by perfons not fufficiently in-
ftrufted, nor provided with proper inftruments; many alfo
without dates, and moft of them differing in their dates,
fo that fome redudlion was neceflary for all, in order to bring
them to a comaion epoch; and this muft be made without
having
■
V
i
VAR [
Variation, having an unqueftionable principle on which to proceed.
u*—■V-—' He laid, that he plainly faw that the change of variation
was very different in different places, and in the fame place at
different times; and confeffes that he had not difeovered any
general principle by which thefe changes could be connected.
Halley’s Variation Chart, however, was of immenfe ufe ;
but it became gradually lefs valuable, and in 1745 was
exceedingly erroneous. This made Meffrs Mountaim and
Dodfon, fellows of the Royal Society, apply to the admi-
rality and to the great trading companies for permiflion to
infpedf their records, and to extraft from them the obferva-
tions of the variations made by their officers. They got all
the affiflance they could demand ; and, after having com¬
pared above 50,000 obfervations, they compofed new va¬
riation charts, fitted for 1745 and 1756.
The polarity of the magnetic needle, and a general tho’
intricate connexion between its pofitions in all parts of the
world, naturally caufes the philofopher to fpeculate about
its caufe. We fee that Cortez aferibed it to the attra&ion
of an eccentric point, and that Bond thought that this point
was placed not in the heavens, but in the earth. This no¬
tion made the bafis of the famous Theory of Magnetifm of
Hr Gilbert of Colchefter, the firft fpecimen of experimen¬
tal philofophy which has been given to the public. It was
publilhed about the year 1600 : he was an intimate ac¬
quaintance of the great experimental philofopher lord Bacon,
and proceeded entirely according to the plan laid down by
that iiluftrious leader in his Novum Organum Scientiarum-
Gilbert affined that the earth was a great magnet, and
that all the phenomena of the mariner’s compafs were the
effe&s of this magnetifm. He fhowed at leaft that thefe
phenomena were precilely fuch as would lefult from fuch a
conftitution of the earth ; that is, that the pofitions of the
mariner’s needle in different parts of the earth were precifely
the fame with thofe of a fmall magnet fimilarly fituated with
refpeft to a very large one. Although he had made more
magnetic experiments than all that had gone before him
put together, ftill the magnetical phenomena were but fcan-
tily known.till long after. But Gilbert’s theory (for fo it
mull be truly efteemed) of the magnetical phenomena is
now completely confirmed. The whole of it may be under-
itood from the following general propofition.
Let NS (£g. i.) be a magnet, of which N is the north
and S the fouth pole : Let h r be any oblong piece of iron,
poifed on a point c like a compafs needle. It will arrange
itfelf in a pofition n c s precifely the fame with that which
would be affumed by a compafs needle of the fame fize and
ffiape, having n for its north and j its fouth pole. And
while the piece of iron remains in this pofition, it will be
In all refpefts a magnet hmilar to the real compafs needle.
The pole n will attradl the fouth pole of a fmall magnetifed
needle, and repel its north pole. If a paper be held over
r s, and fine iron filings be ftrewed on it, they will arrange
themfelves into curves iffuing trom one of its ends and ter¬
minating at the other, in the fame manner as they will
do when ftrewed on a paper held over a real compafs
needle. But this magnetifm is quite temporary ; for if
the piece of iron n 1 be turned the other way, placing n
where s now is, it will remain there, and will exhibit the
fame phenomena. We may here add, that if « j be almoft
infinitely fn.all in compariion of NS, the line ns will be in
fuch a pofition that if s a, sb, be drawn parallel to Nr,
Sc, we fhall have s a to s b as the force of the pole N to
the force of the pole S: And this is the true caufe of
that cutious-difpofition of iron-filings when ftrewed round a
magnet. Each fragment becomes a momentary magnet,
and arranges itfelf in the true magnetic diredtion; and when
fo arranged, attracts the two adjoining fragments, and co¬
llate
Dxiu
621 ] VAR
operates with the forces, which alfo arrange them. We',,'’ariatian'
throw this out to the ingenious mechanician as the foun- r" ^
dation of a complete theory of the magnetical phenomena.
When the filings are infinitely fine, the curves Nr S have
this property, that, drawing the tangent nc s, we always
have s a \ s b — force of N : force of S ; and thus we may
approximate at pleafure to the law of magnetic attradlion
and repulfion. The public may expedt to have foon a theo¬
ry of magnetifm founded on this principle, and applied with
the completeft fuccefs to every phenomenon yet obferved.
Now, to apply this theory to the point in hand.—Let ns
(fig. 2.) be a fmall compafs needle, of which n is the north
and s the fouth pole : let this needle be poifed horizontally
on the pin c d; and let n s be the pofition of the dipping
needle. Take any long bar of common iron, and hold it
upright, or nearly fo, as reprefented by AB. The lower
end B will repel the pole n and will attradl the pole s, thus
exhibiting the properties of a north pole of the bar AB.
Keeping B in its place, turn the bar round B' as a centre,
till it come into the pofition A'B nearly parallel to «'/.
You will obferve the compafs needle n s attradt the end B'
with either pole n or s, when B'A' is in the pofition B' *
perpendicular to the diredfion n' / of the dipping neeedle :
and when the bar has come into the pofition B'A', the up¬
per end B' will fhow itfelf to be a fouth pole by attradfing
n and repelling j. This beautiful experiment was exhibited
to the Royal Society in 1673 by Mr Hindfhaw.
From this it appears, that the great magnet in the earth
induces a momentary magnetifm on foft iron precifely as a
common magnet would do. Therefore (fays Dr Gilbert)
it induces permanent magnetilm on magnetifable ores of
iron, fuch as loadftones, in the fame manner as a great load-
ftone would do ; and it affedfs the magnetifm already im¬
parted to a piece of tempered fteel precifely as any other
great magnet would.
Therefore the needle of the mariner’s compafs in every
part of the world arranges itfelf in the magnetic diredlion, fo
that, if poifed as a dipping needle ffiould be, it will be a tan¬
gent to one of the curves N r S of fig. x. The horizontal
needle being fo poifed as to be capable of playing only in a
hoiizontal plane, wall only arrange itfelf in the plane of the tri¬
angle N c S. That end of it which has the fame magnetifm
with the fouth pole S of the great magnet included in the
earth will be turned towards its noVth pole N. Therefore
what we call the north pole, of a needle or magnet really
has the magnetifm of the fouth pole of the great primitive
magnet. If the line NS be called the axis, and N and S
the poles of this great magnet, the plane of any one of
thefe curves N <; S will cut the earth’s furface in the circum¬
ference of a circle, great or fmall according as the plane
does or does not pafs through the centre of the earth.
Dr Halley’s firft thought was, that the north pole of the
great magnet or loadftone which was included in the bowels
of the earth was not far from Baffin’s Bay, and its foulh
pole in the Indian ocean fouth-weft from New' Zealand.
But he could not find any pofitions of thefe two poles which
would give the needle that particular pofition which it was
obferved to affume in different parts of the world ; and he
concluded that the great terreftiial loadftone had four irre¬
gular poles (a thing not unfrequent in natural loadftones,
and ealily producible at pleafure), two of which are ftronger
and two weaker. When the compafs is at a great diftance
from the two north poles, it is affe&ed fo as to be.direfted
nearly in a plane paffing through the ftrongeft. But if we
approach it much more, to the weakeft, the greater vicinity
will compenfate for the imaller abfolute force of the weak
pole, and occafion confiderable irregularities. The appear¬
ances are favourable to this opinion. If this be the real
2.. cone.-
VAR [62
conllitntion of the great magnet, it is almofl a defperate
talk to aicertain by computation what will be the pofition
of the needle. Halley feems to have defpaired ; for he was
both an elegant and a molt expert mathematician, and it
would have colt him little trouble to afcertain the places of
two poles only, and the direftion which thefe would have
given to the needle. But to fay what would be its pofition
when afted on by four poles, it was neceffary to know the
law by which the magnetic a£tion varied by a variation of
didance ; and even when this is known, the computation
would have been exceedingly difficult.
In order to account for the change of variation, Dr
Halley fuppofes this internal magnet not to adhere to the
external fhell which we inhabit, but to form a nucleus or
kernel detached from it on all fides, and to be fo polled as to
revolve freely round an axis, of which he hoped to difcovei
the pofition by obfervation of the compafs. The philofo-
pher will find nothing in this ingenious hypothefis incon-
fiftent with our knowledge of nature. Dr Halley imagined
that the nucleus revolved from call to weft round the fame
axis with the earth. Thus the poles of the magnet would
change their pofitions relatively to the earth’s furface, and
this would change the direflion of the compafs needle.
The great Euler, whofe delight it was always to engage
in the moft difficult mathematical refearches and computa¬
tions, undertook to afcertain the pofition of the needle in
every part of the earth. His difiertation on this fubjedl is
to be feen in the 13th volume of the Memoirs of the Royal
Academy of Berlin, and is exceedingly beautiful, abounding
in thofe analytical tours d’adrejfe in which he iurpaffed all
the world. He has reduced the computation to a wonder¬
ful fimplicity.
He found, however, that four poles would engage him
in an analyfis which would be exceffively intricate, and has
contented himfelf with computing for two only ; obferving
that this fuppofition agrees fo well with obfervation, that
it is highly probable that this is the real conftitution of the
terreftrial magnet, and that the coincidence would have
been perfedt if he bad hit on the due pofitions of the two
poles. He places one of them in lat. 76° north, and long.
96° weft from Teneriffe. The fouth pole is placed in lat.
cB0 fouth, and long. 158° weft from Teneriffe. Thefe are
their fituations for 1757. —Mr Euler has annexed to his
differtation a chart of Halleyan curves failed to thefe af-
fumptions, and fitted to the year 1757.
It muft be acknowledged, that the general courfe of the
variations according to this theory greatly refembles the
real ftate of things; and we cannot but own ourfelves highly
indebted to this great mathematician for having made fo fine
a firft attempt. He has improved it very confiderably in
another differtation in the 22d volume of thefe memoirs.
But there are ftill fuch great differences, that the theory is
of no fervice to the navigator, and it only ferves as an ex¬
cellent model for a farther profecution of the fubjedt. Since
that time another large variation chart has been publiffied,
fitted to a late period ; but the public has not fufficient
information of the authorities or obfervations on which it
is founded.
The great objedl in all thefe charts is to facilitate the
difeovery of a fhip s longitude at fea. For the lines of va¬
riation being drawn on the chart, and the variation and the
latitude being obferved at fea, we have only to look on the
chart for the interfedlion of the parallel of obferved latitude
and the Blalleyan curve of obferved variation. This inter-
fedtion muft be the place of the fhip. This being the pur-
pofe, the Halleyan lines are of great fervice ; but they do
not give us a ready conception of the diredtion of the needle.
We have always to imagine a line drawn through the point,
i ] VAR
cutting the meridian in the angle correfponding to the Hal- Variat'an
leyan line. We ffiould learn die general magnetic affec- —v—
tions of the globe much better if a number of magnetic
meridians were drawn. Theie are the interfedfions of the
earth’s furface with planes paffing through the magnetical
axis, cutting one another in angles of 5^ or io°. This would
both {how us the places of the magnetic poles much more
clearly, and would, in every place, fhow us at once the di-
redfion of the needle. In all thofe places where thefe magne¬
tical curves touch the meridians, there is no variation ; and
the variation in every other place is the angle contained be¬
tween thefe magnetical meridians and the true ones.
The program of a work of this kind has been publifhed
by a Mr Churchman, who appears to have engaged in the
inveftigation with great 7.eal and confiderable opportunities.
He had been employed in fomc operations connedted with
fiurveys of the back fettlements in North America. It is
pretty certain that the north magnetic pole (or point, as Mr
Churchman choofes to call it) is not far removed from the
ftations given it by Halley and Euler; and there feems no
doubt but that in the countries between Hudfon’s Bay and
the weftern coafts of North America the needle will have
every pofition with refpedf to the terreftrial meridian, fo that
the north end of a compafs needle will even point due fouth
in feveral places. Mr Churchman has folicited affiftance
from all quarters, to enable him to traverfe the whole of
that inhofpitable country with the compafs in his hand. It
were greatly to be wifhed that our gracious fovereign, who
has always fliown fuch a love for the promotion of nautical
fcience, and who has fo munificently contributed to it, al¬
ready enriching the world with the moft valuable difeoveries,
and thus laying pofterity under unfpeakable obligations; it
were greatly to be wifhed that he would put this almofl
finifhirg ftroke to the noble rVork, and enable Mr Church¬
man, or fome fitter perfon, if fnch can be found, to profe-
cuie this moft interefting inquiry. Almofl every thing
that can be defired would be obtained by a few avell-chofen
obfervations made in thofe regions. It would be of immenfe
advantage to have the dips afeertained with great precilion.
Thefe would enable us to judge at what depth under the
furface the pole is fituated; for the well informed mechani¬
cian, who will ftudy ferioufly what we have faid about
the magnetical curves, will fee that a compafs needle,
when compared with the great terreftrial magnet, is but as
a particle of irou-filings compared to a very large artificial
magnet. Therefore, from the pofition of the dipping
needle, we may infer the place of the pole, if the law of
magnetic adlion be given ; and this law may be found by
means of other experiments which we could point out.
Mr Churchman has adopted the opinion of only two poles.
According to him, the north pole lies (in 1800) in Lat.
58° N. and Long. 1340 weft from Greenwich, very near
Cape Fair-weather; and the fouth pole lies in Lat.
and Lon. 165° E from Greenwich. He alio imagines
that the north pole has moved to the eaftward, on a parab
lei of latitude, about 65 fince the beginning of laft century
(rrom i6co), and concludes that it makes a revolution in
1096 years. The fouthern pole has moved lefs, and com¬
pletes its revolution in 2289 years. This motion he aferibes
to fo ne influences which he calls magnetic tides, and whick
he feems to confider as celeftial. I his he infers from the
changes of variation. He announces a phyfical theory on
this fubjedl, which, he fays, enables him to compute the va¬
riation with precifion for any time paft or to come ; and he
even gives the procefs ot trigono netneal computation illu-
ftrated by examples. But as this publication (entitled The
Magnetic publifhed for the Author, by Darter, and
Harvey, 17941 is only a program, he expreffes himieli ob-
fcurely,
VAR [ 623 ] VAR
Variation, fcurely, and fomewhat enigmatically, rerpefting’ his theory,
k,“—waiting for encouragement to make the obfervations which
are neceffary fur completing it. He has, in the mean time,
accompanied his account of the theory with a chart, in the
form of gullets, for covering a globe of 15 inches diameter,
objefting veryjuftly to the great diftortion which Wright's
charts occafion in every part near the poles. This diftor¬
tion is- fuch as totally to change the appearance of the curves
in thofe very places where their appearance and magnitude
are of the greateft. moment.
Mr Churchman has alfo accompanied his work with the
returns which he has received from feveral perfons eminent
for their rank or learning, to whom he had applied for en¬
couragement and afliftance. They are polite, but, we think,
not fo encouraging as fuch zeal in fuch a caufe had good
reafon to expetft. We acknowledge that there are circum-
ftances which juftify caution in pronufes of this nature. His
prefers are very great, and not qualified with any doubt.
Some of his proofs are not very convincing, and there are
fome confiderable defedfts in the fcientific part. He fpeaks
in Inch terms of the magnetic influences as plainly lead us to
conclude that they refemble, in effedt at leaft, the ordinary
actions of magnets. He fpeaks of the influence of one pole
being greater than that of the other ; and fays, that in this
cafe the magnetic equator, where the needle will be paral¬
lel to the axis, will not be in the middle between the poles.
This is true of a common magnet. He mult therefore
abide by this fuppofition in its other confequences. The
magnetic meridians muft be planes palling through this
axis, and therefore muft be circles on the furface of the
earth. This is incompatible with the oblervations ; nay,
his charts are fo in many places, particularly in the Pacific
Ocean, where the variations by his ehart are three times
greater than what has been obferved. — His parallels of dip
are flill more different from obfervation, and are incompa¬
tible with any phenomena that could be produced by a mag¬
net having but two poles. His rules of computation are
exceedingly exceptionable. He has in fadi butone example,
and that fo particular, that the mode of comoutation will
not apply to any other. This circumftance is not taken
notice of in the enunciation of his firft problem ; and the
reader is made to imagine that he has got a rule for com¬
puting the variation, whereas all the rules of calculation are
only running in a circle. The variation computed for the
port of St Peter and Paul in Kamtfchatka, by the rule, is
ten times greater than the truth. This is like the artifice
of a book-maker. We do not meet with any addition to
our knowledge on the fubjeft. The author feems to know
fomething of Euler’s merit ; but inllead of profecuting the
fubjeft in his way, he gives us an uninterefting account of
the furmifes of a number of obtenre writers about the dif¬
ficulty of the tafk ; and we think that Mr Churchman has
left us as much in the dark as ever. The obfevvation of the
connedfion of the polarity of the needle with the aurora
borealis occurred to the writer of this article as early as
1759, when a midfhipman on board the Royal William in
the River St Laurence. Some of the gentlemen of the
quarter-deck are ftill alive, and may remember this circum¬
ftance being pointed out to them one evening, when at an¬
chor off the Ifle aux Condres, during a very brilliant aurora
borealis. The point of the heavens to which all the rays of
light converged was precifely that which was oppofite t o
the lomh end of the dipping-needle. The obfervation was
inferted in the St James’s Chronicle, and afterwards (about
177^) the London Chronicle, with a requeft to naviga¬
tors to take notice of it, and communicate their obferva-
tions.
i or our own part, we have little hopes of this problem
1
ever being fubjefted to accurate calculation. We believe,
indeed, that there is a cofmical change going on in the earth,
which will produce a progreffive change in the variation of
the needle ; and we fee none more likely than Dr Halley’s
notion. There is nothing repugnant to our knowledge of
the univerfe on the fuppoJition of a magnetic nucleus revol¬
ving within this earth; and it is very ea(y to conceive a very
fimple motion of revolution, which lhall produce the very
motion of the fenfible poles which Mr Churchman contends
for. We need only fuppofe that the magnetical axis of
this nucleus is not its axis of revolution. It may not even
bifeft that axis ; and this circumftance will caufe the two
poles to have different degrees of motion in relation to the
fhell which furrounds it.
But this regular progrefs of the magnet within the earth
may produce very irregular motions of the compafs needle,
by the intervention of a third body fuiceptible of magne-
tiftn. The theory of which we have juft given a hint comes
here to our affiftance. Suppote Nf> (fig. 3.) to reprefent
the primitive magnet in the earth, and to be a ft rat um
ol iron-ore fufceptible of magnetilm. Alfo let «'r’be ano¬
ther fmall mafs of a fimilar ore ; and let their fituations and
magnitudes be fuch as is exhibited in the figure. The fa£t
will be, that n will be the north pole and s the fouth pole of
the great ftratum, and n! and s' will be the north and fouth
poles of the fmall mafs or loadftoru?. Any perfon may re¬
move all doubts as to this, by making the experiment with
a magnet NS, a piece of iron or foft tempered fteel n s, and
another piece n s'. The well informed and attentive reader
will eafily fee, that by fuch interventions every conceivable
anomaly may be produced. While the great magnet makes
a revolution in any direflion, the needle will change its po-
fition gradually, and with a certain regularity ; but it will
depend entirely on the fize, fhape, and fituation, of thefc
intervening maffes of magnetifable iron-ore, whether the
change of variation of the compafafhall be fueh as the pri¬
mitive magnet alone would have produced, or whether it
fhall be of a kind wholly different.
Now, that fuch intervening difturbances may exift, is paft
contradidlion. We know that even on the film of earth
which we inhabit, and with wNch only we are acquainted,,
there are extenfive ftrata or otherwife difpofed maftes of
iron-ores in a ftate fuf’ceptible of magnetifim ; and ex¬
periments *made on bars of hard tempered fteel, and on bits
of fuch ores, affure us that the magnetifm is not induced on
fuch bodies in a moment, but proqa: ated gradually along
the mafs.—That fuch difturbances do actually exift, we
have many relations. There are many inftances on record'
of very extenlive magnetic rocks, which affett the needle
to very confiderable diilances. The ifland of Elbe in the
Mediterranean is a very remarkable inftance of this. The
Ifland of Cannay alfo, on the weft of Scotland, has rocks
which affedt the needle at a great diftance.
A fimilar effedt is obferved near the Feroe I Sands in the
North Sea ; the compafs has no determined diredtion when
brought on fhore. Journ des S^avans, 1679, p. 174.
In Hudfon’s Straits, in latitude 63% the needle has hardly
any polarity. E/iis’s Voyage to Hudfon’s Bay. f
Bougmer obferved the fame thing in Peru. Nay, we
believe that almoft all rocks, efpeciaily of whin or trappe
ftone, contain iron in a proper ftate.
All this refers only to the thin cruft through which the
human eye has occaiionally penetrated. Of what may be
below we are ignorant but when we fee appearances which
tally fo remarkably with what would be the effedls of gieat
maffes of magnetical bodies, modifying the general and re¬
gularly progrefiive adfhm of a primitive magnet, whole ex-
iftence and motion is incouliftent tvith nothing that we know.
Variation.
VAR [63^
atior^of this globe, this manner of accounting for the obfetved
v——"' change of variation has all the probabilit y that we can defire.
Nay, we apprehend that very conliderable changes may be
produced in the direftion of the compafs needle even with¬
out the fuppofttion of any internal motion. If the great mag¬
net refembles many loaddones wfe are acquainted with, having
more than twro poles, wTe know that thefe poles will a£t on
each other, and gradually change each other’s force, and
confequently the direftion of the compaf?. 'This procefs, to
be fure, tends to a Hate of things which will change no more.
— But the period of human hiftory, or of the hiftory of the
race of Adam, may make but a fmall part of the hiftory of
this globe ; and therefore this objeftion is of little force.
There can be no doubt of the operation of the general
terreftrial magnetifm on every thing fufceptible of magnetic
properties ; and we cannot hehtate to explain in this way
many changes of magnetic direftion wdiich have been ob-
ferved. Thus, in Italy, Father de la Tone obferved, that
during a great eruption of Vefuvius the variation wras 160
in the morning, at noon it wras 140, and in the evening it
was 10°, and that it continued in that Hate till the lava grew
fo dark as no longer to be viiible in the night ; after which
it flowly increafed to I3t> where it remained, Daniel
Bernoulli found the needle change its pofttion 45' by
an earthquake. Profeflbr Muller at Manheim obferved that
the declination of the needle in'that place wras greatly af-
fefted by the earthquake in Calabria. Such ftreams of lava
as flowed from Hekla in the laft dreadful eruption muft
have made a transference of magnetic matter that would
confderably affeft the needle. But no obfervations feem to
have been made on the occafion ; for we know that com¬
mon iron-ftone, which has no effect on the needle, will, by
mere cementation with any inflammable fubftance, become
magnetic. In this way Dr Knight fometimes made artificial
loadftones.—But thefe are partial things, and not connefted
with the general change of variation now under conirderation.
We have faid fo much on this lubjeft, chiefly with the
view of cautioning our readers againft too fanguine expecta¬
tions from any pretentions to the folution of this great pro¬
blem. We may certainly gather from thefe obfervations,
that even although the theory of the variation fhould be
completed, we muft expeCt (by what we already know of mag¬
netifm in general) that the difturbances of the needle, by
local caufes intervening between it and the great influence
by which it is chiefly direCled, may be fo confiderable as to
affedf the pofttion of the compafs needle in a very fenfrble
manner: for we know that the metallic fubftanees in the
bowels of the earth are in a ftate of continual change, and
this to an extent altogether unknown.
Thfcre is another irregularly of the mariner’s needle that
we have taken no notice of, namely, the daily variation.
This was firft obferved by Mr George Graham in 1722
(Philofophical Tranjattions, n° 383), and reported to the
■Royal Society of London. It ufually moves (at leaft in
Europe) to the weft ward from S morning till 2 P. M. and
then gradually returns to its former frtuation. The diur¬
nal variations ate feldom lefs than o° 5', and often much
greater. Mr Graham mentions (Philofophical Tranfadiom,
n° 428) fome obfervations by a Captain Hume, in a voyage
to America, where he found the variation greateft in the
afternoon. This being a general phenomenon, has alio
attraCfed the attention of philofophers. The moft detailed
accounts of it to be met with are thofe of Mr Canton, in
Philofophical Tranfaflions, Vol LI. Part I. p. 399, and
.thole of Van Swinden, in his Treatife on Ektlricity and
Magnetifm.
It appears from Canton’s obfervations, that although
there be great irregularities in this diurnal change of poft-
- 1. V AR
tion of the mariner’s needle, there is a eet tarn average, which Variation,
is kept up with confiderable fteadinefs. The following
table {hows the average of greateft daily change of pofition
in the different months of the year, obierved in Mr Canton’s
houfe, Spital Square, in 1759.
January 7'. 87
Feburary 8 .58
March 11.27
April I 2 .26
May 13.—
June 13 >21
JMy
Augull
Sept.
OClober
Nov.
Dec.
13'. 14"
12.19
11-43
10.36
8. 9
6.58
Mr Canton attempts to account for thefe changes of pofi¬
tion, by obferving that the force of a magnet is weakened
by heat. A fmall magnet being placed near a compafs
needle, ENE from it, fo as to make it deflcCt 450 from
the natural pofition, the magnet was covered with a brafs
veflel, into which hot water was poured. The needle gradual¬
ly receded from the magnet Jths oi>a degree, and returned
gradually to its place as the water cooled. I his is confirm¬
ed by uniform experience.
The parts of the earth to the eaftward are.firft; heated in
the morning, and therefore the force of the earth is weaken¬
ed, and the needle is made to move to the weftward. But
as the fun warms the wellern fide of the earth in the after¬
noon, the motion of the needle muft take the contrary di¬
rection.
But this way of explaining by a change in the force
of the earth fuppofes that the changing caure is aCling
in oppofition to fome other force. We do not know of
any fuch. The force, whatever it is, kerns fimply to
produce its own effeCt, in deranging the needle from the
direction of terreftrial magnetifm. II jEpinus s theory
of magnetic aCtion be admitted, i*;;. that a bar of fteel has
marrnetifm induced on it by propelling the quiefeent and
mutually repelling particles of magnetic fluid to one end, or
attracting theiwno the other, we may fuppofe that the fun
aCts on the earth as a magnet aCts on a piece of foft iron,
and in the morning propels the fluid in the north-weft;
parts. The needle direCts itlelf to this conftipated fluid, and
therefore it points to the eaftward of the magnetic north in
the afternoon. And (to abide by the'fame theory) this
induced magnetifm will be fomewhat greater when tire
earth is warmer; and therefore the diurnal variation will
be greateft; in fummer. This change of pofition of the
conftipated fluid muft be fuppofed to bear a very fmall ratio
to the whole fluid, which is naturally fuppofed to be con¬
ftipated in one pole of the great magnet in order to give it
magnetifm. Thus we {hall have the diurnal variation a very
fmall quantity. This is departing, however, from the prin¬
ciple of Mr Canton’s explanation ; and indeed we cannot fee
how the weakening the general force of the terreftrial mag¬
net Thould make any change in the needle in refpeCf to its
direClion ; nor does it appear probable that the change of
temperature produced by the fun will penetrate deep enough
to produce any fenfible effeCt on the magnetiim. And if
this be the caufe, we think that the derangements o.f the
needle ftrould vary as the thermometer varies, which is not
true. The other method of explaining is much better, if
iEpinus’s theory of magnetic attraAion and repuliion be
juft ; and we may fuppofe that it is only the fecondary
magnetifm (/. e. that of the magnetrfable menerals) that is
fenftbly affeCfed by the heat; this wifrl account very well for
the greater mobility of the fluid in fummer than in winter. .
A great objeftion to either of thefe explanations is the
prodigious diverfity of the diurnal variations in differ¬
ent places. This is fo very great, that we can hardly aferibe
the diurnal variation to any change in the magnetiim of the
primitive
VAR [ 635 ] VAR
Variation* primitive t weft rial magnet, and mufl rather look for its fulnefs—by becoming proliferous, or crefted—by bearing Varfofa
Variety caufe in local cijcumllances. rl his concluiion becomes more bulbs inftead of feeds—-or being viviparous. 11 1
1t '' - probable, when we learn that the deviation from the meri- The ufual canfes of variation are, climate, foil, expofure, ‘*r“1 ' *
dian and the deviation from the horizontal line are not af- heat, cold, winds, culture.
■ fefted at the fame time. Van Swinden aferibes them folely
to changes produced on the needles themfelves. If their
magnetifm be greatly deranged by the fun’s pofition, it may
throw the magnetic centre away from the centre of the
' needle’s motion, and thus may produce a very fmail change
01 pofition. But if this be the caufe, we (hould expeft dif-
-ferences in different needles. Van Swinden fays, that there
are fuch, and that they are very great; but as he has not
Specified them, we cannot draw any conclufion.
But, befides this regular diurnal variation, there is ano¬
ther, which is fubjedted to no rule. The aurora borealis
is obferved (in Europe/ to difurb the needle exceedingly,
•fometimes drawing it feveral degrees from its pofition. It is
always obferved to increafe its deviation from the meridian,
that is, an aurora borealis makes the needle point more
wefterly. This difturbance fometimes amounts to fix or
feven degrees, and is generally obferved to be gveatefl when
the aurora borealis is moil remarkable.
This is a very curious phenomenon, and we have not
been able to find any connection between this meteor and
the pofition of a magnetic needle. It is to be obierved,
that a needle of copper or wood, or any fubftance befides
iron, is not affedled. Vv e long thought it an eledtric phe¬
nomenon, and that the needle was affedted as any other
body balanced in the fame manner would be ; but a copper
needle would then be affedfed. Indeed it may ftill be doubt¬
ed whether the aurora borealis be an eledtric phenomenon.
They are very frequent and remarkable in Sweden; and yet
Bergman fays, that he never obierved any eledfric fymptoms
about them, though in the mean time the magnetic needle
was greatly affedled.
We fee the needle frequently difturbed both from its ge¬
neral annual pofition, and from the change made on it by
•the diurnal variation. [ his is probably the effedt of aurorae
boreales which are invifible, either on account of thick
weather or day-light. Van Swinden fays, he feldom or
never failed to obferve aurorae boreales immediately after any
anomalous motion of the needle; and concluded that there
bad been one at the time, though he could not fee it.
Since no needle but a magnetic one is afFedled by the aurora
borealis, we may conclude that there is feme natural connec¬
tion between this meteor and magnetifm. This fhould
farther incite us to obferve the circumflance formerly men¬
tioned, viz. that the louth end of the dipping needle points to
that part of the heavens where the rays of the aurora appear
to converge. We wifh that this were diligently obferved
in places which have very different variation and dip of the
mariner’s needle.
For the diurnal and this irregular variation, confult the
Differtations of Cellius and of Hiorter, in the Memoirs of
Stockholm ; Wargentin, Philofophical Tranfatlions, Vol. 48.
Braun (Comment. Petropol. Novi, T. V. VII. IX) ; Graham
and Canton as above.
a change, fucceflion, or difference, in the
appearance or nature of things; in oppofition to uniformity.
Variety, in botany, is a change in fome lefs-effential
part or quality ; as colour, fize, pubefcence or age. Ex¬
ternally ; by the plaiting or interweaving of the branches 
by bundling or uniting of feveral ftalks into one broad fiat
f'He > by the greater breadth, or narrownefs, or curling of
leaves—by becoming awnlefs, or fmooth, or hirfute. "’in¬
ternally ; by becoming mutilated in the corolla ; or having
one larger than ordinary—by luxuriancy, multiplication, or
Vol. XVIII. P^t II.
VARIOLA, the Small-pox. See Medicine, n° 222
—224.
VARIX, in medicine, the dilatation of a vein, arifing
from the too great abundance or thicknefs of the blood.
VARNISH, a clear 1 impid fluid, capable of hardening
without lofing its tranfparency, tiled by painters, gilders,
&c. to give a luftre to their works, to preferve them and
defend them from the air.
A coat of varnilh ought to poffefs the following proper¬
ties : 1. It muff exclude the aftion of the air ; becaufe wood
and metals are varnifhed to defend them from decay and
ruff. 2. It muff refill water ; for otherwofe the effedt of
the varnifh could not be permanent. 3. It ought not to
alter fuch colours as are intended to be preferved by this
means. It is neceffary therefore that a varnifh fhould be
eafily extended or fpread over the furiace, without leaving
pores or cavities ; that it fhould not crack or fcale ; and
that it fhould refift water. Now refins are the only bodies
that poffefs thefe properties. Refins confequently mufl be
ufed as the bales of varnifh. The queftion which of courfie
prefents itfelf mufl then be, how to difpofe them for this
ufe ? and for this purpofe they mufl be difiblvcd, as minute,
ly divided as poffible, and combined in fuch a manner that
the imperfedlions of thofe which might be difpofed to fcale
may be corrected by others.
Rdins may be diffolved by three agents. 1. By fixed
oil. 2 By volatile oil. 3. By alcohol. And accordingly
we have three kinds of varnifh : the fat or oily varnifh, et~
fential varnifh, and fpirit varnifh. Before a refin is diffolved
in a fixed oil, it is neceffary to render the oil drying. For
this purpofe the oil is boiled with metallic oxides; in which
operation the mucilage of the oil combines with the metal,
while the oil itfelf unites with the oxigene of the oxide.
To accelerate the drying of this varnifn, it is neceffary to
add oil of turpentine. The effential varnifhes confift of a
folution of refin in oil of turpentine. The varnilh being
applied, the effential oil flies off, and leaves the refin. This
is ufed only for paintings. When refins are difihlved in al¬
cohol, the varnifh dries very fpeedily, and is fubjetl to crack;
but this fault is corredled by adding a fmail quantity of tur¬
pentine to the mixture, which renders it brighter, and lefs
brittle when dry.
We fhall now give the method of preparing a number of
varnifhes for different purpofes.
A Parnijh for Toilet-boxes, Cafes, Fans, &e.—Diffolve tw'o
ounces of gum maftich and eight ounces of gum fandarach
in a quart of alcohol; then add four ounces of Venice tur¬
pentine.
A Varnifhfor JVainfcots, Cane-chairs, Iron-chairs, Grates.—*
Diffolve in a quart of alcohol eight ounces of gum fandarach,
two ounces of feed lac, four ounces of rofin ; then add fix
ounces of Venice turpentine. If the varnifh is wifhed to
produce a red colour, more of the iac and lefs of fandaradh
fhoiild be ufed, and a little dragon's blood fhould be added.
This varnifh is fo thick that two layers of it are equal to four
or five of another.
A Vamjfn for Fiddles, and other Mufcal Inftrumcnts.—Put
four ounces of gum fandarach, two ounces of lac, twro
ounces of gum maftich, an ounce of gum elemi, into a quart;
of alcohol, and hang them over a flow are till they are dil-
folved ; then add two ounces of turpentine.
Varnijh in order to employ Vermilion for painting Equipages.
—Diffolve in a quart of alcohol fix ounces of fandarach,
4 K thre^
VAR
[ 626 1
VAR
Varnifr. three ounces of gum lac, and four ounces of rofin ; after-
   wards add fix ounces of the cheapeft kind of turpentine ;
jnix with it a proper quantity of vermilion when it is to be
ufed. * , r c
Gold-coloured Varnijh.—Pound feparately four ounces ot
ftick lac, four ounces of gamboge, four ounces of dragon’s
blood, four ounces of anotta, and one ounce of faffron : put _
each of them feparately into a quart of alcohol, and expofe
them for five days in a narrow-mouthed bottle to the fun,
or keep them during that time in a very warm room, fha-
kincr them every now and then to haffen the folution.
■When they are all melted, mix them together. More or lefs
of each of thefe ingredients will give the different tints of
jrold according as they are combined. In order to make
fdver imitate gold exaftly when covered with this varnifh,
the quantity of ingredients mull be fomewhat greater. The
method of gilding filver-leaf, &c. with this varnifh is as fob
lows : The filver-leaf being fixed on the fubjedt, in the fame
manner as gold-leaf, by the interpofition of proper gluti¬
nous matters, the varnifh is fpread upon the piece with a
brufh or pencil. The firft coat being dry, the piece is again
and again wafhed over with the varnifh till the colour ap¬
pears fufficiently deep. What is called gilt^ leather, and
many piclure frames, have no other than this counterfeit
gilding. Walhing them with a little redlified fpirit of wine
affords a proof of this; the fpirit diffolving the varnifh, and
leaving the fiber leaf of its own. whitenefs. For plain
frames, thick tin-foil may be ufed inftcad of fiber. . The
tin-leaf, fixed on the piece with glue, is to be burnifhed,
then p'olifhed with emery and a fine linen cloth, and after¬
wards with putty applied in the fame manner : being then
lacquered over with the varnifh five or fix times, it looks
very nearly like burnifhed gold. f he lame varnifh, made
with a lefs proportion of the colouring materials, is applied
alfo on works of brafs ; both for heightening the colour of
the metal to a refemblance with that of gold, and for pre-
ferving it from being tarnifhed or corroded by the air.
Oil Varnijhes.— Gum copal and amber are the lubftances
principally employed in oil varnifhes ; they poffefs the pro¬
perties neceffary for varnifhes, folidity and tranfpaiency.
The copal being whiteft, is ufed for varnifhing light, the
amber for daik colours. It is heft, to diflblve them before
mixing them with the oil, becaufe by this means they are in
lefs danger of being Icorched, and at the fame time the var¬
nifh is more beautiful. i hey fliould be melted, in a pot on
the fire ; they are in a proper Hate for receiving the oil
when they give no refiftance to the iron fpatula, and when
they run off from it drop by drop. The oil employed
jfhould be a drying oil, and perfettly free from greafe.. It
ihould be poured into the copal or amber by little and. little,
conftantly ftirring the ingredients at the lame time with the
fpatula. When the oil is well mixed with the copal or am¬
ber, take it off the fire ; and when it is pretty cool, pour in
a greater quantity of the effence of turpentine than the oil
that was ufed. After the varnifh is made, it fhould be pal¬
led through a linen cloth. Od varnifhes become thick by
keeping; but when they are to be ufed, it is only neceffary
to pour in a little efience of turpentine, and to put them
for a little on the fire. The turpentine is neceffary.in oil
varnifhes to make them dry properly ; generally twice as
much of it is ufed as of oil. Lefs is neceffary in. fummer
than in winter. Too much oil hinders the varniih from
drying ; but when too little is ufed, it cracks and does not
fpread properly. We {hall fubjoin the moff uleful oil var-
nifties: riii
White Copal Varnijh.— On 16 ounces of melted copal
pour four, fix, or eight ounces of linfeed oil, boiled and
quite free from greafe. Whet) they are well mixed, take
them off the fire (not forgetting to ftir them properly) ;
and when pretty cool, pour in 16 ounces of the effence of
Venice turpentine. Pafs the varnifh through a cloth.-—
Amber varnifh is made in the fame way.
Black Varnijh for Coaches and Iron Work.—This varnifh
is comoofedof bitumen of Paleftine, rofin, and amber, melt¬
ed feparately, and afterwards mixed ; the oil is then added,
and afterwards the turpentine, as direfted above. The
ufual proportions are, 12 ounces of amber, two ounces of
rofin, two ounces of bitumen, fix of oil, and 12 of the ef¬
fence of turpentine.—Golden-coloured varnifh may be made
alfo by fubftituting linfeed oil for alcohol.
EJfential Oil Varnijhes.—The only, effential oil varnifhes
ufed are for pictures. Pi&ure varnifhes fhould be white,
light, and quite tranfparent, which will.preferve the colours
without giviug them any difagreeable tint ; and it fhould be
poffible to take them off the pidure without injuring it.
They are ufually made of gum maftich and turpentine dif-
folved together in fome effential oil. The varnifh is paffed
through a cloth, and allowed to clarify. It is applied cold
to the pi&ure.
Varnijh for Glafs, in order to preferve it from the Rayr
of the Sun.-’—Pulverife a quantity of gum adragant, and let
it diffolve for 24 hours in the white of eggs well beat up ;
then rub it gently on the glafs with a brufh.
Varnifhes before they are ufed fhould be carefully kept
from duff, which would fpoil them; and they fhould be kept
in a veffel quite clean and dry. When ufed, they fliould be
lifted lightly with a brufh, and fpread upon a ground alto¬
gether free from dirt and moifture. The fubllance, atttr
being varnifhed, fhsuld be expofed to the heat of the fun,
or placed in a warm room covered with a glafs cafe, to
keep out all filth. Oil varnifhes require more heat than al¬
cohol varnifhes. The varnifh fhould be put on very quick¬
ly, making great ftrokes with the pencil or brufh, taking
care that thefe ftrokes never crofs one another ; it fhould
be fpread equally, and never thicker than a leaf of pa-
per; a fecond coat fhould not be put on till the firft is
quite dry. If the varnifh, after being put on, becomes dull
and uneven, it muft be taken off entirely, and new varmfh
Put on- . t- a • j f
When wainfeot is to be varnifhed, it is firft painted ot a
wooden colour. This colour is made by infufing in water
either red or yellow ochre (according to the colour wifhed
for), terra ombria (a kind of ochre) and white lead ; into
this as much as neceffary is put of parchment pajle. Two
thin coats of this are to be put on, and, after they are quite
dry, the varnifh. . . ..
Varnifhes are polifhed with pumice-ftor.e and tnpoli
earth. The pumice-ftone muft be reduced 1,0 an impal¬
pable power, and put upon a piece of ferge moiftened with
water; with this the varnifhed fubftance is to be rubbed
lightly and equally. The tripoli muft alfo be reduced to
a very fine powder, and put upon a clean woollen cloth
moiftened with olive oil, with which the pohfhing is to be
performed. The varnifh is then to be wiped with foft li¬
nen, and, when quite dry, cleaned with ftarch or Spa
nifh white, and rubbed with the palm of the hand or witti
a linen cloth. _ , ,•
To recover colours or varnifh, and to taice 0 e
and filth which may adhere to them, a ley is ufed made ot
potafh and the alltes of let. of wine. Take °»nce8 of
potaih, and 16 of the above-mentioned afhes, and put them
into fin quarts of water, and the le, is made : mltead of the
a dies an equal quantity of potato would probably do as
well. To clean dirty colour., dilute fame of this ley with
four times its quantity of water, and rub the p,ame with
i,; then warn it with river water, and when dry, g„e it a
Virnifli.
VAR [ 627 1 VAR
"Varrilh. coat or two of varnirti. In order to take off a varnifh, wafh
it vvith the above mentioned ley, then with water, and then
lift it off the fubftance on which it was with any iron inftru-
rnent.—We (hall fmifh this article with a defcription of the
famous Chinefe varnifh.
The Chinefe varnifh is not a compofition, but a refin
which exudes from a tiee called in China tji-chu, “ varnifh
tree." This tree grows in feveral provinces of thefouthern
parts of China. The Chinefe take the following method
of propagating this tree : In fpring they choofe a vigorous
fhoot about a foot in length, which proceeds immediately
from the trunk; and coat over the lower part, by which it
adheres to the tree, with a kind of yellow earth, at leaft
three inches in thicknefs. This coat is carefully covered
with a mat, to defend it from rain and the injuries of the
air. Towards the autumnal equinox they detach a little
of the earth, to obferve in what condition the fmall roots
are, which begin to fpring forth from the fhoot. If they
find that the filaments which compofe them are of a reddifh
colour, they judge it is time to make an amputation ; but
they defer it if the roots are white, becaufe this colour fhows
that they are yet too tender : they then clofe up the coat
again, and wait till the fpring following. When the fhoot
is feparated from the trunk of the tree, it is put into the
earth ; but in whatever feafon it is planted, whether in
fpring or autumn, great care muff be taken to put plenty of
cinders into the hole prepared for it ; without this precau¬
tion the ants would deftroy the yet tender roots, or at leaf!
deprive them of all their moifture, and caufe them to de¬
cay.
The Chinefe do not procure varnifh from the tfi-chu un¬
til its trunk is nearly five inches in diameter, which fize it
feldom attains to before feven or eight years. Varnifh extrac¬
ted from a tree fmaller or of lefs age would not have the
fame body and iplendor. This liquor diftils only in the
night-time, and during the fummer feafon. To caufe the
gum to flow, they make feveral rows of incifions round the
trunk, the number of which is proportioned to the vigour
of the tree. The firft row is feven inches from the earth,
and the reft are at the famediftance one from the other, and
continue to the top of the trunk, and even fometimes on
the boughs which are of a fufficient ftrength and lize. The
Chinefe ule a crooked iron for making thefe incifions, which
muft run a little obliquely, and be equal in depth to the
thicknefs of the bark ; they make them with one hand, and
with the other hold a fhell, the edges of which they infert
into the opening, where it remains without any fupport.
Thefe incifions are made towards evening, and next morn¬
ing they collect the varnifh which has fallen into the fliells ;
the following evening they are again inferted, and this ope¬
ration is continued until the end of fummer. A thoufand
trees yield alrnoft in one night 20 pounds of varnilh.
While the varnifh diftils, it exhales a malignant vapour,
the bad effedts of which can only be prevented by prelerva-
tives and great precaution. The merchant who employs
the workmen is obliged to keep by him a large vafe fill¬
ed with rape-oil, in which a certain quantity of thofe flefhy
filaments have been boiled that are found in hog’s lard, and
which do not melt. When the workmen are going to fix
the fhells to the trees, they carry fome of this oil along with
•them, and rub their face and hands with it, which they do
with greater care when they colledf in the morning the var¬
nifh that has diftilled during night. After eating, they
wafii their whole bodies with warm water, in which the bark
of the cheinut-tree, fir-wood, cryftallifed faltpetre, and fome
other drugs, have been boiled. When they are at work
near the trees, they put upon their heads a fmall cloth bag
in which there are two holes, and cover the fore-part of Varnifli.
their bodies with a kind of apron made of doe-fkin, which “•'r—>
is fufpended from their necks with firings, and tied round
them with a girdle. They alfo wear boots, and have co¬
verings on their arms, made of the fame kind of flcin. The
labourer who fhould attempt to colleft varnifli without ufing
this precaution, would foon bd punifhed for’his rafhnefs, and
the moft dreadful effe&s would enfue. The diforder fhows
itfelf by tetters, which become of a bright red colour, and
fpread in a very fhort time ; the body afterwards fwells, and
the fkin burfts and appears covered with an univerfal lepro-
fy. The unhappy wretch could not long endure the ex¬
cruciating pains which he feels, did he not find a fpeedy
remedy in thofe prefervatives which are ufed againft the
malignant and noxious exhalations of the varnifh,
The feafon of collefting varnifh being ended, the mer¬
chant puts it into fmall calks clofely flopped. A pound of
it newly made colls him about one fhilling and eight pence
Sterling; but he gains cent, per cent, upon it, and fometimes
more, according to the diftance of the place to which he
tranfports it.
Befides the luftre and beauty which that varnifh gives to
many of the Chinefe manufa&ures, it has alfo the property
of preferving the wood upon which it is laid, efpecially if no
other matter be mixed with it. It prevents it from being %
hurt either by dampnefs or worms.
Every workman has a particular art and method of ufing
the varnifh. This work requires not only much fkiil and
dexterity, but alfo great attention, to obferve the proper de¬
gree of fluidity which the gum ought to have, as it muft be
neither too thick nor too liquid when it is laid on. Patience
above all is neceflary in thofe who wifh to fucceed. To
be properly varnifhed, a work muft be done at leifure; and
a whole fummer is fcarcely fufficient to bring it to perfec¬
tion. It is therefore rare to fee any of thofe cabinets which
are imported to us from Canton fo beautiful and durable as
thofe manufaftured in Japan, Tong-king, and Nang king,
the capital of the province of Kiang-nan : not that the ar-
titls do not employ the fame varniffi ; but as they work for
Europeans, who are more eafily pleafed, they do not take
the trouble of giving the pieces which come from their
hands all the polifh they are capable of receiving.
There are two methods of laying on the varniffi ; the
fimpleft is, when it is immediately laid on the wood. The
work is firft polifhed, and then daubed over with a kind of
oil which the Chinefe call tong-yeou. When this oil is dry,
it receives two or three coats of varnifh ; which remain fo
tranfparent, that all the fhades and veins of the wood may
be feen through them. If the artift is defirous of entirely
concealing the fubftance on which they are laid, nothing
is neceflary but to add a few more coats ; thefe give the
work a Alining furface, the fmoothnefs of which equals that
of the moft beautiful ice. When the work is dry, various
figures are painted upon it in gold and fiNer, fuch as flow¬
ers, birds, trees, temples, dragons, &c. A new coat of var¬
nifh is then fometimes laid over thefe figures, which pre-
ferves them, and adds much to their iplendor. The fecond
method requires more preparation. The Chinefe workmen
fix to the wood by means of glue a kind of pafteboard, com-
pofed of paper, hemp, lime, and other ingredients, well
beaten, that the varnilh may incorporate with them. Of
this they make a ground perfe&ly fmooth and folid, over
which the varnifh is laid in thin coats, that are left to dry
one after the other.
It often happens, that the luftre of varniffied tables and
other pieces of furniture is infenfibly deftroyed by tea and
warm liquors. “ The fecret of reftoring to varniffi its flii-
4 K 2 ning
VAR [ 628 ] V A IT
Varnifli, nin^r black colour (fays a Chinefe author) is to expofe it
Varro. £or one n|ght to a white hoar-froft, or to cover it fome time
T,, V with fnow.” For a method of imitating Chinefe varnijh,
fee Turning.
Varnish alfo lignifies a fort of fhining coat, wherewith
potter’s ware, dtift-wave, china-ware, &c. are covered,
which gives them a fmoothneis and luftre. Melted lead is
generally ufed for the firft, and fmalt for the fecond. See
G L A L IN C .
Varnish, among medalifts, fignifies the colours antique
medals have acquired in the earth.
The beauty which nature alone is able to give to medals,
snd art has never yet attained to counterfeit, enhances the
value of them : that is, the colour which certain foils in
which they have a long time lain tinges the metals withal:
fome of which are blue, almoft as beautiiul as the torquoife;
others with an inimitable vermilion colour ; others with a
certain fhining polifhed brown,vaftly finer than Brafil figures.
The moll ufual varnilh is a beautiful green, which hangs
to the fineft ftrokes without effacing them, more accurately
than the fineft enamel does, on metals.
No metal but brafs is fufceptible of this ; for the green
ruft that gathers on filver always fpoil? it, and it muft be
got off with vinegar or lemon juice.
Falfifiers of medals have a falfe or modern varnifh, which
they ufe on their counterfeits, to give them the appearance
or air of being antique. But this may be difeovered by its
foftnefs ; it being fofter than the natural varnifh, which is
as hard as the metal itfelf.
Some depofit their fpurious metals in the earth for a con-
iiderable time, by which means they contrast a fort of var¬
nifh, which may impofe upon the lefs knowing j others ufe
fal ammoniac, and others burnt paper.
VARRO (Marcus Ferentius), the mcfl learned of all
the Romans, was born 28 years B. C. He was a fenator
of the firif diftinftion, both for birth and merit ; and bore
many great offices. He was an intimate friend of Cicero ;
and this friendfhip was confirmed and immortalized by a mu¬
tual dedication of their learned works to each other. Thus
Cicero dedicated his Academic Queflions to Varro ; and
Varr® dedicated his treatife on the Latin tongue to Cicero.
In the civil wars he was zealoufly attached to Pompey; but
after his defeat foon fubmitted to Csefar, who was reconci¬
led to him. Afterwards he applied his whole time to let¬
ters, and had the charge of the Greek and Latin libraries
at Rome. He was above 70 when Antony proferibed him;
however, he found means to efcape and fave his life, though
he could not fave fome of his works and his library from
being plundered by the foldiers. After this ftorm was ever,
he purfued his Rudies as ufual; and Pliny relates, that he
continued to Rudy and to write when he was 88 years of
age. He was 80 when he wrote his three books De re Ru-
Jiica, which are Rill extant. Five of his books De lingua
Latina, which he addteffed to Cicero, are alfo extant. There
remain, too, divers fragments of his works, particularly of
his Menippean Satires, which are medleys of profe and
verfe ; and Scalliger has colle&ed fome of his epigrams from
among the CataleSa Virgilu. His books De lingua Latina,
and De re Rvjlica, were printed with the notes of Jofeph
Scaliger, Turnebus, and Viftorius, by Henry Stephens at
Paris, 1573, in Svo, and have been publifhed feparately
fince among the AutHores de lingua Latina, and the Autdores
de re Rujlica.
There was another Varro of antiquity, called Atacinusr
who was born about 10 years after the firR, at a fmall town
near Narbonne. Though infinitely below the Roman in
learning, he was at leaR' as good, if not a better, poet ;
which perhaps has made Lilius Gyraldus and other critics
confound them. He compofed many works in verfe ; fome Varronia
fragments of which w’ere collected, and publifhed with tliofe .
of other ancient poets, at Lyons in 1603. His chief works au 19‘ ^
were, A poem on the war with the Sequani, a people of
Gaul ; and the Agronomics, that went under the name of
Planciades the grammarian. But the Argonautics, in four
books, was what rained him the greateR reputation : and
though indeed nothing but a tranflation of Apollonius Rho-
dius, yet was fo well done as to be commended by Quin¬
tilian.
VARRONI A, in botany : A genus of plants belonging
to the clafs of pentandria, and to the order of monogynia ;
and arranged in the natural fyRem under the 41ft order,
Afperfolice. The corolla is quinquifid ; the fruit a drupa,
with a quadrilocailar kernel. There are fix ipecies ; none of
which are natives of Britain.
VASCULAR, fomething confiding of divers veflels, as
arteries, veins, &c.
VASB, a term frequently ufed for ancient vefiels dug
from under ground, or otherwife found, and preferved in-
the cabinets of the curious. In architedlure, the appella¬
tion vafe is alfo given to thofe ornaments placed on cor-
niches, fochles, or pedeRals, repiefendng the veflels of the
ancients, particularly thofe ufed in faenfice, as incenfe pots,
flower-pots, &c. See PoRTLAND-Vafe.
VASSAL, in our ancient cufloms, fignifted a tenant or'
feudatory ; or perfon who vowed fidelity and homage to a-
lord, on account of fome land, &c. held of him in fee ; alfo
a flave or fervant, and efpecially a domeflic of a prince.—•
Vajfallus is faid to be quaji inferior fociui ; as the vaffal is in--
ferior to his mafler, and muft ferve him ; and yet he is in
a manner his companion, becaufe each of them is obliged to
the other. See Ft:ooai.-Syjlem.
VATICAN, a magnificent palace of the pope, in Rome,
which is faid to conlrfi of feveral thouland rooms : but the
parts of it mofl admired are the grand Raircafe, the pope’s •
apartment, and efpecially the library, which is one of the
richeR in the world, both in printed books and manu--
feripts.
VAUBAN (SebaRian le PreRre, feigneur de), marflxa!
of France, and the greateR engineer that country ever pro¬
duced, was born in 1633. He difplayed his knowledge of
fortification in the courie of many fieges, and his iervices-
were rewarded with the firR military honours. He was
made governor of Lifle in 1668, commifiary-general of the
fortifications of France in 1678, governor of the maritime
parts of Flanders in 1689, and a marfiial of France in 1703,
He died in 1707, after having brought the arts of attack¬
ing and defending fortified places to a degree of perfeftion
unknown before. His writings on thefe lubjedts are in the
highefl eReem.
VAUDOfS, Valdenses, or Waldenfes, in ecclefiaflicai
hiflory, a name given to a fedt of reformers, who made their
firR appearance about the year 1160.
The origin of this famous fedt, according to MoRieim,
was as follows : Peter, an opulent merchant of Lyons, fur-
named Valdenfis, or Validifius, from Vaux or Waldum, a
town in the marquifate of Lyons, being extremely zealous
for the advancement of true piety and Chriftian knowledge,
employed a certain prieA called Stephanas de Evifa, about
the year 1160, in tranflating from Latin into French the
four Gofpels, with other books of Holy Scripture, and the
moR remarkable fentences of the ancient dodlors, which
were fo highly efleemed in this century. But no fooner
had he perilled thefe facred books with a proper degree of
attention, than he perceived that the religion which was
now taught in the Roman church, diflered totally from that
which was originally inculcated by C hr ill and his apoflles*
. * Struck
] t? D D
baptlfm, and that others rejected water-baptifm entirely ;
but Wall has laboured to prove that infaut-baptitm was
generally pra&ifed among them.
Their rules of practice were extremely auftere ; for they
adopted as the model of their moral difcipline the fermon of
Chrift on the mount, which they interpreted and explained
in the moft rigorous and literal manner, and confequently
quality of a public teacher, and to inltruft the multitude in prohibited and condemned in their i'oeiety all wars, and fuita
the dodrines and precepts of Chriftianity. of law, and all attempts towards the acqu.fition o, wealth.
Soon after Peter had affumed the exercife of his miniftry, the inflifting of capital pumfhments, ieL-cetence agamlt un-
the archbifhop of Lyons, and the other rulers of the church juft violence, and oaths of all kinds.
in that province, vLoroufly oppofed him. Plowever, their During the greateft part of the i7th century, thofe of
oppofrtion was unfuccefsful; for the purity and fimplicity them who lived m the valleys of Piedmont, am. who had
V A II [ 629
Vaulois. Struck with this glaring contradkftion between the do&rines
of the pontiffs and the truths of the Gofpel, and animated
with zeal, he abandoned his mercantile vocation, diftributed
his riches among the poor’ (whence the Waldenfes were
called poor men cf Lyons'), and forming an affociation with
other pious men, who had adopted his fentiments and his
turn of devotion, he began in the year 1180 to affume the
of that religion which thefe good men taught, the fpotleis
innocence that fhone forth in their lives and a&ions, and
the noble contempt of riches and honours which was con-
fpicuous in the whole oi their condutf and converfation, ap¬
peared fo engaging to all Inch as had any fenfe or true pie¬
ty, that the number of their followers daily mcreaied,—
They accordingly formed religious affemblies, firff in France, ,
and afterwards in Lombardy, from whence they propaga- and bloodfhed were exhibited in this theatre of papal tyi an-
ted their fe£i throughout the other provinces of Europe ny ; and the few Waldenfes that furvived weie indeoted f01
with incredible rapidity, and with fuch invincible fortitude, their exiftence and fiipport to the intercefflon made for them
embraced, the doftrine. difcioline, and worfhip of the church
of Geneva, were opprefied and perfecuted, in the moft bar¬
barous and inhuman manner, by the minifters of Rome.
This oerfecution was carried on with peculiar marks of
rage and enormity in the years 165J, 1656, and 1696, and
feemed to portend nothing lefs than the total extinction of
that unhappy nation. The moft horrid feenes of violence
that neither fire, nor iword, nor the moft cruel inventions
of mercilefs perfecution, could damp their zeal, or entirely
ruin their caufe.
The attempts of Peter Waldus and his followers we-e
neither employed nor defigned to introduce new doc-
tiines into the church, nor to propofe new articles of faith
to Chriftians. All they aimed at was, to reduce the form
of ecclefiaftical government, and thje manners both of the
clergy and people, to that amiable fimplicity and primitive
fanffity that charaftenfed the apoftolic ages, and which ap¬
pear fo ftron dy recommended in the precepts and injunc¬
tions of the divine Author of our holy religion. In con-
fequence of this deiign, they complained that the Roman
church had degenerated, under Conftantine the Great, from
its primitive purity and fan&ity. They denied the fupre-
macy of the Roman pontiff, and maintained, that the rulers
and minifters of the church were obliged, by their vocation,
to imitate the poverty of the apoftles, and to procure for
themfelves a fubfiftence by the work of their hands.. They
confidered every Chriflian as, in a certain meafure, qualified
and authorifed to inftruft, exhort, and confirm the brethren
in their Chriftian courfe, and demanded the reftoVation of
tile ancient penitential difcipline of the church, i. e. the ex¬
piation of tranfgrefiions by prayer, faffing, and alms, which
the new-invented doftrine of indulgences had almoft totally
abolifhed. They at the fame time affirmed, that every pi¬
ous Chriftian was qualified and entitled to preferibe to the
penitent the kind or degree of fatisfadfion or exoiation that
their tranfgreffions required ; that confeffion made to priefts
was by no means neceffary, fince the humble offender might
acknowledge his fins, and teftify his repentance, to any true
believer, and might expedf from fuch the counfel and admo¬
nition which his cafe demanded. They maintained, that
the power of delivering finners from the guilt and punifh-
tnent of their offences belonged to God alone ; and that in¬
dulgences of confequence were the criminal inventions of
fordid avarice. They looked upon the prayers and other
ceremonies that were inftituted in behalf of the dead, as
by the Engliffi and Dutch governments, and alfo by the
Swifs cantons, who folicited the clemency of the duke of
Savoy in their behalf.
VAULT, in architedfiure, an arched roof, fo contrived
that the ftones which form it fuftain each other.
’ Vaults are on many occafions to he preferred to foffits or
flat ceilings, as they give a greater height and elevation, and
are befides more firm and durable.
VAYER. See Mothe.
VAYVODE, or Vaivode. See Waywode.
UBES (St), a fea-port town of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Eftremadura, feated on a bay of the Atlantic O-
cean, 21 miles fouth of Lifbon. It ftands on an eminence,
with a very ftrong caftle built on a rock. The foil about it
is fertile in corn, wine, and fruits ; and it is furnifhed with
good tifh from the fea, and a fmall lake in the neighbour¬
hood. Here they make great quantities of fine fait, which
is carried to the American plantations. E. Long. 8. 54.
N. Lat. 38. 22.
UBIQUITARIAN3, formed from ullque, “ every¬
where,” in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fedt of Lutherans which
refe and fpread itfelf in Germany ; and whofe diftinguifliing;
dodtrine was, that the body of jefus Ghrift is everywhere, or
in every place.
Brentius, one of the earliefl reformers, is faid to have firff
broached this error, in 1560. Luther himfelf, in his con-
troverfy with Zuinglius, had thrown out fome unguarded
expreffions, that feemed to imply a belief of the omnipre¬
fence of the body of Chrift ; but he became fenfible after¬
wards, that this opinion was attended with great difficul¬
ties, and particularly that it ought not to be made ufe of as
a proof of Chrift’s corporal prefenee in the eucharift.
However, after the death of Luther, this abfurd hypothefis
was renewed, and drefl'ed up in a fpecious and plaufible form
by Brentius, Chemnitius, and Andrseas, who maintained tbs
communication of the properties of Chrift’s divinity to Ins
human nature. It is indeed obvious, that every Lutheran
who believes the doffrine of confubftantiation (fee Surens
vain, ufelef;, and abfurd, and denied the exiftence of depart- of the Lord), whatever he may-pretend, muft be an Ubiqui
ed fouls in an intermediate ftate of purification ; affirming,, tarian.
that they were immediately, upon their feparation from the UBIQUITY, Omnipresence ; an attribute of the Ddr-
body, received into heaven, or thruft- down- to hell. Thefe, ty, whereby he is always intimately prefent to all things j
and other tenets of a like nature, compofed the fyflem of gives the ej)e to all things ; knows, prelerves, and does all in
do&rine propagated by the Waldenfes. It. is alio faid that all things.
ieveral of the Waldenles denied the obligation of infant- UDDER, in comparative anatomy, that part in brutes
wherein
V E E
l 63
wherein the milk is prepared, anfwenng to the mammae or
breads in women. See Comparative Anatomy, n 44.
VEDAS, the lacred books of the Hindoos, believed to
be revealed by God, and called immortal. They are confi-
dered as the fountain o!’ all knowledge human and divine,
and are four in number; of which we have the following
account in the firft volume of the Afxatic Refearches: The
JUgveda conlilts of five fedtions ; the T' ijurveda of eighty-
iix ; the $ amove da of a thoufand ; and the Al'harvavfda of
nine ; with eleven hundred Jac’ha’s, or branches, in various
divilions and fubdivihons. The Veda’s in truth are infinite;
but have been long reduced to this number and order : the
principal part of them is that which explains the duties of
man in a methodical arrangement ; and in the fourth is a
fyftem of divine ordinances.
From thefe are reduced the four Upavedas, the firft of
which was delivered to mankind by Brahma, Indra,
Dhanwantari, and five other deities; and comprizes the
theory of diforders and medicines, with the praftical me-
thods of curing difeafes.
The fecond confifts of mufic, invented for the purpofe of
raifing the mind by devotion to the felicity of the Divine
nature ; the third treats or the fabrication and ufe of arms;
and the fourth of Jixty-four mechanical arts. Of however
little value we may efteem the mechanical arts of the Hin¬
doos, and however defpicable their theological fyftem may
really be, the Upaveda, which treats of diieafes and the me¬
thod of curing them, furely deferves to be ftudied by every
European phyfician pra&ifing in India. There are indeed
a great number of medical books in the Shanfcrit language
■worthy of attention ; for though the theories of their au¬
thors may be groundlefs and whimfical, they contain the
names and defeription of many Indian plants and minerals,
with their ufes, diicovered by experienee, in the cure of dif-
ieafe*.
VEDETTE, in war, a centinel on horfeback, with his
borfe’s head towards the place whence any danger is to be
feared, and his carabine advanced, with the butt-end againft
bis right thigh. When the enemy has encamped, there are
vedettes polled at all the avenues, and on all the riling
grounds, to watch for its fecurity.
To VEER and Haul, to pull a rope tight, by drawing
it in and flackening it alternately, till the body to which it
is applied acquires an additional motion, like the increafed
vibrations of a pendulum, fo that the rope is ftraitened to
a greater ten Son with more facility and difpatch. This me¬
thod is particularly ufed in hauling the bowlines.
The wind is faid to veer and haul when it alters its direc¬
tion, and becomes more or lefs fair. Thus it is faid to veer
aft and to haul forward.
Veer, Ter-Feer, anciently Camp-Veer, a town of Zea¬
land in the United Provinces, Handing at the mouth of the
Eaft Schelde, about four miles from Middleburgh, and eight
from Flulhing. Veer, in Dutch, fignifies a paffage or fer¬
ry over an arm of the fea or a river ; and as there was once
a ferry here over the Schelde to the village of Compen, on
the ifland of North Beveland, the town thereby got the
name or Veer, Camp-Veer, and Ter-Veer. It is well forti-
lied, and formerly enjoyed a good trade, efpecially to Scot¬
land ; the natives enjoying particular privileges here. The
harbour is very good, and the arfenal the beft furnifhed in
the world. Hence the Veres, anciently earls of Oxford,
are faid to have derived both their origin and name.
VEERING, or Wearing, the operation by which a
ihip, in changing her courfe from one board to the other,
turns her Hern to windward. Hence it is ufed in oppofi-
eion to Tacking, wherein the head is turned to the wind
o ] V E G
and the ftern to leeward. See Seamanship, Vol. XVIt. VePS
p. 219. • ^
VEGA (Lopez de), a celebrated Spanifh poet. He
was the fon of telix de Vega and Francifca Fernandez, who
were both defeended from honourable families, and lived in
the neighbourhood of Madrid. Our poet was born in that
city on the 25th of November 1562. He was, according to ffnyhy'i
his own expreffion, a poet from his cradle ; and beginning lVort.!>
to make verfes before he had learned to write, he ufed tov'j1' “*
bribe his elder fchool-feHows with part of his breakfaft, to
commit to paper the lines he had compofed. Having loft
his father while he was yet Hill a child, he engaged in a fro¬
lic very natural to a lively boy, and wandered with another
lad to various parts of Spain, till, having fpent their mo¬
ney, and being conducted before a magiftrate at Segovia
for offering to fell a lew trinkets, they were fent home again
to Madrid. Soon after this adventure, our young poet was
taken under the prote&ion of Geronimo Manrique, bifhop
of Avila, and began to diftinguilh himfelf by his dramatic
compofitions, which were received with great applaufe by
the public, though their author had not yet completed his
education ; for, after this period, he became a member of
the univerfity of Alcala, where he devoted himfelf for four
years to the ftudy of philofophy. He was tlien engaged as
fccretary to the duke of Alva, and wrote his Arcadia in
compliment to that patron : who is frequently mentioned in
his occafional poems. He quitted that employment on his
marriage with Ifabel de Urbina, a lady (fays his friend and
biogiapher Perez de Montalvan) beautiful without artifice,
and virtuous without affe&ation. His domeftic happinefs
was foon interrupted by a painful incident:—Having writ¬
ten fome lively verfes in ridicule of a perfon who had taken
fome injurious freedom with his chara&er, he received a
challenge in cpnfequence of his wit; and happening, in the
duel which enfued, to give his adverfary a dangerous wound,
he was obliged to fly from his family, and fhelter himElr in
Valencia. He refided there a confiderable time ; but con¬
nubial affedlion recalled him to Madrid. His wife died in
the year of his return. His affliftion on this event led him
to relinquilh his favourite ftudies, and embark on board
the Armada which was then preparing for the invafion of
England. He had a brother who ferved in that fleet as a
lieutenant; and being Ihot in an engagement with fome
Dutch veffels, his virtues were celebrated by our aiflided
poet, whofe heart was peculiarly alive to every generous af-
fedion. After the ill fuccefs of the Armada, the difeonfo-
late Lopez de Vega returned to Madrid, and became fecrc-
tary to the Marquis of Malpica, to whom he has addreffed
a grateful fonnet. From the fervice of this patron he paffed
into the houlehold of the Count of Lemos, whom he cele¬
brates as an inimitable poet. He was once more induced
to quit his attendance on the great, for the more inviting
comforts of a married life. His iecond choice was Juana
de Guardio, of noble birth and Angular beauty. By this
lady he had two children, a fon who died in his infancy,
and a daughter named Feliciana, who furvived her father. ,
The death of his little boy is faid to have haftened that of
his wife, whom he had the misfortune to lofe in about feven
years after his marriage. Having now experienced the
precarioufnefs of all human enjoyments, he devoted himfelf
to a religious life, and fulfilled all the duties of it with the
moft exemplary piety: Hill continuing to produce an afto-
nilhing variety of poetical compofitions. His talents and
his virtues procured him many unfolicited honours. Pope
Urban VIII. fenuhim the crofs of Malta, with the title
of Dodlor in Divinity, and appointed him to a place of
profit in the Apoftolic Chamber; favours for which he
6 expreffed
V E G [ 631 ] V E G
expreffed his gratitude by dedicating his Corona Tragic a
(a long poem on the fate of Mary Queen of Scots) to that
liberaf pontiff. In his 73d year he felt the approaches of
death, and prepared himfelf for it with the utmoft compo-
fure and devotion. His laft hours were attended by many
of his intimate friends, and particularly his chief patron the
Duke of Seffa, whom he had made his executor ; leaving
him the care of his daughter Feliciana, and of his various
manufcripts. The manner in which he took leave of thofe
he loved was molt tender and affecting. He faid to his dif-
ciple and biographer Montalvan, That true fame confifted
in being good ; and that he would willingly exchange all the
applaufes he had received to add a fingle deed of virtue to
the actions of his life. Having given his dying benedidlion to
his daughter, and performed the laft ceremonies of his reli¬
gion, he expired on the 25th of Auguft'i 63$.
VEGETATION, in phyfiology, the aft whereby.plants
receive nourifhment and growth.
The procefs of nature in the vegetation of plants is very
accurately delivered by' Malpighi: The egg or feed of the
plant being excluded out of the ovary, called /W or hujk,
and requiring further foflering and brooding, is committed
to the earth ; which having received it into her fertile bo-
fom, not only does the office of incubation by her own
warm vapours and exhalation, joined with the heat of the
fun, but by degrees fupplies what the feed requires for its
further growth ; as abounding everywhere with canals and
finufes, v/herein the dew and rain water, impregnated with
fertile falts, glide, like the chyle and blood in the arteries,
&c. of animals. This moifture meeting with a new-depo-
fited feed, is percolated, or ftrained through the pores or
pipes of the outer rind or hulk, correfponding to the fecun-
dines of the foetufes, on the infide whereof lies one or more,
commonly two, thick feminal leaves, anfwering to the pla¬
centa in women, and the cotyledons in brutes.
Thefe feed-leaves confift of a great number of little vefi-
culse, or bladders, with a tube correfponding to the navel-
ftring in animals. In thefe veliculae is received the moifture
of the earth, ftrained through the rind of the feed; which
makes a flight fermentation with the proper juice before
contained therein. This fermented liquor is conveyed by
the umbilical veffel to the trunk of the little plant ; and to
the germ or bud which is contiguous thereto: upon which
a vegetation and increafe of the parts fucceed.
Such is the procedure in the vegetation of plants: which
the illuftrious author exemplifies in a grain of wheat, as fol¬
lows : The firft day the etain is fown it grows a little tur¬
gid ; and the fecundine, or hulk, gapes a little in feveral
places : and the body of the plant, being continued by the
umbilical veffel. to a conglobated leaf (which is called the
pulp or JleJh of the feed, and is what conftitutes the flower)
fwells ; by which means, not only the germ or fptout
(which is to be the future ftem) opens, and waxes green,
but the roots begin to bunch out; whence the placenta, or
feed-leaf, becoming loofe, gapes. The fecond day,, the fe¬
cundine or hufk, being broke through, the ftem, or top of
the future ftraw, appears on the outfide thereof, and grows
upward by degrees; in the mean time, the feed leaf guard¬
ing the roots becomes turgid with its veficulce, and puts
forth a white down. And the leaf being pulled away,
you fee the roots of the plants bare ; the future buds, leaves,
and reft of the ftalk, lying hid. Between the roots and the
amending ftem the trunk of the plant is knit by the navel-
knot to the flower-leaf, which is veryr moift, though it ftill
retains it» white colour and its natural tafie. The third
day, the pulp of the conglobated, or round leaf, becomes
turgid with the juice which it received from the earth fer¬
menting with its own.
Thus the plant increafing in bignefs, and its bud or ftem
becoming taller, from whitifti turns greenifli; the lateral
roots alfo break forth greenifh and pyramidal from the ga¬
ping fheath, which adheres chiefly to the plant; and the
lower root grows longer and hairy, with many fibres {hoot¬
ing out of the fame.
Indeed there are hairy fibres hanging all along on all the
roots, except on their tips ; and thefe fibres are feen to wind
about the faline particles of the foil, little lumps of earth, Sec.
like ivy ; whence they grow curled. Above the lateral roots
there now break out two other little ones.
The fourth day, the ftem mounting upwards, makes a
right angle with the feminal leaf: the laft roots put forth
more; and the other three growing larger, are clothed with
more hairs, which ftraitly embrace the lumps of earth ; and
where they meet with any vacuity, unite into a kind of net¬
work.
From this time forward the root puflies with more regu¬
larity downward, and the ftalk upward, than before. There
is, however, this great difference in their growth, that the
ftalk and branches find no refiftance to their {hooting uo,
while the roots find a great deal to their {hooting down¬
ward, by means of the folidity of the earth ; whence the
branches advance much fafter and farther in their growth
than the roots; and thefe laft often finding the refiftance of
a tough earth uniurmountable, turn their courfe, and {hoot
almoft horizontally..
From a number of experiments made by Mr Gough, and
related by him in the fourth volume of the Manchefter
Tranfaftions, it appears, that feeds will not vegetate with¬
out air and that during their vegetation, they abforb oxy¬
gen, part of which they retain, and that carbonic acid is
formed with the reft. Thefe fafts were atcertained in the
following manner : He put feveral parcels of fteeped peas
and barley, at different times, into phials, which were left
to {land for three or four minutes in fpring water, of the
heat of 46, 50, to reduce them to a known temperature.
They were then fecurely corked, and removed into a room,
the temperature of which was never lefs than 530. After
remaining from four to fix days in this fituation, they were
again placed in the fame fpring water, and opened in an in¬
verted pofition, care being taken that the barometer flood
at the time nearly where it did at firft. When a cork-was
thus drawn, a quantity of water rufhed in immediately,
more than was fufEcient to fill the neck. The air being
paffed through lime water, contrafted very fenfibly, and
precipitated the lime. The refiduum, freed in this manner
from carbonic acid, extinguiftied a lighted taper like
and this it did repeatedly. He made one of thefe experi¬
ments with more attention than the reft, from which it ap¬
peared, that four ounces, one dram, forty, grains, by mea-
lure, of atmofpheric air, loft one-fixth of its original bulk,
by being confined five days with one ounce of fteepeA
barley. It is plain, from this experiment, that feeds in the
aft of vegetation take oxygen from the atmofphere, part
of which they retain, and rejedl the reft charged with car¬
bon, The fubftance of the feed-lobes is hereby changed,,
an additional quantity of oxygen being introduced into their
compofition ; and a part of their carbon loft. This change,,
in the proportion of their alimentary principles, generates
fngar, as is evident from the procefs ot malting. But fa-
gar and carbonic acid are more loluble in water than
the farinaceous oxyd. They therefore combine with the
humidity in the capillary tubes of the feed, and find a rta •
dy paffage to the germ, the vegetative principle of which
they call into a&ion by a ftimulus fuited to its nature. A
nutritious liquor being thus prepared by the decompofition
of the feed-lobesj and diftributed through the infant plant,.
its.
"V E I
r 63
YEN
Veil.
Vcnreta- Jtg or/Tsns begin to exert their fpedfic actions, by decom-
rio11 pounding the nqurifhment conveyed to them, and forming
1 new oxyds from the elementary principles of it, for the in-
„ crcafe o' the velfels and fibres; and in this manner the firit
. ilage of vegetation commences,
Mr Gough has afcertained, that a germ in the aft of ve-
. gelation requires to be continually excited by the itimulus
, of oxygen ; but that as foon as the feed lobes are exhauft-
ed, the young plant is in a ftate to derive its nutrition from
the ground ; and then (and not till then) it finds itfelf in a
fituation capable of making future advances, unaffiited by
.-the ftimulus of refpirable air.
The infant fprout at firft fuffers only a fufpenfion of its
energy from the ablence of pure air ; but if this neceffary
fupport be withheld too long, it perifhes by the putrefaftive
. fermentation.
The lively green which the ftems and leaves of plants re¬
ceive from the aftion of light, cannot be imparted to them,
provided the energy of the vegetative principle in them be
fufpended : for after permitting a number of peas to pro¬
duce both extremities of their fyrouts in wet fand covered
from the light by an earthen pot, Mr Gough placed five of
..them, on the 29th of April, in an inverted glafs jar, contain¬
ing azot confined by water ; and three in another jar, in
which a portion of common air was alfo inclofed by the
fame means. On the 30th the upper extremities of the
fprouts of the parcel laft mentioned were green ; but though
'the experiment was prolonged to the 2d of May, thofe in
-the other glafs did not exhibit any perceptible alteration in
fize or colour. Two of them were now placed in a glafs
.filled with atmofpheric air, where they were left unobferved
to the 5 th, at the end of which time the germs had vegeta¬
ted conliderably ; the lower parts of them Hill remained
■white, but their oppofite extremities had changed to their
proper green. Hence it may be fafely inferred, that green-
nefs cannot be imparted to the fprouts of feeds without the
joint aftion of light and oxygen ; in which they are very
different from the fhoots that frequently proceed from ma-
turer plants, when fecluded from the atmofphere: for, as
thefe grow freely in clofe glafs veffels, placed in a window,
and containing water and azot, the parts which are recent¬
ly produced continue to vegetate, in confequence of their
conneftion with the parent flock, and acquire the colour in
queflion witTiout the affiftance of refpirable air. See Plant,
Tree, Germination, Botany, &c.
VEGETATIVE soul, among philofophers, denotes
that principle in plants by virtue of which they vegetate.
2 I,
VEIL, a piece of fluff, ferving to cover or hide any
thing.
In the Romifh churches, in time of Lent, they have veils „
or curtains over the altar, crucifix, images of faints, &c.
A veil of crape is wore on the head by nuns, as a
badge of their profeffion: the novices wear white veils, but
thofe who have made the vows black ones. See the article
Nun.
VEIN, in anatomy, is a veffel which carries the blood
from the feveral parts of the body to the heart. See Ana¬
tomy, n° 123.
Vein, among miners, is that fpace which is bounded with
"wou?hs, and contains ore, fpar, canck, clay, chirt, croil,
brownhen, pitcher-chirt, cur, which the philofophers call
the mother of metals, and fometimes foil of all colours. When
it bears ore, it is called a quick 'vein ; when no ore, a dead
V«!
or receive nourilhment and grow. See the preceding ar¬
ticle.
VEHICLE, in general, denotes any thing that carries
or bears another along ; but is more particularly ufed in
pharmacy for any liquid ferving to dilute fomc medicine, in
order that it may be adminiftered more commodioufly to the
patient.
VEII (anc. geog.), a city of Etruria, the long and pow¬
erful rival of Rome ; diflant about too fladia, or 12 miles,
to the north-wefl; fituated on a high and fleep rock. Ta¬
ken after a fiege of 10 years by Camillas, fix years before
the taking of Rome by the Gauls : and thither the Romans,
after the burning of their city, had thoughts of removing;
but were diffuaded from it by Camillas (Livy). It re¬
mained Handing after the Punic war; and a colony was
there fettled, and its territory affigned to the foldiers. But
after that it de lined io gradually, as not to leave a fmgle
trace Handing. Famous for the {laughter of the 300 Fabii
on the Cremera (Ovid) The fpot on which it Hood lies
. pear Ifola, in St Peter’s patrimony (Holftenius).
Venal
VELA, a remarkable cape on the coaH of Terra Firma,
in South America. W. Long. 71. 25. N. Lat. 12. 30.
VELARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the court of the
Roman emperors, being a kind of ufher, whofe poH was
behind the curtain in the prince’s apartment, as that of the
chancellor’s was at the entry of the balluHrade ; and that of
the oHiarii at the door. The velarii had a fuperior of the
fame denomination, who commanded them.
VELEZ-de-Gomara, a town of Africa, in the king¬
dom of Fez, and in the province of Eriff. It is the an¬
cient Acarth. With a harbour and a handfome caffle,
where the governor refides. It is feated between two high
mountains, on the coaH of the Mediterranean Sea. W. Long.
4. o. N. Lat- 35. 10.
VELITES, in the Roman army, a kind of ancient fol-
diery, who were armed lightly with a javelin, a cafk, cuirafs,
and fhield.
VELLEIUS Paterculus. See Paterculus.
VELLUM, is a kind of parchment, that is finer, evener,
and more white than the common parchment. The word
is formed from the French vdin, of the Latin vitulinus, u be¬
longing to a cah.”
VELOCITY, in mechanics, fwiftnefs ; that affeftion of
motion whereby a moveable is diipofed to run over a cer¬
tain fpace in a certain time. It is alfo called celerity, and
is always proportional to the fpace moved. Huyghens,
Leibnitz, Bernoulli, Wolfius, and the foreign mathemati¬
cians, hold, that the momenta or forces of falling bodies, at
the end of their falls, are as the fquares of their velocities
into the quantity of matter; the Englifh mathematicians,
on the contrary, maintain them to be as the velocities them-
felves into the quantity of matter. See (Quantity, n° xi
and 14, &c.
VELVET, a rich kind of Huff, all filk, covered on the
outfide with a clofe, Hrort, fine, foft fhag, the other fide be¬
ing a very ffrong clofe tiffue.
The nap or fiiag, called alfo the velveting, oi this Huff, is
formed of part of the threads of the warp, which the work¬
man puts on a long narrow-channelled ruler or needle, which
he afterwards cuts, by drawing a (harp Heel tool along the
channel of the needle to the ends of the warp. The prin¬
cipal and beH manufaftories of velvet are in France and I-
taly, particularly in Venice, Milan, Florence, Genoa, and
Lucca : there are others in Holland, fet up by the French
refugees ; whereof that at Haerlem is the moH confiderable:
but they all come Hiort of the beauty of thole in France,
and accordingly are fold for 1 o or 15 per cent. lefs. I here
are even fome brought from China ; but they are the worit
of all.
VENAL, or Venous, in anatomy, fomethi»g that bears
V E N
t 633 1
V E N
Veneering a relatien to the veins. This word is alfo tifed for Something
" bought with money, or procured by bribes. f
VENEERING, VaneerinG, or Firmerint;, a kind ot
Venice.
Venice.
About this time they were become matters of a fleet and
a body of land-forces. They engaged in a quarrel with the
Lombards, of which we know not the particulars. In a
v . ■—,  tl,In dices or leaves (hort time, however, they diltinguifhed themfelves againft
marquetry, or in ^ 1fr aBDlie" and fattened on the Iftrian pirates, who had committed depredations on their
of Hue wood, of different kinds, are apphe. and fattened tne T ftine8, or inhabitants of Triefle, who
a ground of (ome common w o° • wh; t ;s the had fuddenly carried off a number of the citizens of Venice.
There are two kinds of inlaying i ^ IkZ of coZ Thefe exploits procured them a coniiderable degree of re-
more ordinary, goes no -ait itr ^ much putation and efteem among their neighbours; and by im-
partiments of differem vvoo .3 , .Vnd the like fi»urcs. provino- every opportunity of increal'ing them trade, and
more art, and reprtftnts oweis> 11 ’ ‘ - the latter augmenting the number of manufaftures, &c. the city very
The firft kind is what we proper yca w g, fp(fn arnved at a high Ditch of affluence and power. In the A(rlfts the
we have already delcnbed under Parquetry. Juttinian with the Goths in Italy, the Roman gc-
The wood intended for venemng ^ fawed ou in^o f Jnfiderable affittance to Narfee the Roman-al Nar-
dices or leaves about a ^ general, infomuch that he expreffed his gratitude by leveral^;
the b oc s or p an ® P aL f m be feen uncjer rich prefents, fome high marks of diftinaion, and particu-himGn that
fawing prefs . the defertp 0 are^fterwards cut larly by building two fine churches dedicated to the faints account,
the article juft referred to ^ fhefe flices ^afterwards ^ £ermin;an . the oldeft public buildings, be-
into flips, and fafhioned divers ways, according to the de-
fign propofed ; then the joints being carefully adjufted, and
the pieces brought down to their proper thicknefs, with ie-
veral planes for the purpofe, they are glued dowu on a
ground or block of diy wood, with good ftrong Engh h
glue. The pieces thus joined and glued, the work, if finall,
is put in a prefs; if large, it is laid on the bench, covered
with a board, and preffed down with poles, or pieces of
wood, one end whereof reaches to the ceiling of the room,
and the other bears on the boards. When the glue is quite
dry they take it out of the prefs and fmifh it; firft with little
planes, then with divers ferapers, fome whereof refemble
rafos, which take off dents, &c. left by the planes. When
fEfficiently feraped, the work is polifhed with the ikin of a
fea dog, wax, and a brufti and polifher of fhave-grafs: which
is the latt operation.
VENEREAL, fomething belonging tovenery; as the
lues venerea, &c. »See Medicine Index. . . <
VENERY, is ufed for the aft ot copulation, or coition,
of the two fexes.
VENESECTION, or Phlebotomy, in furgery. See
Surgery, n° . ,
VENETIAN Bole, a fine red earth ufed in painting,
and called in the colour (hops Vcnetiiin red.— It is du« in
Carinthia, and fent from V cnice to all parts of the world ;
but the ule of it here is very much fupeileded by a bright
colcothar of vitriol.
VENICE', a celebrated city of Italy, and capital of a
republic of the fame name, fltuated on the Lagunes or Small
1 {lands, about five milts from the continent j in E. Long.
130. N. Lat. 45. 40.
t The name of Venice is evidently derived from Venetia,
derivation one of the Roman provinces of Italy ; and this attain from
,f,he the Hcnetiansy a people of Paphlagonia, who fettled in that
amc' part of the country. The city is laid to have been founded
about the year 45 i or 452 ; when Attila, having deftroyed
the cities of Aquileia, Verona, Mantua, Trevigio, &c. fuch
of the inhabitants as efcaped the fiaughier fled to the ifiands
on their coatt, and there took up their rehdence. Hilto-
rians are profufe in their commendations of the virtue of
MeeU nt ^ie Venetians during the infancy of their city ; and Caffio
haraAtr ofdorus informs us, that one would have taken the inhabitants
fit fir ft in-rather for an affembly of philofophers, living at their eafe
i-ibuants. an(j cultivating the duties of religion, than for v/hat they
really were, a diftreffed and con:ufed rabble who had efcaped
from the calamities of war. Nothing remarkable, however,
occurs in the hittory of Venice for fome time, excepting
the change of government from the confular to the tribuni-
tial form, which happened about 30 years after the build¬
ing of the city. T he republic firft began to be of confe-
quence after the deflruftion of Padua by the Lombards.
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
3
Vheii the
eyilhljc
egan to
line a ft.
fide St Mark’s and St Peter’s, in Venice.'
From the time of Juttinian to the year 697, hiftorians
are filent with regard to the Venetian affairs. A great re¬
volution now took place in the government : the tribunes
having abufed their pswer were abolifhed ; and in their 5
Head "was elefted a doge or duke, in whom was vetted
fupreme authority. lie was to reprelent the honour ancldoi,e or
majefty of the ftate ; to have refpeft and diftinaion paidduke.
him beyond what the tribunes, or even theconfuls, enjoyed;
he was to affemble and prefide at the great council; to have
a catting vote in all difputed points; to nominate to all of¬
fices, places, and preferments ; and laftly, to enjoy the fame 6
authority in the church as in the Hate. I lus form of go* changes of
vernment w'as changed in 737, for what reafon we know not,g0vern-
and a fupreme magiftrate chofen, with the title of majler */ment.
the horfe or general of the forces. His power was to con¬
tinue only for a year, the ihortnefs of its duration being
thought a fufficient fecurity againft the abuie of it. But
in five years afterwards the doges were reftored, and Gio¬
vanni Fabntio, the fourth and latt matter of the hone, was
depofed, and his eyes put out, but for what fault we
know' not. _ 7
Under the doges, the power and wealth of the Venetian Quarrel
republic continued to increafe. In 764 the Heracleans and with Char.
Jtfwlans, fubjefts to the republic, having formed fome de-leniahue’
figns againft the ftate, put themfelves under the proteftion
Charlemagne. That conqueror, not finding it conve¬
nient to give them prefent affittance, fettled them in Ma-
lamoc until he could give them more effeftual fuccour.
The Venetians, however, difregarding the prote&ion of that
powerful monarch, attacked and inftantly drove them out g
of the place where he had fettled them. Incenfed at this, t’epinde-
Charlemagne ordered his fon Pepin to declare war againft dares war
the republic. This was immediately done ; but the blowrepublic. *
was ror fome time diverted by Aftolphus king of the Lom¬
bards, who, committing great devaftations in the territo¬
ries of the pope, obliged Pepin to come to tire alfiftance of
his holinefs. However, a*ter having afforded the neceffary
fuccour to the pope, Pepin profecuted the war with Venice.
The event is uncertain : all we know is, that about this ^
time the Venetians declared themfelves a free and indepen- p}je Vene.
dent ftate ; winch makes it probable that his fuccefs had bans de-
not been great. But in 804 the war was renewed with dare ihem-
the utnroft fury. Pepin having quarrelled with Nicephorus
the Greek emperor, and finding Obelerio the Venetian doge
inclined to favour his adverfary, determined to exterminate
the very name of the republic. After having laid watte
the province of Venetia, he ltd kis army direftly to Venice, liep1Cged j,y
blocking the city up at the fame time by his fleet. The tiepin.
Venetians were not diftieartcned at the number ol their>ene-
4 L nuts.
Tenlef.
V. E N
C 634 1
IT
The citir
sensredu-
e«j,
wies, t!ie reputation of Pfpin, or the civil divIHong among
thonfelves; thdr aniir.ofities were laid afide, and a ftrifil
union formed againfl-the common enemy : the chief com*
jnand was given t» Valentin, as Obelerio was fuppofed too
jiArly allied to Pepin to fight with that good-will and cheer-
fulnefs the fervice of his country required. The Venetians,
notwithftanding the molt obllinate defence, the moll vigo¬
rous fallies, and their felling every inch of ground at an in-
credible expence of blood, were at length reduced to that
red to great part of the city fouth of the Rialto : this Itream, and their
ttraits. own biavery, being now their-only defence. While Pepin
was preparing to lay a bridge over the canal, they refolved,
as a laft effort, to attack Pepin’s fleet, and to vanquish or
- die in-defence of their liberty. Embarking all the troops
they could fpare, they bore down, with the advantage of
the wind and tide, upon the^ enemy, and began the attack
with fuch fury, as obliged the French admiral to give way.
The lightnefs of their {hips, and the knowledge of the
foundings, gave the \ enetians every advantage they could
The French= ^ entmy’s ^eet wa8 run aground, and the greater
fleet entile-Pa.rt their trooP3 periflted in att mpting to efcape ; the
iy deftroy- ^-’P8 vverc t0 a few, either taken or dellroyed. During
this aifl'ion at fea, Pepin refolved to aflault the city by land,
not doubting but the garrifon was fo weakened by the num¬
ber of forces they had fent on board the fleet, as to be able
to make but a flight reflltance. Having for this purpofe
thrown, a bridge over the Rialto, he was marching his troops
acrofs it, when he found himfelf attacked on every fide by
the Venetians from their boats, and others who had potted
themfelves on the bridge. The battle was long, bloody,
and doubtful, until the Venetians employed all their oower
to break down the bridge ; which at laft- yielding to their
obftiirate endeavours, a prodigious flaughter of the French
enfued : however, they fought like men in defpair, feeing
no hopes of fafety but in vidftory ; but all communication
being cut off with the troops on fhore, they were to a man
And great cither or drowned. The number of flain was fo great,
pan of tliat the fpace between the Rialto and Malamoc was covered
their army, with dead bodies, and has ever fince gone by a name ex-
preflive of the prodigious flaughter. Pepin was fo flruck
with the intrepidity of the Venetians, that he raifed the
fiege, abandoned the enterprife, and concluded a peace with'
the republic : he afterwards came to Venice to intercede
for Obelerio, that he might be rettored ; which the Vene¬
tians granted, more out of refpeft to the requeft of fo great
a prince, than love to the unhappy Obelerio. The people
had a notion that Obelerio had encouraged Pepin to declare
war upon the republic, and that a correfpondence between
them was carried on during the fiege ; Pepin was therefore
no fooner withdrawn, than the populace feizing upon Obe¬
lerio, tore his body in pieces, and fcattered his limbs and
bowels about the city. His wife {hared the fame fate ; for
as flie was the fitter of Pepin, it was not doubted but her
r.fluence was the caufe of her hufband’s perfidy.
In 839 we find the Venetians engaged in an alliance of-
fenfive and defenfive againtt the Saracens with Michael the
The Vene- Greek emperor. A fleet of 60 galleys was immediately
tians de- equipped, who joined the Grecian fleet and engaged the
fl'f bd enemy ; but during the heat of the engagement, the Greeks
Saracens.6 ^aving bafely deferted their allies, the Venetians were fo com¬
pletely defeated, that fcarce a Angle veffel remained to carry
the news of their misfortune to Venice. This defeat threw
the city into the utmoft confternation, as it was not doubted
that the Saracens would immediately lay fiege to the capi-
~ tal; but from thefe fears they were foon relieved, by cer¬
tain intelligence that the Saracens had gone to Ancona,
which they had pillaged and deftroyed. The Narentines,
however, a piratical people, no fooner heard of the defeat
V E N
13
The fiege
railed.
15
The doge
torn in
pieces by
the popu¬
lace.
»6
of the Venetians, than they laid wafle the enafls of Dalmatia, Vanke,'-
and ravaged the country for a confiderable way ; at the
Time time that tue. city was* diflrafted by internal diflen-
fions and tumults, in One of which the doge was murdered.
It was not till the year 881 that the Venetian affairs Aflfai/t of
were thoroughly re-eftablifhed. By the prudent and vigo-the repuh.
rous adminittiation of Orfo Participate "the power of thelicrdUjrcd.
Saracens was checked, the Narentines utterly defeated, and lg
peace and domeftic tranquillity rettored. From this time.\grtatvic.
the republic continued to flourifh ; and in 903 her remita tc.ry gained
tion for aims became famous all over the world by a greatovcrt^e
victory gained over the Hunns, who had invaded Italy, de-^4"116*
feared Berengarius, and threatened the country with total
deiirudfion. For a long time after, we meet with no re¬
ntal kable tranfadtions in the Venetian hittory ; but in ge¬
neral the republic increafed in wealth and power by its in¬
defatigable application to maritime affairs and to commerce.
About the year 1040 it v/as ordained that noprir.ee fhould
affociate a colleague with him in the fupreme power, a ttaT
tute which has ever fince continued unaltered.
Icwards the clofe of the 1 ith century, Venice began tOye,
make a very confiderable figure among the Italian ttates,become
and to carry on wars with feveral of them. In 1084 they powerful
republic was by the emperor of Conttantinople invefted with
the loverdgnty of Dalmatia and Croatia, which, however, |
had been held long before by right of conquett. As loon j’tj.g°a
as the Croifade was preached up, the Venetians fitted out apriucipal
fleet of 200 fail againtt the infidels; but before this armament*fiare
was in a condition to put to fea, war broke out with Pifa. <-ruiada
I he doge Vitalis Michael took upon him the command of
the fleet, when, after having defeated the Pifans in a bloody
a&ion at lea, he let fail for Smyrna, and from thence to 2I
Afcalon, at that time befieged by the Chiiitians. To ’ his Exploits of
valour was owing the conquett of this city, as well as thofethe
of Caipha and 1 iherias ; but before he had time to pufhg"-ads
las good fortune further, he was recalled on account of an 1 "
invaflon of the Normans of Dalmatia. Here he was equally
fuccelsful : the Normans were everywhere defeated ; and
Michael returned home loaded with booty •, but died food
after, to the great grief of all his fubjetts. He was fuc-
ceeded by Ordelapho Faliero, under wbom the Venetians
a flitted Baldwin in the liege of Ptolemais, and are laid to
have been the chief inftruments of its conqueft ; and Bald¬
win, in recompenfe for the fervices of the republic, invefted
her with the fovereignty of that city, which he endowed
with many extraordinary privileges,' in order to render his
prefertt more valuable. This good fortune, however, was
overbalanced by a rebellion in Dalmatia and Croatia. The
former was reduced ; but, in a battle with the Croatians, 2*
the doge was killed, and his army entirely defeated : by The VenS
which difatter the Venetians were fo much ditpirited, thattiansre"
they clapped up a peace on the belt terms they could, gi-^reat defat
ving up all thoughts of Croatia for the prefent. in Croatia.
Under the government of Domenico Miehtli, who fuc-
ceeded Ordelaphb, the pope’s nuncio arrived at Venice, and
excited fueh a ipirit of enthufiafm among all ranks and de-Great ar-
grees of men, that they ftrove whofe names fhould be firft m-iment
enrolled for the holy war. The doge, having fitted out
fleet of 60 galleys, failed with it to Joppa, which place the
Saracens were at that time befieging. The garrifon was
reduced to the- laft extremity when the Venetian fleet ar¬
rived, furprifed, and defeated that of the enemy with great
flaughter ; foon after which the Saracens raifed the fiege
with precipitation. Tyre was next befieged, and foon was , 74 j
obliged to capitulate ; on which occafion, as well as on Confhnti* ■
taking of Afcalon, the Venetian:, fhared two-thirds of thenopk ie-
fpoils. Butin the mean time the emperor of ConttamiToives w
nople, jealous of the increafing power and wealth of thea“ack^
republic,11106’
V E N
Ve'ic«< republic, refo!ve4 to make an attack, upon Venice, now
t-—r'— weakened by the abfen.ce of the doge and fuch a powerful
fleet. But the fenate, having timely notice of the empe-
i ror’g intentions, recalled the doge, who inftantly obeyed the
fummons. Stopping at Rhodes, in his way home to refreih
and water the fleet, the inhabitants refufed to furniih him
Grpt fuc- with the neceflaries he demanded. Incenfed at this denial,
cefiifthe he levelled their city with the ground; and from thence
to Chios, he laid wafle and. deftroyed the country,
® carrying ol-F the body of St Ilidore, in thole days accounted
. an ineftimable treafure. After this he feized-on the iflands
of Samos, Leftos, Andros, and all thole in the A'rchioela-
go belonging to the emperor ; and having reduced Zara,
Spolatra, and Trahu, places in Dalmatia which had revolt¬
ed during his abfence, he returned in triumph to Venice,
where he was received with great joy.
The Venetians now became very formidable throughout
all PZurope. The Sicilians, Paduans, with the ftates of Ve-
z(i rona and Ferrara, felt the weight of their power ; and in
Quarrel 1 '7? they ventured to oppofe Frederic Barbaroffa empetor
with the of Germany. The occafion of this quarrel was, that pooe
Barbar'ciTa ^'cxan^er taken flicker in Venice in order to avoid
the reientment of Barbarofla, who had conceived an implar
f cable averfion againlt him. The Venetians dilpatched am-
meflage of to h'm > but he anfwered them in a rage, “ Go
the empe- tell your prince and people, that Frederic the Roman em-
ror. peror demands his enemy, who is protected by them, if
they fend him not inftantly bound hand and foot, he will
overturn every law, human and divine, to accomplifti his
revenge ; he will bring his army before their city, and hx
his vi&orious ftandards in the market-place, which lhall float
in the blood of its citizens.” On the return of the ambafta-
dors with this terrible menace, it was agreed to equip a fleet
with all expedition-, and prepare for repelling the attacks
Hk fon O- of fuch a formidable and haughty enemy. But before the
tho defeat, armament could be prepared, Qtho, the emperor’s fon, ar-
Snprifon.”^ before the city with a fleet of 75 galleys. The doge
er by the Scbaftiano Ziani iailed out with the few veffels he had got
Venetians, equipped, to give the enemy battle. The fleets met off the
coaft of Iftria, and a terrible engagement enfued, in which
the imperial fleet was totally defeated, Otho himfelf taken
prifoner, and 48 of his (hips, deftroyed. On the doge’s
29 return, the pope went out to meet him, and prefented him
cf rhecuf- W'th a rin£’ %ing’ “ Take this, Ziani, and give it to the
tom of (ea’ as a teftimony of your dominion over -it. Let your
marrying fucceffors annually perform the fame ceremony, that pofte-
thefea. rity. may know that your valour has purchafed this prero¬
gative, and iubjedted this element to you, even as a hufband
fubjeaeth his wife.” Otho was treated with the refpeft
due to his rank ; and foon conceived a great friendftiip for
Ziani. At laft, being permitted to vilii the imperial court
30 on his parole, he not only prevailed on his father- to make
oudCe!lw"h?CaGe with. the Venetian85 but even to viflt their city, fo
the empe- burned for its commerce and naval power.. He was received
tor, with all polhble refpea, and on his departure attended to
Apcona by the doge, the ferrate, and the whole body of
the nobility. During this journey he was reconciled to
the pope ; and both agreed to pay-the higheft honours to
the doae and republic. *.
In the beginning of the 13th century, the Venetians,
now become exceedingly powerful and opulent, by reafon
31 ot the commerce which they carried on with the richeft
Venetians countries of the world, were invited by young Alexis, fon
1v,Vlte/rn° l° the emFK-,ror °b Conftrmtinople, to his father’s affiftance,
ance^f the^0 ^ hccn dePofed by a rebellious fadion. In conjunc-
emperor of tl0,n. Wltb the French, they undertook to reflore him ; and
Conflanti- f'.1 ly fucceeded. But the old emperor dying foon after,
nople. hit fon. was elected in his room, and a few days after mur-
[ 635 1
V E N
der.ed by his own fubjefts ; on which the emoire-was feized VcnTr*
by Myrallus, a man of mean birth, who had been tailed *
by the favour of old Alexis. As the allied army of French
and Venetians was encamped without the city, Myrtillus
refolved immediately to drive them out of his dominions, and
for this purpofe attempted to furprife their camp ; but being '
repulted, he flint himfelf up in the city, with a refoiution to • . -
ftand a fiege, i he allies affaulted it with fo much vigour,The^cifr
that the ufurper w'as obliged to fly ; and though the citizens taken by-
held out after his departure, they were obliged in lefs tharrihe Frencl*
three months to capitulate. This proved' a fource of greater'an^ Veue“
acquifition to Veniae than hll that had yet happened.' -All113111,
thechie^ offices of the city were filled up with Venetians, iA
recompenfe for their fervices : the allies entered Thrace,
and fubdued it ; Candia, and all the Greek iflands, alfo fell
under the dominion of the republic. ■ ' '33
In the mean time the Genoefe, by their fuccefsfol appli-Wars he-
cation to commerce, having raifed themfelves in fuch a rhan-*t,veen Va‘
ner as to be capable of rivalling the Venetians, a long feries ^
of wars took place between the republics ; in which the
Venetians generally had the advantage, though fometimea
they met with terrible overthrows. Thefe expenfive and ;
bloody quarrels undoubtedly weakened the republic in the
main, notwithftahding its fuccefles. In the year 1348,
however, the Genoeie were obliged to implore the protec-The Ge»
tion of Vifconti duke of Milan, in order to fopport themnoefe Put
againft their implacable enemies the Venetians. Soon
this, in the year 1352, the latter were utterly defeated, withprote&ion
fuch lofs, that it was thought the city itfek muft have fal-of the duke
leu into the hands of the Genoefe, had they known how0^
to improve their vi&ory. This was in a fhort time followed’
by a peace ; but from this time the power of the republic
began to decline. Continual wars with the ftates of Italy, Caufes of
with the Hungarians, and their own rebellious lubjetts, the decline
kept the Venetians employed fo that they had no leifure toot the Vc'
oppofe the Turks, whofe rapid advances ought to have a-neU3n
larmed all Europe. After the deflrudion of the eafternV°WCr*
empire, the Turks came more immediately to interfere with
the republic. The confequcnces are related under the ar^
tide Turkey. Whatever valour might be fhown by the
Venetians, or whatever fncceffes they might boaft of, it is
certain that the Turks ultimately prevailed ; fo that for
fome time it feemed fcarce poffible to refill them. What
contributed alfq greatly to the decline of the republic, was
the difeovery of a paflage to the Eaft Indies by the Cape
or Good Hope in 1497. To this time the greateft part
of the Eaft India goods imported into Europe pafled thro*
the hands of the \enetrans ; but as foon as the above-men¬
tioned difeovery took place, the carriage by the way of Alex j
andria almoft entirely ceafed. Still, however, the Venetian
power was ftrong ; and in the beginning of the 16th cen¬
tury they maintained a war againft almoft the- whole power
of France, Germany, and Italy ; but fooa after we find
them entering into an alliance with fome Italian ftates and
the king or France againft the-emperor. Thefe wars, how¬
ever, produced no confequences of any great moment ; and
m 1573 tranquillity was reftored by the conclufion of a
peace with the Turks. Nothing of conlequence happened
in the affairs of the Venetian republic till the year 1645,
when the Turks made a fudden and unexpected 'defeent on
the ifland of Candia. The fenate of Venice did not dif:Cardfa
play their ufual vigilance on this occafion. They had feen vaded h7
the immenfe warlike preparations going forward, and yet^ne Turks.
alloA’-ed themfelves to be amufed by the grand feignior’s de¬
claring war againft Malta, and oretending that the arma¬
ment was intended againft that Hand. The troops landed
without oppofition; and the town of Csnea was taken, a. ter
an obftinate defence. •.
4 L 2 This
YEN
[ 636 ]
YEN
Venice. Tins news being brought to Venice, excited an univerfal quered the Morea, which was ceded formally to Venice, with Venice.
fome other acquilition, at the peace of Carlowitz, ra the lalt  v—J
year of the lait century. Morea
During the war of the fucceffion, the ftate of Venice ob- COnqUere.i
ferved a Ihift neutrality. They confidered that difpute as by the Ve-
unconnefted with their interefta, taking care, however, tonei*ans“
keep on foot an army on their frontlets in Italy, o- fufficient
force to make them refpe&ed by the contending powers.
But, foon after the peace of Utrecht, the Venetians ware
37
Extraoidi-
nary jr.e-
tbods taken
by the Ve-
Betiarw to
tarry on
the war.
indignation againfl the Turks; and the fenate refolved to de
fend to the utmoft this valuable part of the empire. Ex¬
traordinary ways and means of ratlin r money were fallen
upon : amont; others, it was propofed to fell the rank oi
nobility. Four citizens offered 100,000 ducats each for
tliis honour; and, notwithftanding (ome oppolition, tins
ireafure was at laft carried. Eighty families were admitted
into the grand council, and to the honour and privileges of
38
Rem ark-
able liege
ftf the capi¬
tal of Can-
39
Defprrate
valuer of
the Vene¬
tians.
the nobility. What an idea does this give of the wealth of again attacked by their old enemies the Turks; who, be-
40
Cruehy <>f
the Tn k->
iih fukan.
the inhabitants of Venice ?
. The liege of Candia, the capital of the ifland of that name,
is, in fome refpe&s, more memorable than that of any town
which hiilory, or even which poetry, has recorded. It laded
24 years. The amazing efforts made by the republic of Ve¬
nice aftoniihed all Europe ; their courage interefted the gal¬
lant fpirits of every nation : volunteers from every country
came to Candia to exercife their valour, to acquire know¬
ledge in the military art, and alibi a brave people whom they
admired.
During this famous liege, the Venetians gained many im¬
portant vidlories over the Turkifh fleet, burnt times they
vverC driven from the walls ot Candia, and the 1 urkilh gar-
rifon of Canea was even befleged by the Venetian fleets.
Great {laughter was made of the Turkilh armies ; but new
armies were foon found to lupply their place, by a govern¬
ment which boafts luch pooulous dominions, and which has
defpotic authority over its fubjecls.
Mahomet the fourth, impatient at the length of this liege,
came to Neoropont, that "he might have more frequent op¬
portunities of hearing from the vizir, who carried on the
fiege. An officer, lent with dilpatches, was dire&ed by the
vizir to explain to Mahomet the manner in which he made
his approaches, and to affine him that he would take all pol-
fible care to lave the lives of the ioldiers. The humane em¬
peror anfwered, That he had lent the vizir to take the place,
and not to fpare the lives of the foldiers; and he- was on the
point of ordering the head of the officer who brought this
meffage to be cut off', merely to quicken the vizir in his
holding the great European powers exhaufted by their late
efforts, and unable to affift the republic, thought this the fa¬
vourable moment for recovering the Morea, which had been
fo lately favifhed from them. The Turks obtained their
objedt; and at the peace of Paffarowitz, which terminated
this unfuccefsful war, the Venetian ftate yielded up the Mo¬
re?.; the grand feignior, on his part, relloring to them the 44
fmall illands of Cerigo and Cerigotto, with fome places which ofriU-j .lC>
his troops had taken during the courfe of the war in Dal-rciin j liik
mafia. Thofe, with the iflsnds of Coriou, Santa Maura, it again.
Zante, and Cephalonia, the remains of their dominions in the
Eevint, they have lince fortified at a great expence, as their
only barriers againft the Turks.
Since this period no effential alteration has taken place in
the Venetian -.government, nor has there been any tffehlial ire ji,;Cc
incrcafe or diminution in the extent of their dominions, hey that time,
have little to fear at prefent from the urks, whole atten¬
tion is iufficiently occupied by a more formi lable enemy than
the republic and the Houfe of Aullria united. 13elides, if
the i. urks were more difengaged, as tliey have now dripped’
the republic of Cyprus, Candia, and their poffeffions in
Greece, what remains in the Levant is hardly worth their
attention.
The declenflon of Venice did not, like that of Rome,
proceed from the increafe of luxury, or the revolt of their
own armies in the dillant colonies, or from civil wars of any
kind. Venice has dwindled in power and importance from
cauies which could not be foreleen, or guarded againft by
human prudence although they had been forefeen. In their
vizir m
operations, and to fliow him haw little he valued the lives of preferit iituation, there is little probability of their attempting
fiien > new conquefts; happy if they are allowed to remain in the
4t
The city
capitulates.
In fpite of the vizir’s boafled parftmony, this war is faid
to have coll the lives ol 200,aoo T urks. Candia capitula¬
ted in the year 1668. The conditions on thisoccalion were
honourably fulfilled. Morlini, the Venetian general, march¬
ed out of the rubbifh of this well-dnputed city witli the ho¬
nours of war. —The expence of luch a tedious war greatly
exhaufted the refources of Venice, which could not now re-
46
quiet pofleffion of what they have.
We have already mentioned the fituation of Venice, the DeC riVa*
capital of this reoublic.. Its appearance at a diftance is very of the capo
linking, looking like a great town half floated-by a deluge.Ui*
Betwixt the city and the Terra Finna are a great many
Ihallows, on which at low water you may almolt every where
touch the bottom with a pole but all poffible care is taken
pair them fo quickly as formerly, when Ihe enjoyed the rich to prevent their becoming dry land. On the fouth fide of
monopoly of the Aliatic rade. the city are alio fftallows; but on thefe there is a greater
This republic remained in a Hate of tranquillity, endea- depth of water. The channels betwixt them are marked-
4*
JJew war
with the
Turks.
vouring,,by the arts of peace and cultivation of that ftiate of
commerce which file Hill retained, to-fill her empty exchequer,
till Ihe was drawn into a new war, in the year 1683, by the
infolence of the Ottoman court. The Venetians had for
fome time endeavoured, by negotiation and many concilia¬
tory reprefentations,to accommodate matters with the Turks;
and though the haughty conduft of their enemies afforded
fmall hopes of fuccefs, yet fueb was their averfion to war on
the prefent occafion, that they Hill balanced, whether to bear
thofe inlults or repel them by arms; when they were brought
to decifion by an event which .gave the greatell joy to Ve¬
nice, and a-ftonilhed all Europe. This was the great viftory
gained over the Turkifh army before the walls of Vienna
by Sobielki king of Poland.
In this new war, their late General Morfint again had the
command of the fleets and armies of the republic, and fuftain-
cd the great reputation he had acquired in Candia. He con-
out hyjlakes or poles, which on the approach of an enemy
would certainly be taken away. The city is divided by a
vail number of canals, on which ply the gondoliers, or wa¬
termen, in their black gondolas or boats. The tlreets are
very clean and neat, but narrow and crooked. There are
no carriages, not fo much as a chair, to be feen in therm
Though the city, by its fituation and the great number ol
fteeples towering above the water, ftrikes on*? with admira¬
tion at a dillance, yet when he is got into it, it does not
anfwer his expefilation; for excepting the 1quart of St Mark
and a few other places, there is nothing grand or beautiful:,
in it, at leall in comparifon of many other ci ies ol Italy.
Of the canals, that called // Canale M(ignore, or the “ great
canal,” is by far the largelt and longeil, and confequently
the moft beautiful. Here races are fometimes run lor prizes
in the gondolas On its banks are alfo feveral ilaiely houfes.
Over thefe canals are a great number of handiome bridges
of
V E N . [
Venice, of one arch, but ■without any fence on either fide : they are
—v—— aif0 built of white Itone, with which the ftreets are all paved,
except the Rialto over the great canal, which is all of marble,
and coft the republic 250,000 ducats, the arch being 9 - feet
v/ide. The canals in fumrner emit a bad fmell, from the
great quantities of filth continually running into them. The
fineft gondolas are thofe in which the foreign minifteis make
their public entries, being richly decorated with gilding,
painting, and fculpture. The number of iflands on which
the city (lands, according to fome, is 60} according to others,
72. The circumference is about fix Italian miles ; and it
takes up about two hours to make the circuit of it in a
gondola. The inhabitants are fuppofed to be about 150,000
including thofe of the ifiands Murano, La Guideca, and
thofe who live on board tire barges. There are near 200
fprings of frefh water in the city; but the water of many of
them is lo indifferent, that the principal lamilies preferve
lain-water in citlerns, or are iupplied wnth water from the
Brenta. The moll remarkable places in the city are the
ducal palace, the fquare and church of St Mark, who is the
tutelar faint of Venice; the mint, public library, grand arfe-
nal, feveral of the palaces of the nobles, churches, convents,
and hoipitals. In thefe lalt is a prodigious colledlion of the
fined paintings; Venice, in this refpcdl, even furpafling Rome
itltlf. i’he dive-bons of the Venetians are chiefly mafque-
rading, efpecially during the carnival and other feftivais ; ri-
dottos, operas, plays, which are generally wretched perform¬
ances, and concerts of vocal and instrumental mufic. Du¬
ring their fediVals, debauchery, riot, and licentioufnefs, are
carried to the greatell height. The courtezans here, we
are told, are ablolutely loll to all fenfe ot modefty and com¬
mon decency. The grand Icene of all, the fhows and follies
of the feftivais, is the fquare of St Mark, in which bulls are
fometimes baited. In the doge’s palace all the high colleges
hold their affemblies ; but we are told by ieverai travellers^
which feems very ff range, that the ft airs are no better than
a privy. In this palace is a fmall arfenal, furnifhed with
arms agatnll any hidden infurmflion or the people, together
with a ilate prifon, a great many exquilite paintings, and
feveral curiohties, among which are lome il.iujira cajlitatit.
One fide of it is towards St Mark’s fquare, and the lower
gallery on that fide, with the hall under the new nrocuratie
facing it, are called the BrogUo, where the nobility and none
elfe, at lead while they are prelent, are allowed to walk.
The fquare of St Mark is the greateft ornament of the city,
and hath the form of a parallelogram. In this fqua-e, be
tides the church and palace or St Mark, are two towers, on
one fide of which is a curious clock; and the other has ftairs
fo conflrudted that one may ride up on horleback. Oppo-
fite to the ducal palace is the public library of the common¬
wealth ; containing a large colleftion of books and manu-
feripts, with lome fine paintings, ftatues, and curiofities.
Hard by St Mark’s fquare is the zecca, or mint: from zec-
ea the gold coin, called %ecchino takes its name. One of the
fmalleft pieces of money at Venice is called ga%etta; and the
fcrft newfpapers publifhed there,on a fingle leaf, having been
fold tor that a-piece, al! kinds of newlpapers were from thence
QLy\z& gazettes. The grand arfenal is two and a half Italian
miles in circuit, and contains vail quantities of naval and
ether warlike (lores: fornc pretend that it could furnifh arms
for 10,000 horie and i 00,000 foot: here are the trophies
of Scanderbeg and others, with the helmet of Attila, 6>;c.
The rope walk, is 444 common paces in length, and the
*opes and cables are valued at 2,coo,000 ot filver ducats;
H the loundery none but brafs cannon are caft ; and too
men are generally at work in the forges. The falt-petre
works here deferve a traveller’s notice: there is a vtffel filled
with wine and water lour Umes a-day, where the workmen,
Venice.
47
637 ] YEN
thowh 1000 or more, may drink as much and as often as
they pleafe. Clofe to the Rialto is the bank, fhe tiade
of the city at prefent is far (hort of what it wras formerly.
Their chief manufaflures are cloth ; efpecially fcarlet, lilks,
gold and filver fluffs, brocades, velvets, and paper, of which,
and wine, oil, fruit, fweetmeats, anchovies, and feveval forts
of drugs ufed in *phyfic and painting, the exports are dill
confiderable. Venice has neither walls, gates, nor citadel,
to defend it; its fnuation fupplying the w^ant of all thefe.
In the treafury of relics is the protocoll, or original manu-
feript, as they pretend, of St Mark’s gofpel : it is rarely
ffunvn ; and the writing, by length of time, is fo defaced,
that the greateft connoiffeurs in manuferipts cannot deter¬
mine whether it was wrote in Greek or Latin. Befides
what is properly called the city, there is a multitude of
little iflands lying round, which are covered with buildings,
and make each of them a kind of feparate town ; the mod
confiderable of which is that called Guideca, or the “ Jews
Quarter,” which is large and populous ; with St Erotmo,
St Helena, St Georgio, Chioia, 11 Lido de Paleftrina, II
Lido de Malamocco, and Murano: thefe iflands are a fort
of fence to the city, breaking the violence of the waves. I o
diftinguifti them from others, the Jews here mull wear a bit
of red cloth in their hats. The gardens in this city are few
and inconfiderable. In the ifland of Murano are made thofe
beautiful looking-glaffes, and other glafs-works, for which
Venice is lo much noted : here the family of Cornaro hath
a palace, with a gallery of paintings, little fhort of an Italian
mile in length. The falt-works in the ifland of Chioia are
of great benefit to the Venetians, and yield a very conlider-
able revenue. There are leveral other (mail ifiands about
Venice befides thofe we have mentioned ; but they are in-
coufiderable.
As to the government of this date, it was, as above rela-G-»vern-
ted, at fiift veiled in confuls, afterwards in tribunes. AbouMj6^^*-
the beginning of the 8th century, a doge or duke was elec- '
ted, and veiled with unlimited power; but in 1171, the
power of the done was much abridged, and a council of 242
perlone, compofed of commons as well as nobles, was ap¬
pointed. Soon after, under duke Marino Morofini, the
prefent form o^ eleftihg the doge was introduced, in 1296,
the government became atiftocratical; the privilege of fit¬
ting in the great council being then Confined to the nobility,
in whom alone the fupreme authority at preient is veiled;
The immber'of nobles amounts to about 2 OO* All thofa
are members of the fenate ; but, according to their antiqui¬
ty, fome are accounted more honourable: than others. One
clafs, and that the lowed, confifts of the pofterity of thofe
who, in the neceflitous times of the commonwealth, purcha-
fed their nobility for >co,oco ducats. The nobles hive the
title of Excellency ; and wear, at leaft when in the city, a
black !urred gown reaching to their heels, with long caps
and periwigs. Some of them are fo poor, that they are fain
to beg of the rich. At the head of the government is the
doge, whole office was once hereditary and power abfolute ;
but the former is now eleftive, and the latter very much
circumfcribed : indeed he is no more than a gaudy (lave,
loaded with fetters, which one would think could not be
much the lighter for being gilt ; yet fo much is the human
heart captivated withexternal pompand pageantry, thatthe of¬
fice, for the moil part, is eagerly fought after: but (hould one
otherwife inclined’he chofen, he cannot decline it, without
expoling himfelf to banifhment and coafifcation of his efledls.
Though the power of the doite is very fmall, his (late and re¬
tinue are very fplendid : his title is that of Serenity, and hia
office for life: he is faid to be a king with regard to his robes,
a fenator in the council-Koufe, a prifoner in the city, and a pri¬
vate man out of it. The yearly revenue of his office is-abou t
4C00I.5
v E fJ [ 6,8 1 V E N
Vanicc. ^ooot.} and tTiougli Ije may be depofed,, He cannot refign
^ his dignity. All the nobility have a feat in the great coun¬
cil, unlefs they are under 25 years of age. In this council
the fupreme authority and legiflative power is veiled. Next
to it is the fenate or pregradi, which conlifts of about 250
members, who have the power of making peace or war, and
foreign alliances ; of appointing ambafl’adors; fixing the
ftandard of the coins; impofing duties and taxes ; and all
offices by fea and land are in their gift. The third council
coniitfs ot the doge and his fix counfellors, in which all let¬
ters and inftruments relating to the ftate are read, ambaffa-
dors admitted to audience, and other important affairs tranf*
afted. The other colleges are the council of ten ; which
■decides all criminal cafes without appeal, and to which even
the doge himlelf is fubjedf: the procurators of St Mark,
whofe office is very lucrative, and who decide with refpedf
to wills, guardian fir ips, and the making a proper provifron
for the poor ; and the ffate-inquifition, whofe bufinefs it is
to provide far the public tranquillity. In the wall of the
ducal palace are heads of lions and leopards, with open
mouths, to receive informations of any plot or treafon againft
the Hate. Here is alfo a particular college for the regula¬
tion of drefs, but their jurifdi£tion does not extend to fir an¬
gers. The method of electing the doge is no lefs fingular
43 than complicated, and effedlually calculated to prevent all
Method of kinds of bribery or corruption. All the members of the
choofing grand cbijncil who are pail 30 years of age, being affemLled
the doge. jn ^ 0p tpe pajace> as many-balls are out into an urn
as there are members preient; 30 of thefe balls are gilt, and
the red white. Each counfellor draws one ; and thofe who
get the gilt balls go into another room, where there is an
urn containing 30 balls, nine ol which are gilt. The 30
members draw again ; and thofe who by a iecond piece of
good fort«ne get the gilt balls are the firff eledlors, and
have a tight to choofe 40, among whom they comprehend
themfelves.
Thefe 40, by balloting in the fame manner as in the
former inftances, are reduced to 12 fecond eledlors, who
choofe 2 $; the firil of the 12 naming three, and the remain¬
ing 1 1 two a-piece. All thoie being affcrr.bled in a chamber
apart, each of them draws a ball from an urn containing 25
balls, among which are 9 gilt. This reduces them to 9
third eledlors, each of whom choofes five, making in all 45.5
who, as in the preceding inffances, are reduced by ballot to
II fourth eleftors, and they have the nomination of 41,
who are the direfl elcdlors of the doge. Being fhut no by
themielves, they begin by choofing three chiefs and two fe-
cretaries ; each eledlor being then called, throws a little bil¬
let into an urn which Hands on a table before the chiefs. On
this billet is inferibed the perfon’s name whom the elector
wifhes to be doge.
The fecretaries then, in the prefence of the chiefs and of
the whole affembly, open the billets. Among,all the 41
there are generally but a very few different names; as the
eledlion for the moil Dart balances between two or three
candidates. Their names, whatever is the number, are put
into another urn, and drawn out one after another. As loon
as a name is extrafted the fecretary reads it, and if the per-
fon to whom it belongs is prefent, he immediately retires.
One of the chiefs then demands with a loud voice, whether
any crime can be laid to this perfon’s charge, or any objec¬
tion made to his being raifed to the fovereign dignity ? If
any objeftion is made, the accufed is called in and heard in
his own defence ; after which the electors proceed to give
their decifion, by throwing a ball into one of the two boxes,
one of which is for the Ayes, the other for the Noes, 'the
iecretaries then count the balls ; and if there are 2 5 in the
firlt, the ekctioa is finiffud j if not, another name is read,
and the fame inquifition made as before, till there are 25 an- Venice,
pearing balls. * ji ■
1 he principal Venetian order of knighthood is that of St.^1- t!*atQ|l»
Mark; the badge ot which is a large gold medal dependent
on the brealt. I he order of Condantiue knights wear a Ol der of
crofs hanging from a gold chain. ' ’ knight-
With refpedl to religion, that of the Venetians is the Ro-'h"od-
man Catholic; but they are no bigots. The court of inqui* Religion,
fition is here under very great reltriaions ; and the pope is *
confidered as little more than a temporal prince, his fupre*
macy being reje&ed.
The Venetians are dill the greated naval power in Italy,
They pretend they could fit out, in cafe of neceffity, 60 men ..V
of war, ico galleys, and lOgaleaffes; though one can hardly forte aid
imauine how they could man half that number. The army teveuua
is laid to confid of between 20,000 and 30,000 men ; the
greated part of which are Dalmatians and Switzers. The
commander in chief, dyled Capituno, is always a foreigner of
diftintlion. General Graeme, a Scotchman, lately enjoyed
that honourable pod. The ordinary revenues of the date
are computed at about 1,,.200,000 1. derling; but in time of
war they can raife them greatly. A coniiderable part the
revenue arifes from the cudoms, and the duty on fait made
at Corfu and Chiofa.
The Venetians are in general tall and well-made. They chira&er,
ate a lively ingenious people, extravagantly fond of public
amufements, with an uncommon relifh for humour, and yet
more attached to the real enjoyments of life than to thoie
which‘depend on odentation and proceed from vanity. The
women are of an eaty addiefs, and have no averfion to culti¬
vating an acquaintance with thofe drangers who are prefent-
ed to them by their relations, or have been properly recum-
men Jed.
VENIRE facias, in law, is a judicial writ lying where
two parties plead and come to iffue, diretffed to the fheriff,
to caufe 12 men of the fame neighbourhood to meet and try
the iarr.e, and to fay the truth upon the iffue taken.
VEN TER, fignifies the belly; but it is alfo tifed for the
children by a woman of one marriage : there is in law a fird
and fccond venter, &c. where a man hath children by feveral
wives ; and how they {hall take in defeents of lands.
Venter Infpiciendo, is a writ to fearch a woman that faith
{he is with child, and thereby withhoideth lands from the
next heir : the trial whereof is by a jury of women.
VENTILATOR, a machine by which the noxious air of
any dole place, as an hofpital, gaol, {hip, chamber, &c. may
be difeharged and changed for freflt.
The noxious qualities of bad air have been long known;
and no one has taken greater pains to fet the mifehiefs ark
fing from foul air in a jud light than Dr Hales; who has
alio propoied an eafy and effectual remedy by the ufe ot his
ventilators; his account of which was read to the RoyaljSo.
ciety in May 1741, In the November following M. Trie-
wald, military architect to the king of Sweden, informed Dr
Mortimer fecretary to the Royal Society, that he had in the
preceding fpring invented a machine for the uie of his ma-'
jedy’s men of war, in order to draw ©ut the bad air from
under their decks, the lead of which exhauded. 36,172 cu¬
bic feet of air in an hour, or at the rate of 21,732 tons in
24 hours. In 1742 he fent one of them, foimed for a 60
gun {hip to France ; which was approved of by the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Paris; and the king of France
ordered all the men of war t© be furnilhed with the like
ventilators. .
The ventilators invented by Dr Hales confid of a fquare
box ABCD (fig. 1 ) of any fize; in the middle of one fide
of this box a broad partition or midriff is fixed by hinges
X, and it moves up and down from A to C, by means of
m
V E M [ 639 3 . V E tf
Vin|!later. an Jro» rod ZR. fixed 'at a proper diftanee from the other
w—-y— enj of the midriff, and pafiing through a fm?.il hole in the
cover of the box up to R. Two boxes of this kind may be
employed at once, and the two iron rods may be fixed to a
lever FG (fig. 2.) moving on a fixed centie O ; fo that by
tfie alternate raifing and prtlfing down of the lever FG, the
midriffs are alfo alternately railed and depreffed, whereby
thefe double bellows are at the iame time both drawing in air,
and pouring it out, through apertures with valves made on
the fame fide with, and placed both above and below, the
hinges of the midriffs. In order to render the midriffs light,
they are made of four bars lengthwife, and as many acrofs
them breadthwife, the vacant fpaces being filled up with thin
pannels of fir-board ; and that they may move to and ho
with the greater eafe, and without touching the fides of the
boxes, there is an iron regulator fixed upright to the middle
of the end of the box AC (fig. x.) from N to L, with a
notch cut into the middle of the end of the midriff at Z; fo
that the midriffs, in rifing and falling, fuffer no other fri&ion
than what is made between the regulator and the notch.
Moreover, as the midriff ZX moves with its edges only one
twentieth of an inch from the fides of the box ABCDFE,
very little air will efcape by the edges; and, therefore, there
will be no need of leathern fides as in the common bellows.
The end of the box at d C is made a little circular,- that it
may be better adapted between A and C to the rifing and
tailing midriff; and at the other end X of the midriff a flip
of leather may be nailed over the joints if need'ul. The
eight large valves through which the air is to oafs, are
placed at. the hinge-end of the boxes BK (fig. 2.) as at t,
2, '3, &c. The valve 1 opens inward to admit the air to
enter, when the midriff is depreffed at the other end by
means of the lever F G. And at the fame time the valve
3 'n the lower ventilator is fhut by the compreffed air which
paffes out at the valve 4. But when that midriff is railed,
the valve 1 fhuts, and the air paffes out at the valve 2.
And it is the lame with the valves 5, 6, &c. of the other
box ; fo that the midriffs are alternately rifing and falling,
and two of the ventilators drawing in air, and two blowing
it but ; the air entering at the valves 1, 3, 6, 8, and palling
out at the valves 2, 4, 5, 7. Before thefe laft valves there
N is fixed to the ventilators a box QfdJSfM (fig. 3.) as a com¬
mon receptacle for all the air which comes out of thefe valves*,
which air paffes off by the trunk P, through the wall of a
building.
For a farther account of this machine we refer to the aU-
thor himielf, who wives a full detail of it and o'! it's manner
of working. See Defcviption of Ventilators by Stephen
Hales, D. D. Loud. 1 743, 8vo.
The ventilators in large fhips, fince the order for ventila¬
ting the fleet iffued by the lords of the admiralty in 1756*
are fixed in the gunner’s fibre ftore-rbom, and generally a-
head of the fail-room. The foul air is carried up through
the decks and ^ore-caflle near the fore-m&ft, ionietimes aiore
if, and fometimes abaft it, but more frequently on its ftar-
board fide ; the lever, by which the ventilators are worked,
is under the fore caffle in two deck fhips, and between the
upper and middle decks in three-deckers ; fometimes the le¬
ver is hung athwart fhips ; in tome fhips afore and aft, and
in others oblique. The iron rod, which cornmnnicates the
motton from the lever, paffes through the partners or the
fore maft, and is conne&td with another lever, lufpended at
or near m’ddle ; in fome fhips over the ventilators, in
others under them, when it is found neceffary to fix them
tfip to the deck. 1 he beft method to fave room is to place
e vemflators over one another with their circular ends to-
^ er’a*r'tlunkffhonld be fo high above deck, that the
men on deck may not be'incommoded by the foul a»r which
4
blows out of it; and therefore the trunk ecunes through the Vjntr’c?#,
upper cff’ck, near and behind the foremaft. For the method Venjli!o'
of freeing mines, fhips, prifons, &c from noxious air by means ; m*
of fire-pipes, fee Pneumatics, n® 371. ""
VENTRICLE, properly denotes'any little cavity ; but
is more particularly uftd by phyficiaris and anatomiits for
the ftbmach and certain cavities of the heart and brain. ,
VEN FRILOQUISM, an art by which certain perfons
can fo modify their voic£, as to make it appear to the au¬
dience to proceed from any diftance, and in any direftion:
Some faint traces of this art are to be found in the writings
of the ancients ; and it is the opinion ot M. de la Chapelle,
who in the year 1772 publifhed an ingenious work on the
fubjetf, that the refponfes of many of the oracles were dev
livered by perfbns thus qualified to ferve the purpofes of
prieft-cra't and dtluficn. As the ancient ventriloquifts,
when exercifing their art, feemed generally to fpeak from
their own bellies, the name by which they were defigned
was abundantly fignificant; but it is with no great proprie¬
ty that modern performers are calkd ventri/oqui/h, and their*
art ventriloquiffn, fince they appear mor e frequently to fpeak
from the pockets of their neighbours, or from the roof or
diftant corners of the room, than from their own mouths or
their own bellies.
From B-odeau, a learned Critic of the 16th century, we
have the following account of the feats of a caoital ventrilo-
quiit and cheat, who was valet de chambre to Francis the
Eirft. The fellow, w Kofe name was Louis Brabant^ had
fallen defperately in love with a young, handfome, and rich
beireis:; but was rejected by the parents as an unfuitable
match for their daughter, on account of the lowncfs of his
circumftanees. The young lady’s father dying, he made
a vifit to the widow, who was totally ignorant of his lin¬
gular talent. Suddenly, on his firft appearance, in open
day, in her own houfe, and in the prefence of leveral 'per¬
fons who were with her, fhe heard herfelf accofftd, in a.
voice perfectly reiembling that of her dead hufband, and5
Which feemed to proceed from above, exclaiming, “ Give
my daughter in marriage to Louis Brabant: He is a man
of great fortune, and of an excellent charatter I now en¬
dure the inexpreflible torments ot purgatory, for having re-
fufed her to him. If you obey this admonition, I fhall
foon be delivered from this place of torment. You will at
the lame time provide a w*orthy hulband for your daughter,
and procure everlafiing repoie to the foul of your poor huf¬
band.”
I he widow could not for a moment refill this dread fum-
mons, wdiich had not the molt diftant appearance of pro¬
ceeding from Louis Brabant ; w-hofe countenance exhibited
no vilxbk Aange, and whofe lips were clofe and motionlefs,
during the delivery of it. Accordingly, fhe confented im¬
mediately to receive him for her ion in law. Louis’s finan¬
ces, however, were in a very low fituation ; and the forma¬
lities attending the marriage contradl rendered it neceffary
for him to exhibit fome fhow of riches, and not to give the
ghoft the lie direft. He accordingly went to work upon a
frefh fubjeft, one Cornu, an old and rich banker at Lyons j;
who had accumulated immenle wealth by uiury and extor¬
tion, and was known to be haunted by remorfe of con-
fcience on account of the manner in which he had acqui¬
red it. ^
Having contrafted an intimate acquaintance with this
man, he, one day while they w'ere fitting together in the
ufuter s little back parlour, artfully turned the converfation
on religious iubjefils, on demons and Ipeftres, the pains of
purgatory, and the torments of hell. During an interval
of filence between them, a voice was heard, which to the
aftonifhed banker feemed to be that of his deceafed father,
con>
V E N [
Verctt ilo- cftmplainirtg, as in the former cafe, of his dreadful fit nation
quifm jn pUrgatory, and calling upon him to deliver him inilantly
from thence, by putting into the hands of Louis Brabant,
then with him, a large fum for the redemption of Chriftiam
then in flavery with the Turks ; threatening him at the
fame time with eternal damnation if he did not take this
method to expiate likewife his own fins. The reader will
naturally tuppofe that Louis Brabant affefted a due des’ree
of aflonifinnent on the occafion ; and further promoted the
deception, by acknowledging his having devoted himfelf to
the profecution of the charitable defign imputed to him by
the ghoft. An old uiurer is naturally lufpicious. Ac-
cordingly the wary banker made a fecond appointment
with the ghoft’s delegate for the next day ; and, to render
any dtfign of imoofinir upon him utterly abortive, took him
into the open fields, where not a houft, or a tree, or even
a bufh, or a pit, were in fight, capable of Screening any lup-
poled confederate. This extraordinary caution excited the
ventriloquifl to exert all the powers of his art. Wherever
the banker conduced him, at every fteo his ears were la
luted on all lides with the complaints and groans not only
of his father, but of all his deceafed relations, imploring
him for the lo’ve of God, and in the name of every faint in
the kalendar, to have mercy on his own ioul and theirs, by
effectually fecooding with his purfe the intentions of his wor¬
thy companion. Cornu could no longer refill the voice of
heaven, and accordingly carried his guelt home with him, and
paid him down io,coo crowns ; with which the honell ven
triloquift returned to Paris, and married his mitlrefs.-—The
catallrophe was fatal. The fecret was afterwards blown,
and reached the ufurer’s ears, who was fo much affefred by
the lofs of his money, and the mortifying railleries ot his
neighbours, that he took to his bed and died.
This trick of Louis Brabant is even exceeded by an in¬
nocent piece of waggery played off not 40 years ago by
another French ventriloquill on a whole community. We
have the ftory fn m M. de la Chapelle. who informs us, that
M. St Gill the ventriloquitt and his intimate friend, return¬
ing home from a place whither his bufinefs had carried him,
fought for fhelter from an approaching thunder llorm in a
neighbouring convent. Finding the whole community in
mourning, he inquired the caule, and was told that one of
their body had died lately, who was the ornament and de¬
light of the whole fociety. To pafs away the time, he
walked into the church, attended by fume of the religious,
who Ihowed him the tomb of their deceafed brother, and
{poke feelingly of the fcanty honours they had bellowed on
his memory. Suddenly a voice was heard, apparently pro¬
ceeding from the roof of the quire, lamenting the fituation
of the defundt in purgatory', and reproaching the brother¬
hood with their lukewarmnefs and want of zeal on his ac¬
count. The friars, as foon as their aftonilhment gave them
power to fptak* coniulted together, and agreed to acquaint
the reft of the community with this lingular event, fo inte-
refting to the whole lociety. M. St Gill, who wifhed to
carry on the joke Hill farther, diffuaded them from taking
this ftep ; telling them that they would be treated by their
ablent brethren as a let of fools and vifionaries. He recom¬
mended to them, however, the immediately calling of the
whole community into the church, where the gholl of their
departed brother might probably reiterate his complaints.
Accoidingly all the friars, novices, lay-brothers, and even
the dorneftics of the convent, were immediately fummoned
and colle&ed together. In a fiiorttime the voice from the
roof renewed its lamentation and reproaches, and the whole
convent fell on their faces, and vowed a iolemn reparation.
As a firft ftep, they chanted a De profund'is in a full choir ;
during the intervals of which the ghoft occafionally expref-
3
640 ] VEN
fed the comrort he received from their pious exercifes and Ventrib-
ejaculations on his behalf. When all was over, the prior
entered into a ftrious converiation with M. St Gill; and * '
on the ftrength of what had juft pafl'ed, fagacioufly in¬
veighed againil the abiurd incredulity of our modern feep-
tics and pretended philofophers on the article of ghofts or
apparitions. M. St Gill thought it now high time to dif-
abufe the good fathers. This purpofe, however, he found
it extremely difficult to efledl, till he had prevailed upon
them to return with him into the church, and there be wit-
neffes of the manner in which Ire had conduced this ludi¬
crous deception.
A ventriloquift, who performed feats fomewhat fimilar to
thele, made his appearance in Edinburgh, and many of the
other towns of Scotland, a few months before the writing
of this article. He imitated fuccefsfully the voice of a
iqueaking child, and made it appear to proceed from what¬
ever place he chofe ; from the pockets of the company,
from a wooden doll, with which he held many ipirited con-
venations ? from beneath a hat or a wine-gials, and out of
any perfon’s foot or hand. When the voice feemed to
come from beneath a glafs or hat, it was dull and on a low
key, as founds confined always are} and what evinced hta
dexterity was, that when the glafs ^as railed from the table
during the time of hi* ipeaking, the words or fyllables ut¬
tered afterwards were on a higher key, in contequence, one
would have thought, of the air being readmitted to the
fpeaker. This part of the experiment failed, however, when
the management of the glafs was at a diftance committed to
any of the company ; but as the room w'as not well illumi¬
nated, we are inclined to'attribute this failure to the ventrt-
loquifl’s not being able to perceive at what precife inftant
of time the glafs was removed from the table. The fame
artift imitated the tones.of a Icolding old woman, diiturbed
at unfealonable hours by a perfon demanding admiffion into
her houfe ; but this exhibition did not to us appear matter-
ly. The tones of the oid woman and the child were not
accurately difcriminated : the child was a young fcold, and
the fcold fpoke like an angry child. We have heard that,
when in Edinburgh, the lame pradlitioner ailonifhed a num¬
ber of perfons in the Fiftimarket, by making a filh appear
to fpeak, and give the lie to its vender, who affirmed that
it w'as fexih, and caught in the morning ; and whether this
fail was really performed or. not, we cannot doubt, from
what we faw and heard him do, but that he was fully equal
to its performance.
Our ventriloquift was an illiterate man; and though
fufficiently communicative, could not make intelligible to
us the manner in which he produced theie acouftic decep¬
tions. indeed if he had, we fhould hardly have defenbed
the pra&ical rules of the art to the public; for though it
is proper to make the exiftence of fuch an ait univerially
known,., it will readily occur to every rtfiefting mind, that
the attainment of it fhould not be rendered eafy to thofe
who, like Louis Brabant, might make it fubfervient to the
purpofes of knavery and deception. The fpeculative pnn-
cioles on which it is founded muft be obvious to every
man who has ftudied the philofophy of the human mind, and
has ever witneffed the teats of mimickry. ^
It has been fhown ellewhere (lee Metaphysics, n 47,
48.), that, previous to experience, we could not refer found
to any external cauie ; that it does not therefore give im¬
mediate indication of the place or diftance of t e lono.ou#
body ; and that it is only by the affuciation of place with
found that the latter becomes an indication of the former.
This being admitted, nothing feems requifite to fit a man
for becoming an expert ventriloquifl but a delicate ear fle¬
xibility .of the organs of fpeech, and bug pradlice of thole
V E N [ <4t 1 V E R
Vfr.frlb- rules which renested trials would enable him to difcover. A
quifin, delicate ear pe'rceives every difference which change of place
Venus, produces in the fame found; and if a per [on _ poffeffed of
fuch an ear have iuiTicient command over his organs of
fpeech, to produce by them a found in all refpe&s fituilar to
another proceeding from any diilant object, it is evident
that to the audience the found which he utters muit appear
to proceed from that object. If this be the true theory of
ventriloquifm, it does not feem to be poffible for the molt
exoert ventriioquift to fpeak in his ufual tones of converfa-
tion, and at the fame time make the voice appear to come
from a diftance ; for thefe tones muff be fuppofed familiar
to his audience, and to be in their minds affociated with the
ideas of his figure, place, and diftance. Hence the ventri¬
ioquift whom we faw appeared to fpeak from various places
only in the tones of the fqueaking child, while Louis Bra¬
bant and M. St Gille, in their great feats, imitated the
voices of ghofts, to which no man could be familiar, and
where terror would greatly contribute to the deception.
There can, however, be no doubt, but that ir, by a pecu¬
liar modification of the organs of fpeech, a found of any
kind can be produced, which in faintnefs, tone, body, and
in fiiort every other fenfible quality, perfedlly refembles a
found delivered from the roof of an oppofite houfe ; the ear
will naturally, without examination, refer it to that fitua-
tion and diftance, the found which the perfon hears being
only a fign, which he has from his infancy been conftantly
accuftomed, by experience, to afibciate with the idea of a
perfon fpeaking from a houfe-top. It is evident too, that
when there is no particular ground of fufpicion, any imall
diiparity between the two founds will not be perceptible.
But if our theory be juft, that experience or habit which
rnifleads a perfon who has feldom heard the ventriioquift,
and is a ftranger to his powers, at length fets another per¬
fon right who is acquainted with them, and has been a fre¬
quent witnefs of their effefis. This was afhially the cafe
of M. de la Chapelle, with whom the illufion at length
cealed, in confequence of repeated vifits to M. St Gille : fo
that while others, ignorant of his talent, and poffeffed only
of their old or habitual experience with regard to articulate
founds, confidered his voice as coming from the top of a
tree, or from a deep cellar under ground ; our author, well
acquainted with the powers of the ventriioquift, and having
acquired a new' kind of experience, at once referred it diredt-
iy to the mouth of the fpeaker.
VENUS, in Pagan worfhip, the goddefs of love and
beauty. Cicero mentions two other deities of this name.
Venus, ftyled Urania and Celejiis ; and the Venus Pande¬
mos or Popularise the wife of Vulcan, and the goddefs of
wanton and effeminate love. To the firft the Pagans aferi-
bed no attributes but fuch as were agreeable to the ftridteft
chaftity and virtue ; and of this deity they admitted no cor¬
poreal refcmblance, (he being only repretented by the form
of a globe, ending conically. Pier facrifices were termed
nephalia, on account of their fobriety. To her honey and
wine were offered, and no animal except the heifer; and on
her altars the wood of figs, vines, or mulberries, were not
fuffered to be burnt, 't he Romans dedicated a temple to
this goddefs, to whom they gave the name of Verticordia ;
becaufe flic turned the hearts or lewd women, and infpired
modefty and virtue.
But the moft famous of thefe goddeffes is the wife of
Vulcan ; who is reprefented as fpringing from the froth rai¬
led by the genitals of Saturn, when cut off by Jupiter and
thrown into the lea. As loon as fhe was formed, fhe was
laid in a beautiful fhetl embeliifhed with pearl, and wafted
by gentle zephyrs to the file o*' Cytherea, whence file failed
to Cyprus. At her landing} flowers role beneath'her feet;
Von. XVIII. Part II.
fhe was received by the Hours, who braided her hair with Venus
golden fillets ; and then Wafted her to heaven,’ where her yc!.,|.*r
charms appeared fo attractive, that moft of the gods deft-
red her in marriage ; but Vulcan, by the advice of Jupiter,
gained poffeffion by putting poppies into her ne£tar. As
Venus was the goddefs of love and plcafure, the poets have
been lavilh in the defeription of her beauties; and the pain¬
ters and ftatuaries have endeavoured to give her the moft
lovely form. Sometimes fhe is reprefented clothed in purple,
glittering with gems, her head crowned with rofes, and
drawn in an ivory car by fwans, doves, or fparrows ; at
others file ftands attended by the Graces; but in all pota¬
tions, her fon Cupid is her infeparable companion. She
was honoured as the mother of Hymeneus, Cupid, iEseas,
and the Graces, and was paflionately fond of Adonis and
Anchifes.
This goddefs was principally worfhipped at Paphos and
Cyprus ; and the facrifices offered to her were white goats
and fwine, with libations of wine, milk, and honey. Her
victims were crowned with flowers, or wreaths of myrtle.
Venus, in aftronomy. See Astronomv-/«(3i;x;, and Pneu¬
matics, n° 237.
Venus’s Fly-trap. See Dion tea Mufcipula.
Venus, in zoology, a genus of infedls belonging to the
order of vermes teftacea. This animal is a tethys : the fhell
is bivalve ; the hinge with three teeth near each other, one
placed longitudinally and bent inwards. There are a great
many fpecies ; of which the moft remarkable is the merena-
ria, or commercial, with a ftrong, thick, weighty fhell, co¬
vered with a brown epidermis ; pure white within ; flightly
ftriated tranfveriely. Circumference above 11 inches.—
Thefe are called in North America clams; they differ from
other fpecies only in having a purple tinge within. Wam¬
pum, or Indian money, is made of them.
VEPRECULJE, diminutive from vepres, “ a briar or
bramble ; the name of the 31 ft order in Linnams’s Frag¬
ments of a Natural Method. See Botany, Se£t. 6.
VERA-Cruz, a fea port town of North America, in
New Spain, with a very fecure and commodious harbour,
defended by a fort. Here the Flotilla annually arrives
from Spain to receive the produce of the gold and filver
mines of Mexico ; and at the fame time a fair is held here
for all manner of rich merchandife brought from China and
the Eaft Indies by way of the South Sea, and for the mer¬
chandife of Europe by the way of the Atlantic Ocean.,
This town is not two miles in circumference ; and about it
there is a wall of no great ftrength on the land-fide. The
air is unwholefome; and there are very few Spaniards here
unlefs when the Flotilla arrives, and then it is crowded with
people from all parts of Spanifh America. It is 200 miles
fouth-eaft of Mexico. W. Long. 37. 2^. N. Lat. 19. 12.
VERAGUA, a province of New Spain, bounded on
the eaft by that of Cofta Rica, on the weft by Panama, on
the north by Darien and the Gulf of Mexico, and on the
fouth by the South Sea. It is about 125 miles in length
from eaft to weft, and 60 in breadth from north to fouth.
It is a mountainous barren country; but has plenty of gold
and filver. Conception is the capital town.
VERATRUM, in botany : A genus of plants of the
clafs oipolygamia, and order of mosieecia; and in the natural fy-
ftem arranged under the 1 oth order, Coronar'ue. There is
no calyx; the corolla has fix petals; there are fix ftamina:
the hermaphrodite flowers have three piftils and three cap-
fules. There are three fpecies, none of which are natives
of Britain.
The moft important is the album, or hellebore, the root
of which is perennial, about an inch thick, externally brown,
internally white, and befet with many ftrong fibres; the
4-M ftalk
V E R r 642 T V E R
Veratrutn ftojlc is thick, ftrona;, round, upright, hairy, and ufually rife8
II four feet in height : the leaves are numerous, very large,
. er "um'oval. entire, ribbed, plaited, without footflalks, of a yellow-
ifh green colour, arid furround the ftem at its bafe : the
flowers are of a greenifh colour, and appear from June to
Auguft in very long, branched, terminal fpikes.
It appears from various inftances, that every part of the
plant is extremely acrid and poifonous, as its leaves and
evem feeds prove deleterious to different animals.
The ancients, though fufficiently acquainted with the vi-
^vicdk’J^Bo rulency their white hellebore, were not deterred from
employing it internally in feveral difeafes, efpecially thole
of a chronic and olfllinate kind, as mania, melancholia, hy¬
drops, elephantiafis, epilepfia, vitiligo, lepra, rabies canina,
&c. They conlidfcred it the iafer when it excited vomiting,
and Hippocrates wiihed this to be its firft To thole
of weak confutations, as women, children, old men, and
thofe labouring under pulmonary complaints, its exhibition
was deemed unfafe ; and even when given to the robuft, it
was thought neceflary to moderate its violence by different
combinations and preparations ; for it was frequently obfer-
ved to effeft a cure, not only by its immediate aftion upon
the primae vice, but when no fenflble evacuations was pro¬
moted by its ufe.
Greding employed it in a great, number of cafes of
the maniacal and melancholic kind; the majority of thefe,
as might be expe&ed, derived no permanent benefit ; feve-
ral, however, were relieved, and five completely cured by
this medicine. It was the bark of the root, c©!le£ted in the
fpring, which he gave in powder, beginning with one grain:
this dofe was gradually increafed according to its effedfs.
With feme patients one or two grains excited naufea and
vomiting, but genet ally eight grains were required to pro¬
duce this effedl, though in a few inftances a fcruple and
even more was given.
Veratrum has likewife been found ufeful in epilepfy, and
other convulfive complaints; but the difeafes in which its
efficacy feems leaft equivocal, are thofe of the fkin ; as fca*
bies and different prurient eruptions, herpes, morbus pedi-
culofus, lepra, ferophula, &c. and in many of thefe it
has been fuccefsfully employed both internally and exter¬
nally.
As a powerful ftimuknt, and irritating medicine, its ufe
has been reforted to only in defperate cafes, and then it is
firft to be tried in very fmall doles in a diluted ftate, and to
be gradually increafed according to the effefts.
VERT, in grammar. See Grammar, Chap. IV.
VERBASCUM, in botany : A genus of plants of the
clafs of pentandria, and order of monogynia ; and in the na¬
tural fyftem arranged under the 28th order, Lurida, The
corolla is rotated, and rather unequal: the capfule is mono-
locular and bivalved. There are 12 fpecies, five of which
are natives of Britain; 1. The thapfus, or great mullein, which
has a ftem fingle, fimple, ereft, covered with leaves, about
fix feet high. Leaves large, broad, white, woolly on both
fides, feffile, decurrent. Flowers terminal, in a long fpike,
feflile, yellow.
Catarrhal coughs and diarrhoeas are the complaints for
which it has been internally preferibed. Dr Home
tried it in both, but it was only in the latter difeafe that
this plant fucceeded. He relates four cafes in which a
decodiion of verbafeum was given ; and from which he con¬
cludes, that it “ is ufeful in diminifhing or flopping diar¬
rhoeas of an old {landing, and often in eafing the pains of
the inteftines. Thefe acquire a great degree of irritability;
and the ordinary irritating caufes, aliment, bile, diftenfion
fcom air, keep up a quicker neriftaltic motion. This ia
obviated by the emollient and perhaps gentle aftrmgent qua- VtrVn*
lities of this plant.” * || |
2. The nigrum, or black mullein, having a ftem befet^ er^’gr‘l~e<
with hairs that ate beautifully branched ; the bloffoms yel- ’ ^
low, with purple tips. It is a beautiful plant, and the
flowers are grateful to bees. Swine eat it; fheep are not fond
of it; cows, horfes, and goats, refufe it. The other Brioifh
fpecies are the lychnitis, nigrum, blattafi, and virgatum.
VERBENA, in botany : A genus of plants of the clafs
of diandria, and order of monogynia ; and in the natural fy¬
ftem arranged under the 40th order, Perdonatx. There are
17 fpecies, only one of which is a native of Britain ; the of.
Jicinalis, or common vervain, which grows on the road-fides
near towns and villages. The Leaves have many jagged
clefts, the bloffoms are pale blue. It manifefts a flight de¬
gree of aftringency, and was formerly much in vogue as a
deobftruent; but is now diiregarded. Mr Millar fays that
it is never found above a quarter of a mile from a houfe ;
whence the common people in England call it Simpler’’s joy,
becaufe, wherever it is found, it is a certain fign of a houfe
being near. Sheep eat it ; cows, horfes, and goats refufe it»
VERD (Cape), a promontory on the weft coaft of A-
frica, 40 miles north-weft of the mouth of the river Gam¬
bia. W. Dong. 17._ 38. N. Lat. 14.45.
The Hands of Cape de Verd are feated in the Atlan¬
tic Ocean, about 400 miles weft of the Cape. They
are between the 13th and 19th degree of latitude ; and the
principal are 10 in number, lying in a femicircle. Their
names are, St Antony, St Vincent, St Lucia, St Nicholas, the
IJle of Sal. Bona Vijla, Mayo,. St jfago, Fuego, and Branca.
VERDICT l^Vere di&um), is the anfwer of the jury gi¬
ven to the court concerning the matter of faft, in any cafe
civil or criminal, committed by the court to their trial and
examination. See Law, N° clxxxvi. 51. and Trial.
VERDIGRISE, the acetite of copper, much ufied by
painters as a green colour. It is chiefly manufadfured at
Montpelier; the vines of Languedoc being very convenient
for this purpofe. See Chemistry, n9 872.
The following procefs for making verdigrife is deferibed
by Mr Monet of the Royal Society of Montpelier, and is
publifhed among the memoirs of the academy for the years
1750 and J 753.
Vine-ftalks well dried in the fun are fteeped during eight
days in Itrong wine, and afterwards drained. They are then
put into earthen pots, and upon them wine is poured. The
pots are carefully coveted. The wine undergoes the ace¬
tous fermentation, which in fummer is finifhed in feven or
eight days ; but requires a longer time in winter, although
this operation is always performed in cellars. "When the
fermentation is fufficiently advanced, which may be known
by obferving the inner furface of the lids of the pots, which
during the progrefs of the fermentation is continually wet¬
ted by the moifture of the rifing vapours, the ftalks are then
to be taken out of the pots. Thefe ftalks are by this me¬
thod impregnated with all the acid of the wine, and the re¬
maining liquor is but a very weak vinegar. The ftalks are
to be drained during fome time in bafkets, and layers 0!
them are to he out into earthen pots with plates of Swediffi
copper, fo difpofed that each plate {hall reft upon and be
covered with layers of ftalks. The pots are to be covered
with lids; and the copper is thus left expofed to the adlion
of the vinegar, during three or four days, or more, in which
time the plates become covered with verdigrife. I he plates
are then to be taken out of the pots, and reft in the cellar
three or four days ; at the end of which time they are to be
moiftened with water, or with the weak vinegar above men¬
tioned, and left to dry. When this moiftening and drying
V E It t > 643
Vr'llttf, of tile plates has been thrice repeated, the verdigrife will be
Vere. found to have confidetably Increafed in quantity ; and it may
- ^}ienfoe fciaped off for fale,
A folution orerofion of copper, and Cohfequently of ver-
digrife, may be prepared by employing; ordinary vinegar in-
ftead of-wine, as is direfted in the above procefs. But it
would not have the unftuofity of ordinary verdigiife, which
quality is neceffary in painting. Good verdigrife mutt be
prepared by means of a vinous acid, or folvent half acid and
half .fpirituous. Accordingly, the fuccefs of the operation
depends chiefly on the degree of fermentation to which the
wine employed has been carried : for this fermentation muil
not have been fo far advanced that no fenfibiy vinous or Ipi-
rituous parts remained in the liquor.
Verdigrife is employed externally for deterging foul ul¬
cers, and as an efcharotic. It is rarely or never given in¬
ternally. Some recommend it indeed in the dofe of a grain
or tv/o as an emetic, which operates almoil as foon as re¬
ceived into the ftomach, and which may therefore be of ufe
where poifonous fubftances have been taken, to procure
their immediate rejedfion. It appears, however, highly im¬
prudent to have recourfe on fuch cccafions to a remedy in
itfclf fo dangerous and fo virulent; and more efpecially as
a fpcedy evacuation may generally be obtained by means
of fubflances w'hich are not,only innocent, but at the fame
time weaken the force of the poifon by diluting and ob-
tunding it ; as warm Water, milk, oils. It is accordingly
excluded from the prefent pharmacopoeia.
VERDITER, or Vsrdater, a preparation of copper,
fometimes uftd by the painters, &c. for a blue ; but more
ufually mixed with a yellow tor a green colour. See Che¬
mistry, n-' 758, and Colour-Making, n° 28.
VERE (Sit Francis), a renowned Englith general, was
the fecond (on’of Geffrey de Vere, a branch of the ancient
family of that name, earls of Oxford, and was born in the
year 1,114. Concerning his education we arc uninformed.
About the age of 3 1 he embarked with the troops fent by
t>foeen Elizabeth, under the command of the earl of Eei-
celter, to the affiftance of the ftates of Holland ; in which
iervice his courage and military genius became immediately
confpicuous : but his gallant behaviour in the defence of
Bergen-op-Zoom, in the year 1588, when befieged by the
pr ince of Parma, eftabliftied his reputation. After the fiege
was railed, he received the honour of knighthood from lord
Willoughby, who fucceeded the earl ot Leicefter in the
command. He continued in the fervice of the ftates till
about the year 1595 ; during which time, namely, in 1593,
he was ele&ed member of parliament for Leominfter in
Herefordthire. The famous expedition againft Cadiz be¬
ing refolved upon, Sir Francis Vere was called home, and
appointed to a principal command under the earl of Eflex,
l he fuccefs of this enterprife is univerfally known. In i 597
we find him again in Holland, prefent at the battle of Turn-
hout, of which he has given a particular defeription in his
Commentaries. In the fame year he embarked, with the
earl or Eflex, in the expedition to the Azores ; and at his
return was appointed governor of the Briel in Holland,
with the command of the 'Englith troops in the fervice of
the ftates. In 1600 he was one of the three generals at
the battle of Newport, and had the honour of having the
victory univerfally aferibed to his conduit and refolution.
The ftates of Holland, then at war with Spain, marched
their army with an intention to befsege Newport in Flan¬
ders. The commanders were, count Erneft of Naflau,
count Somes, and Sir Francis Vere. The Spaniards march¬
ed to intercept them, and this battle enfued. Sir Francis
was (hot firft through the leg, and then through the fame
thigh; not w ithilanding which, he rallied the flying army,
V E R
and led them on to viHory. The Spaniards loft 120 en-
figns, and moft of t)jeir foot were flain. Queen Elizabeth
on this occafton declared him the ivorlhiejl captain of her
time. (See Letters of the Sidney Family, vol. ii. p. 104.)
But the latt and mod glorious atchievement of his life was
his gallant defence of Offend, with about 1600 men, againft
an army of 12,000, from July 1601 until March 1602,
when he refigned the government, and returned to Holland.
An account of this memorable liege, which lafted above
three years, to the deftruHion of the beft troops of Hol¬
land, Spain, France, England, Scotland, and Italy, the
reader may fee in Vera’s Commentaries, with the Continua¬
tion at the end. Queen Elizabeth died in the year 1603 :
the peaceful James tucceeded to the throne ; and Sir Francis
Vere, with all the heroes of his time, fheathed his fword.
He died in 1608, in the 54th year of his age ; and was bu¬
ried in St John’s Chapel in Weftminfter abbey, where a
fplendid monument was eredled to his memory. He mar¬
ried the daughter of  Dent, a citizen of London,
by whom he had three Tons and two daughters, none of
whom furvived him. He will ever be remembered by po-
fterity as one of the greateft heroes of our moft heroic age.
-—The work above mentioned is intitled, “ The Commen¬
taries of Sir Francis Vere, being diverfe pieces of fervice
wherein he had command; written by himtelf by way of
commentary.” Cambridge, 1657, folio. It is elegantly
printed, and adorned with prints of Sir Francis, Sir Ho¬
race Vere, Sir John Ogle, maps, and plans of battles, &c.
VERGE (Virgata), in law, fignifies the compafs of the
king’s court, which bounds the jurifdiftion of the lord ftew-
ard of the houfehold ; and which is thought to have been
1 2 miles round.
The term verge is alfo ufed for a ftick or rod, whereby
one is admitted tenant to a copyhold eftate, by holding
it in his hand, and fwearing fealty to the lord of the manor.
VERGERS certain officers of the courts of king’s bench
and common pleas, whofe buftnefs it is to carry white
wands before the Judies. There are alfo vergers of cathe¬
drals, who carry a rod tipped with filver before the bifhopj
dean, &c.
VERGIL (Polydore). See Virgil.
VERJUICE, a liquor obtained from grapes or apples,
unfit for wine or cyder ; or from tweet ones, whilft yet acid
and unripe. Its chief ufe is in fauces, ragouts, &c. though
it is alfo an ingredient in fome medicinal, compofitions, and
is ufed by the wax-chandlers to purify their wax.
VERMES, the fixth clafs of animals in the Linnaean fy-
ftem, comprehending five orders. See Natural History,
and Zoology.
VERMICELLI, or Vermichelly, a compofition of
flour, cheefe, yolks of eggs, fug&r, and faffron, reduced to
a pafte, and formed into long (lender pieces like worms, by
forcing it with a pifton through a number of little holes.
It was firft brought from Italy, where it is in great vogue :
it is chiefly ufed in foups and pottages, to provoke venery,
&c.
VERMICULAR, an epithet given to any thing that
bears a relation or refemblance to worms.
VERMIFORMIS, in anatomy, a term applied to vari¬
ous parts in the human body, bearing fome refemblance to
worms.
VERMILION, a very bright and beautiful red colour,
compoied of quickfilver and iulphur, in great efteem among
the ancients under the name of. minium ; but what goes by
the name of minium amongft us, is a preparation p( lead,
known alio by the name of red-lead. See Chemistry, n°
14°4-
VERMIN, a collective name, including all kinds of little
4 M 2 animals
Verge
II.
Vermin.
V E R
Vernacular animals and infers, which are hurtful or troublefome to
[ 644 ]
V E R
I!.
Vernier.
mankind, beafts, or fruits, 8cc. as worms, lice, fleas, cater¬
pillars, ants, flies, &c.
VERNACULA R, a word applied to fomething that is
peculiar to any one country.
VERNAL, fomething belonging to the fpring-feafon.
ViiRNIER Scale, a fcale excellently adapted for the
graduation of mathematical inftruments, thus called from its
inventor Peter Vernier, a perfon of diitin&ion in the Franche
Comte. See Nonius.
Vernier’s method is derived from the following prin¬
ciple. If two equal right lines, or circular arcs, A, B, are
fo divided, that the number ot equal divifions in B is one
lefs than the number of equal divilions of A, then will the
excefs of one divilion of B above one divilion of A be
compounded of the ratios of one of A to A, and of one
of B to B.
For let A contain 11 parts, then one of A to A is as 1
1
to 11, or —. Let B contain 10 parts, then one of B to
B
is as I to 10, or
1
io‘
Now —— — =
— 10
IO X II
I
10
I
x 77‘
10 x II
Or if B contains « parts, and A contains « -}- 1 parts;
part of B, and y—;—7 is one part of A.
then — is one
n
1 r
And — •
n -f- l
.« -f- 1
n -f- 1
n t
X
n X «+ 1 n ” + 1
The mod commodious diviflons, and their aliquot parts,
into which the degrees on the circular limb of an inftrument
may be fuppofed to be divided, depend on the radius of that
inltrument.
Let R be the radius of a circle in inches ; and a degree
... . 1
to be divided into n parts, each being ~th part of an inch.
Now the circumference of a circle, in parts of its diame¬
ter 2 R inches, is 3,1415926 X 2 R inches.
Then 360°: 3,1415926 X 2 R : : i° : X 2 R
inches.
Or, 0,01745329 X R is the length of one degree in
inches.
Or, 0,01745329 X R X/ is the length of l°, in /th
parts of an- inch.
But as every degree contains n times fuch parts, there¬
fore n — 0,01745329 X R X
The moll commodious perceptible diviflon is rr °r —
r 8 ic
an inch.
Example. Suppofe an inftrument of 30 inches radius,
into how many convenient parts may each degree be divi¬
ded ? how many of thefe parts are to go to the breadth of the
vernier, and to what parts of a degree may an obfervation
be made by that inltrument ?
Now 0,01745 XK — 0,5236 inches, the length of each
degree : and if p be fuppofed about — of an inch for one di-
vifion ; then 0,5236 X/>=:4,i88 flrows the number of fuch
parts in a degree. But as this number mull be an integer,
let it be 4, each being 15': and let the breadth of the ver-
nier contain 31 of thofe parts, or 74°, and be divided into
30 parts.
Here n m = then jp of a de-
of
gree, or 30', which is the leafl; part of a degree that inflru-
meat can (how.
If h —and m~~
5 36
mite, or 20".
1 »
tnen — X T:
5 36
60
■5X36
cf a mi-
I he following table, taken as examples in the inftru¬
ments commonly made from 3 inches to 8 feet radius,
fhows the divifions of the limb to neareft tenths of inches,
fo as to be an aliquot of do’s, and what parts of a degree
may be eftimated by the vernier, it being divided into fuch
equal parts, and containing fuch degrees as their columns
fhovv.
Rad.
inches
3
6
9
12
J5
18
2 i
24
30
36
42
48
60
72
84
96
Parts
in a
deer.
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
8
9
10
12
15
15
Parts
in
vernier.
*5
20
20
24
20
3°
3°
30
3°
30
40
36
30
40
60
Breadth
of
vernier.
'5i
12i
104
7i
9*
74
Si
34
4t
3t7o
2tt
2t
4
Parts
eblerved.
4'
3
1
1
1
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o'
o
3°
*5
o
40
3°
25
20
20
10
10
10
6
4
By altering the number of divifions, either in the degrees
or in the vernier, or in both, an angle can be obferved to
a different degree of accuracy. Thus, to a radius of 30
inches, if a degree be divided into 12 parts, each being
five minutes, and the breadth of the vernier be 21 fuch
parts, or i|0, and divided into 20 parts, then ^2 ^ To™
i°
15": or taking the breadth of the vernier 2t7t0»
... r t i°
and divided into 30 Darts ; then — X — = -r—, or io" z
J r ’ l2 „r,
I I
Or 7- X —
12 50
600
30 360’
= 6" ; where the breadth of the ver¬
nier is 4* •
VERONA, a city of Italy, capital of the Veronefe, in
the territory of Venice, fituated near the mountains, on the
river Adige, in E. Long. 11. 24. N. Lat. 45. 26. It is
feven miles in compafs; an,d has been fo fortified by the Ve¬
netians, that ic is now looked upon as impregnable. It con¬
tains 57,400 inhabitants.
VERONESE, a territory of Italy, in the republic of
Venice, bounded on the north by the Trentino, on the eaft
by the Vicentino and Paduano, on the iouth by the Man-
tuano, and on the weft by the Brefciano. It is about 35
miles in length, and 27 in breadth ; and is one of the molt
fertile countries in Italy, abounding in corn, wine, Iruits, and
cattle.
Veronese. See Cagliari.
VERONICA, in botany : A genus of plants of the clafs
of diandria, and order of mcnogynia ; and in the natural iyftem
arranged under the 40th order, Perfonata, There are 40
fpecieSj}
V E R r 645 1 V E S
Vcrfaillej fpec!es;l 5 are natives of Britain, only two of which have been
|! applied to any ufe. 1. The officinalis, common male Ipeed-
^ c~,ex' well, or fluellin ; a native of Britain, growing on heaths and
barren grounds. The bloffoms are blue, the leaves ellipti¬
cal, ferrated, and hairy. The leaves have a in all degree of
aftringency, and are fomewhat bitter. An infufion of them
is recommended by Hoffman as a mbfiitute for tea ; but is
more aftringent and lefs grateful. The herb was lormerly
efteemed in medicine for various diforders, but is now al-
molt totally difufed. Cows, Iheep, goats, and horfes, eat it;
iwine refuse it. 2. The btccabunga, or common brook-lime,
the flowers ot which are blue, in loofe lateral fpikes; leaves
feffile, oval, oppofite, thick, notched.
This plant v/as formerly conhdered as of much ufe in fe¬
ver al difeates, and vvas applied externally to wounds and ul¬
cers ; but if it have any peculiar efficacy, it is to be derived
from its antifeorbutic virtue. As a mild refrigerant juice
it is preferred where an acrimonious tlate of the fluids pte-
vails, indicated by prurient eruptions upon the fkin, or in
what has been called the hot feurvy. We muft, however,
acknowledge, that we fhould expedt equal benefit from the
fame quantity of any other bland frefh vegetable matter taken
into the fyflem. To derive much advantage from it, the
j nice ought to be uied in large quantities, or the freih plant
eaten as food.
VERSAILI.ES, a town of France, in the late province
of the Ifle of France, io mtles well-fouth-weft, of Paris. It
contains 60,000 inhabitants, and fince the Revolution has
been created a bifhop’s lee. In the reign of Louis XIII.
it was only a (mall village. This prince built here a hunt¬
ing-hut in 1630, which Baffompierre calls “ the paltry
chateau of Veriailles.” Although the fituation was low
and very unfavourable, Louis XIV. built a magnificent pa¬
lace here, which was the ufual tefidence of the kings of
France till the 6th of Odtober 1789, when the late unfor¬
tunate Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it
to the Thuillevies. The buildings and the gardens are
adorned with a vail number of flatues, done by the greatefl
mailers, and the water-works are all worthy of admiration.
The great gallery is thought to be as curious a piece of
workmanfhip of that kind as any in the world : nor is the
chapel lefs to be admired for its fine architeilure and orna¬
ments. The gardens, with the park, are five miles in cir¬
cumference, and furrounded by walls. There are three
fine avenues to Verfailles, one of which is the common road
to Paris, the other comes from Seaux, and the third f rm
St Cloud. E. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 48. 48.
VERSE, in poetry, a line confiding of a number of
long and fnort fyllables, which run with an agreeable ca¬
dence.
Verse is al!o ufed for a part of a chapter, fedlion, &c.
VERSIFICA i'TON, the art or manner of making
verfe ; alfo the tune and cadence of verfe. See Poetry,
Part III.
VERSION, a tranflation of fqme book or writing out
of one language into another. See Translation.
VERT, in heraldry, the term for a green colour. It is
called vert in the blazon of the coats of all under the de¬
gree of nobles : but in coats of nobility it is called emerald',
and in thofe of kings menus. In engraving it is expreiTed
by diagonals, or lines drawn athwart from right to left, from
the dexter chief corner to the finiller bafe.
VERTERRvE, in anatomy. See there n° 30.
VERTEX, in anatomy, denotes the crown of the head.
Hence vertex is alfo ufed figuratively for the top of other
things: thus we fay, the vertex of a cone, pyramid, &c.
Vertex, is alfo ufed in afironomy for the point of the
heaven diredlly over cur heads, properly called the zenith.
6
VERTICILLATxE, the name of a clafs in Ray’s and Verticil-
Boerhaave’s Methods, confiding of herbaceous vegetables, lata5,
having four naked feeds, and the flowers placed in whorls vei-f]i;u,
round the dalk. The term is fynonymous to the laliati, — t - *
or lip-dowers of Tournefort ; and is exemplified in mint,
thyme, and favory. Verticillatae is alfo the name of the 4 2d
order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, conirft-
intr of plants which anfwer the above defeription.
VERTICILLUS, a mole of dowering, in which the
dowers are produced in rings at each joint of the Hem,
with very fhort foot-flalks The term is exemplified in
mint, hore-hound, and the other plants or the natural order
deferibed above.
VERTICITY, is that property of the loadflone where¬
by it turns or direfts itlelf to one particular, point.
VERTIGO, in medicine. See there, n° 82.
VERTUMNUS, in mythology, a god who prefided
over gardens and orchards, honoured among the Etrufcans,
from whom the wcrfbip or this deity was tranfmitted to the .
Romans.
Ovid has deferibed the various forms affirmed by this dei¬
ty, in order to obtain the love of Pomona. Some have fup-
pofed that Vertumnus, whofe name they derive a vertendo,
becaufe he had power to change his form at pleafure, mark¬
ed the year and its variations ; and thus they fay he pleafed
Pomona, by bringing the fruits to maturity. Accordingly",
Ovid lays, that he aiTurned the form of a labourer, reaper,
vine-dreffer, and old woman, to reprefent the four feafons,.
fpring, fummer, autumn, and winter. Vertumnua had a
temple near the market place at Rome, being reprefented as
one of the tutelary deities of the merchants. The com¬
mentators on Ovid fay, that he was an ancient king of He-
truria, who, by his diligent and fuccefsful cultivation of
fruits and gardens, obtained the honour of being ranked
among the gods.
VERUMONTANUM, in anatomy, a fmall eminence
near the pafiages where thefemen is dhcharged into the ure¬
thra.
VERVAIN, in botany. See Verbena.
VERTOT d’AuBOEF (Rene Aubert de), a celebrated
hiflorian, was defeended from a noble and ancient family in
Normandy, and born in 1655. At 16 years of age he be¬
came a Francifcan friar; afterwards he entered into the or«
der of the Prenionllratenfes, in which he had feveral bene¬
fices ; and at length was a fecular ecclefiaftie. He became
fecretary to the duchefs of Orleans, member of the Acade¬
my of Infcriptions, and hilloriographer of Malta. He died
at Paris in 1735. His principal wo;ks are, 1. The Hilto-
ry of the Revolutions of Sweden. 2. The Revolutions of
Portugal. 3. The Revolutions of the Remans. 4. The
Hiftory of Malta. 'i hefe works are written in elegant
French, and tranflated into mofl of the languages of Europe.
VERULAM. See Bacon.
VESALIUS (Andreas), a celebrated phyfician and
anatomiil, was born at Bruffels about the year 1512. tie
fludied phyhc at Paris under James Sylvius ; but applied
himfelf chiefly to anatomy, which was then very little
known, diffediions being eheemed unlawful and impious :
and it appears from his work De hvmani corporis Jqbrica,
that he pe fedted himfelr in this ufeful knowledge verv
early. About the year 1537, the republio of Venice made
him profeffor in the univeifity of Padua, whpre he taught
anatomy for feven years ; Charles V. called him to be his
phyfician, as he was alfo to Philip II. king of Spain. VeL-
lius was now at the height of his glory, when all of a hid¬
den he formed the defign of taking a journey to Palelline ;
concerning which journey we are told the following ftpry„
A young Spanifh nobleman he attended, being believed to
be
V £ S [ 64S ] V E S
Vrficato- ^je dead, Vefalius obtained leave to open Kim to explore the
true caufe of his ilhrefs ; but when he opened the bread, he
. „ ^ ’ . perceived fymptoms of life, and faw the heart beat. The
parents, not fatisfkd with profecuting him for murder, ac-
cufed him of impiety to the inquifition, in hopes that tribunal
would punilh him with greater rigour : but the king inter-
pofing, faved him on condition of making a pilgrimage
to the Holy Land. He was fhipwrecked on hie return,
artd thrown upon the aland of Zante, where he perilhed,
in 1564. He was the author of feveral works, the principal
©fwhich is Dp humani corporis fabrica.
VESICATORIUM, a Bn is ter. ; an application of an
acrid nature made to any part of the body, in order to draw
a -flux of humours to that part, and thus elevate the fcarf-
ikin into a blifter.
VESPA, the wAsr ; a genus of infefts belonging to the
ofder of hymenoptera. The mouth confifts of two jaws
without any probofcis ; the fuperior wings are plaited ; the
eyes are lunar ; and there is a (harp iting in the tail.
There are 159 fpecies ; only 3 of which are natives of Bri¬
tain, the crabro, the vulgar is, and the coaraaia.
1. Crabro, the hornet. It has tawny antennas; the feg-
ments of the abdomen are black on the anterior part and
yellow on the pofterior, with two black fpots on each. Its
length is an inch ; it builds in hollow trees. Its cakes or
combs are compofed of a fubftance like coarfe paper, or
. rufty parchment. It is very voracious, devouring other
infe&s, and even bees.
2. Vulgaris, the common wafp. The male has E ven yel¬
low fegments of the abdomen, with a black triangle on each:
The head is yellow, and the antennas long. The upper lip
of the female is yellow, the antennas fhort ; there are fix feg-
ments of the abdomen with two lateral black fpots on each.
M. Reaumur and DrDerham agree in diftinguhhing three
forts of wafps; viz. the queens or females, the males, and the
common labouring Wafps, called mules, which, according to
Reaumur, are neither males nor females, and confequently
barren. The queens, of which there is a great number, are
much longer in the body, and larger than any other wafp :
they have a large heavy belly, correfponding in fize to the
prodigious quantity of eggs with which they are charged.
The males are lefs than the queens, but longer and larger
than the common wafps, which are the fmalieft of the
fpecies : they have no ftings, with which both the queens
and common wafps are /urnifhed. There are in one neft
two or three hundred rmles, and as many iemales : but
their number depends on the hze of the nett; and Dr Dur¬
ham obferved, that the males were bred, or at leaft moftly
refided, in the two cells or partings, between the combs,
next to the uppermoil cell. The antennas or horns ot the
male wnfps are longer and larger than thofe of either of the
other forts : but the chief difference, fays Dr Derham, coo-
fifts in their parts of generation, which are altogether dif¬
ferent from thofe of other wafps.
The mules are the laboureis belonging to a neft, and are
employed in procuring materials for the nefts and in con-
ftrudting them, and alfo in furnifning the other wafps, and
the young, with provifions.
At the beginning of winter, the wafps deftroy all the
eggs, and all the young ones without exception : all the
mules and males, which have been employed in this work,
being unfurnifhed with provriions, periih ; and none furvive
except lome ftw females, which, according to Reaumur,
were fecundated in October, and raife a new colony in the
beginning of fpring.
In fpring a new commonwealth is form ed by a
firgle female impregnated during the t, utumn, aud that has
weathered out the feverity of the winter. It digs a hole in Vefpa.
a dry foil, contrives itfelf a frnuous inlet, or elfe it takes upv—.
with the dwelling place of a mole, where it liaftily builds a
few cells and depolrts its eggs. Within the fpace of 20
days, they have gone through the different ftates of larvae,
chryfalids, and turned to wafps. Nature all wife provides
for every thing. The mule-wafps are the only ones that
labour at laying the foundation ok the republic. The firfl
eggs that are hatched prove to be neuter-wafps. No foon-
er are they come into exiilence, but they fall to work, en¬
large the hole, and go about upon wood, lattice-work, and '
window fafhes, in fearch of materials for building. With
their teeth they cut, hack, and tear off fmall fibres of wood,
which they moiffen with a liquor they dilgorge, and then
convey them to the work-fhop. Other labourers are in
waiting for them, who with thofe materials let about the con-
flruflion of the wafp-neft, which is commonly round, and made
of materials refembling fine paper. The common covering
of it, which is formed of feveral leaves or layers, with in¬
termediate fpaces, is pierced by two holes at a diftance
from one another, one of which is ufed for the entrance
of the wafps, and the other only for their exit. The fpace
within this covering is cut by a number of horizontal planes,
with intervals between them of the fize of about halt an
inch ; they are fufpended from one another by ligaments,
and attached to the covering by their edges : they all have .
hexagonal cells in their lower furface.
I’he eggs of the wafp are of an oblong form, and re-
femble thofe of a commen fly, but they are larger; they
are always faftened to the angles of a cell, never to the fides
of it. They are ul'ually placed fitigle ; ft is very rare to
find two in one cell ; and, if they are laid fo, it feems that
only one fucceeds,; for there is never found more than one
worm in a cell.
The heads of all the nymphs are turned toward the cen¬
tre of the comb, and their tails go obliquely downward to¬
ward the bafe of the cell. They are continually leen open¬
ing their mouths, and moving their forcipes, feeming ever
hungry, and impatiently waiting for food rrom their parents.
The cells are left open till the nymph is at its full growth ;
then the wafps cover it over with a thin lid, under which
the worm undergoes its transformation ; and as foon as it
is arrived at the wafp-ftate, it eats its way through this thin'
cover, and comes to work with the reft. The elder brothers,
or fit ft-hatched infefts, take amazing care of thofe bom
after them, by proportioning their food t© the delicacy of
their ftomach. Firit, it confifts of the juice of fruits and
meats; afterwards it is the carcafes of- infedls. The ca¬
terers provide for the labourers. Each one takes his own
portion ; there is no difpute, no fighting. The republic
grows daily more numerous, living in profound peace.
Every individual, as foon as he has acquired fufficient
ftrength, flies away to the fields. They then become a
gang of banditti; they pillage our wall-trees, break into our
fruit before its maturity, dart with the hercenefs of hawks
upon our bees, cut their throats to poffefs themfelves of their
honey, plunder and lay wafte their commonwealth, riot on
the fruits of their labour, and oblige them to remove.
During the period of plenty, the waips bring all the booty
to the neft, and fhare it antongft them. There is nothing
then goes forwards but feaftimn rioting, and good fellow-
ftiip ; but concord cannot Be lafting among robbers. I o-
wards the -month of October provifions begin to run fhort :
The neuters and males tear from their cradles the eggs,
the larva;, the chrylalids, and the new-born infedts, without
fhowing mercy to any. They next fight againft one ano¬
ther. Fiofts and rains throw the citizens into a ftate of
languor,'
V E S"
[ ^4
T i
VerpaHan languor, and they almoft allrperifh, luckily for us and our
,, II bees, fome fe\v females alone excepted, which in the en-
fum^ Ipnng become rounders or new republics.
3. CoarSata, the fmall wafp ; has black antennse, yel-
lowifh at the bafe ; the head is black with a yellow fpot
between the antennae, and another at the bafe of the upoer
lip. Each fegment of the abdomen is bordered with yel¬
low. It is about half an inch long. The hiftory, as well
as the manners of this Ipecies, are the fame as thofe of the
common wafp ; but their buildings are on a different con-
ftmftion. fheir neft is faffened to the branch of a tree
with a kind of band ; and is in bi-Tnefs from the fize of an
orange down to that of an egg. Wood reduced to paper is
the material part of it ; which if it were o? a ruddy colour,
might be taken for a large opening role. It is covered
over with a varnifh impenetrable by water. One of thofe
nefts was neither mollified nor impaired by that element.
VESPASIAN, the 10th emperor or Rome; remakable
for his clemency and other virtues. See Rome, n° 332 —
339-
VESPERS, in the church of Rome, denote the afternoon
fervice ; anfwering in fome meafure to the evening prayers
of the church of England.
VESPERPILIO, the Bat ; a genus of quadrupeds,
belonging to the order of primates. All the teeth are ere£t,
pointed, near each other; and the firfl four are equal.
The fore-feet have the toes connetted by a membrane ex¬
panded into a kind of wings by which the creature is en¬
abled to fly. There are 28 fpecies, of which 4 are natives
of Britain, The moft remarkable are,
1. The vampyrus, vampire, or Ternate bat, with large
canine teeth; four cutting teeth above, the fame below;
fharp black nofe ; large naked ears ; the tongue is pointed,
terminated by fharp aculeated papillae ; talons very crooked,
ftrong, and compreffed fidewife; no tail: the membrane
divided behind quite to the rump : head of a dark ferrugi¬
nous colour ; on the neck, fhoulder, and under-fide, of a
much lighter and brighter red ; on the back the hair
fhorter, duflcy, and fmooth : the membranes of the wings
dufky. They vary in colour ; fome being entirely of a red-
difh brown, others duflcy.
^ 1 nele monfters inhabit Guinea, Madagafcar, and all the
iilands from thence to the remoteft in the Indian Ocean,
i hey fly in flocks, and perfetftly obfcure the air with their
numbers; they begin their flight from one neighbouring
ifland to another immediately on funfet, and return in
clouds from the time it is light till fun-rife. They live on
fiuits ; and are fo fond of the juice of the palm-tree, that
they will intoxicate themfelves with it till they drop on the
ground. It is moft likely, from the fize of their teeth, they
are carnivorous. Mr Edwards relates, that they 'will dip
mto the fea for fifn. They fwarm like bees ; hanging by
one another from the trees in great clufters. The Indians
eat them, and declare the flefh to be very good : they grow
exceflively fat at certain times of the year. The French
who live in the Ifle de Bourbon boil them in their bouillon,
to give it a relifh. The negroes have them in abhorrence.
Many aie of an enormous fize: Beckman meafured one,
whole extent from tip to tip of the wings was five feet four
niches ; and Dampier another, which extended farther than
he could reach with out-ftretched arms. Their bodies are
from the fize of a pullet to that of a dove: their cry is
dreadful, their fmell rank, their bite, refiftance, and fierce-
nek great, when taken.
The ancients had ibme knowledge of thefe animals. He-
rodotus mentions certain winged wild beafts like bats, that
molefted the Arabs who collected the caffia, to fuch a de¬
gree, that they were obliged to cover their faces, ah but
1 v E S
their eyes, with Heins. It is very probable, as M. de Bur-Vefperdlicr,
fon remarks, it was from fuch relations that poets formed
their fictions-of Harpies.
Linnaeus gives this fpecies the title of vampyre; con¬
jecturing it to be the kind which draws blood from people in
their fleep. M. de BufFon denies it; aferibing that faculty
omy to a fpecies found in South America. But there is
reafon to imagine that this thirft after blood is not confined
to the bats of one continent nor to one fpecies : for Bon-
tius and Nieuhoff inform us, that the bats of Java feldom
fa.il attacking perfons who lie with their feet uncoveredj
whenever they can get accefs ; and Gumilla, after mention-
in.? a greater and lefs fpecies found on the banks of the
Oronoque, declares them to be equally greedy after human
blood. I erfons thus attacked have been known to be near
pafling from a found fleep into eternity. The bat is fo
dexterous a bleeder, as to infinuate its aculeated tongue in¬
to a vein without being perceived, and then fuck the blood
till it is fatiated ; all the while fanning with its wings, and
agitating the air in that hot climate in fo pleafing a mannerj,
as to fling the lufferer into a ftill founder fleep. It is there¬
fore very unfafe to reft either in the open air, or to leave
open any entrance to thefe dangerous animals : but they do
not confine themfelves to human blood ; for M. Condamine
fays, that in certain parts o- Arnerica they have deftroyed
all the great cattle introduced there by the miflionaries0
See Plate DX. fig. 3.
2. The fpeclrum, or fpeCtre, with a long nofe ; large
teeth ; long, broad, and upri.rht ears : at the end of the
nofe a long conic ereft membrane, bending at the end, and
flexible : hair on the body cinereous, and pretty long;
wings full of ramified fibres : the membrane extends from
hmd leg to hind leg ; no tail; but from the rump extend -
three tendons, terminating at the edge of the membrane,
I5y Seba’s figure the extent of the wings are two feet two
inches ; from the end of the nsfe to the rump, feven inches
and an half.
Inhabits South America ; lives in the palm trees ; grows
very fat ; called vampyre by M. de BufFon, who fuppofes it
to be the fpeeies that fucks human blood : but neither Pifo,
nor any other writer who mentions the fadt, gives the leafl;
defeription of the kind.
3. The Peruvian bat hath a head like a pug-dog ; large
ftraight-pointed ears ; two canine teeth, and t vo fmall cut¬
ting teeth between each, in each jaw :. the tail is inclofed in
the membrane which joins to each hind-le/, and is alfo fup-
ported by two long cartilaginous ligaments involved in
the membrane : colour of the fur, iron grey: body equal
to that of a middle-fized rat: extent of the wings two feet
five inches.
4. The noHule hath the nofe flightly bilobated; ears
fmall and rounded ^ on the chin a minute verruca ; hair
reddifh afli-colour: length of the rump two inches ei-^ht-
tenths; tail one inch feven-tenths ; extent, of wings 13
inches. Inhabits Great Britain and France ; flies high in
learch of food, not flamming near the ground. A gentle¬
man informed Mr Pennant of the following fad relating to
thofe animals, which he was witnefs to : That he faw taken
under the eaves of Queen’s College, Cambridge, in -one
night, 1 85 ; the fecond night, 63 ; the third night, 2 ;
and that each that was meafured had 15 inches extent of
wings.
5. The murinusy common bat;- has a tail: the lips and
noie are Ample ; and the ears are fmaller than the head.
It inhabits Europe, and is found in Britain. This ani¬
mal flies only during the night, living chiefly on moths;
when it lights on the ground it is unable to rife again till it
has crawled to fome height: it remains torpid during win-
5 ter*.
V E s [ 648 1 YES
Vdflel ter, revives in the beginning of the fpring, and comes abroad
!! in the dufle of the evening. This ipecies is two inches and
Veftry- a half long, when lull grown, and about nine inches in ex-
V tent ; the fur is of a moufe-colour, tinged with reddifh ; it
generally Ikims near the ground, with an uneven jerking
flight; and often feeking for gnats and ether aquatic infedls,
files clofe by the furface of water. It breeds ia the iummer
feafon, and is preyed on by owls.
Bats are very voracious, if proper food is to be had ; and
thou ?h moths and other infedh be their natural and com¬
mon food, yet if fiefh, whether raw or roafted, freflr or cor-
ruotecl, comes in their way, they devour it with greedinefs.
In" this country they appear abroad early in fpring, flying
about only in the evenings ; but are fometimes routed trom
their torpidity by a warm day or two during winter, and
will then "venture out in queft of food, but recommence their
Hate of hybernation whenever the cold returns: They re¬
tire at the, end of fitmmer into caves, ruined houfes, or the
roofs and eaves of houfes, where they remain fufpended by the
bind legs, and enveloped in their wings, generally in large
numbers. Bats may be caught by means of the flower
cups of bur-dock, whitened and thrown up in the way of
their flight; they are attra&ed by the whitenefs, and the
books of the bur, flicking to their membranous wings, make
them fall to the ground. .
VESSEL, a general name given to the different forts
of fhips which are navigated on the ocean, or in canals
and rivers. It is, however, more particularly applied to
thofe of the {mailer kind, furnifhed with one or two mails.
See Ship.
VES I’A, in pagan worfliip, the fame with Cybele. See
Cybele.
Vesta the Younger, in pagan worfliip, the goddefs of
Fire, was the daughter of Saturn and Cybele, and the filter
of Ceres. She was fo much in love with chaltity, that on
Jupiter’s afeending the throne and offering to grant what¬
ever fhe afked, flie only deiired the prefervation of her vir¬
ginity, wdiich flie obtained.—Vefta was not reprefented in
her temple by any image.
VESTALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feflival celebrated
in honour of the goddefs Vefta, on the 5th of the ides of
June ; that is, on the ninth of the month.
VESTALS, among the ancient Romans, were priefteffes
of the goddefs Vefta, and had the perpetual fire committed
to their charge : they were at firft only four in numoer, but
afterwards iucreafed to fix ; and it does not appear that
their number ever exceeded fix, among whom was one fu-
perior to the reft, and called wjlalis maxima.
The veftals were chofen from fix to ten years of age, and
obliged to ftrift continency for 30 years; the firft 10. of
which were employed in learning the ceremonies of religion,
the next 10 in the performance ©f them, and the 10 laft in
teaching them to the younger veftals.
The habit of the veftals coniifted of an head-drefs, called
infula, which lat clofe to the head, and from whence
bung certain laces called vitta ; a kind of furplice made of
white linen, and over it a purple mantle with a long train
to it.
VESTIBLE, in archite£lme, a kind of entrance into a
large building ; being an open place before the hall, or at
the bottom of the ftaircaie.
VESTRY, a place adjoining to a church, where the
veftments of the minifter are kept ; and alfo a meeting at
fuch place, confifting of the minifter, church-wardens, and
chief men of mofl parifhes, who make a parilh veftry or
meeting. By cuftom there are feledt veftries, being a cer¬
tain number of peri'ons chofen to have the government of
the parifn, make rates, and take the accounts of church- VefuviV*.
wardens, &c. -v—,
VESUVIUS, a celebrated volcano of Italy, fix miles eaft
from the city of Naples. This mountain has two tops; one
of which only goes by the name of Vefuvius, the other be¬
ing now called Somma ; but Sir William Hamilton is of
opinion, that the latter is what the ancients called Ve/rmus.
The perpendicular height of Vefuvius is only 3700 feet, x
though the afeent from the foot to the top is three Italian General
miles. One fide of the mountain is well cultivated and fer- description
tile, producing gieat plenty of vines; but the fouth ar,clnunmtain
weft "fides are entirely covered with cinders and afhes; while
a fulphureous fmoke conftantly iftues from the top, fome¬
times attended with the moft violent explofions of ftones, the
emiffion of great ftreams of lava, and all the other attendants
of a moft formidable volcano. The firft ®f thefe eruptions Accounto{
recorded in hiftory took place in the year 79 ; at whichthe firft
time the two cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were en-eruption
tirely buried under the ftones and afhes thrown out. In.recorded«
credible mifehier was alfo done to the neighbouring country, 11 ory'
and numbers of people loft their lives, among whom was
Pliny the Elder.
It is the opinion of the beft judges, however, that this
eruption was by no means the firft: that had ever happened.
The very ftreets of thofe cities which were at that time over¬
whelmed are faid to be partly paved with lava. Since that
time 30 different eruptions have been recorded, fome of
which have been extremely violent. In the year 1538, a
mountain, three miles in circumference and a quarter of a
mile in perpendicular height, was thrown up in the courfe of
one night." In the year 1766, Sir William Hamilton, am-
-baffador to his Sicilian Majefty, began to obferve the phe¬
nomena of this mountain ; and fince that time the public has
been favoured with much more exa& and authentic accounts
of the various changes which have taken place in Vefuvius
than what were to be had before. 3.
The firft great eruption taken notice of by this gentle-Of the
man was that of 1767, which, though very violent, was eruption in
mild in comparifon with that of 1538. ^ ^
From this time ( 1767) Vefuvius never ceafed for ten yearsN!neerur.
to fend forth fmokc, nor were there many months in which ittions from
did not throw out ftones, fcorite, and cinders ; which, in-1767 to
creafmg to a certain degree, were ufually followed by lava ; I779-
fo that from the year 1767 to 1779 there were nine erup¬
tions, fome of them very confiderable. In the month of
Auguft that year, however, an eruption took place, which,
for its extraordinary and terrible appearance, may be rec¬
koned among the moft remarkable ot any recorded concern¬
ing this or any other volcano. _ _ s
During the whole month of July the mountain continued ^ccount of
in a ftate of fermentatisn. Subterraneous explofions andthe p-eat
rumbling noifes were heard ; quantities of irnoke were^l‘Ptl0D
thrown up with great violence, fometimes with red-hot 7/y*
ftones, fcoriae, and afhes ; and towards the end of the month
thefe fymptoms increafed to fuch a degree as to exhibit, m
the night time, the moft beautiful fire-works that can be
imagined. ,,
On Thurfday 5th Auguft the volcano appeared molt
violently agitated; a white and fulphureous fmoke iHued
continually and impetuoufly from its crater, one puff leem-
ing to imuel another ; fo that a mafs of them was loon ac¬
cumulated, to appearance, font times the height and fixe ot
the volcano itfelf. Theie clouds of Imoke were exceecingly
white, fo that the whole refembled an immenle accumula¬
tion of bales of the whiteft cotton- In the mid 1 o, this
very white fmoke, vaft quantities of ftones, fconm, and afhes,
were thrown up to- the height of 200© feet j and a quantity
V F. S [ 649
Ver.vius. cf liquid lava, feemingly very heavy, was lifted up juft high
 enousih to clear the rim of the crater, and take its way down
the iides of the mountain. This lava, having run violently
for feme hours, fuddenly ceafed, juft before it had reached
the cultivated parts of the mountain, near four miles from
the fpot whence it iffued. The heat, all this day, was in¬
tolerable at the towns of Somma and Ottaiano ; and was
fenfibly felt at Palma and Tauri, which are much farther
off. Reddifti afhes fell fo thick on the twro former, that
the air was darkened, fo that objefts could not be diftin-
guifhed at the diftance of ten feet. Long filaments of a
vitrified matter, like fpun glafs, were mixed, and fell with
thefe allies ; feveral birds in cages were fuffocated, and the
leaves of the trees in the neighbourhood of Somma were
covered with white and very corrofive fait.
About 12 at night, on the 7th, the fermentation of the
mountain feemed greatly to increafe. Our author was
watching the motions of the volcano from the mole at Na-
Hxtraordl-
nary effu-
fon of fire
by the ap-
}roach of
ftormy
clouJs.
7 „
Immenfe
fountain of
lava
thrown up
by Vcfu-
vius.
pies, which has a full view of it. Several glorious p’uftu-
refque effefts had been cbferved from the refie&ion of the
deep red fire within the crater of Vefuvius, and which
mounted high amongft thofe huge clouds on the top of it:
when a fummer ftorm, called in that country a tropea, came
on fuddenly, and blended its heavy w'atery clouds with the
fulphureous and mineral ones, which were already like fo
many other mountains piled up on the top of the volcano.
At this moment a fountain of fire was (hot up to an incre¬
dible height, calling fo bright a light, that the fmalleft
obje&s were clearly diftinguilhable at any place within fix
miles or more of Vefuvius. The black ftormy clouds, paf-
fing fwiftly over, and at times covering the whole or a part
cf the bright column of fire, at other times clearing away
and giving a full view of it, with the various tines produced
by its reverberated light on the white clouds above in con¬
trail with the pale flafhes of forked lightning that attended
the tropea, formed fuch a feene as no power of art can ex-
prefs. One of his Sicilian majefty’s gamekeepers, who was
out in the fields near Ottaiano whilft this ftorm was at its
height, was futprifed to find the drops of rain feald his face
^md hands; a phenomenon probably occafioned by the
clouds having acquired a great degree of heat in pafiing
through the above mentioned column of fire.
On the %tb the mountain was quiet till towards fix o’clock
in the evening, when a great fmoke began to gather over
irs crater ; and about an hour after a rumbling fubterraneous
noife was heard in the neighbourhood of the volcano; the
ufual throws of red-hot ftones and fcorise began and increa-
fed every inftant. The crater, viewed through a telefcope,
feemed much enlarged by the violence of lafl night’s explo-
fions, and the little mountain on the top was entirely gone.
About nine o’clock a moft violent report was heard at
Portici and its neighbourhood, which fhook the houfes to
fuch a degree as made the inhabitants run out into the
ftreets. Many windows were broken, and walls cracked by
the concuflion of the air on this occafion, though the noife
was but faintly heard at Naples. In an inftant a fountain
of liquid tranfparent fire began to rife, and gradually in-
creafing, arrived at laft at the amazing height of ten thou-
fand feet and upwards. Puffs of fmoke, as black as can
poflibly be imagined, fucceeded one another haftily, and ac¬
companied the red-hot, tranfparent, and liquid lava, inter¬
rupting its fplendid brightnefs here and there by patches of
the darkeft hue. Within thefe puffs of fmoke, at the very
moment of emiflion, a bright but pale cledlrical fire was ob-
ferved playing brifkly about in zig-zag lines. The wind
was fouth-weft, and, though gentle, was fufficient to carry
thefe puffs of fmoke out of the column of fire ; and a collec¬
tion of them by degrees formed a black and extenftve cur-
Von. XVIII. Part II.
] V E S
tain behind it ; in other parts of the flcy it was perfedfly Vefim t*
clear, and the ftars bright. The fiery fountain, of Inch im- —~y“—
menfe magnitude, on the dark ground juft mentioned, made
the fined contraft imaginable ; and the blaze of it reflected
from the furface of the fea, which was at that time perfect¬
ly fmooth, added greatly to this fublime view.
The lava, mixed with ftones and fcoria, having rifen to
the amazing height already mentioned, was partly directed
by the wind towards Ottaiano, and partly falling, ftiil red-
hot and liquid, upon the top of Vefuvius, covered its whole
cone, part of that of the fummit of Somma, and the valley
between them. The falling matter, being nearly as infla¬
med and vivid as that which was continually iffuing frefli
from the crater, formed with it one complete body of fire,
which could not be kfs than two miles and a half in breadth,
and of the extraordinary height above mentioned, call a
heat to the diftance of at leaft fix miles round. The brufh-
wood on the mountain of Somma was foon in a blaze, and
the flame of it being of a different colour from the deep red
of the matter thrown out by the volcano, and from the
filvery blue of the eleftrical fire, ftiil added to the contrail of
this moft extraordinary feene.
The black cloud, increafing greatly, once bent towards Na¬
ples, and threatened the city with fpeedy deftruftion ; for it
was charged with eleClrical fire, which keptconftantlydarting
about in bright zig zag lines. This fire, however, rarely
quitted the cloud, but ufually returned to the great column
of fire whence it proceeded; though once or twice it was
feen to fall on the top of Somma, and fet fire to lome dry
grafs and bullies. Fortunately the wind carried back the
cloud juft as it reached the city, and had begun to occafion
great alarm. The column of fire, however, Hill continued,
and diffufed fuch a ftrong light, that the moft minute ob-
jedls could be difeerned at the diftance of ten miles or more
from the mountain. Mr Morris informed our author, that
at Sorrento, which is twelve miles diftant ftom Vefuvius,
he read the title-page of a book by that volcanic light. g
All this time the miferable inhabitants of Ottaiano were £)-fl.r6fs 0f
involved in the utnaoft diftrefs and danger by the (bowers of the inhabi.
ftones which fell upon them, and which, had the eruption tants of
continued for a longer time, would moft certainly have
duced their town to the fame fituation with Herculaneum
and Pompeii. The mountain of Somma, at the foot of
which the town of Ottaiano is fituated, hides Vefuvius from
the view of its inhabitants ; fo that till the eruption became
confiderable it was not vifible to them. On Sunday night,
when the noife increafed, and the fire began to appear above
the mountain of Somma, many of the inhabitants flew to the
churches, and others were preparing to quit the town, when
a fudden and violent report was heard ; foon after which
they found themfelves involved in a thick cloud of fmoke
and allies: a horrid clalhing noife was heard in the air, and
prefently fell a vaft fhower of ftones and large pieces of
fcoriae, fome of which were of the diameter of feven or eight
feet, which mull have weighed more than a hundred pounds
before they were broken, as fome of the fragments which
Sir William Hamilton found in the ftreets ftiil weighed up¬
wards of 60 pounds. When thefe large vitrified maffes
either ftruck againft one another in the air, or fell on the
ground, they broke in many pieces, and covered a large
Ipace of ground with vivid fparks of fire, which communi¬
cated their beat to every thing that was combuftible.
Thefe maffes were formed of the liquid lava ; the exterior
parts of which were become black and porous by cooling in
their fall through fuch a vaft fpace ; whilft the interior parts,
lefs expoted, retained an extreme heat, and were perfe&ly
red.
In an inftant the town and country about it was on fire in
4 N many
4
Vefuviu*.
9
Taft quan¬
tity of e
Jfiftric mat¬
ter in the
sir.
10
Damage
done by
the irrup¬
tion at
Ottaiaao.
it
Taft frag-
nients of
lava
thrown
out.
V E S [ 650 ] V I B
many parts, for there were feveral ftraw huts in the vine¬
yards, which had been erected for the watchmen of the
grapes; all of which were burnt. A great magazine of
wood in the heart of the town was all in a blaze ; and had
there been much wind, the flames muil have fpread univer-
fally, and all the inhabitants would have been burnt in their
houfes ; for it was impofiible for them to flir out. Some,
who attempted it with pillows, tables, chairs, the tops of
wine cafks, See. on their heads, were either knocked down
or foon driven back to their clofe cuaiters under arches
and in the cellars of their houfes. Many were wounded,
but only two perlons died of their wounds.
To add to the horror of the feene, inceflV.nt volcanic
lightning was whifking about the black cloud that furround-
ed them, and the fulphureous fmell and heat would fcarcely
allow them to draw their breath. In this dreadful fituation
they remained about 25 minutes, when the volcanic ftorm
ceafed all at once, and Vefuvius remained fullen and blent.
Some time after the eruption had ceafed, the air continu¬
ed greatly impregnated with eleftrical matter. The duke
of Cottofiano told our author, that having, about half an
hour after the great eruption had ceafed, held a Leyden
bottle, armed with a oointed wire, out at his window at
Naples, it loon became coniidevably charged. But whilft
the eruption was in force, its appearance was too alarming
to allow one to think of fuch experiments.—lie was in¬
formed alfo by the prince of Monte Mileto, that his fon,
the duke of Popoli, who was at Monte Mileto the 8tk of
Auguft, had been alarmed by the fhower of cinders that fell
there ; fome of which he had fent to Naples weighing two
ounces ; and that bones of an ounce weight had fallen upon
an ellate of his ten miles farther off. Monte Mileto is about30
miles from the volcano. ['he Abbe Cagliani alfo related,
that his lifter, a nun in a convent at Manfredonia, had written
to inquire after him, imagining that Naples muft have been
tleftroyed, when they, atfo great a diftance, had been alarm¬
ed by a fliower ot afhes which fell on the city at eleven
o’clock at night, fo much as to open all the churches, and
go to prayers. As the great eruption happened at nine
o’clock, thefe afhes muft have travelled an hundred miles in
the (pace of two hours.
Nothing could be more difmal than the appearance of
Ottaiano after this eruption. The houfes were unroofed,
half buried under the black fcsrice and afhes; all the win¬
dows towards the mountain were broken, and fome of the
houfes themielves burnt; the ftreets choked up with afhes,
in fome narrow places not lets than four ftet thick ; and a
few of the inhabitants who had juft returned, v/ere employ¬
ed in clearing them away, and piling them up in hillocks,
to get at their ruined houfes. The palace of the prince of
Ottaiano is lituated on an eminence above the town, and
rearer the mountain. The fteps leading up to it were deep¬
ly covered with volcanic matter; the roof was totally de-
firoyed, and the window's broken, but the houfe itlelf, be¬
ing ftrongly built, had not fuffered much.
An incredible number o1" fragments of lava were thrown
out during the eruption, fome of which were of immenfe
magnitude. The largeft meafured by Sir William Hamil-
ton was 108 feet in circumference and 17 in height.
This was thrown at lead a quarter of a mile clear of the
mouth of the volcano. Another, 66 feet in circumference
and 19 in height,.being nearly of a fpherical figure, was
thrown out at the fame time, and lay near the former.
This laft had the marks of being rounded, nayalmoft polifli-
ed, by continual rolling in torrents or on the fea-fhore. Our
author conjedtures that it might be a fpherical volcanic lalt,
fuch as that of 45 feet in circumference mentioned by M.
de St Feud, in his Treatife of Extinguiftied Volcanoes. A
third of 16 feet in height and 9 2 in circumference was thrown Vetch
much farther, and lay in the valley between Vefuvius and . II
the Hermitage. It appeared alfo, from the large fragments ^
that fui rounded this mafs, that it had been much larger
while in the air.
Vefuvius continued to emit fmoke for a confideraHe time
after this great eruption, fo that our author was apprehen-
five that another would foon enfue ; but from that time
nothing comparable to the above has taken place. From
the time of this great eruption to the year 1786 our au¬
thor kept an exadt diary of the operations of Vefuvius, with
drawings, fhowing, by the quantity or fmoke, the degree of
fermentation within the volcano. fihe operations of the
fubterraneous fire, however, appear to be very capricious
and uncertain. One day there will be the appearance of a
violent fermentation, and the next every thing will be calm¬
ed ; but whenever there has been a confiderable ejedtion of
fcorise and cinders, it has been a conftant obfervation, that the
lava foon made its appearance, either by boiling over the cra¬
ter, or forcing its way through the crevices in the conical
part of the mountain. An eruption took place in the n
month of November 1784, and continued for fome time,Eruption
but without being accompanied with any extraordinary cir-‘n I7^4-
c'umftance. 13
Since that time there have been no remarkable eruptions
of this volcano, at leaft none that have been properly authen- toetfulc pri%
ticated ; though, indeed, Sir William Hamilton obferves, fenc time,
that the inhabitants of Naples in general pay fo little atten¬
tion to the ooerations of this volcano, that many of its erup¬
tions pafs unnoticed by at leaft two-thirds of them.
VETCH, in botany. See Vicia.
VETERAN, among the ancient Romans, an appellation
given to a foldier grown old in the fervice, or who had made
a certain number of campaigns.
VETERINARY art. See Farriery.
VEXILLUM, in botany ; the upper petal of a pea-
bloom, or butterfly-ftiaped flower, which is generally larger
than any of the others.
VIALES, in mythology, a name given among the Ro¬
mans to the gods who had the care and guard of the roads
and highways.
VIATICUM, in'Roman antiquity, an appellation given
in common to all officers of any of the magiftrates y as lidors,
accerji, fcribes, criers.
VIBEX, is fometimes ufed, by phyficians, for a black
and blue fpot in the fkin occalioned by an aiEux or extrava-
fation of blood.
VIBRATION, in mechanics, a regular, reciprocal mo¬
tion of a body, as a pendulum.
VIBURNUM, in botany ; a genus of plants of the clafs
pentandria, order trigynia, and in the natural fyftem arranged
under the 43d order, dumofas. The calyx is quinquepartite
and above ; the corolla divided into five lacinis ; the fruit a
monofpermous. berry. There arc 19 fpecies ; two of which,
the lantana and opulus, are natives of Britain. 1. The lan-
tana, common viburnum, wayfaring, or pliant meally tree,
riles with a woody Item,, branching twenty feet high, ha¬
ving very pliant {hoots covered with a lightilh brown bark j
large heart-lhaped, veined, lerrated leaves, white and hoary
irnderneath ; and the branches terminated by umbels of
white flowers, fucceeded by bunches of red berries, &c-
2. The obulus, or gelder rote ; confifting of two varieties,,
one with flat flowers, the other globular. The former grows
eighteen or twenty feet high, branching oppoflte, of an, ir¬
regular growth,, and covered with a.whicifh bark; large
lobated or three-lobed leaves on glandulofe foot-ftalks,
and large flat umbels ot white flowers at the ends ot the
branches, fucceedcd by red berries. The latter grows fifteen
1
VIC [ 651 ] VIE
Vicar or eishteen feet high, branching like the other, garnifhed
11. with large lobated or three-lobed leaves, on glandular foot-
v“a;lm, ftalksj and large globular umbels of white flowers at the
ends of the branches, in great abundance. This tree when
in bloom exhibits a Angularly fine appearance : the flowers,
though fmall, are collefted numeroufly into large globular
umbels round like a ball; hence it is fometimes called fnonv-
ball-trees. 3. The tinus, common lauruftinus, or evergreen
viburnum ; grows eight or ten feet high or more, branch¬
ing numeroufly from the bottom upwards, afluming a clofe
buflvy growth, with the branches fomewhat hairy and glandu-
lous; very clofely garniflied with oval, wholly entire leaves,
of a ftrong green colour, placed in pairs oppofne; and
whitifh and red flowers, collefked numeroufly in large um¬
bellate clufters all over the plant, at the fides and ends of
the branches, from January until March or April, exhibit¬
ing a moft. beautiful appearance. There are a great many va¬
rieties. All the different fpecies of viburnum, both decidu¬
ous and evergreen kinds, being of the tree kind, are woody
and durable in root, Item, and branches. They may all
be propagated by layers ; and are of fuch hardy tempera¬
ture, as to grow freely in the open ground all the year, in
fhrubberies, and other hardy plantations.
VICAR, a perfon appointed as deputy to another, to
perform his functions in his abfence, and under his autho¬
rity.
Vicar, in the canon-law, denotes a prieft of a pariffi, the
predial tithes whereof are impropriated or appropriated ;
that is, belong either to a chapter, religious houle, &c. or
to a layman who receives them, and only allows the vicar
the fmall tithes, or a convenient falary. See the article
Parson and Vicar.
VICE, in ethics, is ordinarily defined an eleftive habit,
denoting either an excels or defed from the juft medium
wherein virtue is placed.
Vice, in fmithery and other arts converfant in metals,
a machine or inftrument lerving to hold faft any thing they
are at work upon, whether it is to be beat, filed, or rivetted.
Vice is alfo ufed in the compofition of divers words to
denote the relation of fomething that comes inftead or in
the place of another ; as vice-admiral, vice-chancellor, &c.
are officers who take place in the abfence of admirals, &c.
VICEROY, a governor of a kingdom, who commands
in the name and inftead of a king, with full and fovereign
authority.
VICIA, in botany : A genus of plants of the clafs diadel-
plna, and order of decandria; and in the natural fyftem arran¬
ged under the 32d order, Papilionacea. The ftigma is bearded'
tranfverfely on the lower fide. There are 20 fpecies, 7 of
which are natives of Britain. The moft important of thefe
are, 1. Thtfativa, common vetch, or tare. ‘ The ftalks are
round, weak, blanched, about two feet long. Pinnte five
or feven pair, a little hairy, notched at the end. Stipulae
d^ntated. Flowers light and dark purple, on fhort pedicles,
generally two together ; pods ereft ; feeds black. It is
known to be an excellent fodder for horfes. 2. The crncca,
tufted vetch. It has a ftem branched, three or four feet
long. Leaves pinnated; pinnse generally ten or twelve
pair, lance-fhaped., downy. Stipulas entire. Flowers purple,
numerous, pendulous, in imbricated fpikes. It is alfo rec¬
koned an excellent fodder for cattle. 3. The faba, or com¬
mon garden bean. It is a nativeof Egypt. It is too well
known to require defcription.
VICISSITUDE, the regular fucceffion of one thing
after another; as the viciffitude of day and night, of the
feafons, &c.
VICTIM, denotes a facrifice offered to fome deity, of
a living creature, as a man or bead, which is flain to apbeafe VAar
his wrath, or ts obtain fome favour. tl
VICTOR (Sextus Aurelius), a Roman hiftorian, who
flourifiled under the emperors Conftantius and Julian ; as we
learn from many paflages in his own writings, and alfo from
Ammianus Marcellinus. This hiftorian relates, that Coft-
ftantius made him conful, and honoured him with a brazen
ftatue, on account of his excellent qualifications ; although,
as he owns of himfelf, he was born in an obfcure village, and
of poor and illiterate parents. It is commonly believed
that be was an African : it is certain, that he dwells much
upon the praifes of that country, which he calls the glory
of the earth ; deem terrorism. Two books of his are extant
in the hiftorical way : one De viris ilhijlribus urbis Roma ;
the other, De Cafaribus ; to which is prefixed Libellus de
origine gentis Romana. The whole makes an abridged hi-
ftory of Rome, from its foundation down to the reign of
Julian inclulive.
VICTORY, the overthrown or defeat of an enemy in
war or combat.
Victory, in pagan worfliip, is reprefented by ITefiod as
the daughter of Styx and Pallas ; and Varro calls her the
daughter of Heaven and Earth. The Romans cre&ed a
temple to her, where they prayed to the gods to give fuc-
cefs to their arms. They painted her in the form of a wo-
man, clad in cloth of gold. In fome medals, Ihe is repre¬
fented with wings flying through the air, holding a laurel
crown in one hand and a palm in the other ; but in other
medals, file is feen Handing upon a globe, with the fame
crown and branch of palm.
VIDA (Marcus Plieronymus), bifhop of Alva, in
Mountferrat, and one of the moil excellent Latin poets
that have appeared fince the Auguftan age, was born at
Cremona in 1470. Having diftinguiflied himfelf by his
learning" and tafte for literature, he was made bifhop of Al-
va in 1952. After continuing two years with pope Cle¬
ment VII. at Rome, he went to refide upon his fee ; where,
for 30 years, he performed all the offices of a good bifhop
and a good man ; and though he was mild, gentle, and full
of goodnefs, he was fo far from wanting fpirit, that when
the city of Alva was bdieged by the French, he ufed all pof-
fible means to prevent its being given up, by ftrenuoufly ex-
horting the people, and, when provifions were fcarce, by
fupplying them at his own expence. His poetics, and
poem on the filk-worm, pafs for his mafterpiece ; his poem
on the game of chefs is alio greatly admired. He alfo
wrote hymns, eclogues, and a poem entitled Chri/liados
in fix books; all which are in Latin, and have gain¬
ed him a great reputation. His works in profe confift of
dialogues, fynodical confutations, letters, and other pieces.
Fie died in 1566, foon after his being made bifhop of Cre¬
mona.
VIENNA, the capital of the circle of Auftria, in Ger¬
many, and of the whole German empire, is the place where
the emperor refides. The city itfelf is not of very great ex¬
tent; nor can it be enlarged, it being limited by a very ftrong
fortification ; but it is very populous. The ftreets, in gene^
ral, are narrow, and the houfes built high. Some of the public
buildings are magnificent; but they appear externally to no
great advantage, on account of the narrownefs of the ftreets.
1 he chief of them are the imperial palace, the library, and
the mufeum; the palaces ot the princes Lichtenftein, Eugene,
&c. Vienna was twice ineffeaually befieged by the Turks ;
namely, in 1589 and 1683. A t the latter period, the liege
was raifed by John Sobiefki, king of Poland, who totally
defeated the i urkifh army before the walls of this place.
Eheic is no great danger that Vienna will ever again be fub-
4^2 je&ed
V I G • [ 652 ] V I L
Vienna, jefted to the inconveniences of a liege. Yet, in cafe this
v^l!* {hould happen, a meafure has been taken, which will prevent
”“’~v" " " the neceflity of deftroying the fuburbs ; namely, no houfes
without the walls are allowed to be built nearer to the glacis
than 600 yards ; fo that there is a circular field of that
breadth all round the town, which, exclufive of the advan¬
tage above-mentioned, has a very beautiful and falutary effedf.
Thefe magnificent fuburbs, and the town together, are faid
to contain above 300,000 inhabitants; yet the former are
not near fo populous, in proportion to their fize, as the
town ; becaufe many houfes in the fuburbs have extenfive
gardens belonging to them, and many families, who live du¬
ring the winter within the fortifications, fpend the fummer
in the fuburbs. The cathedral is built of free-ftone, is 114
yards long, and 48 broad, and the fteeple is 447 feet high.
Inftead of a weather-cock there was a Turkilh crefcent, in
memory of the fiege in 1589 ; but, after the fecond liege in
1683, they changed it for a golden crofs, which three months
after was thrown down by a ftorm. At prefent there is a
black fpread eagle, over which is a gilded crols. Joining to
this church is the archbilhop’s palace, the front of which is
very fine. The univerfity had feveral thoufand Undents, who,
when this city w’as befieged, mounted guard, as they did
alfo in 1741. Befide this, there is the academy of Lower
Auftria ; and the archducal library is much frequented by
foreigners, as it contains above 100,000 printed books, and
J 0,000 manufcripts. The academy of painting is remark¬
able for the fine piclures it produces. The archducal trea-
fuiy, and a cabinet of curiofities ©f the houfe of Aultria,
are great rarities. The inhabitants, in general, live in a
fplendid manner ; and people of diftinftion have all forts of
v/ines at their tables, which they are very free with to
foreigners. There is a fort of harbour on the Danube, where
there are magazines of naval Itores, and {hips have been fitted
out to ferve on that river againfi the Turks. Vienna is an
archbilhop’s fee. It is feated at the place where the river
Vienna, or Wien, falls into the Danube, 30 miles well of
Prelburgh, 350 north-north-eaft of Rome, 520 fouth-eafl: by
fouth of Amfterdam, 565 call of Paris, and 680 eall-fouth-
eall of London. E. Long. 16. 28. N. Lat. 48. 13.
VIGIL, in church-hiftory, is the eve or next day before
any folemn feaft ; becaufe then Chriftians were wont to
watch, fall, and pray, in their churches.
Vigils cf Plants, a term under which botanifts compre¬
hend the precife time of the day in which the flowers of
different plants open, expand, and Ihut.
As all plants do not flower in the fame feafon, or month ;
in like manner, thofe which flower the fame day, in the fame
place, do not open and fhut pveciftly at the fame hour,
borne open in the morning, as the lip flowers, and com¬
pound flowers with flat fpreading petals ; others at noon,
as the mallows; and a third fet in the evening, or after fun-
let, as feme geraniums and opuntias: the hour of (hutting
is equally determined. Of thofe which open in the morn¬
ing, fome fliut foon alter, while others remain expanded till
night.
The hours of opening, like the time of flowering, feem to
vary, according to the fpecies of the plant, the temperature
of the climate, and that of the lealon. Flowers, whofe ex¬
treme delicacy would be hurt by the llrong imprefiions of
on ardent fun, do not open till night \ thofe which require
a moderate degree of heat to elevate their juices; in other
words, whofe juices do not rife but in the morning or even¬
ing, do not expand till then ; whilft thole which need a
more lively heat for the fame purpofe, expand at noon, when
the fun is in his meridian llrength. Hence it is, that the
heat of the air being greater betwixt the tropics than elfe-
where, plants which are tranfported from thofe climates into
the cold or temperate climates of Europe, expand their Vigo
flowers much later than in their native foil. Thus, a flower v II
which opens in fummer at fix o’clock in the morning at Se- J ‘ ~
negal, will not open at the fame feafon in France and Eng¬
land till eight or nine, nor in Sweden till ten.
Linnaeus diftinguifhes by the general name of folar (jlores
folares) all thofe flowers which obferve a determinate time
in opening and (hutting. Thefe flowers are again divided,
from certain circumltances, into three fpecies, or kinds:
Equinodlial flowers (Jlores aquinoSiales) are fuch as open
and flint at all feafons, at a certain fixed or determinate hour.
Tropical flowers (Jlores tropic J are fuch whofe hour of
opening is not fixed at all feafons, but accelerated or retarded
according as the length of the day is increafed or diminifhed.
Meteorous flowers (jlores meteorici) are fuch whofe hour
of expanfion depends upon the dry or humid Hate of the air,
and the greater or lefs preflure of the atmolphere. Of this
kind is the Siberian fow-thiftle, which flints at night if the
enfuing day is to be clear and ferene, and opens if it is tabs
cloudy and rainy. In like manner the African marigold,
which in dry ferene weather opens at fix or feven in the
morning, and (huts at four o’clock in the afternoon, is a fine
indication that rain will fall during the courfe of the day,,
when it continues Ihut after feven.
VIGO, a fea-port town of Spain, in Galicia, with an old
caftle and a fort. It is feated in a fertile country by the
fea-fide. It was rendered famous by a fea-fight between the
confederate fleet commanded by Sir George Rook, and a
fquadron of French men of war, while the duke of Ormond
with a body of land-forces drove the Spaniards from the
caftles which defended the harbour. Admiral Hopfon ha¬
ving with infinite danger broke through the boom made
acrofs the mouth of the harbour, the Englifh took four
galleons and five large men of war, and the Dutch five gal¬
leons and one man of war. Four galleons, with 14 men of
war, were deftroyed, with abundance of plate and other rich
effefts. W. Long. 8. 21. N. Lat. 42. 3.
VILLA franca, the name of fevetal towns ; one in
Piedmont, three miles call of Nice ; another of Catalonia,
18 miles well of Barcelona ; a third, the capital of St Mi¬
chael, one of the A zores ; and a fourth, a town of Fllre-
madura in Spain, 57 miles fouth-eafl: of Salamanca.
VILLAGE, an aflemblage of houfes inhabited chiefly
by peafants and farmers, and having no market, whereby it
is dillinguilhed from a town. The word is French, formed-
of vil, or vilis, “ low, mean, contemptible or rather,
from the Latin villa, a country-houfe or farm.
VILLAIN, or Villein, in our ancient ettftoms, denotes.-
a man of fervile or bafe condition, viz. a bond-man or fervant.
VILLxYRS (Lewis Hedlor, duke de), marlhal of
France, grandee of Spain, &c. and a very brave general,
was the fon of Peter marquis de Villars, of a noble and
ancient family. He was at firft aid-de-camp to marlhal
de Bellefons, his coufin ; and dillmguiflied himfelf in feveral
fieges and battles till the year 1 702, when having obtained
the vidlory at Fredlrnghem from the prince of Baden, lie
was made marlhal of France. The marlhal de Villars took
the fort of Kell the year following, and gained a battle at
Hochflet in concert with the cledlor of Bavaria. In I7°7
' he forced the lines of StolhofFen, and railed large contribu¬
tions from the enemy : but in 1709, he, in conjundtion with
marlhal Bouflers, was entirely defeated by the duke of Marl¬
borough, at the battle of Malplaquet, when marfhal Villars
was wounded at the beginning of the adlion. In 171 2 he
gained much glory by forcing the intrenchments at Denairt
on the Scheld ; which was followed by the taking ot Mar-
chiennes, Douay, Bouchain, Landau, Friburg, &c. and- by
the peace concluded at Rafiat between the emperor and
France
Alienage
V I L
Fiance in 1714. The marihal de Villa
plenipotentiary at the treaty of Raftat, was made prefident
of the council of war in 1 715, then counfellor of the regency,
and minifter of Hate. In 1733, he was nominated to com¬
mand in Italy under the king of Sardinia, and the t rench
king declared him marfhah general of his camps and armies ;
a title which had not been granted to any one fince the
marihal Turenne, who appears to have been the fir ft who was
ever honoured with it. The ma’dhal de Villars made him-
felf mailer of Pifighitona, Milan, Novara, and iortona.
But having opened the following campaign, he fell fick, and
died at Turin, in 1734, aged 82. 'I he Memoirs of M. de
Villars have been publilhed in Holland, the firft volume of
which was written by himfelf.
VILLEN AGE, inlaw. The folk-land or e Hates held
in villenage, was a fpccies of tenure neither Hridlly feodal,
Norman, or Saxon ; but mixed and compounded of them
all; and which alfo, on account of the heriots that ufually
attend it, may feem to have fomewhat Danilh in its compo-
fition. Under the Saxon Government there were, as Sir
William Temple fpeaks, a fort of people in a condition oi
downright fervitude, ufed and employed in the moH fervile
works, and belonging, both they, their children, and effedls,
to the lord of the foil, like the rell of the cattle or flock
upon it. Thefe feem to have been thofe who held what
was called the folklanJ, from which they were removeable
at the lord’s pleafure. On the arrival of the Normans here,
it feems not improbable, that they, who u^ere Hrangers to
any other than a feoda.l Hate, might give fome fparks of
enfranchiiement to Inch wretched perfons as fell to their
fhare, by admitting them, as well as others, to the oath
of fealty ; which conferred a right of prote&ion, and raifed
the tenant to a kind of eltate fuperior to downright flavery,
but inferior to every other condition. This they called
v tllenage^ and the tenants villeins.
Thefe villeins, belonging principally to lords of manors,
wrere either villeins regardant) that is, annexed to the manor
or land ; or elfe they were in grofs^ or at large, that is, an¬
nexed to the perfon of the lord, and transferable by deed
from one owner to another. They could not leave their
lord without his permilfion ; but, if they ran away, or were
purloined from him, might be claimed,and recovered by aftion,
like beads or other chattels. They held indeed fmall por¬
tions of land by way of fuflaining themfelves and families :
but it was at the mere will of the lord, who might difpof-
fefs them whenever he pleafed ; and it was upon villein fer-
vices, that is, to carry out dung, to hedge and ditch the
lord’s demefnes, and any other the meanefl offices: and their
fervices were not only bafe, but uncertain both as to their
time and quantity.
A villein could acquire no 'property either in lands or
goods: if he purchafed either, the lord might feize them
to his own ufe ; unleis he contrived to difpofe oEthem again
before the lor d had feized them, for the lord had then loll
his Opportunity.
In many places alfo a fine was payable to the lord, if the
villein prelumed to marry hi$ daughter to any one without
leave from the lord : and, by the common lawr, the lord
might alfo bring an action againfl the hufband for damages
in thus purloining his propeity. For the children of villeins
were alio in the fame Hate of bondage with their parents ;
W’hence they were called in Latin nativi, which gave rife to
the female appellation of a villein, who was called a nei/e.
In cafe of a marriage between a freeman and a neife, or a
villein and a freewoman, the iflue followed the condition of
the lather, being free if he was free, and villein it he was
villein ; contrary to the maxim of the civil law, that partus
Jequitur ventrem. But no baflard could be born a villein,
[ 653 i v 1 r. 
who had been becaufe by another maxim of our law he is nullius jliius; and Villenage*
as he can gain nothing by inheritance, it were hard that he ~~~'t 4
fhould loje his natural freedom by it. The law, however,
protedled the perfons of villeins agninfl atrocious injuries of
the lord : for he might not kill or maim his villein ; though
he might beat him with impunity.
Villeins might be enfianchiled by manumiffion. In pro-
ccfs of time they gained confiderable ground on their lords ;
and in particular {Lengthened the tenure of their eflates to
that degree, that they came to have in them an interefl in
many places full as good, in others better than their lords.
For the good-nature and benevolence of many lords of ma¬
nors having, time out of mind, permitted their villeins and
their children to enjoy their pofleffions without interrup¬
tion, in a regular courie of defeent, the common law, ok
which cuflom is the life, now gave them title to preferibe
againfl their lords ; and, on performance oi the fame fer-
vice?, to hold their lands, in fpite of any determination of
the lord’s will. For though in general they are Hill laid
to hold their eflates at the will of the lord, yet it is fuch a
will as is agreeable to the cuftom of the mandr; which
cuftoms are preferved and evidenced by the rolls of the fe-
veral courts-baron in which they are entered, or kept on
foot by the conftant immemorial ufage of the feveral ma¬
nors in which the lands lie. And as fuch tenants had
nothing to Ihow for their eftates but thefe cuftoms, and
admiffions in purfuance of them, entered on thofe rolls, or
the copies of fuch entries witnefled by the fteward, they
now began to be called tenants by copy of court-roll^ and their
tenure itfelf a copyhold.
Privileged Villenagf, a fpecies of tenure otherwife cal¬
led vellein-focage. See Tenure.
Ancient demefne confifts of thofe lands or manors which,
though now perhaps granted out to private fubjedls, were
aftually in the hands of the crown in the time of Edward
the Confeffor, or William the Conqueror; and fo appear
to have been, by the great furvey in the exchequer, called
doomfday-book. The tenants of thefe lands, under the crown,
were not all of the fame order or degree. Some of them,
as Britton teftifies, continued for a long time pure and ab-
folute villeins, dependent on the will ot the lord ; and com¬
mon copyholders in only a few points. Others were in a
great meafure enfranchifed by the royal favour ; being only
bound in refpeft of their lands to perform fome of the bet¬
ter fort of villein-lervices: but thofe determinate and cer¬
tain ; as, to plough the king’s land for fo many days, to
fupply his court with fuch a quantity of provifions, and the
like ; all of which are now changed into pecuniary rents :
and in confideration hereof they had many immunities and
privileges granted to them ; as, to try the right of their
property in a peculiar court of their own, called a court
oj ancient demefne, by a peculiar procefs denominated a writ
of right clofe : not to pay toll or taxes ; not to contribute
to the expences of knights of the Ihire ; not to be put on
juries, and the like.
Thefe tenants therefore, though their tenure be ablb-
lately copyhold, yet have an interefl equivalent to a free¬
hold : for though their fervices were ot a bafe and ville-
nous original, yet the tenants were efleemed in all other re-
fpedls to <be highly privileged villeins; and eipecially for
that their lervices were fixed and determinate, and that they
could not be compelled (like pure villeins) to relinquiffi thole
tenements at the lord’s will, or to hold them againft their
own : el idea (fays Bra&on) dicuntur liberi.
Lands holding by this tenure are therefore a fpecies of
copyhold, and as inch prderved and exempted from the ope¬
ration of the ttatute of Charles IL Yet they differ from
common copyholds, principally in the privileges before-men¬
tioned i -
V I L
'•nm,
"Viilitrs
tioned : as ilfo they differ from freeholders by one efpecial
mark and tinfture of villenaye, noted by Bracffon, and re¬
maining to this day ; •viz., that they cannot be conveyed
from man to man by the general common-law conveyances
oi feoffment, and the reft ; but muft pafs by furrender to
the lord or his fteward, in the manner of common copy-
holds : yet with this difference, that, in the furrenders of
thefe lands in ancient demefne, it is not ufed to fay, “to
hold at the will of their lord,” in their copies ; but only,
“to hold according to the cuftom of the manor.”
VILLI, among botanifts, a kind of down like ftiort hair,
with which fome trees abound.
VILLIERS (George duke of Buckingham), an inge¬
nious and witty nobleman, whole mingled eharadfer render¬
ed him at once the ornament and difgrace, the envy and ri¬
dicule, of the court he lived in, was fon to that famous
ftatefman and favourite of king Charles I. who loft his life
by the hands of lieutenant Felton. He was born in 1627,
the year before the fatal cataftrophe of his father’s death.
1 he early parts of his education he received from various
•domeftic tutors, after which he was fent to the univerfity
of Cambridge. Having here completed a courfe of ftudies,
he, with his brother lord Francis, went abroad under the
care of one Mr Ayleftmry.—Upon his return, which was
not till after the breaking out of the civil wars, the king
being at Oxford, his grace reoaired thither, was prelented
to his majefty, and entered of Chrill-church college. Upon
the decline of the king’s caufe, he attended prince Charles
into Scotland, and was with him at the battle of Worcefter
in 1661 ; after which, making his efcape beyond lea, he
again joined him, and was foon after, as a reward for this
attachment, made knight of the garter.
Defirous, however, of retrieving his affairs, he came pri¬
vately to England; and in 1657 married Mary, the daughter
and foie heirefs of Thomas lord Fairfax, through whole in-
bereft he recovered the greateft part of the eftate he had loft,
and the affurance of fucceeding to an accumulation of wealth
in the tight of his wife.
We do not find, however, that this ftep loft him the
royal favour; for after the reftoration, at which time he
is faid to have poffeffed an eftate of L. 20,000 per annum,
he was made one of the lords of the bed-chamber, called to
the privy-council, and appointed lord-lieutenant of York-
fhire and matter of the horfe. All thefe high polls, how¬
ever, he loft again in the year 1666. For having been re¬
filled the poll of prelident of the north, he became difaf-
fe&ed to the king ; and it was difeovered that he had car¬
ried on a fecret correfpondence by letters and other tranf-
aftions with one Ur Heydon, tending to raife mutinies a-
mong his reajefty’s forces, particularly in the navy, to ftir
Up ledition among the people, and even to engage perfons
in a confpiracy for the feizing the tower of London. Matters
■were ripe for execution ; and an infurre&ion, at the head
of which the duke was openly to have appeared, was on the
very eve of breaking out, when it was difeovered by means
of fome agents whom Heydon had employed to carry let¬
ters to the duke. The dete&ion of this affair lo exafoerated
the king, who knew Buckingham to be capable of the
blackeft defigns, that he immediately ordered him to be
feized; but the duke finding means, having defended his
houfe for iome time by force, to make his efcape, his ma¬
jefty ftruck him out of all his commifiions, and ilfued a pro¬
clamation requiring his furrender by a certain day.
T. his ftorm, however, Bid not long hang over his head ;
for, on his making a humble fubmiflion, king Charles, who
was far from being of an implacable temper, took him again
into favour, and the very next year reftored him both to
the privy-council and bed-chamber. But the duke’s difpo-
[ 654 ]
V I N
fition fof intrigue and machination could not long lie idle;
for having conceived a refentment againft the duke of Or¬
mond for having added with lome feverity againft him in ^
regard to the laft-mentioned affair, he, in 1670, was fup-
poled to be concerned in an attempt made on that noble¬
man s hie by the fame Blood who afterwards endeavoured
to Ileal the crown. I heir delign was to have conveyed the
duke to Tyburn, and there to have hanged him; and fo
far did they proceed towards the putting it in execution,
that Blood and his fon had adlually forced the duke out of
his coach in St James’s Street, and carried him away be¬
yond Devonfhire houfe, Piccadilly, before he was refeued
from them.
It does not appear, however, that this tranfa&ion hurt
the duke’s intereft at court ; for- in 1671 he was inllalled
chancellor of the univerfity of Cambridge, and fent ambaf-
fador to France. Here he was very nobly entertained by
Louis XIV. and prefented by that monarch at his depar¬
ture with a fword and belt fet with jewels, to the value of
40,000 piftoles ; and the next year he was employed in the
fecond embaffy to that king at Utrecht. However, in June
1674, he religned the cliancellorfhio of Cambridge, and
about the fame time became a zealous partizan and favourer
of the Nonconformifts. On the 16th of February 1676,
his grace, with the earls of SaUbury and Shaftefbury and
lord Warton, were committed to the Tower by order of the
houfe of lords, for a contempt in refufing to retradl the
purport of a fpeeeh which the duke had made concerning
a diffolution of the parliament. ihis confinement did not
lafl long ; yet we find no material tranfaftion of this noble¬
man’s life recorded after it, till the time of his death, which
happened in 1687. Wood tells us that he died at his houfe
in Yorkfhire ; but Mr Pope, who muft certainly have had
very good information, and it is to be imagined would not
have dared to advance an injurious falfehood of a perfon
of his rank, has, in his epiltle to lord Bathurft, given us
a moft affefiing account of the death of this ill-ftarred no¬
bleman, whom, after having been matter of near L 50,000
per annum, he deferibes as reduced to the deep-eft dillrefs
by his vice and extravagance, and breathing his laft moments
in a mean apartment at an inn.
As to his perfonal chat after, it is impoffible to fay any
thing in its vindication ; for though his levereft enemies ac¬
knowledge him to have poffeffed great vivacity and a quick-
nels of parts peculiarly adapted to the purpofes of ridicule,
yet his warmeft advocates have never attributed to him a
fingle virtue. His generofity was profufenefs, his wit ma¬
levolence, the gratification of his pafiions his foie aim thro”
life, his very talents caprice, and even his gallantry the
mere love of pleafure. But it is impofiible to draw his
charafter with equal beauty, or with more juftice, than in
that given of him by Dryden, in his Abfalom and Achi-
tophel, under the name of Zimri, to which the reader is
referred.
As a writer, however, he (lands in a quite different point
of view. There we fee the wit, and forget the libertine.—
His poems, which indeed are not very numerous, are capital
in their kind ; but what will immortalize his memory while
language (hall be underllood, or ttue wit relifhed, is his ce¬
lebrated comedy of The Rehearfal.
VILLOSE, or Villous, fomething abounding with
villi or fibres like fhort hair ; fuch is one of the coats of
the ftomach.
VINCA, in botany: A genus of plants of the clafs
pentandria, and order of monogynia; and in the natural fyftem
arranged under the 30th order, Contort*. The corolla is
twitted ; there are two.ereft follicles ; the feeds are naked.
There are five ipecies; only two of which are natives of
Britain;
V«Ier,
Vinca.
V I N
St Vlncfnt. Britain : ?. The major, great periwinckle. It has a woody,
“V”— ereft ftem ; leaves broader and fharper pointed ; pedicles of
the flowers ftraight, and calyx as long as the tube : other-
wife like the former 2. The minor, fmall periwinckle, has
a woody, creeping, (lender, crooked ftem; leaves long, oval,
entire, pointed, eppoftte, glofly. Flowers fingle, on long
curved pedicles from the als of the leaves, which are large
and blue.
St VINCENT, one of the windward Caribbee iflands,
which received its name from being difcovere<i on the 2 id
of January, the feaft of that Saint. It is inhabited by a
race of people, of whom Dr Robertfon gives this account:
“ There is a great diltin&ion in charafter between the Ca-
ribbtes and the inhabitants of the larger iftands. The for¬
mer appear manifeftly to ,be a feparate race. Their lan¬
guage is totally different from that of their neighbours in
the large iftands. They themfelves have a tradition that
their anceftors came originally from feme part of the con¬
tinent, and having conquered and exterminated the ancient
inhabitants, took pofteffion of their lands and of their wo¬
men. Hence they call themfelves Banaree, which ftgnifies
a man come from beyond fea. Accordingly, the Caribbees
dill ufe two diftindt languages, one peculiar to the men, and
the other to the women. The language of the men has
nothing common with that fpoken in the large iflands. The
dialedt of the women confiderably refembles it. This ftrong-
ly confirms the tradition which I have mentioned. The Ca-
ribbecs themfelves imagine that they were a colony from
the Galibis, a powerful nation of Guiana in South America.
But as their fierce manners approach nearer to thofe of the
people in the northern continent, than to thofe of the natives
of South America, and as their language hasjikewife fome
affinity to that fpoken in Florida, their origin fhould be de¬
duced rather from the former than from the latter. In their
wars, they ftill preferve their ancient practice of deftroying
all the males, and preferving the women either for fervitude
or for breeding.,,
It remained a long time after it was difeovered inhabited
by thefe people, and by another race improperly ftyled
Blach Caribs, who are in reality negroes defeended, as is
generally believed, from fome who efcaped out of a Guinea
ihip wrecked upon the cosft, and gradually augmented by
fuch as from time to time fled thither from Barbadoes.
Thefe nations were often at war ; but when their quarrels
were compofed, they had a ftrength fufficient to prevent
flrangers from fettling by force. The French, about half
a century ago, at the requeft of the Caribs, made a defeent
from Martinico, and attacked the negroes, but were repul-
fed with lofs; and found it their intereft to conciliate a
friendfhip with both nations by means of preients, and fur-
nifhing them with arms and ammunition.
i >t \ incent was long a neutral rfland ; but, at the peace
of i 763, the French agreed that the right to it fhould be
veiled in the Englifh ; who, in the fequel, at the inftance
of fome rapacious planters, engaged in an urjuft war againft
the Cariboees, who inhabited the windward fide of the
jdand, and who were obliged to confent to a peace, by
which they ceded a very large traft of valuable land to the
crown. The confequence of this was, that in the next war,
!n l119’ the7 greatly contributed to the reduftion of this
rfland by the French, who, however, teftored it by the pe?.ce
of >783. Since that time it has continued in the poflef-
fion of Great Britain. During the prefent war, the Caribs
revoked;, and, affifted by the French, fpread deiolation over
the whole ifland. . By the exertions of the governor, how¬
ever, and the Britifh forces in the Weft Indies, the revolt
is m a great meaiure quelled, though it will be long before
things are reftored .to their former ilaie.
I 655 1
V I N
St Vincent is in length about 24 miles, and about 18
in breadth ; in circumference between 60 and 70. The
climate is very warm; at lead in the judgment of the Eu-
peans. The country is in general hilly, in fome places
mountainous; but interfperfed with a variety of pleafant val¬
leys, and fome luxuriant plains, the foil being everywhere very
fertile, and the high grounds are at leaft in general eafy of
afeent. Few iflands of its extent are fo well watered : for
feveral rivers run down from the mountains, and fmaller
flreams from almoft every hill; there are likewife feveral fine
fprings at a little diftance from the fea. The inhabitants
raife all kinds of ground provifions in plenty, and with little
trouble. The rivers fupply them with a variety of fifn; and
the fame may be faid of the fea that wafhes their ccafts.
They have abundance of excellent fruits, and very fine tim¬
ber fit for almoft every ufe; and with which they formerly
fupplied their neighbours.
In 1770 its exports were, cotton, 284 bags, at \o\. per
bag, 2840I. Coffee, 4818 hundred-weight one quarter fix
pound, at 3I. 5s./>tr hundred-weight, 15,659!. 9s. 8Jd. Ca¬
cao, 1000 hogfheads and one barrel, at 251. per hogfhead,
and 12I. per barrel, 25,012!. Rum, 346 hogfheads, at icl.
/>fr hogfhead, 3460I. Sugar, 2866 hogfheads, at 17!. ios.-
per hogfhead, 50,1551. In all to Great Britain, 97,126!.
9s. 8Jd. To North America, 13,375 1. Total 110,501 L
9s. 83d. W. Long. 6l°. N. Lat. 130.
VINCI (Leonardo da), an illuftrious Italian painter, de«
Icended from a noble Tufcan family, was born in the caftle
of Vinci near Florence in 1445. He was placed under
Andrea Verochia, a celebrated painter in that city ; but
foon furpaffid him and all his predecefTors fo much, as to
be reputed the mafter of the third or golden age of mo¬
dern painting. But his ftudies were far from terminating
here ; no man’s genius was more univerfal: he applied him-
felf to arts, to literature, and to the accomplifhments of the
body ; and he excelled in every thing which he attempted.
Lewis Sforza duke of Milan prevailed on him to be direc¬
tor of the academy for archite&ure he had juft eftablifhed;
where Leonardo foon banifhed all the Gothic fafhions, and
reduced every thing to the happy fimplicity of the Greek
and Roman ftyle. By the duke’s order he conftrudted the
famous aquedud; that fupplies the city of Milan with wa¬
ter : this canal goes by the name of Mortefana, being above
200 miles in length, and condu&s the water of the river
Adda quite to the walls of the city. In 1479, he was de¬
filed to conftrud fome new device for the entertainment of
Louis XII. of France, who was then to make his entrance
into Milan. Leonardo accordingly made a very curious
automaton in the form of a lion, which marched out to
meet the king, reared up on its hinder-legs before him, and
opening its breaft, difplayed an efcutcheon with fleur de lys
quartered on it. The diforders of Lombardy; with the
misfortunes of his patrons the Sforzi, obliging Leonardo to
quit Milan, he retired to Florence, where he flourifhed under
the Medici: here he railed the envy of Michael Angelo,
who was his contemporary; and Raphael, from the ftudy
of his works, acquired his beft manner of defigning. At
length, on the invitation of Francis I. he removed to France
when above 70 years of age; where the journey and change
of climate threw him into his laft fickntfs: he languifhed.
for fome months at 1‘ontainbleau, where the kinj- came fie-
quently to fee him ; and one day rriing up in his bed to >
acknowledge the honour done him, he fainted, and Francis
fupporting him, Leonardo died in his arms. His d :ath
happened in 152c. Some of his paintings are to be feen
in England and other countries, but the greateft part of
them are in Florence and France. He compofed a great-
number of diicouries on curious iubje£t& $ but none of therm
havee
Vinci.
v i n r c>S(
Vintu'um ^avc been publiilied but his treatife on the A rt of Painting.
11 —For his anatomical knowledge, lee Anatomy (hiftory
JiZL of), p.669.
v VINCULUM, in algebra, a chara&er in form of a line,
or flroke drawm over a factor, divifor, or dividend, when
compounded of feveial letters or quantities to conneft them,
and (hows that they are to be multiplied or divided, &c.
together by the other term.
Thus dXa-^ b — c fhows that d is to be multiplied
into a d-1—c.
VINE, in botany. See Vitis.
VINEGAR, A.cetum, an greeable acid and penetrating
liquor, prepared from wine, cyder, beer, and other liquors;
of conliderable ufe, both as a medicine and a fauce. The
word is French, vinaigre; formed from vin, “wine;” and
tt'tjre, “ four.” See Acetum, and Chemistry-A^x.
Wine and other vinous liquors are changed intowinegar
by the acetous fermentation. i he acetous fermentation is
nothing more than the acidification or oxygenation o! wane,
l.avo'ifier's proguced in the open air by means of the abforption of
:cn,ij,ry. ox^en_ Vinegar is compofed of hydrogen and carbon,
united together in proportions not yet afcertained, and chan¬
ged into the acid Itate by oxygen. As vinegar is an acid,
we might conclude from analogy, that it contains oxygen ;
but this is put beyond doubt by diredt experiments. In the
full place, we cannot change wane into vinegar without
the contadb of air containing oxygen : fecondly, this procefs
is accompanied by a diminution of the air in which it is
carried on from the abforption of its oxygen; and, thirdly,
wine may be changed into vinegar by any other means of
oxydaiion. Independent of the proofs w’hich theie fa£ts
furnilh of the acetous acid being produced by the oxyge¬
nation of wine, an experiment made by Mr Chaptal, pro-
feffor of chemiftry at Montpelier, gives a diftina view of
what takes place in this procefs. He impregnated fome
water with about its own bulk of carbonic acid gas, procu¬
red from beer vats in fermentation ; and placed this water
in a cellar, in veflels communicating with the air, and in a
fhort time the whole was converted into acetous acid. This
carbonic acid gas, procured from beer vats in fermentation,
is not perfe&ly pure, but contains a great quantity of al¬
cohol in folution ; wherefore water impregnated with it
contains all the materials neceffary for forming the acetous
acid. The alcohol furnifhes hydrogen and one portion of
carbon ; the carbonic acid furnilhes oxygen and the reft of
the carbon ; and the air of the atmofphere furnifhes. the reft
of the oxygen neceffary for changing the mixture into ace¬
tous acid.' From this obfervation it follows, that.nothing
but hydrogen is w-anting to convert carbonic acid into ace¬
tous acid ; or, more generally, that by means of hydrogen ;
and according to the degree of oxydation, carbonic acid
may be changed into all the vegetable acids : and, on the
contrary, that, by depriving any of the vegetable acids of
their hydrogen, they may be converted into carbonic acid.
Chaptal's fj/he procefs indicated by Boerhaave for making vinegar
Cbcmijlry. .g the moft frcquently ufed. It confifts in fixing two
cafks in a warm room or place. Two falfe bottoms of
bafket-work are fixed at a certain diftance from the bottom,
upon which the refufe of grapes and vine twigs are placed.
One of thefe tuns is filled with wine, and the other only
half filled. The fermentation begins in this laft ; and, when
it is in full aftion, it is checked by tilling the caflt up with
wine out of the other. The fermentation then takes place
in the laft-mentioned cafk, that remained half filled ; and
this is checked in the fame manner by pouring back the
fame quantity of liquid out of the other: and in this way
the procefs is continued till the vinegar is made, which is
ufually in about 15 days. When the fermentation developes
) 1 V I N
itfcl , the liquid becomes heated and tuibid ; a great num- V
ber of filaments are feen in it; it emits a lively fmell; and ~
much air is abforbed, according to the obfervation of the
Abbe Rozier. A large quantity of lees is formed, which
fubfides wdien the vinegar becomes clear. This lees is very
analogous to the fibrous matter.
Vinegar is purified by diftillation. The firft portions
which pafs over are weak ; but foon afterwards the acetous
acid rifes, and is ftronger the later it comes over in the dif¬
tillation. This fluid is called drilled vinegar ; and is thus
cleared of its colouring principle, and the lees, which are
always more or lefs abundant. Vinegar may likewife be
concentrated by expofing it to the froft. ri he fuperabun-
dant water freezes, and leaves the acid more condenfed.
Method of making Cyder Vinegar.—The cyder (the mean-
eft oc which will ferve the purpofe) is firll to be drawn off
fine into another veffel, and a quantity of the muft of ap¬
ples to be added : the whole is let in the fun, if there be
conveniency for it; and at a week or nine days end it may
be drawn off.
Method of making Beer Vinegar. — Take a middling fort
of beer, indifferently well hopped ; into which, when it has
worked well and grown fine, put fome rape, or hulks of
grapes, ufually brought home for that purpofe : malh them
together in a tab ; then letting the rape fettle, draw off the
liquid part, put it into a calk, and fet it in the fun as hot as
may be ; the bung being only covered with a tile, or flate-
ftone : and in about 30 or 40 days it will become a good
vinegar, and may pafs in ufe as well as that made of wine,
if it be refined, and kept from turning mufty.
Or thus:—To every gallon of fpring-water add three
pounds of Malaga raifins ; which put into an earthen jar,
and place them where they may have the hotteft fun from
May till Michaelmas ; then prefling all well, tun the liquor
up in a very llrong iron hooped veffel, to prevent its burft-
ing: it will appear very thick and muddy when newly pref-
fed; but will refine in the veffel, and be as clear as wine.
Thus let it remain untouched for three months before it is
drawn off, and it will prove excellent vinegar.
T0 make Wine Vinegar.—Any fort of vinous liquor being
mixed with its own fasces, flowers, or ferment, and its tar¬
tar firft reduced to powder ; or elfe with the acid and au-
ftere llalks of the vegetable from whence the wine was ob¬
tained, which hold a large proportion of tartar; and the
whole being kept frequently ftirring in a veffel which has
formerly held vinegar, or fet in a warm place full of the
fteams of the fame, will begin to ferment anew, conceive
heat, grow four by degrees, and foon after turn into vinegar.
The remote fubje&s of acetous fermentation are the fame
with thofe of vinous ; but the immediate fubjefts of it, arc
all kinds of vegetable juices, after they have once undergone
that fermentation which reduces them to wine : for it is ab-
folutely impoffible to make vinegar of muft, the crude juice
of grapes, and other ripe fruits, without the previous aflift-
ance of vinous fermentation.
The proper ferments for this operation, whereby vinegar
is prepared, are, 1. The fasces of all acid wines. 2. The
lees of vinegar. 3. Pulverized tartar, efpecially that of
Rhenilh wine, or the cream or cryftals thereof. 4. Vinegar
itfelf. 5. A wooden veffel well drenched with vinegar, or
one that has long been employed to contain it. 6. Wine
that has often been mixed with its own faeces. 7.. The twigs
of vines, and the ftalka of grapes, currants, cherries, or other
vegetables of an acid auftere tafte. 8. Bakers leven, after
it is turned acid. 9. All manner of ferments, compounded
of thole already mentioned.
Vinegar Concentrated. See Chemistry, n° 881.
Vinegar (Salt of). See Chemistry, n° 88a
2
V I R r 657 ] V I R
Vinegar E»k k lr-WW4K, See Animalcule, r(o Q, '
!» VINEYAK-D, a plantation of vines, 'rh^ bed fituation
gf a vineyard is on the declivity of a hill facing the fouth.
J VIO (Thomas de). See Cajetan.
VIOL, a mufical inftrument of the fame form with the
violin, and, like that, (truck with a bow.
VIOLA, in botany : A genus of plants of the clafs
genefta, order monagynia ; in the natural fyftem arranged
under the 29th order, Campanacea. The calyx is pcnta-
phyllous; the corolla five petaled, irregular, with a nettarium
behind, horn fhaped ; the capfule is above the germen, three
valved, monolocular. There are 28 fpecies; fix of which are
natives of Britain. The moil important of thefe are, 1,
The palujlrisy march violet. The leaves are fmooth, reni-
form, two or three on each footftalk : flowers pale blue,
fmall, inodorous. An infufion of the flowers is an excellent
tell of the prefence of acids and alkalis. 2. The odorata,
purple fweet violet, has leaves heart-fhaped, notched: flowers
deep purple, Angle ; creeping fcions. The flowers of this
plant taken in the quantity of a dram or two are faid to be
gently purgative or laxative, and, according to Bergius and
fume others, they pofleis an anodyne and pedforal quality.
3- Tricolor, panfies, heart’s-eafe, or three faces under a hood.
The ffems are diffufe, procumbent, triangular ; the leaves ob¬
long, cut at the edges; ftipulse dentated : the flowers pur¬
ple, yellow, and light blue ; inodorous.
This elegant little plant merits culture in every garden,
for the beauty and great variety of its three-coloured flowers;
and it will iucceed anywhere in the open borders, or other
compartments, difpoted in patches towards the front ; either
by lowing the feed at once to remain, or by putting in
young plants previoully raifed in a feed-bed : they will begin
flowering early in fummer, and wall continue [hooting and
flowering in fucceflion till winter; and even during part of
that feafon in mild weather.
i he common violet is propagated by parting the roots,
fometimes by feed.
\ IQLATION, the atl of violating, that is, forcing a
woman, or committing a rape upon her.—'This term is alio
uied in a moral fenie, for a breach or infringement of a law,
ordinance, or the like.
v JOLLY, in botany. See Viola.
Vwi.KT-Cral, in /.oology. See Cancer.
VIOLIN, or Fiudle, a muiieal .inArument mounted
wirli four firings or guts, and flruck or played with a bow,
ihe ilyle and lound of the violin is the gayeit and moll
jprightly of all other inftruments; and hence it is of all
others the fltteil for dancing. Yet there are ways'of touch¬
ing it, which render it grave, foft, languifhing, and fit for
church or chamber mulie.—It generally makes the treble
or higheft parts in concerts, Its harmony is fiom fifth to
fifth. Its play is compoied pf bafs, counter-genor, tenor,
<*nd treble ; to which may be added, a fifth part: each
part lias four fifths, which rifle ;tp a greater,feventeenth.
\ iOLONCELLO,! of the Italians, is properly our fifth
viplin ; which is a little bais violin half the fi?,e of the com¬
mon bafs violin, and the filings bigger and longer in pro¬
portion : couiequently its found is an oftave lower than our
bais violin ; which has a noble effedl in concerts.
. Vli’LK, in '4oology. See Coluber, Poison, and Ser-
i,ent ; in which laft article every tiling concerning the
pciion o*- the, viper, for which vve referred from Poison, is
aheady di feu fleet.
VIRAGO, a woman or extraordinary flature and cou¬
rage ; and who, with the female fex, has the mien and air
01 vn?n’ and Per^orms t!ie a^i°n8 and exercifes of men.
.vYlvOlL, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the moft ex-
cedent 0. all the Latin poets, was the fon of a potter of
Vol, XVIII. Part II.
Andes, near Mantua, where he was born, yo years B. C. Virgil
Pie fludied firll at Mantua ; then at Cremona, Milan, anij * —
Naples; whence going to Rome, he acquired the etteem of •
the greatefl wits and moft illuftrious perfons of his time;
and among others of the emperor Auguftus, Maecenas, and
Pollio. Pie was wrell flcilled not only in polite literature
and poetry, but alfo in philofophy, the mathematics, geo¬
graphy, medicine, and natural hiftory. Though one of the
greatefl geniufeg of his age, and the admiration of the Ro¬
mans, he always preferved a Angular modefly, and lived chaile
at a time when the manners of the people were extreme¬
ly corrupt. Pfe carried Latin poetry to fuch an high per¬
fection, that he was juilly efteemed the prince of Latin
poets. He firft turned himfelf to pafloral ; and being cap¬
tivated with the beauty and fvveetnefs of Theocritus, wa»-
ambitious to introduce this new fpecies of poetry among
the Romans. His firft performance in this way is iuppofed
to have been written U. C. 709, the year before the death
or Julius Cacfar, when the poet was in his 25th year : it is
intitled Alexis. Poffibly Pa'amcn was his lecend : it is a
clofe imitation of the fourth and fifth Idylls of Theocritus.
Mr Wharton places Silenus next; which is faid to have been
publicly recited on the itage by Cytheris, a celebrated co¬
median. Virgil’s fifth eclogue is compofed in allufion to
the death and deification of Ctefar. The battle of Philippi
in 7 1 2 having put an end to the Roman liberty, the vete¬
ran foldiers began to murmur for their pay ; and Auguftus,
to reward them, diflributed among them the lands of Man¬
tua and Cremona. Virgil was involved in this common
calamity ; and applied to Varus and Pollio, who warmly
recommended him to Auguftus, and procured for him his
patrimony again. Full of gratitude to Auguftus, he com¬
poied the Tityrus, in which he introduces two fhepherds :
one of them complainin ’- of the dillraction of the times,
and of the havock the foldiers made among the Mantuan
farmers ; the other rejoicing for the recovery of his eftate,
and promiiing to honour as a god the perfon who reftored
it to him. But our poet’s joy was not of long continuance;
for we ai e told, that when he returned to take pofTefiion of his
farm, he was violently aflaulted by the intruder, and would
certainly have been killed by him if he had not efcaped by
fwimming haflily over the Mincio. Upon .this unexpefted dif-
appointment, he returned to Rome to renew his petition; and
during his journey feems to have compofed his ninth eclogue.
The celebrated eclogue, intitled Pollio, was compofed U. C.
714, upon the following occafion : The conful Pollio on the
part of Antony, and Maecenas on the part of Coefar, had made
up the differences between them ; by agreeing, that Odlavia,
half lifter to Caefar, fhould be given in marriage to Antony.
This agreement caufed an univerfal joy ; and Virgil, in his
eclogue, teftified his. Odlavia was with child by her late
hufhand Marcellus at the time of this marriage ; and where¬
as tfle Sibylline oracles had foretold, that a child was to be
born about this time, who fhould rule the world, and efta-
blifh perpetual peace, the poet ingenioufly fuppofes the
child in O&avia’s womb to be the glorious infant, under
whofe reign mankind was to be happy, the golden age to
return from heaven, and fraud and violence to be no more.
In this celebrated poem, the author, with great delicacy at
the fame time, pays his court to both the chiefs, to his
patron Pollio, to, Odlavia, and to the unborn infant. In
7^, Pollio was fent agair.fl the Parthini, a people of Uly-
ricum ; and during this expedition, Virgil addrefled to him
a beautiful tclogot, c’A\\tt& Pbarmaceutria. His tenth and
laft eclogue was addrefled to Gallus.
In his 34th year, he retired to Naples, and laid the
plan of bis Georgies; which he undertook at the intreaties
of Mseeenas, to whom he dedicated them. This wife and
4 Q able
V 1 R [ 658 ]
able minifter refolved, if pofiible, to revive the decayed fpi- vols 4to.
rit of hufbandry ; to introduce a tafte for agriculture, even
among the great; and could not think of a better method to
effect this, than to recommend it by the infinuating charms
of poetry. Virgil fully, anfwered the expectations of his pa¬
tron by his Georgies. They are divided into four books.
Corn end ploughing are the fubjeft of the firth, vines of the
fecond, cattle of the third, and bees of the fourth.
He is fuopofed to have been in his 45th year when he
began to write the iEneid ; the defign of which was to re¬
concile the Romans to the government of Auguftus. Au-
gnftus was eager to perufe this poem before it wa; finiihed;
'and intreated him by letters to Communicate it. Macrobius
has preferred to us part of one of VirpiPs anfwers to the
emperor, in which the poet excufes himfelf: who, however,
at length complied, and read himfelf the fixth book to the
emperor; when OCfavia, who had juft loft her fon Marcel-
lus, the darling of Rome, and adopted fon of Auguilus,
made one of the audience. Virgil had artrully inserted that
beautiful lamentation for the death of young Marcellus, be¬
ginning with—rO note, irgentem lutlum ne quart tuorum—but
fupprdted his name till he came to the line—Tu Marcellus
eris : upon hearing which, OClavia could bear no more, but
fainted away ; overcome with i'urprife and forrow. When fhe
recovered, {he made the poet a prefent of ten lefterces for every
line, which amounted in the whole to above aooel.
The Alneid being brought to a conclulion, hut not to the
perfection our author intended to give it, he refolved to tra¬
vel into Greece, to correCt and polifh it at leifure. It was
probably on this occafion that Horace addreffed that affec¬
tionate ode to him, Sic te Divte potent Cypri, &c. Auguftus
returning victorious from the eaft, met with Virgil at Athens,
who thought himfelf obliged to attend the emperor to Italy:
but the poet was fuddenly feized with a fatal diftemper,
which being increafed by the agitation of the veffel, put an
end to his lire as loon as he landed at Brundufium, in his
52d ]^ear. He had ordered in his will, that the JEneid
(hould be burnt as an unfinifhed poem ; but Auguftus for¬
bade it, and had it delivered to Varius and Tucca, with the
ftriCIeft charge to make no additions, but only to publilh
it correCtly. He died wnth fuch fteadinefs and tranquilli¬
ty, as to be able to dictate his own epitaph in the following
words:
Mantua me genull : Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
Parthenope : cecim Pafcua, Rura, Duces.
His bones w'ere carried to Naples, according to his earneft
requeft ; and a monument was ereCted at a fmall diftance
from the city.
Virgil was of a fwarthy complexion, tall, of a fickly con-
ftitution, and affliCted with frequent head-achs and fprtting
of blood. He was fo very bafhful, that he often ran into
the {hops to prevent being gazed at in the ftreets ; yet was
fo honoured by the Roman people, that once coming into
the theatre, the whole audience rofe up out of refpeft to
him. He was of a thoughtful and melancholy temper ; he
fpoke little, and loved retirement and contemplation. His
fortune was affluent; he had a fine houfe and well-furnifhed
library near Maecenas’s gardens, on the Efquiline mount at
Rome, and alfo a delightful villa in Sicily. He was lo be*
nevolent and inoffenfive, that moft of his contemporary po¬
ets, though they envied each other, agreed in loving and
efteeming him. He reviled his verfes with prodigious feve-
rity; and ufed to compare himfelf to a fhe bear, which licked
her cubs into fflape.
The heft edition of Virgil’s works are thofe of Mofvieius,
with the notes of Servius, printed at Lewarden in 1717, 2
vols qto; and that of Burman, at Amfterdam, 1746, in- 4
V I R
There are feveral Englifh tranflations, which are Virgi!,
well known. Virginia,^
Virgil (Polydore), an Englifh hiftorian, born at Urbi- v 'J
no in Italy, was lent in the beginning of the 16th century,
by pope Alexander VI. as fub collector of the Papal tax,
called Peter-pencc, in this kingdom. He had not been long
in England before he obtained preferment in the church ;
for in 15^3 he was prefented to the reCtory of Church-
Langton in the archdeaconry of Leicefler. In 1507 he was
collated to the prebend of Scamlefby in the church of Lin¬
coln ; and in the fame year was made archdeacon of > ells,
and prebendary of Hereford. In 1513, he refigned his pre¬
bend of Lincoln, and was collated to that of Ox gate in St
Paul’s, London. We are told, that on his preferment to
the archdeaconry of Wells, he refigned the office of fub-
colleCtor to the pope, and determined to fpend the remainder
of his life in England, the Hiftory of which kingdom he be¬
gan in the year 1505, at the command of Henry V11. That
work coft him 12 years labour. In 1526, he finifhed his
treatife on Prodigies. 1’olydore continued in England du¬
ring the w’hole reign of Henry VItl. and part of that of
Edward VI. whence it is concluded that he was a moderate
Papift. In 1 $ 40, being now an old man, he requefted leave
to revifit his native country. He was accordingly difmilled
with a prefent of 300 crowns, together with the privilege
of holding his preferments to the end of his life. He died
at Urbino in the year 1555- As an hiftorian, he is accufed
by lome as a malignant flanderer of the Englifh nation; yet
Jovius remarks, that the drench and Scotch accule him of
having flattered that nation too much : (See his Ehg. cap.
135. p. 179). Beiides the above, he wrote, I. De rerum
iriventoribus ; .of which an Englifh trail flat ion was publifhed
by Langley in 1663* It was alfo tranflated into trench and
Spanifh. 2- De prodigiis et fortlbus. 3. Epifcoporum Angl'ue
catalogus. Manufcript. 4. De vita perfects, Eafil, 15 4^»
I553> 8V0- 5* Epiflola eruditce ; and fome other works.
VIRGINIA, one of the United States of North Ame¬
rica, is bounded on the eaft by the Atlantic Ocean, on the
north by Pennfylvama and the river Ohio, on the weft by the
Miffiffippi, on the touth by North Carolina.
Thefe boundaries include an area fornewhat triangular of
12 (,525 mdes> whereof 79,65° weft ward of the Allega¬
ny mountains, and 57,034 weftward of the meridian ot the
mouth of the Great Kanhaway. This ftate is therefore one
third larger than the iflands ©f Great Britain and Ireland,
which are reckoned at 88,357 fquare miles.
The.principal rivers in Virginia are, Roanoke, James ri¬
ver, which receives the Rivanna, Appamattox, Chickahomi-
ny, Naniemond, and Elizabeth rivers ; York river, which is
formed by the junction of Pamunky and Mattapony rivers;
Rappahannok, and Patomak.
The mountains are not folitary and fcaitered confufedly
over the face of the country ; they commence at about 150
miles from the fea-coaft, and are difpofed in ridges one be¬
hind another, running nearly parallel with the coaft, though jPfferr<mi
rather approaching it as they advance north-eaftwardly. To
the fouth weft, as the tra£t of country between the fea-coaft
and the Miffiffippi becomes narrower, the mountains con¬
verge into a Angle ridge, which, as it approaches the Gulph
of Mexico, fubfides into plain country, and gives rife to fome
of the waters of that Gulph. _
From the great extent of Virginia, it may be expected
that the climate is not the fame in all its parts. It is re¬
markable that, proceeding on the fame parallel of latitude
weftwardly, the climate becomes coiuer in like manner as
when you proceed northwardly. I his continues to be the
cafe till you attain the fummit of the Allegany, which is
the higheft land between the ocean and the Iviifnfiippn
® From
V I R
[ 659 ]
v r r
Victfinia. From thence, defending in the fame latitude to the MifTif-
- f1Dpi, the change reverfes; and, if we may believe travellers,
it becomes warmer there than it is in the fame latitude on
the fea-fide. Their tefttmony is llrengthened by the vege¬
tables and animals which fubfitt and multiply there naturally,
and do not on the fta-coaft. Thus catalpas grow fpontane-
oully on the Miffifiippi as far as the latitude of 37, and reeds
as far as 38, degrees. Perroquets even winter on the Sioto
in the 39th degree of latitude. In the fummer of 1779,
when the thermometer was at 90 degrees at Monticello, and
96 degrees at Williamfhurg, it was 110 degrees at Kaflcalkia.
Perhaps the mountain, which overhangs this village on the
north fide, may by its reflection have contributed fomewhat
to produce this heat.
The number of free inhabitants in this ftate in 1782 was
296,852, flaves 270,762. The number of free inhabitants
were to the number of fiaves nearly as f 1 to 10.
The college of William and Mary is the only public fe-
minary of learning in Virginia. It was founded in the time
of king William and queen Mary, who granted to it 20,000
acres of land, and a penny a pound duty on certain tobaccoes
exported from Virginia and Maryland. The affembly alfo
gave it by temporary law a duty on liquors imported, and
Hr ins and furs exported. From thefe refources it received
upwards of 30001. cammuntbus annis. The buildings arc of
brick, fufficient for an indifferent accommodation of perhaps
100 fludents. By its charter it was to be under the go¬
vernment of 20 vifrtors, who were to be its legiflators ; and
to have a prefident and fix profefTorfhips, which at prefent
ftand thus : — A profeflbrfhip for Law and Police ; Anato¬
my and Medicine ; Natural Philofophy and Mathematics;
Moral Philofophy, the Law of Nature and Nations, the Fine
Arts; Modern Languages. For the Brafferton. ! he col¬
lege edifice is a huge, mifhapen pile, which, but that it has
a roof, would be taken for a brick-kiln. In 1787* there
were about 30 young gentlemen members of this college, a
large proportion of which were law ftudents. 'ihere are a
number of flourifhing academies in Virginia; one in Prince
Fldward county, one at Alexandria, one at Norfolk, one at
Hanover, and others in other places.
T he prefent denominations of Chriftians in Virginia are
Prefbyterians, who are the moft numerous, and inhabit the
%veftern parts of the ftate ; Epifcopalians, who are the moft
ancient fettlers, and occupy the eaftern and firfl fettled parts
of the ftate. Intermingled with thefe are great numbers of
Baptifls and Methodifts. The bulk of thefe laft mentioned
religious feels are of the poorer fort of peoole, and many of
them are very ignorant (as is indeed-the cafe with the other
denominations), but they are generally a virtuous wrell-mean-
rng let of people.
Virginia has produced fome of the moft diftinguiihed men
that have been adfive in effecting the two late important re¬
volutions in America, whole political and military character
will rank among the firft in the page of hiftory. The great
body of the people do not concern themfelves with politics; io
that their government, though nominally republican, is in fadt
oligarchical or ariftocratical. The Virginians who are rich, are
in general fenfible, polite, and hofpitable and of an indepen¬
dent fpirit. The poor are ignorant and abjedt; all are of an
inquifitive turn, and in many other refpedts very much refem-
bie the people in the eaftern ftates. There is a much greater
difparity between the rich and the poor in Virginia than in
any of the northern ftates. A fpirit for literary inquiries,
if not altogether confined to a few, is, among the body of
the people, evidently lubordinate to a fpirit of gaming and
barbarous {port's. At almoft every tavern or ordinary on
the public road there is a billiard table, a backgammon
table, cards, and other implements for various games. To
thefe public houfes the gambling gentry in the neighbour- Vngini*
hood refort to kill time which hangs heavily upon them; and V|rt'uC_
at this bufmefs they are extremely expert, having been ac- u——j
cuftomed to it from their earlieft youth. The palfton for cock-
fighting, a diverfion not only inhumanly barbarous, but in¬
finitely beneath the dignity of a man of fenfe, is fo predo¬
minant, that they even advertife their matches in the public
newfpapers.
The executive powers are lodged in the hands of a go¬
vernor chofen annually, and incapable of adting mote than
three years in feven. “tie is afhfied by a council of eight
members. The judiciary powers are divided among feverai
courts. Legiflation is exercifed by two houfes or affembly,
the one called the Houfe of Delegates, compofed of two mem¬
bers from each county, chofen annually by the citizens poi-
feffing an eftate for hie in 100 acres of uninhabited land, or
25 acres with a houfe on it, or in a houie or lot in fome town.
The other called the Senate, confifting of 24 members, chofen
quadrennially by the fame electors, who for this purpofe are
diftributed into 24 diftridts. The concurrence of both houfes
is neceftary to the pafiage of a law. T. hey have the appoint¬
ment of the governor and council, the judges of the fuperior
courts, auditors, attorney-general, treafurer, regifter of the
land office, and delegates to Congrefs.
Before the prefent war, there was exported from this ftate,
communibus amis, nearly as follows ;
Quantity.
Articles.
Tobacco, - - *
Wheat, - -
Indian Corn, - - -
Shipping,
Marts, planks flcantling, fhingles, ftaves,
Tar, pitch, turpentine,
Peltry, viz. (kins of deer, beavers, otter*,?
muik-rats, racoons, foxes, - ^
Pork, _ - - -
Flax (eed, hemp, cotton,
Pit coal, pig iron,
Peafe, -
Beef, - - -
Sturgeon, white /had, herring,
Brandy from peaches and apples, whifky,
Hoi fes,
55,000 hhds. of 1000 lb.
80c,coo bulhcls
600,000 hurt) els
30,000 barrels
180 birds, of 600 lb.
4,000 barrels
5,000 bufbels
i.OwO barrels
The amount of the above articles is 850,000!. Virginia money
or 607.141 guineas.  
The whole country before it was planted was one conti¬
nued foreft interfperfed with marfhes, which in the Weft In¬
dies they call fwamps. No country now produces greater
quantities of excellent tobacco ; and the foil is generally fo
fandy and (hallow, that after they have cleared a frefh piece
of ground out of the woods, it w ill not bear tobacco after
two or three years unlefs cow-penned and well dun jed. The
forefts yield oaks, poplars, pines, cedars, cypreftes, fweet
myrtles, chefnuts, hickery, live oak, walnut, dog-wood,
alder, hazel, chinkapins, locuft-trees, faffafras, elm, afh,
beech, with a great variety of fweet gums and incenfe,
which diftil trom feverai trees; pitch, tai, rofin, turpentine,
plank-timber, mafts, and yards. Virginia yields alfo rice,
hemp, Indian corn, plenty of pafture, with coal, quarries of
ttone, and lead and iron ore.
VIRGO, in aftronomy, one of the flgns or conflellations
of the zodiac.
V1R.GULA Divisitoria, divining rod. See Mine,
Vo). XIL p. 41.
V1R rUAL, or Potential ; fomething that has a
power or virtue of acting or doing. The term is chiefly
underftood of fomething that afts by a fecret invifible caufe,
in oppoiition to adtual and fenfible.
VIRTUE, a term ufed in various fignifications. In the
4 0 2 general
VIS r 660 1 v V I T
Virtnofo general it denotes power, or the perfection of anv thing,
Vifrd? v w^et^er natural or lupernatural, animate or inanimate,. cl-
!u ^ L'' fential or acceffory. But, in its more proper or reftrained
fenfe, virtue fignifies a habit, which improves and perfects
1 the pdfeffor and his aftions. See Moral Philosophy,
n° 84.
VIRTUOSO, an Italian term lately introduced into the
Englilh, fignifying a man of curiofity and learning, or one
who loves and promotes the arts and fciences. But among
dis the term feems to be appropriated*, to thofe who apply
themfelves to fome curious and quaint rather than immedi¬
ately ufeful art or ftudy; as antiquaries, collectors of rarities
of any kind, microfeopical obfervers, &c.
VIRULENT, a term applied to any thing that yields a
virus; that is, a contagious or malignant pus.
VISCERA, in anatomy, a term fignifying the fame with
entrails ; including the heart, liver, lungs, fpleen, inteftines,
and other inward parts of the body.
VISCIDITY, or Viscosity, the quality of fomething
that is vifcid or vifcous ; that is, glutinous and fticky like
bird-lime, which the Latins call by the name of vfcus.
VISCOUNT {Vice Cowes)i was anciently an officer un¬
der an earl, to whom, during his attendance at court, he
afted as deputy to look after the affairs of the country. But
the name was afterwards made ufe of as an arbitrary title of
honour, without any fhadow of office pertaining to it, by
Henry VI.; when, in the 18th year of his reign, he created
John Beaumont a peer by the name of vifcount Beaumont;
which was the firft inllance of the kind.
A vifcount is created by oatent as an earl is ; his title is
Right Honourable; his mantle is two doublings and a half
of plain fur ; and his coronet has only a row of pearls clofe
to the circle.
VI SCUM, in botany ; a genus of plants of the clafs di-
acia, order tetrandria, and in the natural fyftem arranged
under the 48th order, aggregate. The male calyx is qua¬
dripartite; the anthers* adhere to the calyx: the female calyx
confifts of four leaves; there is no flyle; the fligma is obtufe.
There is no corolla; the fruit is a berry with one feed.
There are 9 fpecies ; only one of which is a native of Bri-
. tain, viz. the album, or common miffeltoe. It is a fhrnb
growing on the bark of feveral trees: the leaves are conju¬
gate and elliptical, the ftem forked ; the flowers whitifh in
the alse of the leaves. This plant was reckoned facrcd
among the druids.
VISHNOU, that perfon in the triad of the Bramins
who is confidered as the preferver of the univerfe. Brahma
is the creator and Siva the deftroyer; and thefe two, with
Vifhnou, united in fome inexplicable manner, conflitute 5r«/>
rne, or the fupreme numen of the Hindoos. See Polythe¬
ism, n°36.
VISIBLE, fomething that is an objedf of fight or vifion;
or fomething whereby the eye is affedbed fo as to produce
this fenfation.
ViSIER, an officer or dignitary in the Ottoman empire,
whereof there are two kinds ; one called by the Turks Vi-
fier-a%em, that is, “ grand vifier,,> is the prime minifter of
Rate in the whole empire. He commands the army in chief,
and prefides in the divan or great council. Next to him are
lix other fubordinate vifiers, called vifters of the bench ; who
officiate as his counfellors or affefTors in the divan.
VISION, in optics, the aft of feeing or perceiving ex¬
ternal objefts by means of the organ of fight, the eye. See
Anatomy, n° 142, and MfiTArHYsics, n° 49—54.
VISTULA, or Weisel, a large river of Poland, which
taking its rife in the mountains fouth of Silefia, vifits Cra¬
cow, Warfaw, See. and continuing its courfe northward, falls
into the Baltic La below Dantzic.
Y ^ ^ Y’ *m °fenera^ fomething belonging to vifion. Vifii8j
\ 11AL-, in phyfiology, an appellation given to whatever II
minilters principally to the coatlituting or maintaining life
in the bodies of animals : thus the heart, lungs, and brain,
are called vital parts ; and the operations of thel'e parts
by which the life of animals is maintained are called vital
functions.
V1TALIANO (Donati), an eminent naturalift, was
born in Padua the 8th of September 1717. He fhoweci
from his childhood the greateft inclination for botany and
natural hi (lory ; and, at the age of twelve years, knew all
the medicinal plants, and had made a collection of natural
produftions. When fome years older, he profited by the
fricndfhip of the celebrated Pontedero, and was generoufly
lurnifhed with books and informations by the living profef.
for Vallifneri junior. Plis belt matters were, however, his
own mountain and maritime peregrinations ; which he be¬
gan in Dalmatia in 1743, and continued for five years.
He was chofen for adjutant to the marquis Poleni, public
profeffor of experimental phyfic, and cultivated under fo
great a mailer all the parts of phyiico mathematics. With
him he made a journey to Rome, and there became an inti¬
mate friend of Leprotti the papal phyfician, to whom he
aiterwards dedicated his Saggie della jloria naturale dell'Adri*
atico ; a work of great merit, which count Ginamii of Ra¬
venna endeavoured to depreciate, though with little fuccefs.
The efi'ay of Donati was publifhed in 1750, and was
afterwards tranfiated into French. The fame which our
author acquired induced his Sardinian majefly to appoint
him profeffor of botany and natural hifiory at Turin. He
went there very willingly ; made many excurfions among
the mountains of Savoy and Genoa, and would have been
happy could he always have converfed with the mountain¬
eers, who generally are harmlefs people. The king his
matter fenc him out of the way of his enemies, whole envy
and hatred his merit alone had raifed; he commanded him to
fet out on a voyage to Egypt, and from thence to vifit Sy¬
ria, Palettine, Arabia, and the Eaft Indies, to make obfer-
vations and to colleft the rarelt produftions of nature. In
1759 he was in Alexandria, law Egypt as far as the great
cataraft of the Nile, and a great part of Paleftine, Arabia,
and Chaldea; and in all thofe travels was expofed to i'uffer
the cruel confequences of a bad choice which he had made
of his companions. While he ftaid at Baflbra, waiting for
orders from court, he fell ill of a putrid fever, and died in a
few days. The news of his death came to Turin about the
end of Oftober 1763. He left in manufeript two volumes
in folio.
VITELLUS, the yolk of an egg. See Egg.
VITIS, in botany : A genus of the clafe pentandria, or¬
der monogynia; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the
46th order, pehloracea. The petals cohere at the top, and are
withered ; the fruit is a berry with five feeds. There are
11 fpecies ; the mofl important of which is the vinifera or
common vine, which has naked, lobed, finuated leaves.
There are a great many varieties ; but a recital of their
names would be tirefome without being ufeful. .dll the
forts are propagated either from layers or cuttings, the
former of which is greatly praftifed in England, but the
latter is much preferable.
in chooiing the cuttings, you fhould always take fueh
fhoots of the laft year’s growth as are ftrong and well ripen¬
ed ; thefe .fhould be cut from the oli vine, juft, below the
place where they were produced, taking a knot, or piece of
the two-years wood to each, which fhould Ik: pruned tmoothj
then you fhould cut off the upper part of the ffioots, fo as
to leave the cutting about lixteen inches long. When the
piece or knot oi old wood is cut at both ends, near the
young
V ! T
VItJs. young ftioot, the cutting will referable a little mallet; from
—V—— whence Columella gives the title of malleolus to the vine-cut¬
tings. In making the cuttings after this manner, there can
be but one taken from each (hoot; whereas molt perfons
cut them into lengths of about a foot, and plant them all:
which is very wrong, for various reafons too tedious to
mention.
When the cuttings are thus prepared, if they are not then
66s ] v i T
are extended in length ; about the middle or latter end of
July, it will be proper to nip off the tops of thefe two (hoots '
which will ftrengthen the lower eyes'. During the (urrmer
feafon you muff conftantly keep the ground clear from weeds:
nor (hould you permit any fort of plants to grow near the
vines, which would not only rob them of nounfhment, but
(hade the lower parts of the (hoots, and thereby prevent
their ripening; which will not only cauie their wood to be
planted, thev (hould be placed with their lower part in the fpongy and luxuriant, but render it lefs fruitful,
ground in a dry (oil, laying fome litter upon their upper As (oon as the leaves begin to drop in autumn, you momd
parts to prevent them from drying : in this fituation they prune thefe young vines again, leaving three buds to each
r  - * / ’ • ’ - 1 a of the ffioots, provided they are llrong : otherwife it is bet.
may remain till the beginning of April (which is the belt
time for planting them) ; when you (hould take them onC
and wa(h them from the filth they have contraded ; and if
you find them very dry, you (hould let them (land with
their lower parts in the water fix or eight hours, which
will diftend their veffels, and difpofe them for taking root.
If the ground be ffrong and inclined to wet, you (hould
open a trench where the cuttings are to be planted, which
(hould be filled with lime rubbifh, the better to drain off the
mot ft it re: then raife the borders with freftr light earth about
two feet thick, fo that it may be at lead a toot above the
level of the ground : then you (hould open the holes at
about fix feet diftance from each other, putting one good
ffrong cutting into each hole, which (hould be laid a little
flopih r, that their tops may incline to the wall; but it muff
be put in fo deep, as that the uppermoil eye may be level
with the furface of the ground; for when any part of the
cutting is left above ground, mod or the buds attempt to
(hoot, fo that the drength of the cuttings is divided to
nouri(h fo many (hoots, which mud confequently be weaker
than if only one of them grew; whereas, by burying the
whole cutting in the ground, the fap is all employed on one
(ingle (hoot, which confequently will be much dronger; be-
fides, the fun and air are apt to dry that part of the cutting
which remains above ground, and fo often prevents their
buds from (hooting.
Having placed the cutting into the ground, fill up the
bole gently, preffmg down the earth with your foot clofe
about it, and raife a little hill jud upon the top of the
cutting, to cover the upper eye quite over, which will pre¬
vent it from drying. Nothing more is neceffary but to
keep the ground clear from weeds until the cuttings begin
to (hoot; at which time you (hould look over them carefully,
to rub off any (mail (hoots, if fuch are produced, fadening
the fird main (hoot to the wall, which fhould be condantly
trained up, as it is extended in length, ta prevent its break¬
ing or h-anging down. You mud continue to look over thefe
once in about three weeks during the (ummer feafon, con-
ftantly rubbing off all lateral (hoots which are produced;
and be fure to keep the ground clear from weeds, which,
if differed to grow, will exhaud the goodnefs of the foil
and da^ve the cuttings. The Michaelmas following, if
your cuttings have produced (trong (hoots, you (hould prune
them down to two eyes. In the fpring, after the cold wea¬
ther is pad, you mud gently dig up the borders to loofe the
earth ; but you mud be very careful, in doing this, not to
injure the roots of your vines: you fhould alfo raife the
earth up to the dems of the plants, fo as to cover the old
wood, but not fo deep as to cover either of the eyes of the
lad year's wood. After this they will require no farther
care until they begin to (hoot; when you (hould rub off all
weak dangling (hoots, leaving no more than the two produ*
ced from the two eyes of the lad year’s wood, which (hould
be fattened to the wall. From this time till the vines have
done (hooting, you fhould look them over onee in three
weeks or a month, to rub off all lateral (hoots as they are
produced, and to laden the main (hoots to the wall as they
ter to (liorten them down to two eyes if they are good ; for
it is a very wrong p^atbee to leave much wood upon young
vines, or to leave their (hoots too long, which greatly weak¬
ens the roots: then you (hould taiien them to the wall, fpread-
ing them out horizontal each way, that there may be room
to train the new (hoots the following fummer, and in the
ipving the borders mud be digged as before.
The ufes of the fruit of the vine for making wine, &c.
are well known. The vine was introduced by the Romans
into Britain, and appears formerly to have been very com¬
mon. From the name of vineyard yet adhering to the rui¬
nous fites of our cadles and monadenes, there (eem to have
been few in the country but what had a vineyard belonging
to them. The county of Gloucefter is particularly com¬
mended by Malm (bury in the twelfth century, as excelling
all the red of the kingdom in the number and goodnefs of
its vineyards. In the earlier periods ot our hidory, the ifle
of Ely was exprefsly denominated the IJle of Vines by the
Normans. Vineyards are frequently noticed in the deferip-
tive accounts of doomiday; and thofe of England are
even mentioned by Bede as early as the commencement of
the eighth century.
Doomtday exhibits to us a particular proof that wine was
made in England during the period preceding the conqued.
And after the conqued the bilhop of Ely appears to have
received at lead three or four tuns of wine annually, as
tythes, from the produce of the vineyards in his dioceie ;
and to have made frequent refervations in his leafes of a cer¬
tain quantity of wine for rent. A plot of land in London,
which now forms Ead-Smithficld and lome adjoining dreets,
was withheld from the religious houfe within Aldgate by
four fucceffive conllables ot the Bower, in the reigns of Ru¬
fus, Henry, and Steuben, and made by them into a vineyard
to heir great emolument and profit. In the old accounts
of recforial and vicarial revenues, and in the old regiders of
ecclefiadical fuits concerning them, the tithe of wine is aiv
article that frequently occurs in Kent, Surry, and other
counties. And the wines oi Gloucederfhire, within a cen¬
tury after the conqueft, were little inferior to the French in
fvveetnefs. The beautiful region of Gaul, which had not a
fingle vine in the days of Casfar, had numbers fo early as the
time of Strabo. The fouth oi it was particularly docked
with them; and they had even extended themfelves into the
interior parts of the country : But the grapes of the latter
did not ripen kindly. France was famous for its vineyards
in the reign of Vefpafian, and even exported its wines into
Italy. The whole province of Narbonne was then covered
with vines: and the wine-merchants of the country were re¬
markable for all the knavifh dexterity of our modern brew¬
ers, tinging it with f.noke, colouring it (as was iufpefted)
with herbs and noxious dyes, and even adulterating the talle
and appearance with aloes. And,, as our fird vines would
be transplanted from Gaul, fo were in all probability thofe
of the Allobroges in Franche Compte. Thefe were pecu¬
liarly fitted for cold countries. They ripened even in the
frofts of the advancing winter.. And they were of the fame
colour*
V I V [ 662 ] V I V
Vtttt col©ur, and feem to have been of the fame fpecies, as the
black Mufcadines of the prel’ent day, which have lately been
^ iv°rra- tried in the idand, I think, and found to be fitted: for the
'v climate. Thefe were pretty certainly brou dit into Britain
a little after vines had been carried over all the kingdoms of
Gaul, and about the middle of the third century; when the
numerous plantations had gradually fpread over the face of
the latter, and muft naturally have continued their progrefs
into the former.
The Romans, even nearly to the days of Lucullus, were
■very feldom able to regale themfelves with wine. Very little
was then raifed in the compafs of Italy. And the foreign
wines were fo dear, that they were rarely produced at an
entertainment; and when they were, each gueft was indulged
only with a fingle draught. But in the feventh century of
Rome, as their conquefts augmented the degree of their
wealth, and enlarged the fphere of their luxury, wines be¬
came the obje& of particular attention. Many vaults were
conftrufted, and good ftocks of liquor depolited in them.
And this naturally gave encouragement to the wines of the
country. The Falernian rofe immediately into great re¬
pute ; and a variety of others, that of Florence among the
reft, fucceeded it about the clofe of the century. And the
more wefterly parts of the European continent were at
once fubje&ed to the arms, and enriched with the vines, of
Italy.
But the fcarcity of the native, and dearnefs of the foreign,
wines in that country, feveral ages before the conqueft of
Lancafirire, had called out the fpirit of invention, and occa-
fioned the making of faftitious wines. Thefe were ftill con¬
tinued by the Romans, and naturally taught to the Britons.
And they were made of almoft all the products of the or¬
chard and garden, the pear, the apple, mulberry, fervis, and
rofe. Two of them, therefore, were thofe agreeable liquors
which we ftill denominate cyder and perry. The latter
would be called pyium by the Romans, and is therefore call¬
ed perry or pear-water by us. And the former affumed
among the Romans the appellation oijicera, which was col¬
loquially pronounced by them fidera, as the fame pronunci¬
ation of it among the prefent Italians ftiows; and retains
therefore the denomination of cyder among ourfelves.
VITREOUS Humour of the eye. See Anatomy,
n0 142.
VITRIFICATION, in chemiftry, the converfion of a
body into glafs by means of fire. See Glass.
VITRIOL, a compound fait, formed by the union of
iron, copper, or zinc with the fulphuric acid. It is of three
colours, white, blue, and green, according to the metal.
See Chemistu.y-/«^.
VITRIOLATED, among chemifts, fomething impreg¬
nated, or itippofed to be fo, with vitriol or its acid.
VITRIOLIC acid. See Sulphuric Acid and Chemis-
7 ? y-Index.
VITRUVIUS POLLIO (Marcus), a very celebrated
Roman architeeft, was, according to the common opinion,
born at Verona, and lived in the reign of Auguftus, to
whom he dedicated his excellent treatile on archite&ure, di¬
vided into ten books. William Philander’s edition of this
celebrated work is efteemed. Claudius Perrault has given
an excellent tranflation of it in French, with learned notes.
There are alfo feveral Englifh tranflations of Vitruvius.
VITUS’s Dance. See Medicine, n'284.
VIVERRA, THE weasel ; a genus of quadrupeds be¬
longing to the order of feras. They have fix fore-teeth,
the intermediate ones being Ihorter, and more than three
grinders, and the claws are exferted. There are 27 fpecies,
the principal of which are.
1. The ichneumon, with the tail tapering to a point, and Vlverm
the toes diftant from each other ; inhabits Egypt, Barbary,
India and its Hands It is there a molt uleful animal, be¬
ing an inveterate enemy to the ierpents and other noxious
reptiles which infeft the torrid zone : it attacks without
dread that moft fatal of ferpents the Naja, or Cobra de Ca-
pello; and fhould it receive a wound in the combat, inftant-
ly retires, and is laid to obtain an antidote from a certain
herb (according to Sparmann the ophiorhiza); after which it
returns to the attack, and feldom fails oi viftory : it is a
great deftroyer of the eggs of crocodiles, which it digs out
of the land; and even kills multitudes of the young of thole
terrible reptiles : it was not therefore without realon that
the ancient Egyptians ranked the ichneumon among their
deities. This animal is at prelent domefticated and kept in
houfes in India and in Egypt, for it is more ufeful than a
cat in deftroying rats and mice ; and grows very tame. It
is very adtive ; fprings with great agility on its prey ; will
glide along the ground like a ferpent, and feem as if with¬
out feet. It fits up like a fquirrel, and eats with its fore¬
feet, catching any thing that is flung to it. It is a great
enemy to poultry, and will feign itfelf dead till they come
within reach : loves fifh ; draws its prey, after fucking the
blood, to its hole. Its excrements are very fetid ; when it
fleeps, it brings its head and tail under its belly, appearing
like a round ball, with two legs flicking out. Rumphius
obferves how flcilfully it feizes the ferpents by the throat,
fo as to avoid receiving an injury; and Lucan beautifully de-
feribes the lame addrefs of this animal in conquering the
Egyptian afp.
2. The vulpecula, or ftifling weafel, has a (hort flender
nofe; fhort ears and legs ; black body, full of hair ; the tail
long, of a black and white colour; length from nofe to tail
about 18 inches. It inhabits Mexico, and perhaps other
parts of America. This and fome other Ipecies are remark¬
able for the peltiferous, fuffocating, and moft fetid vapour
they emit from behind, when attacked, purfued, or fright¬
ened : it is their only means of defence. Some turn their
tail to their enemy, and keep them at a diftance by a fre¬
quent crepitus; and others ejaculate their urine, tainted with
the horrid effluvia, to the diftance of 18 feet. The puriuers
are flopped with the terrible flench. Should any of this li¬
quor fall into the eyes, it almoft occafions blindnefs: if on
the clothes, the fmell will remain for feveral days, in fpite
of all wafhing; they muft even be buried in frefh foil, in
order to be fweetened. Dogs that are not true bred, run
back as foon as they perceive the fmell: thole that have
been ufed to it, will kill the animal; but are often obliged
to relieve themfelves by thrufting their nofes into the ground.
There is no bearing the company of a dog that has killed
one for feveral days. Profeffor Kalm was one night in great
danger of being fuffocated by one that was purfued into a
houfe where Jhe flept; and it affefted the cattle lo, that they
bellowed through pain. Another, which was killed by a
mjud-fewant in a cellar, fo affefted her with its flench, that
fhe lay ill for feveral days ; all the provifions that were in
the place were fo tainted, that the owner was obliged to
throw them away. Notwithftanding this, the fldh is rec¬
koned good meat, and not unlike that of a pig; but it muft
be fkinned as loon as killed, and the bladder taken carefully
out. It breeds in hollow trees, or holes under ground, or
in clefts of rocks ; climbs trees with great agility ; kills
poultry ; eats eggs, and deftroys young birds.
3. The xibetlia, or civet-cat, has fhort rounded ears; the
back and fldes cinereous, tinged with yellow, marked with
large dufley fpots difpofed in rows ; the hair coarfe ; that
on the top of the body longeft, handing up like a mane ;
“ the
U L I
[ 663 ]
U L S
Vives
Flietea.
the tail fometimes wholly black ; fometimes fpotted near
the bale ; length, from nofe to tail, about two feet three
inches; the tail 14 inches ; the body pretty thick. Itinha-
bifs India, the Philippine Illes, Guinea, Ethiopia, and f^a-
daVafcar. The famous drug mufk, or civet, which is pro¬
duced from an aperture between the privities and the anus,
in both iexes, is If ere ted from certain glands. The perions
who keep them procure the mufic by feraping the in.ide
of tin ba' >• twice a-wcek vvith an iron fpatula, and get about
a dram each time : but it is feldom fold pure, being gene,
rally mixed with fuet or oil, to make it more weighty. _ i ne
males yield the moll, efpecially when they are previoudy
irritate^. They are fed, when young, with pap made of
millet, with a little flefh or filh ; when old, with raw flelh.
In a wild {fate, they prey on fowl. Thefe animals feem
not to be known to the anciei-s ; it is probable the drug
was brought without their knowing its origin ; for it is
certain the f re gentlemen in Rome ufed perrumes.
VIVES, in farriery. See there, $ xiv.
VIVIPAROUS, in natural hiftory, an epithet applied
to fuch animals as bring forth their young alive and per-
fedi ; in contradhtinclion to thole that lay eggs, which are
called oviparous animals.
UKRAINE, a large country of Europe, lying on the
borders of Turkey in Europe, Poland, Rullia, and Little
Tartary. Its name prooerly dignifies a frontier. By a tieaty
between Raffia and Poland in 1693, the latter remained in
poffiffion of all that part of the Ukraine lying on the wed
fide of the river Dnieper, which is but indiircrently cultiva¬
ted ; while the country on the call fide, inhabited by the
Coffacs, is in much better condition. I he Ruffian pait is
comprifed in the government of Kiof ; and the^ empiefs of
Raffia having obtained the Polilh palatinate of Kiol, by the
treaty of partition in >791’ Tie whole of the Ukraine, on
both fides or the Dnieper, belongs now to that ambitious
and formidable oower. The principal town is Kiof.
ULCER, inkurgery. See Chap. IV. Sed. 1.
Ulcer, in farriery. See .Farriery, Se£f. 28.
UEEX, in botany : A genus of plants of the clafs of
diaddphta, and order of de andria : and in the natural iyltem
arranged under the 32d order, Paptiionace*. ^ The calyx
conlifts of two leaves quinquedentate : pod aimed covered
by the calyx. There are two fpecies; one of which, the
Europaus, the furze, gorfe, or whin, is a native o1 Britain; it
is too well known to need defeription. Its ufes, however,
are many ; as a fuel where wood and coals are Icarce ; and
as hedge-wood upon light barren land : its ule as horle pro-
vended too feems to be fully proved though not yet exta-
blifhed See Agriculture, n° 47. and Fence.
ULIETEA, one af the Society Blands. This ifland is
about 21 leagues in circuit. Its produ&ions are plantains,
cocoa nuts, yams, hogs* and fowl; the two latter of which
are fcarce. I he iod on the top of one ot the hills was
found to be a kind of Hone marie ; on the fides were lound
fome fcattered flints, and a few imall pieces of a cavernous
or fpongy Hone lava, of a whitilh colour, which feemed to
contain feme remains of iron, fo that it may pofhbly be here
lodged in the mountains in a great quantity. Nothing was
fcen on this ifland to diftinguilh either its inhabitants, or
their manners, from the other neighbouring iflands. I he
fir ft Europeans who landed on this fhore were Mr (now
Sir Jofeph) Banks and Dr Solander; they were received by
the natives in the moil courteous manner, reports concerning
them having been their harbingers from Otaheite. Every
body feemed to fear and refpedl them, placing in them at
the fame time the utmofl confidence : behaving, as if con-
feious that their vifitors pofi'effed the powder of doing them
mifehief without a dilpofition to make ufe of it.
ULIGINOUS, in agriculture, an appellation given to a Uliginous
moift, moorifh, and fenny foil. uifter.
ULLAGE, in gauging, is fo much of a calk or other ^ ——rf
veflel as it wants of being full.
ULM, a free and imperial city of Germany, in the circle
of Swabia, feated -on the river Iller. It is a pretty large
place, defended by fortifications ; and the inhabitants are
Proteftants. Here the archives of the drcle are depoiited,
and it carries on a very great trade. The eledlor of Bava¬
ria became mailer of it, in 1702, by a Hratagem ; but, in
1704, the French being vanquifhed at the battle of Hoch-
flet, the Bavarians (urrendered it by capitulation. I he
Roman Catholics have but tv/o churches, all the reft be¬
longing to the Proteftants. E. Long. 10. 12. N. Lat.
48. 25.
ULMUS, in botany : A genus of plants belonging to
the clafs of per.tandria, and order of digynm; and in the na¬
tural fyflem arranged under the 53d order, ScabruU,_ The
calvx is quifiquefid ; there is no cotolla. ^ The fruit is a
dry, compiefled, membranaceous berry. . There are three
fpecies, one of which is a native of Britain. i he. cam~
pejlris, common elm. The leaves are rough, oval, pointed,
doubly ferrated, unequal at the bafe. Bark of the trunk
cracked and wrinkled. Fruit membranous. The montana,
or wych elm, is generally reckoned a variety of this fpe-
All the forts of elm may be either propagated by layers
or fuckers taken from the roots of the old trees, the latter
of which is generally pradtifed by the nurfery-gardeners ;
but as thefe are often cut up with indifferent roots, they
often mifeavry, and render the fuccefs doubtful; whereas
thole which are propagated by layers are in no hazard, and
always make better roots, and come on faflqr than the other,
and do not fend out fuckers from their roots in fuch plen¬
ty, for which reafon this method fhould be more univerlally
pra&ifed.
The elm delights in a ftiff ftrong foil. It is obfervable,
however, that here it grows comparatively flow. In light
land, efpecially if it be rich, its growth is very rapid ; but its
wood is light, porous, and of little value, compared witn that
which grows upon ftrong land; which is of a elofer ilronger
texture, and, at the heart, will have the colour;' and almofl
the heavinefs and the hardnefs, or iron : On inch, foils the
elm becomes profitable, and is one of the trees which ought
in oreference to ail others to engage the planter s atten-
tion.
ULSTER, the mo ft northerly province of Ireland. In
Latin it is called Ultani'i, in Irifh Lui Guilly ; and gives the
title of earl to the dukes of \ork of the royal family. It
is bounded bv the Atlantic Ocean or. the weft', St Cj-eorge 3
Channel and the Irifh Sea on the eaft, the Deucaledonian
Ocean on the north, and on the fouth and fouth-weft the
provinces of Leinller and Connaught. Its greatefl length
is near 1 20 miles, its breadth about roo ; and its circum-
■ ference, including the windings and turnings, 460 ; con¬
taining 9 counties, 58 market-towns and boroughs, L.arch-
bifhopric, 6 bifhoprics, and 214 parifhes. .Uifter aboundl
in lakes and rivers, which fupply it with variety of fine fiffi,
efpecially falmon, befides what it has from the fea, with
which a great part of it is bounded. 1 he fouthern parts
of it are rich, fertile, well ouhivated, and inebfed ; but thi
areater part of the northern is open and mountainous.—•
The towns of this province are in general the neatefl and
bell built of any in Ireland, as well as the farm houfes4
which in moll parts of the kingdom are conftructed of no
better materials than clay and ft raw. The inhabitants of
Uifter are aifo more like the Englifn in their manners and
dialect than thole of the othe. three provinces ; for as it
includes
U M B
Ulterior
II
[ 664 1
UNO
jndndes within itfelf the whole, or by far the efreater part,
of the linen inanufaftory, the heft branch of trade in the
• T ^ a ^'kingdom, they have confequcntly the greateft intercourfe
with England. An Enclilhman, in feme parts of it, in¬
deed, will imagine hjmlelf, from the fimilarity of their lan¬
guage and manners, in his own country. This province
had anciently petty kings of its own. It was firil fubjecl-
ed to the Englifh in the reign of Henry II. by John Cour-
cy, the firft who bore the title of ear/of Uljler; but it af¬
terwards threw oft the yoke, and was never entirely reduced
till the reign of James I. when great numbers of Scots by
his encouragement went and fettled in it. Of thefe, moft
of the prefent inhabitants are the defeendants. This pro¬
vince was the firft and principal feene of the bloody ma(-
facre in 1641.
UL FERIOR, in geography, is applied to fome part of
a country or province, which, with re >'ard to the reft of
that country, is fituated on the farther fide of the river,
spountain, or other boundary, which i'eparates the two
countries.
UL FRAMARINE, a beautiful blue colour ufed by
the painters, prepared from the lapis lazuli by calcination.
ULTRAMONTANE, lomething beyond the moun¬
tains. The term is principally applied in relation to France
and Italy, which are feparated by the Alps.
ULYA, in botany ; a genus of plants of the clafs of
cryptogam''a, and order of alg<e. The fructification is in-
clofed in a diaphanous membrane. There are 17 fpecies ;
1 2 of which are Britifh plants.
They are all feffile, and without roots, and grow in
ditches and on ftones along the fea coaft. None of them are
applied to any particular ufe different from the reft of the
algae, except perhaps the um bill calls, which in England is
pickled with fait and preferved in jars, and afterwards itew-
ed and eaten whth oil and lemon-juice. This fpecies, call¬
ed in Englifh the navel laver, is flat, orbicular, tefiile, and
coreaceous.
ULUG beig, a Perfian prince and learned aftronomer,
was defeended from the famous Tamerlane, and reigned at
Samarcand about 40 years ; after which he was murdered
by his own fon in 1449. His catalogue of the fixed ttars,
re&ified for the year 1434, Was publflhed at Oxford by Mr
Hyde, in 1665, with learned notes. Mr Hudfon printed
in the Englifh Geography ULug Beig’s Tables of the
Longitude and Latitude ot Places; and Mr Greaves pub-
liftied, in Latin, his Aftronomical Epochas, at London, in
1650. See AsTaoNOMY-/«t/tf.x'.
ULYSSES, king of Ithaca, the fon of Laertes, and fa¬
ther of Telemachus, and one of thole heroes wdio contribu¬
ted moft to the taking of Troy. After the deftru&ion of
that city, he wandered for 10 years; and at laft returned to
Ithaca, where, with the afEftance of Telemachus, he killed
Anti nous and other princes who intended to marry his wife
Penelope and feize his dominions. He at length refigned
the government of the kingdom to his ion Telemachus ; and
was killed by Felegonus, his ion by Circe, who did not know
him. This hero is the luhjedf of the Odyffey.
UMBELL an umbel, in botany : A fpecies of re¬
ceptacle ; or rather a mode of flowering, in which a number
of fiender footltalks proceed from the fame centre, and rife
to an equal height, fo as to form an even and generally
round iurface at top. See Botany.
UMBELLATJE, the name of a clafs in Ray’s and
Tournefort’s methods, confiding of plants whofe flowers
grow in umbels, with five petals that are often unequal, and
two naked feeds that are joined at top and feparated below.
The fame plants conftitute the 45th order of Linmeus’s
Fragments of a Natural Method. See Botany.
4
UMBELLIFEROUS j*cants, are fueh as have their
tops branched and fpread out like an umbrella.
UMBER, or Umbre, in natural hiftory, a foftil brown
or blackifh fuhftance, ufed in painting; fo called fromOmbria,
the ancient name of the duchy of Spoleto in Italy, whenc it
was firit obtained ; diluted with water, it ferves to make a
dark brown colour, uiually called with us an hair colour.
Ur Kill and Mr da Cofta confider it as an earth of the
ochre kind. It is found in Egypt, Italy, Spain, and Ger¬
many ; in Cyprus alfo it is found in large quantities ; but
what we have brought into England is principally from dif¬
ferent parts of the Tmkifh diminions. But it might be
found in coniiderable plenty alfo in England and Ireland, if
properly looked after, fev'eral large maffes of it having been
thrown up in digging onMendip hills in Somerfetfhire, and in
the county of Wexford in Ireland : it is alio fomettmes found
in the veins of lead ore b th in Derbyfhire and Eiintihire.
UMBILICAL, among anatomifts, iqmething relating to
the umbilicus or navel.
UMBRELLA, a moveable canopy, made of filk or other
cloth fpread out upon ribs of whale-bone, and fupported by a
ftaff, to protect a perfon from rain, or the fcorching beams of
the fun.
UMPIRE, a third perfon chofen to decide acontroverfy
left to arbitration-
UNCIA
to«s
in general, a Latin term, denoting the twelfth
part of any thing; particularly the twelfth part of a pound,
called in Englifh an ounce ; or the twelfth part of a foot,
called an inch.
UNCTION, the aft of anointing or rubbing with oil
or other fatty matter.
Unction, in matters of religion,.is ufed for the charac¬
ter conferred on facred things by anointing them with oil.
Unftions were very frequent among the Hebrews. They
anointed both their kings and high-priefts at the ceremony
of their inauguration. They alio anointed the facred vef-
fels of the tabernacle and temple, to fanftify and confecrate
them to the fervice of God. The unftion of kings is fup-
pofed to be a ceremony introduced very late among the
Chriitian princes. It is laid that none of the emperors
were ever anointed before Juftinian or juftin. The empe¬
rors of Germany took the praftice from thofe of the eailtrn
empire : king Pepin of France was the firil who received
the unftion. In the ancient Chriftian church, unftion al¬
ways accompanied the ceremonies of baptifm and confirma¬
tion. Extreme unftion, or the anointing perfons in the
article of death, was alio praftifed by the ancient Chrilti-
ans, in compliance with the precept of St James, chao. v.
14th and 15th verfes; and this extreme unftion the Romiffi
church has advanced to the dignity of a facrament. It ia
adminiftered to none but fuch as are affefted with iome
mortal difeafe, or in a decrepit age. It is refufed to im¬
penitent perlons, as alfo to criminals. The parrs to be
anointed are the eyes, the ears, the noftrils, the mouth, the
hands, the feet, and the reins. The laity are anointed in
the palms of the hands, but priefts on the back of it; be-
caufe the palms of their hands have been already confecra-
ted by ordination.
The oil with which the fick perfon is anointed reprelents
the grace of G©d, rvhtch is poured down into the foul, and
the prayer uied at the time of anointing expreffes the re-
miffion of fins thereby granted to the lick perfon ; for the
prayer is this: “ By this holy unftion, and his own moft
pious mercy, may the Almighty God forgive thee what
Undecj,
g°n.
ever fins thou haft committed by the fight” when the eyes
hearing, when the ears are anointed
are anointed ; by the nearing, wncxi uie cars arc anumicu
and io of the other fenles *. from the
UNDECAGON, is a regular polygon of 11 fxdes. iVritn*
UNDE-mrd'
s*
ti
UNI [ 665 ] UNI
TJndecctn* UNDECEMVIR, a magiftrate among tlie ancient A-
v:r thenians, who had 10 other colleagues or aflbciates joined
') with him in the fame commiflion. The fun&ions of the
^ Undecemviri at Athens were much the fame as thofe of the
lateprevols de marechaujje in France. They took care of the
apprehending of criminals ; fecured them in the hands of
juftice ; and when they were condemned, took them again
into cuitody, that the fentence might be executed on them.
They were chofen by the tribes, each tribe naming its own;
and as the number of the tribes after Callifthenes was but
10, which made 10 members, a feribe or notary was added,
which made the number 11.
UNDERSTANDING. See Metaphysics and Lo¬
gic.
UNDERWALD, a canton of Swifierland, and the
fixth in rank. Tt is bounded on the north by the canton
of Lucern and by the Lake of the Four Cantons, on the
call by the high mountains which feparate it from the can¬
ton of Bern, and on the welt by the canton of Bern. The
religion of this canton is the Roman Catholic.
UNDERWOOD, is coppice, or any wood that is not
accounted timber.
UNDULATION, in phylics, a kind of tremulous mo¬
tion or vibration obfervable in a liquid, whereby it alternate¬
ly rifes and falls like the waves of the fea.
UNGUENT, in medicine and furgery, a topical remedy
or compofition, chiefly ufed in the drefiing of wounds or
■bliftets. See Pharmacy, n° 635.
UNICORN, an animal famous among the ancients, and
thought to be the fame with the rhinoceros. See Rhino¬
ceros.
Sparmann informs us, that the figure of the unicorn de-
feribed by the ancients has been found delineated by the
Snefe Hottentots on the plain furface of a rock in Caffraria;
and therefore conje&ures, that luch an animal either does ex-
ilt at prefent in the internal parts of Africa, or at lealt once
did fo. Father Lobo affirms that he has feen it.
UnicoRN-FiJh. See Monobon.
UNIFORM, demotes a thing to be fimilar, or confiftent
cither with another thing, or with itfelf, in refpeft of fi¬
gure, ftru&ure, proportion, or the like; in which fenfe it
Hands oppoled to difform.
UNIFORMITY, regularity, a fimilitude or refemblance
between the parts of a whole. Such is that we meet with in
figures of many fides, and angles refpeftively equal, and an-
fwerable to each other. A late ingenious author makes
. beauty to confifl. in uniformity, joined or combined with va¬
riety. Where the uniformity is equal in two obje&s, the
beauty, he contends, is as the variety ; and where the varie¬
ty is equal, the beauty is as the uniformity.
Uniformity, is particularly ufed far one and the fame
form of public prayers, and adminiftration of facraments,
and other rites, &c. of the church of England, preferibed
by the famous flat. 1 Eliz. and 13 and 14 Car. II. cap. 4.
called the of Uniformity. See Liturgy.
UNION, a junction, coalition, or aflemblage of two or
more different things in one.
Union, or The Union, by way of eminence, is more par¬
ticularly ufed to exprefs the aft by which the two feparate
kingdoms of England and Scotland weie incorporated into
one, under the title of The kingdom of Great Britain. This
union, in vain attempted by king James I. was at length
effeaed in the year 1707, 6 Anns, when 25 articles were
agreed to by the parliament of both nations ; the purport
of the moff confiderable being as follows 4
1. T. hat on the firft of May 17°7> and for ever after, the
kingdoms of England and Scotland ffiall be united into one
kingdom, by the name of Great Britain.
Vox,. XVIII. Pan IL
2. The fucceffion to the monarchy of Great Britain Union,
{hall be the fame as was before fettled with regard to that """ 'v
of England.
3. The united kingdom {hall be reprefented by one par¬
liament.
4. There {hall be a communication of all rights and pri¬
vileges between the fubjedls of both king'doms, except where
it is otherwife agreed.
9. When England raifes 2,000,cool, by a land-tax,
Scotland {hall raiie 48,0001.
16, 17. 1 he ftandards of the coin, of weights, and of
meafures, {hall be reduced to thofe of England throughout
the united kingdoms.
18. The laws relating to trade, cuftoms, and the excife,
{hall be the fame in Scotland as in England. But all the
other laws of Scotland {hall remain in force ; but alterable
by the parliament of Great Britain. Yet with this cau¬
tion, that laws relating to public policy are alterable at the
diferetion of the parliament ; laws relating to private right
are not to be altered but for the evident utility of the peo¬
ple of Scotland.
22. Sixteen peers are to be chofen to reprefent the peer¬
age of Scotland in parliament, and 45 members to fit in the
honfe of commons.
23. The 16 peers of Scotland fhall have all privileges of
parliament; and all peers of Scotland {hall be peers of Great
Britain, and rank next after thofe of the fame degree at the
time of the union, and fhall have all privileges of peers, ex¬
cept fitting in the houie of lords, and voting on the trial of
a peer.
Thefe are the principal of the 25 articles of union, which
are ratified and confirmed by ftatute 5 Ann. c. 8. in which
ftatute there are alfo-two afts of parliament recited ; the
one of Scotland, whereby the church of ScotianL and alfo
the four univerlities of that kingdom, are eftablifhed for ever,
and all fucceeding fovereigns are to take an oath inviolably
to maintain the fame ; the other of England, 5 Anna;, c. 6.
whereby the afts of uniformity of 13 Eliz. and 1 3 Car. II.
(except as the fame had been altered by parliament at that
time), and all other a£h then in force for the prefervation.
of the church of England, are declared perpetual; and it
is {Updated, that every fubfequent king and queen {hall
take an oath inviolably to maintain the fame within Eng¬
land, Ireland, Wales, and the town of Berwick upon
Tweed. And it is ena&ed, that thefe two ads “ {hall for
ever be obferved as fundamental and effential conditions of
the union.”
Upon thefe articles and ad of union, it is to be obferved,
I. That the two kingdoms are fo infeparably united, that
nothing can ever difunite them ; except the mutual confent
of both, or the fuecdsful refiftance of either, upon appre¬
hending an infringement of thofe points which, when they
were feparate and independent nations, it was mutually ffi-
pulated fliould be “ fundamental and effential conditions of
the union.” 2. That whatever elle may be deemed “ fun¬
damental and effential conditions,” the prefervation of the
two churches, of England and Scotland, in the fame ftate
that they were in at the time of the union, and the mainte¬
nance of the ads of uniformity which eftablifhed the litur¬
gy, are exprefsly declared fo to be. 3. That therefore any
alteration in the conftitution of either of thefe churches, or
in the liturgy of the church of England (unlefs with the
confent of the refpedive churches, colledively or reprefen-
tatively given), would be an inhingement of thefe “ funda¬
mental and effential conditions,” and greatly endanger the
union. 4. d hat the municipal laws of Scotland are or¬
dained to be ftill obferved in that.part of the ifland, unlefs al-
tered byparliamentj and as the parliament has not yet thought
4 -P proper,
UNI F 666 I UNI
imfen proper, except in a few inftances, to alter them, they dill, with
II , regard to the particulars unaltered, continue in full force.
Brethren. UNISON, in mudc. See Interval.
UNIT, or Unity, in arithmetic, the number one; or one
fingle individual part of diferete quantity.
UNITARIANS, in ecclefialtical hiftory, a name given
to thofe who confine the glory and attribute of divinity to
the One only great and iuprerne God, and Father of our
.Lord Jefus Chrift.
UNITED Brethren, or Unites Fratrum, in ecclefi-
allical hiftory, a church of which many of our readers will
think that an account fufficiently full has been given under
the word Herrnhut. With that account, however, fome
of the brethren have expreffed themfelves dlffatisfied, in
terms which might, without impropriety, be called acrimo¬
nious; and the prefent Editor of this Work, being convinced
by his own experience how difficult it is to extract pure and
nnfophifticated truth from the perplexed writings of angry
polemics, refolved, when he entered upon his laborious talk,
to permit every feft of Chriftians to plead its own caufe,
upon the fingle condition of not loading its opponents with
Opprobrious epithets. He hopes therefore that the public
will forgive him for inferting the following account of the
rile, progrefs, worfhip, and difeipline, of the church of the
United Brethren, extracted from a tedious manufeript fent to
liim by one of their clergy. He has faithfully abridged the
narrative of his author ; but does not confider himfeif as un¬
der any obligation either to maintain its truth, or to convict
it of falfehood.
According to this writer, the church of the United Bre¬
thren took its rife in Moravia during the 14th century ;
though in the fentence immediately following this aflertion,
he fays, that it derived its origin from the Greek church in
the 9th century, when, by the inftramentality of Metho¬
dius and Cyrillus, two Greek monks, the kings of Bulga¬
ria and Moravia being converted to the faith, were, together
with their fubjedts, united in communion with the Greek
church. Methodius was their firft bilhop ; and for their
ufe Cyrillus trarflated the Scriptures into the Sclavonian
language.
The antipathy of the Greek and Roman churches is
well known ; and by much the greater part of the brethren
were in procefs of time compelled, after many ftruggles, to
fubmit to the fee of Rome. A few, however, adhering to
the rites of their mother church, united themfelves in 1176
to the Waldenfes, and fent milfionaries into many countries.
In 1457 they were called fratres legis Chrijli, or brethren of
the law of Chrift, becaufe about that period they had
thrown off all reverence for human compilations of the faith,
profeffing fimply to follow the dodtrines and precepts con¬
tained in the word of God.
There being at this time no bifhops in the Bohemian
church who had not fubmitted to the papal jurifdidtion,
three priefts of the fociety of United Brethren were, about
the year 1467, confecrated by Stephen bilhop of the Wal¬
denfes in Auftria (fee Waldenses) ; and thefe prelates, on
their return to their own country, confecrated ten co-bi-
Ihops, or confeniors, from among the reft of the prelbyters.
In United Brethren commenced a friendly cor-
' refpondence, firil with Luther, and afterwards with Calvin
and other leaders among the Reformers. A perfecution,
which was brought upon them on this, account, and fome
religious difputes which took place among themfelves,
threatened for a while the fociety with ruin ; but the dif¬
putes were in 1570 put an end to by a fynod, which de¬
creed that differences about non-effentials ftiould not deftroy
their union j and the perfecution ceafed in 1575, when the
United Brethren obtained an ediff for the public exereile TTntfei
of their religion. This toleration was renewed in 1609, ^rel*iren.
and liberty granted them to eredt new churches. But a ci-
vil war which in 1612 broke out in Bohemia, and a violent
perfecution which followed it in 1621, occafioned thedifper-
iion ol their minifters, and brought great diftrefs upon the
Brethren in general. Some of them tied to England, others
to Saxony and Brandenburg, whilft many, overcome by the
feverity of the perfecution, conformed to the rites of the
church of Rome. One colony of thefe, who retained in
purity their original principles and practice, was, in 1722,
conduced by a brother named Chnjiian David, from Ful-
neck in Moravia to Upper Lufatia, where they put them¬
felves under the proteftion of Nicholas Lewis count of
Zinzendqrf, and built a village on his eftate, at the foot
of a hill called Hutberg, or “ Watch Hill” (fee Herrn¬
hut). The count, who foon after their arrival removed
from Drefden to his eftate in the country, Ihowed every
mark of kindnefs to the poor emigrants; but being a zea¬
lous member of the church eftablilhed by law, he endea¬
voured for fome time to prevail upon them to unite them¬
felves with it, by adopting the Lutheran faith and difeipline.
This they declined ; and the count, on a more minute in¬
quiry into their ancient hiftory and dittinguiftiing tenets,
not only defifted trom his firft purpofe, but became himfeif
a convert to the faith and difeipline of the United Bre¬
thren.
The fynod, which in 1570 put an end to the difputes
which then tore the church of the Brethren into factions,
had confidered as non-effentials the diftinguilhir.g tenets of
their own fociety, of the Lutherans, and of the Calvinifts.
» In confequence of this, many of the Reformers of both thefe
fefts had followed the Brethren to Herrnhut, and been re¬
ceived by them into communion ; but not being endued with
the peaceable fpirit of the church which they had joined,,
they ftarted difputes among themfelves, which threatened
the deftriuftion of the whole eftablifhment. By the indefa¬
tigable exertions of Count Zinzendorf thefe difputes were
allayed; and ftatutes being in 1727 drawn up and agreed to
for the regulation both of the internal and of the external
concerns of the congregation, brotherly love and union was
again eftabliihed ; and no fchifm whatever, in points of
doritrine, has iincc that period difturbed the church of
the United Brethren.
In 1 735 the Count, who under God had been the inftru-
ment of renewing the Brethren’s church, was confecratecT
one of their bilhops, having the year before been examined
and received into the clerical orders by the Theological Facul¬
ty of Tubingen. Dr Potter, then archbifhop of Canter¬
bury, congratulated him upon this event, and promiied his
affiftance to a church of confeffors, of whom he wrote in
terms of the higheft refpeft for their having maintained
the pure and primitive faith and difeipline in the midft of
the molt tedious and cruel perfecutions. That his Grace,
who had ftudied the various controverfies about church-
government with uncommon fuccefs, admitted the Mora¬
vian epifcopal fucceifion, we know from the moft unque-
ftionable authority ; for he communicated his fentiments on
the fubjedf to Dr Seeker while bifhop of Oxford, and from
his Lordfhip they came through a dignitary of the church
of England to the compiler of this article. In conformity
wich thefe fentiments of the archbilhop, we are affured that
the parliament of Great Britain, after mature inveftigation,
acknowledged the Unitas Fratrum to be a Proteftant epif¬
copal church; and in 1794 an adf was certainly paffed in
their favour.
We have elfewhere (fee Hsrrnhut) mentioned the
6 fa*
UNI [ 667 ] UNI
United favourable report that was made to the court of Drefden
Brethren, by a deputation which was appointed to examine into the
principles and practices of the United Brethren ; of which
the confequence was, a toleration through all Saxony, as
well as in Upper Lufatia. It is, however, acknowledged
by the author of the manufeript which we are abridging,
that feme of the converts to the faith and dilcipline of the
Unitas Fratrum, having previoufly imbibed extravagant no¬
tions, propagated them with zeal among their new friends,
in a phrafeology extremely reprehenfible ; and that Count
Zinzendorf himfelf fometiir.es adopted the very improper
language of thofe fanatics, whom he wifhed to reclaim from
their errors to the fobernefs of truth ; but it is added, that
much of the extravagance and abfurdity which has been at¬
tributed to the Count, is not to be charged to him, but to
thofe perfons who, writing his extempore fermons in fhort
hand, printed and publifhed them without his knowledge or
confent. This account of the matter appears indeed ex¬
tremely probable ; and it is but juftice to the Count to ac¬
knowledge, that he feems to have been very deiirous to dil-
claim the improper expreffions, and to vindicate his church
from countenancing that impurity which, whether jultly or
not, was attributed to himfelf.
This eminent benefaftor to the United Brethren died in
1760 ; and it is with reafon that they honour his memory,
as having been the inftrument by which God reftored and
built Up their church. But they do not regard him as their
head, nor take his writings, nor the writings of any other
man, as the Itandard of their doftrines, which they profefs
to derive immediately from the word of God.
It has been already obferved, that the church of the Uni¬
ted Brethren is epifcopal; but though they confider epif-
copal ordination as neceffary to qualify the fervants of the
church for their refpe&ive functions, they allow to their bi-
ftiops no elevation of rank or pre-eminent authority ; their
church having from its firfl: eftablifhment been governed hy
fynods, confiding of deputies from all the congregations ;
and by other fubordinate bodies, which they call conferences.
T he fynods, which are generally held once in feven years,
are called together by the elders who were in the former fy-
nod appointed to fuperintend the whole unity. In the
firft fitting a prelident is chofen, and thefe elders lay down
their office ; but they do not withdraw from the allembly,
for they, together with all b\(hop&, finwres civiles, or lay-el¬
ders, and thofe minifters who have the general care or in-
Ipeftion of feveral congregations in one province, have feats
in the fynod without any particular election. The other
members are, one or more deputies lent by each congrega¬
tion, and fuch miniiters or miffionaries as are particularly
called to attend. Women approved by the congregations
are alfo admitted as hearers; and are called upon to give
their advice in what relates to the minifterial labour among
their fex; but they have no decifive vote in the fynod. The
votes of all the other members are equal.
In queitions of importance, or of which the confequences
cannot be forefeen, neither the majority of votes nor the
unanimous confent of ail prefent can decide ; but recourfe is
had to the lot. p’or adopting this unufual mode of deci¬
ding in ecclefiaftical affairs, the Brethren allege as reafons
the practices of the ancient jews and the apofiles ; the in-
fufficiency of the human underffanding amidft the bell: and
pared intentions to decide for itfelf in what concerns the
adminiftration of Chrift’s kingdom ; and their own confi¬
dent reliance on the comfortable promifes that the Lord Je-
ius will approve himfelf the head and ruler of his church.
I he lot is never made ufe of but after mature deliberation
and fervent prayer; nor is any thing fubmitted to its deci-
fion, which does not, after being thoroughly weighed, appear
to the affembly eligible in itfeif.-
In every fynod the inward and outward ftate of the u-
nity, and the concerns of the congregations and miffions,
are taken into confideration. If errors in doftrine or de¬
viations in pra&ice have crept in, the fynod endeavours not
only to remove them, but by falutary regulations to prevent
them for the future. It confiders how many bifhops are to
be confecrated to fill up the vacancies occafioned by death;
and every member of the fynod gives his vote for fuch of
the clergy as bethinks heft qualified. Thofe who have the
majority of votes are taken into the lot, and they who are
approved are confecrated accordingly; but hy coufecra-
tion they are veiled with no fuperiority over their Brethren,
fince it behoves him who is the oreateft; to be the fervant
of all.
Towards the conclufion of every fynod, a kind of execu¬
tive board is chofen, and called the Elder’s Conference of the
Unity. At prefent it confifts of 13 elders, and is divided
into four committees or departments : 1. The mijfion’s de¬
partment, which fuperintends all the concerns of the mif¬
fions into Heathen countries. 2. The helper’s department,
which watches over the purity of doSlrine and the moral
conduft of the different congregations. 3. The fervant’s
department, to which the economical concerns of the Uni¬
ty are committed. 4. The overfeer’s department, of which
the bufinefs is to fee that the conflitution and difcipline of
the Brethren be everywhere maintained. No refolution,
however, of any of thefe departments has the fmaileli force,
till it be laid before the afiembly of the whole Elder's Con¬
ference, and have the approbation of that body. The pow¬
ers of the Elder’s Conference are indeed very extenfive. Be-
fides the general care which it is commiffioned by the fynods
to take of all the congregations and millions, it appoints
and removes every fervant in the unity, as circumftances may
require ; authorifes the bifhops to ordain prefbyters or dea¬
cons, and to conlecrate other bifhops; and, in a word, tho'
it cannot abrogate any of the conftitutions of the fynod, or
ena£t new ones itielf, it is poffeffed of the fupreme executive
power over the whole body of the United Brethren.
Befides this general conference of elders, which fuper¬
intends the affairs of the whole uqity, there is another
conference of elders belonging to each congregation, which
dire&s its affairs, and to which the bilhops and all other
minifttrs, as well as the lay-members of the congregation,
are fubjeft. This body, which is called the Elder’s Con¬
ference of the Congregation, confifts, f. Of the minijler as pre-
iident, to whom the ordinary care of the congregation is
committed, except when it is very numerous, and then the
general infpedlion of it is entrufted to a feparate perfon, call¬
ed the Congregation Helper ; 2. Of the warden, whofe of¬
fice it is to fuperintend with the aid of his council all out¬
ward concerns of the congregation, and to afiift every indi¬
vidual with his advice ; 3. Of a married pair, who care par¬
ticularly for the fpiritual welfare of the married people ; 4.
Of zftng/e clergyman, to whofe care the young men are more
particularly committed ; and, 5. Of thofe women, who affiit
in caring for the fpiritual and temporal welfare of their own
fex, and who in this conference have equal votes with the
men. As the Elder’s Conference of each Congregation is an-
Iwerable for its proceedings to the Elder’s Conference of the
Unity, vilitations from the latter to the former are held from
time to time, that the affairs of each congregation, and the
conduct of its immediate governors, may be intimately
known to the fupreme executive government of the whole
church.
We have already mentioned the epifcopacy of the Bre-
4 P 2 thren,
United'
Brethren
UNI [ 663
Breth^er t^ren’ ^ie verX ^m’'tecl powers of their bifliops; and
Uniud ’ ^ave to a^> that, in their opinion, epifcop?.! confecration
Brovi' ce'. does not confer any power to prefide over one Or more con-
^  y—1... predations ; and that a bifhop can dilcharsye no office but
by the appointment of a fynod, or of the Elder’s confe¬
rence o: the Unity. Prefbyters among them can perform
every funddioa of the bifhop' except ordination ; for if we
underlfand the nlanufcript before us, he confirms by the
laying on of hands young ptrfons when they fir!i become
candidates for the communion. Deacons are affiftants to
the prefbyters much in the' fame way as in the church of
England ; and in the Brethren’s churches deaconefles are re¬
tained, for the purpofe of privately admonifhing their own
itx, and vifiting them in their ficknefs: but though they are
folemnly bleffed to this office, they are not permitted to
teach in public, and far lets to adminifter the facraments.
a hey have likewife feniores civiles, or lay-elders, in contra-
diitinfhon to fpiritual elders or bifliops, who are appointed
to waten over the constitution and difcipline of the Unity
of the Brethren ; over the obfervance of the laws of the
country in which congregations or miflions are eftabliihed ;
and over the privileges granted to the Brethren by the go¬
vernments under which they live. They do not confider a
regular courfe of literary education as at all neceffary to
qualify perfons for admiffion into orders, provided they pof-
lefs a thorough knowledge of the word of God, what they
call fohd Chrifttan experience, and a well regulated zeal to
ferve God and their neighbours.
We have mentioned elfewhere (Herrnhut) their daily
meetings in church for worfhip and edification. On Sun¬
day, belldes the public prayers, which are either read from
a liturgy or pronounced extempore by the minifter, one or
two ferrnons are preached in every church or chapel; and
after the morning fervice an- exhortation is given to the
children. Previous to the holy communion, which is admi-
niftered on tome Sunday once a-month, and likewife on
Maunday Thurfday, each peifon who intends to commu¬
nicate converfes with one of the elders on the flate of his
foul, expreffing his defire to partake of the facrament. The
celebration of the communion is generally preceded by a
lovefenji, which is alfo kept on other folemn occafions. On
Maurday Thurfday, before communion, the Brethren have
a folemn foot-ii'ajlmg ; and at this, and we fuppofe at other
times, they greet one another with the kifs of charity. Thefe
ceremonies they eonfider as religious rites, authorifed thro’
all ages of the church by our Saviour himfelf and his two
apoftles St Peter and St Paul*.
* John xii". Our limits will not permit us to give a fyflematic view of
14 1 Peter the dodlrinal tenets of the Brethren. Though they ac-
. knowledge no other ftandard of truth than the iacred Scrip-
’ ’ lures, they adhere to the Augfburg Confeffion, and fpeak
refpedfuiiy of the 39 articles of the church of England.
They profefs to believe that the kingdom of Chriit is not
confined to any particular party, community, or church ;
and they confider themfelves, though united in one body or
vifible church, as fpiritually joined in the bond of Chriftian
love to all who are taught of God, and belong to the uni-
verial church of Chriff, however much they may differ in
forms, which they deem noa-effentials. But the reader who
wifhes to have a fuller account of this iociety of Chriftians,
we mufl refer to Cranz'& Aiu\ent and Modern Hjlory of the
J’rotejlant Church of the United Brethren, printed in Ton-
don, 1780 ; and to a work entitled An Expofitiun of Chri-
jlian Doctrine as taught in the Protejlant Church of the United
Brethren, London, 1784.
UNITED Provinces, or United Netherlands, other-
wife called the Republic of Holland, confift of the feven pro¬
vinces of Holland, Zealand, friefland, Groningen, Over*
\
] UNI
yffel, Zutphcn, and Utrecht. They arc bounded on the United
weft by the German Ocean ; on the eaft by the circle of Province^
Weftphalia; and on the fouth by Flanders, Brabant, and  v—W
the duchy of Cleves. They compofe the greateft part of
the ancient Batavia, whofe inhabitants were formerly k>
much renowned for their valour. Under the Romans they BataJiang
were exempt from impofts and taxes, in coniequence ofLNghe-
bearing the honourable title of Allies of the Republic. un-
The Netherlands came into the pofteffion of the houfe of^r the Ro‘
Auftria by the marriage of Mary of Burgundy with the ' »
emperor Maximilian: but on that prince’s refigning the im- Lfhckr
perial crown, the 17 provinces of the Netherlands devolved tf?e
or right on Don John qf Spain ; but he and his fuccefforg.'^” of
Philip le Beau dying in a fhort time after, they, in 1505, 1 ia*
fell under the dominion of Charles V. at that time a mu ,
nor.
At this period the feven provinces, which now compofe.
the Republic of Holland, enjoyed a kind of independence ;
but the policy and warlike difpofition of Charles foon re¬
duced them to obedience. When he refigned the Iceptre.
to his fon Philip, the Low Countries were in a moll ^
flourifhing condition. In this fmall tradl of country were Flourifhing
reckoned no fewer than 350 large cities inclofed with walls,ftate of the
and 6300 confiderable towns, all become rich by their ap-f
plication to the arts and to commerce. At the fame time,
the love of liberty was very prevalent among the inhabit
tants, and they were jealous of every invafion of their rights
and privileges. The arbitrary government of Philip was
therefore very difagreeable to his fubjedts in the Low Coun¬
tries, and the partiality fhown on all occaiions to the Spani-
ards foon loft their affedlions altogether, 4
The extreme iuperftition, however, and cruel bigotry of Perfecntion
Philip, proved the greateft fource of difeontent. The docri,f'lie Re-
trines ot the reformers had been preached and received with ^ornie<**
avidity in the Low Countries. A cruel perfecution of the
reformed had been commenced by Charles V. infomuch that
he is laid to have deftroyed no fewer than 100,000 perfons
on account of religion. This cruelty had no effedf except
to increafe the number of heretics ; which being obferved
by Mary queen of Hungary, lifter to the emperor, fhe in¬
vited him to the Low Countries, that he might perfonally
behold the bad effedts of bis cruelty. On this the empe¬
ror granted a toleration, but Philip was altogether infle¬
xible. In order to proceed more efledlually againft the re¬
formed, a court of inquifition was inftituted ; and under $ ^
pretence that the three bifhoprics, which at that time com-
prehended the whole country, were too large, 17 of thefeeftablifheik
dignitaries were eredled, three with the title of archbifhops.
To afford fufficient revenues for thefe, it became neceffary
to fupprefs feveral abbeys, which of itfelf produced great
difeontent. But what gave the finifhing ftroke to the whole ^
was, Philip’s announcing his intention of refiding conftant-Quc]iefsof
ly in Spain ; his appointing the duehefs- of Parma, his na- Parma ap-
tural lifter, to be regent of the Netherlands ; and giving herP°'nt£(l g0"
for a counfellor cardinal Granvele, a bloody perfecutor of
veniefs.
the reformed ; at the fame time that the provinces were 00-
prefted by the violences of foreign troops, for the payment
of whom they were aifo opprefied by taxes. Three coun¬
cils were eftablifhed at Bruffels ; one to prefide over the laws
and courts of juftice ; a fecond to diredf every thing refpcc-
ting peace or war ; and the third to manage the revenues :
but frill the duchefs of Parma was ordered to confult Gran-
vele in every matter, and make him at all times her chief con¬
fidant.
The duchefs took upon her the government of the Low^.^'^j
Countries in the year 1560 ; and was no iooner arrived at (jifeuntcr-t-
Bruffels, than complaints poured in from all quarters againft
the inquifition,. cardinal Gran vele, and the new bifhoprics.
The
UNI r 669 1 UNI
United The duehefs endeavoured to allay the ferment by fair words,
provinces. |jUt ;n va;n> the head of the malecontents were the ptince
of Orange, count Egmont, and count Horn, who llrenu-
oufly infilled on calling an aflembly of the States-general,
and laying before them the grievances by which the country
was opprefled. The event was, that in 1564 the cardinal
was obliged to refign his dignity ; which yet did not pro¬
duce any good elfeft, as he was fucceeded by two of his
creatures, Barlaimont and Viglius, who trod exa&ly in his
footileps. They pulhed on the inquiiition to frelh execu¬
tions ; Higmatized the principal nobility as heretics ; and on
all occahons {bowed fu'eh violent and intolerable zeal for
the Catholic religion, that one of Philip’s minifters repre-
iented to him the danger there was of a total revolt of the
8 provinces, unlefs the rigours of perfecution were fomewhat
Extreme relaxed. But Philip no fooner received this intelligence,
bigotry of than he replied, “ that he had rather be without fubjetts,
than be a king of heretics.” Agreeable to this reply, all the
obnoxious decrees were en'orced with double rigour; upon
which the Hate of affairs became fo alarming, that it was
thought neceffary to fend count Egmont into Spain, in or¬
der to have a perfonal interview with the king on the fub-
jeft. Philip, accuilomed to deceit, gave a fmooth anfwer,
abated the rigour of his decrees, and ordered the gover-
nante fometimes to coniult with the prince of Orange. Thus
tranquillity was for a time rellored ; but in the year 1 j66,
it being difcoveted that a fcheme for the total extirpation
of the Protellants had been concerted by the queen-mother
of France, her for. Charles IX. and Ifabella queen of Spain,
in a conference at Bayonne, matters became worfe than ever.
That the information received concerning this detellable
combination w'as true, very foon appeared, from Philip’s
difcl aiming all the favourable interpretations which had been
put upon his anfwer to count Egmont, and from his order¬
ing the inquiiition to proceed with more fury than ever.—
9 The coniequence of this was a general alfociation again(l
attdatYon th‘8 abominable tribunal, which was fubfcribed by all orders
again!} the and degrees of men, Roman Catholics as well as Proteltants.
inquifition. The confederates, headed by Henry- de Brodenrode, a de-
fcendant of the ancient earls of Holland, waited on the du-
chefs of Parma, in fuch a formidable body, that fhe was ob*
liged to difmifs them with an abfolute promife that their de-.
mands Ihould be granted. Thefe demands were, that the
inquiiition Ihould be abolilhed, and the edicts againftliberty
of confcience recalled ; and for this fhe immediately inter-
pofed all her intereff with Philip. Sir William Temple al¬
leges, that Philip, in confequence of the governante’s re-
monltrances, granted all that was defired, but too late. All
other hifforians, however, agree that he was inflexible, and
that the duchefs could procure no better conditions than
that heretics Ihonld from that time forward be hanged in-
Head of being burned. Even this appeared a conceffion.
unworthy of the king; the royal name was therefore for¬
bid to be ufed.
Before the confederates proceeded to extremities, they,
fent deputies to Madrid ; but, according to fome authors,
they were reflifed admittance into the king’s prefence. It
appears, however, that they had found means of reprefent-
ing the true Hate of affairs to the king, and of informing
him that the dilturbances proceeded from the deteffation in
which the inquifition was everywhere held in the Low
Countries. Their reprefentations produced no other effedt
than an equivocal promife, which was evidently never in-
T!>e ptoplebe kept., i he governance received orders to
breakout proceed againft heretics with the utmolf feverity upon
into aA of which the people broke out into adds of open rebellion. In
re t»uon. feveral towns ot Flanders the churches were deftroyed, ima¬
ges pulled down, and all thole alts of violence committed
which are the ufual operations of a lawk-fs mob. The Tnifed
principal inhabitants, however, Hill remained quiet, and even '■’rovincte,
did all in their power to reftrain the violence of the com¬
monalty ; fo that, had Philip made any kind of reafonable
conceffion, the public tranquillity might have been reftored. jj
Inftead of this, however, a new oath of allegiance was ad- New oath
minillered by the governante, and all perfons were obliged°fa"e81' .
to fwear that they would regard as traitors and enemies to^e reAU1’
their country' all whom the king Ihould think proper to
profcribe. This extraordinary proceeding was followed by
the mofl cruel perfecution that can be imagined ; at the
fame time that the duke of Alva was fent into the Nether¬
lands with an army of 10,000 veteran troops, to put the
laft hand to the mifery of the people, and fully to eftablilh
the delpotifm of the court. Counts Egmont and Horn I2
took the above mentioned oath ; but the prince of Orange Prince of
could by no means be induced to it, and therefore retired 9ran8e r2'.‘
into Germany, along with counts Brodenrode and Hoog*ures’
Urate. Their example was followed by great numbers of
all ranks and conditions; and after the arrival of the army
commanded by the duke of Alva, fuch multitudes continued
to emigrate, that the duchefs of Parma informed the-
king, that within a few days 100,000 families had left his •
dominions ; that in a fhort time the country mull be depo^
pulated, in which cafe there were would be no occafion for 13
a governante ; fhe therefore begged leave to refign, before r>uc^ei's
Ihe Ihould have the mortification and difgrace or being left"8[ma re"
alone in the Netherlands. ^
Philip immediately complied with the requelt of the fs fucceed.'
princefs, and the duke of Alva was appointed to fucceedei^ ^
her in the government. It may eafily be imagined that the^1^ °
miferies of the people would now become intolerable. The
king was a proud and mercilcfs tyrant, fet at too great a di-
llance from his fubjedts to be thoroughly fenfi’ole of their
calamities, and totally deftitute of compaffion had he knovvn-
them ever fo well. . The new governor was of the fame diL
pofition ; and the army he commanded was fierce, rapaci¬
ous, and cruel, defiring nothing more ardently than to enrich
themfelves at the expence of the inhabitants. The whole,
country was filled v/ith blood and horror; counts Egmont
and Horn were ignominioufly executed, and the effate ot
the prince of Orange was confifcated. Thefe laft: proceed-prince of
ings drove the people into defpair; and they invited the Orange in¬
prince to return, in order to take upon him the defence ofvite! bL
the country from inch, infufferable tyranny and oppreffxon. the
All this time the prince of Orange, and his brother10 raiUl1
Louis of Naffau, had been labouring to form alliances for
the defence of the liberties of cheir country. He had repre-
lented matters in fuch a light to the emperor Maximilian^ .
that his Imperial mqefty fent an ambaffador to Philip, ex¬
horting him to treat his fubjeds in the Netherlands with lefs
rigour. 1 his embaffy was haughtilyireceived; Philip continued
his perfecutions, and the prince of Orange his preparationsr.j( (yr.:,,
for entering the Lbw Countries. His firfl efforts,.however, comnunoy
weie very untuccefsful, A detachment of Germans m the to the dif-
fervice of the prince attempted to penetrate into Brabantadvani;a8-
and furprife Ruremond ; but were defeated by a detach-of.the
ment from the duke of Alva’s army. Another party, cos-FinCe‘
fifting chiefly of French, attempted to penetrate into Ar¬
tois by the way of Picardy ; but their officers were arrelled
by order of Charles IX. Louis oi Naffau, however, defeat-
ed a body of Spaniards, and killed 600 of them on the fpot;
but the vigilance of his enemies prevented him from drawing
any advantage of confequence from his viftory.
1 he duke of Alva was fo much chagrined at the defeat
fuftained by his party, that he inftantly afiembied his troops
iiom all quarters. His army then apoeared too formidable
to be oppofed, and the prince of Naffau with count Hong]
x Rrafs
'United
Provinces.
. x7
’Prince of
UNI
'ftrstc retired towards the river Ens.
ed by the duke of Alva, and mutinies ariling among their
traops for want of pay, they were foon brought to an ac¬
tion, and totally defeated. The infantry were entirely cut
Nuffauand j'n pieces ; 'he cavalry were laved, but all the baggage and
PTo^ftrat ai‘t^£r7 were taken by the enemy. In the mean time, the
defeated by prince cf Orange was hadening to the relief of his diftreffed
the duke of allies with an army of 28,000 men ; but having the misfor-
2ilva. tune of being alfo defeated, and count'Hoogdrate killed in
Prince of t^e a^’ori> foldiets deferted in inch crowds, that he was
‘Orange de-at obliged to dilband his army and return to Germany,
feared, and This difafter hapotned in the year 1569. The duke of
difbands his A1 va refolved to make the moft of his time. He entered
a.my. Brufiels in triumph ; and let loofe his vengeance againft all
who had in the lead afiided, or been fuppofed to affid, the
19 prince of Orange. All the prifoners taken in the lad cam-
+1 ^fPai£n Tv'ere put to death : and, not contented with this
barbarity, the cruel governor projefted nothing lefs than the
total extirpation cf the reformed religion, by the dedruftion
o
tfhe duke of
Aiva.
His- intole
Taut prin¬
ciples and
cxadtions.
21
Duke of
Alva at¬
tempts in
vain to
f every one who profeffed it; and of rendering himfelf de-
fpotic, by erecting citadels in all the confiderable towns,
which were to be garrifoned by his foldiers. He began
with Amderdam, in which he laid ihe foundation? of a
drong citadel. The people complained of it as an infringe¬
ment of their rights, but the duke was deaf to their com¬
plaints. At Antwerp he caufed his datue to be erected;
and here he was figured treading on the necks of two
fmaller datues, which reprefented the two edates of the
Low Countries. This piece of infolent vanity exafperated
the people to a gieat degree ; and they were dill farther
provoked by a demand of the hundredth part of every man’s
edate to be paid immediately for the fupport of the army,
befides the tenth of all the merchandife, and the twentieth
of all immoveables, to be annually levied as a da,nding re¬
venue. The provinces remondrated, and refufed to fub-
mit to fuch intolerable exa&ions: the governor was infle¬
xible ; and being incenfed at their refidance, he fent the re¬
giment of Lombardy to live at free quarters in the province
of Utrecht.
All this time the prince of Orange was employed in lay¬
ing plans for the deliverance of his didreffed country ; but
”*ta in 1571, the duke of Alva growing impatient, ordered the
bHfh his edidt concerning the new taxes to be publifhed at Brufiels.
xiew taxes The city was infiantly filled with confufion ; the foldiers
at Bruffels. feized on the goods of the inhabitants by force ; tradefmen
fhut up their fhops ; and the peafants refufed to bring pro-
vilions to the market. The dates offered to pay a fubfidy
of 2,000,coo of florins annually in lieu of the intended tax ;
' but their offer wan rejected. The drum beat to arms, and
orders were iffued to hang all who refufed to comply. The
foldiers were preparing to obey, when news arrived of the
furrender of Brid in the ifland of Voorn, at the entrance
of the Meufe, to a iquadron of fhips of war that had been
fitted out by the prince of Orange. Lumey, who com¬
manded the iquadron, made a defeent on the ifland from 40
fhips, deftroyed the churches, broke the images, and exe¬
cuted the priefts, but offered no violence to the other inha¬
bitants.
However unimportant the conquefl of fo inconfiderable
a place might appear, it alarmed the duke of Alva, and
produced the moff extravagant rejoicings in Bruffels. The
from ! Sduk£ regarding it as the harbinger of further oppofition,
■cin<’- his "dropped his taxes and executions tor the preient, and dili-
taxes. gently applied himfelf to fupprefs the growing fpirit of re¬
bellion. He withdrew the garrifon from Bruffels, and de¬
tached it under the command of Maximilian Hermin Boffu,
againft the (hips of war which were called Gveux. This of¬
ficer, endeavouring to force Briel, was defeated by the O-
aa
Bricl taken
by the O-
J'ange par¬
ty.
^3
Duke of
[ 675 ] UNI
But being hard pufh- range faftion, and forced to retire with lofs to the ifland of
Beyerland. Trifling as this vi&ory might feem, it ferved ProvincM.
to animate the deareffed fpirit? of the enemies to the go-' 
vernment. The prince of Orange, fenfible of the advantage a iar4
of poffefiing this ifland, exhorted the nobility of his party his'forcef
to fortify and garrifon it; his orders were obeyed, by which ^“16(1 by
means he foon became mailer of Delfshaben, a town fituated^6 Gueui-
on the oppoftte banks of the Meufe. It appeared in Bof-yjjg2^
fu’s retreat how unpopular the duke of Alva was in everytakc DeltV
part of the country. Dordrecht fhut its gates againft him;
Rotterdam refufed to admit his troops ; but Boffu obtain¬
ing permiflion that they fhould pafs through in feparate fmall 26
divifions, feized the gates, and began a general maffacre of
the inhabitants. Four hundred perifhed by the fword, the
town was pillaged, the women were ravifhed, and every pof-cre(i
fible a£l of barbarity and inhumanity committed. Re-Spaniards,
tribution was foon made by the enemy. Alva had detach¬
ed Offorio d’Angulo with a body of forces to fecure Flufh-
ing, a confiderable port in Zealand, and to ere£l a citadel.
The inhabitants denied Offorio admittance, fliut their gates,
and feized Pacanco, a famous engineer, who had come to
meafure the gremnd where the citadel was to be erefted.
Apprehending that attempts would be made to force them
to fubmiflion, they petitioned Lumey, admiral of the
Gueux, for affiftance ; and he furnifhed them with 200 men,
under the command of Captain Treflong. On the arrival
of this reinforcement, the Spanifh engineer was hanged, and
an unfuccefsful attempt made to furprife Middleburg, the
capital of the ifland of Walcheren. Not difpirited by this
difappointment, the Zealanders affiduoufly profecuted their
cruizes upon the Spaniards, and obtained as much wealth
as purchafed a large ftore of arms and ammunition at Ant¬
werp. Joined by great numbers of Englifh and Scotch ad¬
venturers, they ventured to attack the duke of Medina Celi,
fent with a ftrong Iquadron to fucceed the duke of Alva in Duke de
the government of the Netherlands. The duke was com- Mecbm
pletely defeated, a great number of his fhips were taken,^4"^
and a booty, amounting to near 1,000,000 livres, was car-by the Zc»«
ried off by the Zealanders. landers at
The duke of Alva now ordered a fquadron of (hips tofea-
be equipped at Amfterdam, to bridle the infolence of Lu¬
mey and the Zealanders, while he bufied himfelf in raffing
an army to oppofe the prince of Orange and Lewis de Naf-
fau, who were making great preparations in Germany and
France. To augment the army in the field, he had draught¬
ed moft of the garrifons. By this means the prince’s friends
gained poffeffion of North Holland; and Louis de Nafl'au
was projecting a fcheme to furprife Mons, with the inhabi¬
tants of which he held a fecret correfpondence. The de- 28
fign fucceeded ; which emboldened moft; of the cities and 1
towns in Holland to declare againft the government. The^o]}an(j
count de Bergues gained over feveral cities in Overyffel, declare a-
Guelderland, and Fiiefland. In a word, the revolt becameirait'ft tke
fo general, that the duke of Alva foon found he could notsPamar **
long refill the torrent. He now, when too late, publifhed
an ediCt to appeafe the people, fetting forth, that he would
confent to remit the moil oppreffive taxes, if the Hates could
fuggeft any other means of railing the neceffary fuppbes.
He convoked the States-general to meet at the Hague,
but his orders were now diiregarded ; and the States,, in proc2e^.
contempt of his authority, affembled at Dordrecht, invitingcfthe
deputies from the prince of Orange, the nobility, and the^tates-ge-
towns that had declared againft the governor. Here mo-neralj^
ney was raffed to enable the prince of Orange to begin hisv^®cf
march. His forces amounted to 15,000 foot and 7oocora[ige*
horfe. He had promiied to advance three months pay ;
and was enabled to perform his engagements by the libe¬
rality and public fpirit of the States-general and the cities.
He
TTn'fct!
UNI [ 671
He (bowed the addrefs with which he could manage and
]
U N I
.to
3is i‘uc-
cffes.
Provinces, dired the people; and without the name of ibvereign of the
provinces under his government, he poffeHed the authority.
He prefided at all military operations by fea and land; made
and difpofed of offices at pleafure ; affernbled the States ;
and publilhed all ordonnances and regulations relative to the
prefent ilate of affairs, without controul. However, he
conduced matters with the utmoff delicacy, and uied his
power with great moderation, to avoid giving offence to
the free fpirit^of the Hollanders. The Popifh religion was
bapiffied the churches, and perfons of that perfuafion were,
«tfh great caution, admitted into public employments. Not
only the king’s revenue and church tythes were appropriated
to the public fervice, but the effates of thofe who remained
firm in their loyalty. In ihort, the moll vigorous meafures
were taken for re lifting the tyranny of Spain ; and thofe
perfons who had refufed the tythes to the government, vo¬
luntarily fubfcribed their all to fupport aparty formed in de¬
fence of liberty.
While the States-general were employed in ways and
means to maintain an army, the prince of Orange advanced
to Ruremonde, which he took by affault, on the refufal of
the city to fupply him with neceffaries. From thence he
marched to Brabant, and raifed heavy contributions. He
took Mechlin, Oudenarde, and Dendermonde ; and could
not reftrain the exceffes of the foldiers, who pillaged the
churches, maffacred the priefts, and committed other barba¬
rities. Next he approached to Mons, belieged by the duke
of Alva, with delign, if poffible, to engage him to give
battle. The duke baffled all his endeavours to force him,
and carried Mons by capitulation. The whole Spanifh do¬
minion, however, lately fo infolent and exulting, was ready
to expire in the Netherlands, had it not been revived by the
maffacre of the Proteftants in Paris.
While the fate of Mons was depending, the ftates of Hoi*
land met at Haarlem, to deliberate on the defence of the
province and the profecution of the war. Amfterdam was
in the enemy’s hands, which greatly obftrufted all their
meafures. It was therefore determined to beiiege it ; and
the enterprife was committed to Lumey, chief of the
Gueux. After putting the States to conliderable expence,
the projefl: mifcarried through Lumey’s milconduft. Wa¬
ter was his element, but his vanity led him to difplay his abi¬
lities as a land-officer. He made regular approaches, and
was 'oiled in every attempt.
The reduction of Mons, and the depreffion of fpirit con-
fequent on the maffacre at Paris, obliged the prince of O-
range to retire to Holland, and encouraged Alva to inveft
Dendermonde, Oudenarde, and Mechlin. The latter, be¬
ing in no condition to refill, opened its gates ; but the Spa-
niffi foldiers chofe to fcale the walls, to give an air of affault
to the euterprife, and countenance to the horrid barbarities
intended. Proteftams and Catholics were maffacred without
fuc S fhe town was pillaged, and the booty eftimated
cruelty of at 400,000 florinp. All the other towns were evacuated
the duke of by the garrifons, and loaded with heavy impofitions by Al-
Aiva. va. As to the prince, he had now removed the feat of war
into the province of Holland. Only this orovince and Zea¬
land remained firm to their engagements; the reft, over-
whelmed with confternation, capitulated on the belt terms
they could procure from the government. However, the
country being ftrong by its nature and fituation among the
waters, and more fo by a fierce, rough, and fturdy people,
proud of their ancient fame, and. the moil implacable ene¬
mies of Spanifh tyranny, it was determined to make the
moft vigorous refiftance. Frederic de Toledo was difpatch-
ed by Alva to begin the operations in Holland. He had
already reduced Zutphea and Gueldeiland j and, flufhed with
fuccefs, appeared before Waerden, which he furnmoned' to ITtired
rr -- — - - .... . Provinces.
Is obliged
to retire.
admit a garrilon. The burghers replied, that they v/erei
intrufted by the king with the defence of the place, and
could not receive a military force without violence to their
privileges and. engagements. They foon had reafon to re¬
pent their firmnefs: the town was taken by furprife ; and
all the burghers, affembled in the great church to take the
oaths of fidelity to the king, were wantonly butchered. In¬
fants, old men, women, and the lick, were all put to the
fword, without pity or remorfe ; and of all the barbarities
hitherto committed, this was the moft horrible. It was ima¬
gined that the terror infpired by fuch inftances of feverity,
would reduce the people to obedience, and fhake the obfti-
nacy of the other towns. 'I he contrary cffefts were pro¬
duced ; rage and defpair took poffeffion of every brealt; and
all determined to fuffer the latt extremities rather than fub-
mit to fo cruel a tyranny.
Having finifhed this tragedy, Frederic went to Amfter¬
dam, to deliberate with the officers of the army about the
fiege of Haarlem. Here it was determined, before they pro¬
ceeded to extremities, that the city of Amfterdam fhould
write to the magiftrates, exhorting them, in the moft pathe¬
tic terms, to fubmit, rather than, incur the punifhment in¬
flicted on Waerden. The council of Haarlem met to take
this letter into confideration. Some were for foliciting an.
immediate reinforcement from the prince of Orange ; and
others, who apprehended the prince was too weak to afford
the neceffary relief, were for making the beft terms poffibie
with the king. Thofe of the latter opinion were the magi¬
ftrates. Accordingly, without confulting che burghers, de¬
puties were dilpatched to Frederic to ftipulate conditions. In
their abfence, Ripperda, a gentleman of Frifeland, ftrongly
attached to the prince of Orange> and the caufe of liberty,
affernbled the chief burghers ; and fo animated them again ft
the Spaniards, that they refolved to Hand a fiege, and fuffer
all the horrors of war, rather than fubmit. They fent tr»
the prince of Orange to acquaint him with their determi¬
nation, and to implore afliftance. Four companies of Germans j jaa^]J;rrc,
were detached to reinforce the garrifon of Haarlem ; andbeiiegedj!
the deputies, on their return, were feized as traitors to their >
country, fent to the prince of Orange, and by his order be¬
headed. Frederic v/as preparing to compel the burghers
to fubmiffion. On the 19th of December he in veiled the
town, after carrying Sparendem fort by affault, with great
lols and daughter of his foldiers. A variety of errors were
committed in the attack, in the defence, and manner of fuc-
couring Haarlem. The affailants and defendants had equal¬
ly fhown themfelves ignorant of the art of war, and impla¬
cable in their refentment. The prince of Orange uied eve¬
ry expedient to relieve the town ; but all his attempts were
fruftrated by untoward accidents, and the vigilance of the
Spaniards. At laft, quite Ipcnt with fatigue, defpairing of
relief, weakened by Ioffes, and totally exhzufted of provifions
and ammunition, the burghers of Haarlem furrendered upon 74..
more favourable terms than they could well expert. A few And talien*.
only of the moft; obftinate were executed ; the reft v/ere par¬
doned on taking an oath of fidelity, and paying an acknow¬
ledgment of r 9,000 florins.
During the fiege of Haarlem, the Zealanders were per¬
forming glorious atchievernents by fea, and gaining vldoriesSuccdL or
over the Spanifh naval armaments.. All the. efforts of the the
governor o^Antwerp could not prevent their carrying off aIanders bF
great number of ffnips out of the harhqar. To revenge thefea*
infult, and. relieve Middleburg and Rammekins blocked up
by the Zealanders, he equipped a fquadron, and gave battle
to Wertz, the Zealand admiral, but was defeated. After
repairing and augmenting his fleet, he again fet fail with,
fixty large veffels, encountered a ftjuadron of Zealanders,
much'
•U N I
[ 6
36
The Spa¬
niards re-
juilfe l be.
fore Aic-
xaar.
muck inferior In ftrength, and met with his former fortune.
Moll of his fhips were funk or taken ; but he found means
to pufh into Middleburg, with the broken remains of his
fquadron, to the great joy of the garrifon, now reduced by
the fcarcity of provifions to the lafl extremity. D’Avila’s
difgrace did not end here ; for, on his return to Antwerp,
he was a third time attacked and defeated, with coniiderable
lofs, by Wertz, who thus reoaired the difappointment of an
unfuccefsful attempt made on Tolcn.
Soon after the reduction of Haarlem, Alva, percei¬
ving that his feverity anfwercd no other purpofe than
irritating the people more againil the Spanifh govern¬
ment, pubhfhed a proclamation, couched in the mofl footh-
ing terms: but the people were not difpofed to confide in
promifes fo often violated, nor to throw themfelves on the
clemency of a prince and governor who had Ihown them¬
felves inflexible, implacable, perfidious, and inhuman. They
now expected the worfl that could happen, and bid defiance
to fortune. The Spaniards were preparing to inveft Alc-
mar, and the Hollanders put every means in pradxice to re¬
fill them. Tight months pay was due to the garrifon, who
began to mutiny; but,.,contributions were railed, which
filenced their clamours. Frederic of Toledo, with r6,oo©
jnen, fat down before a town fortified by no regular works,
and defended only by 300 burghers, and 800 foldiers, in
extreme want of proviiions, and without the profpedt of re¬
lief. Sonoi, the governor, defpairing of being able to fuf-
tain a fiege, wrote to the prince of Orange, that a place
deftitute of troops, proviiions, ammunition, money, and every
neceflary, ought to be evacuated, and the few foldiers in
garrifon, and the burghers, laved from falling into the
hands of the enemy. But the prince of Orange fo anima¬
ted them by a letter, that, to a man, the townlmen, gover¬
nor, and foldiers, determined to factifice their lives, and fpill
the laft drop of their blood in the breach. Per feverance had
made the Zealanders mailers of Rammekins, contrary to all
hope and probability ; the fame virtue, the prince obferved,
might fave Alcmar, a town of the utmoft confequence to
the caufe of liberty. What particularly infpired the defen¬
dants with courage, was the prince’s good fortune in fur-
prifing Gertrudenburg. Frederic pulhed the fiege with
great vigour. He ordered the inhabitants of Haarlem to
work in the trenches, and fullain the firll fire of their friends
and countrymen. On the 18th of September, a battery of
20 pieces of heavy cannon began to play ; a breach was
foon effedled; the aflault was given, and repulfed with vi-
gour, though fullained by the bulk of the Spanilli army.
From a Spanilli officer taken, the garrifon were informed,
that Alva had given orders to retire, in cafe he failed in the
third aflualt; but if he fucceeded, to put all to the fword.
Their courage was whettecj by this account, and prepara¬
tions were cheerfully made for with Handing the utmoll
efforts. Frederic was foiled in every attempt; the aflail-
ants were driven from the breach with prodigious flaughter;
the Spanilh foldiers refufed to mount the walls ; in a word,
the fiege was raifed, and the tov/n relieved, to the exceeding
joy of the prince of Orange, and great mortification of Alva.
This advantage was attended with another of lefs im-
^ portance, but which equally ferved to infpirit the Holland-
fThey are ers* The duke of Alva’s grand fleet, equipped with great
defeated at labour and expence, was defeated by the Zealanders.
fea..
Though the adlion did not prove decifive, it greatly cha¬
grined the duke, as Bolfu, one of his bell officers, was taken
prifoner, and his fleet afterwards dreaded to look the enemy
in the face.
Notwithllanding this fuccefs, the affairs of the States
were yet in a moll precarious fituation ; and their ability
to fupport themfelved appeared in the highelt degree proble-
72 ] UNI
matical. The Duke of Alva had refxgned the government, United
and his fuccelfor Don Louis de Requefnes had ciders to Provinces.
pulh the war with vigour, while his antagonills prepared  v"-w
for the moll obflinate refiftance. The lirit advantage ap¬
peared on the fide of the prince of Orange, by the furren-
der of Middleburg. But this was foon balanced by the de¬
feat and death of prince Louis of Nalfau. The Spaniards,
however, were prevented from purfuing the advantage they
had gained, by a mutiny among their troops. This mutiny. ■I8
took place on a regular and well-concerted plan. The the "ih
foldiers depofed all their officers, appointed new ones, and army. 11
eltablilhed a fort of community, veiling one of their n rm-
ber with the chief authority. The diltrefles of the Spa¬
niards on account of this tumult were likewile augmented
by a vidlory gained by the Zealanders at lea; when almolt
40 of the Spanifh fhips were taken or dellroyed. Philip
then perceiving that numberlefs difficulties would attend
the reduction of the provinces by force, publifhed an aft of
grace ; but in fuch a limited manner, that it was unani-
moully rejefted. Requefnes then determining to clofe the
campaign with fome remarkable exploit, kid fiege to Ley¬
den. The city was reduced to the utmoll diflrels for want
of provifions ; the whole country was laid under water;
and they could receive no relief except what was obtained
by boats forcing themfeves through the enemy to the city.
In fhort, they were reduced to the brink of deflruftion,
when a violent fouth-wefl wind drove the inundation againil
the works of the befiegers with fuch violence, that they
were obliged to relinquilh the enterprize for fear of being en¬
tirely fwallowed up. In their retreat they were attacked
by the garrifon, and 500 of them dellroyed. This difap¬
pointment lo pravoked the Spanifh foldiery, that they de¬
pofed Valdes the commander, whom they had chofen for
themfelves, and proclaimed their old one : a lecond mutiny
enfued, and they marched iu a tumultuous manner to
Utrecht. Here, however, they met with a very unfavour¬
able reception. Barlaimont the governor declared them
rebels and traitors to their king ; and gave free liberty to
every one to maffacre them wherever they could be found.
The mutineers attempted to fet fire to the gates ; but be¬
ing repulfed, and their leader flain, they capitulated, were
received into favour, and font into winter-quarters. „
The year 1575 commenced with fome negociations for
peace ; but thefe proving ineffeftilai, though the emperor
interpofed his mediation as far as pofiible, the war was re¬
newed with redoubled fury. Fortune now declared in fa¬
vour of the Spaniards ; and the States were reduced to fuch
defpair, that they began ferioully to think of making an
offer of the provinces to fome Proteftant power who.might
be able to defend them againft the tyranny of the Spaniards.
This offer was made to queen Elizabeth of England ; feJ
Ihe declined it, for political reafons. A negociation was 0ffer the
even fet on foot for this purpofe with France, in favour ofvereignty
the duke ol Anjou ; but it ended is nothing befides the ad-to clueen
vantage of ellablilhing a mart at Calais lor the difpofal
the prizes made by the Gueux. Philip, however, notwith-
itanding his power, had the utmoll difficulty in fupporting 40
the expence of the v/ar. He had already borrowed more Philip di-
than 40,000,000 crowns from the Spanilh and Genoefc hyefTed in
merchants, and the intereft Hill unpaid now amounted to a3hisfinan* s
much as the capital. The war had befides coft a greater
fum fent in fpecie from Spain and the Indies, which, with
the immenfe Ioffes occalioned by the llagnation of trade iu
the Netherlands, had quite exhaulted the treafury. Large
arrears were due to the troops ; they were every day mu¬
tinying, and fome broke out into aftual rebellion. To
remedy thefe evils, Requefnes demanded a fupply of the
provinces ; and they anfwered him, by requiring reilitution
S of
•United
Province*
v 41
Confufion
in the Si a
niih dflairs
4-2
Antwerp
taken and
pillaged.
UNI T <>73 ]
of their privileges, an4 difmiffion of the Spanilh troops, ftates of the
Flanders, in particular, paid the defired fubfidy, by balan¬
cing it againil half the damages the province fuftained from
the milcondudt of the governors, and the wars wantonly and
unneceffarily excited. While this affair was in agitation,
Requefnes died of an ardent fever : the council of Hate af-
fumed the adminiflration, and the prince of Orange took
the opportunity of theconfuhon that enfued to lay the firfl
foundation of the Pacification of Ghent, by which his affairs
were confiderably retrieved, and the greatefl blow given
to the court of Spain fhe bad yet fuftained. All now was
anarchy in the Low Countries. The garrifon of Zinczee
mutinied for want of pay ; and to appeafe them, the council
of ftate fent 100,000 livres, which the Walloon regiments
under Madragon feized upon, after expelling the Spanifh
foldiers, and wounding and murdering their officers. This did
not unite the Spanifh mutineers among themfelves; they
turned out the few remaining officers, and made new ap¬
pointments. Joining with the garrifon of Lillo, they march¬
ed, to the number of 2000 men, towards the capital ; com¬
mitted horrible outrages ; overwhelmed the inhabitants of
Brufiels with confternation ; and, upon the 26th of July,
feized upon Aloft, confined the principal burghers, and
banged up a king’s officer. 'The moft favourable conditions
were offered by the council of ftate, in order to appeafe the
tumult, and provifions were fent to the mutineers. This
created fufpicion in the inhabitants of Bruffels, that the
mutiny was excited by the connivance of the council, with
a view of ruining the provinces, without incurring the re-
fentment and odium confequent on any appearance of legal
oppreffion. They arrefted the council, declared the Spa¬
niards rebels, and took meafures in concert with the other
cities and provinces for expelling foreigners out of the
Netherlands. A confederacy to this purpofe was formed
between the provinces of Hainault, Artois, and Flanders, to
which all the reft except Luxemburgh acceded ; and Don
John of Auftria, who had entered the Low Countries in
quality of governor and fucceffor to Requefnes, was obliged
to live in obfeurity in Luxemburgh until the ftorm ffiould
fubfide.
The prince of Orange was all this while profiting by
thefe commotions. Fie had long laboured to have the
States-general convoked ; and he now faw them net only
affembled, but preparing to make head againft the. Spaniards,
by a itrange viciffitude of fortune, arifing from accidents
which all his penetration and fagacity could not forefee.
United in councils againft. the common enemy, every mea-
fure was taken for reducing the citadels of Ghent, Antwerp,
and Maeibicht, the chief places in the hands of the Spa¬
niards, and what mu ft principally contribute to their ex-
pulfion. Ghent citadel was taken on the a'jth of Novem¬
ber, by the affiftance of a ftrong reinforcement of troops
and artillery fent by the prince of Orange. At Antwerp the
ftates of Brabant were lefs fuccefsful. The citadel was
vigoroufly attacked ; but the mutineers at Aloft entering
the citadel to affift their coimtrynaen, a fally was made, the
befiegers were driven from their trenches, great part of the
town was confumed by fire, and the reft pillaged for three
days with every kind of infolence and brutality, at a time
when Antwerp was the moft flourifhing and populous city
in the Netherlands, and indeed among the moft wealthy in
Europe, it is affirmed that the treafure carried off amount¬
ed to four millions, befides an infinity of rich merchandife.
This terrible calamity united Papifls and Proteftants with¬
out diftinftion in a confederacy, and co-operated with the
meafures of the prince of Or ange to form the Pacification
of Ghent : which was a confederacy of all the provinces to
expel foreign foldiers; to reflore the ancient iorm of
government; to refer matters of religion to the feveral
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
U N I
other 15 United
Holland, provi!,CC8'
the corn-
provinces ; for ever to unite the
provinces in the fame common iuterelt with
Zealand, and the prince of Orange ; to renew — 43
merce and amity between them ; to affemble the ftates in Pacification
the manner praftifed under the houfe of Burgundy and of Ghent.
Charles V.; to fufpend all the rigorous ediAs of the duke
of Alva on the fubjedt of religion, until the States general
ffiould take the matter into confideration ; to releafe all the
natives made prifoners, mutually, without ranfom ; and to
reftote all things upon the fame footing as before the war,
and the tyrannical government of the duke of Alva. 44
The States general began with foliating aid from the The State*
queen of England. Their ambaffador had a gracious re* af*
ception ; and Elizabeth advanced them 20,cool, fterling, frnm qllf.en
on condition that the I t ench fnould not be invited into the gij^abeth.
Netherlands, that they would accept of reafonable terms of
accommodation if offered, and that the loan ffioidd be re¬
paid the enfuing year. Next a ceffation of hoftilities was
agreed upon with Don John, upon his affurances that every
reafonable requeft of the provinces ffiould be granted. On
the 27th of December, deputies were fent with propolals
to Don John to diffiand the foreign troops : but he defired
to know what lecurity the States would give ior their alle¬
giance after the departure of the Spanifh foices; and ie«
monftrated againft the unreafonablenefs of disarming the
king, while his rebellious fubjeAs were in arms, and ready
to leize the firft opportunity of deferting their obedience.
He likewile demanded lecurity with relpeA- to religion ;
and infifted fo warmly on this head, that it was obvious he
had no inclination to part with the Spaniftr army before the
provinces of Zealand and Holland embraced the Catholic
religion. After much altercation, neceffity at length obli Don John
g^d Don John to grant all that was requited, to confirm the ^
Pacification of Ghent, and difmifs the Spanifh ai my. He cation of
had the king’s authority for his proceedings ; the treaty Ghent,
was proclaimed at Bruffels and Antwerp on the 17th of
February ; and Don John immediately acknowledged go¬
vernor, and the king’s lieutenant of the Nethei lands. 46.
It muft be obferved, however, that when this ediA was Objecftion*
figned, the provinces of Holland and Zealand, by the ad-tjie
vice of the prince of Orange, made the following objeAions, cation by
•viz. that the States-general had not eflabhffied the right of the pro-
affembling this fovereign tribunal in the perions originally
invefted with that power by the conftitution ; that in iome^^ zea-
particular inftances they had fuffered an infraAion of their
privileges ; that the Spanifh troops were allowed to carry
off the immenfe wealth they had acquired in the Nether¬
lands, and by the deftruAion of the city of Antwerp in par¬
ticular ; that no ftipulation was made in favour of thofe
difpoffeffed of their eftates, &a For tkefe reafons the
States and the prince refuiedto fign the ediA, though they
conlented to a*ll the articles that did not contradidt thole
fpecified. This taifed a contention, by which the public
peace was icon broken. Don John was ftrenuous in re¬
commending violent meafures againft the prince and his
party. To this purpofe he wrote a letter in cipher to the
king ; but this letter fell into the hands of Henry IV. of
France, who tranfmitted it to the prince of Orange. Ef-
covedo, fecretary to Don John, was next fent into Spain
with a meffage to the fame purpofe ; but the governor be¬
coming impatient for his return, left the country himfelf,
under pretence of complimenting Margaret queen of Na- 47
varre on her journey to Spaw. In this expedition he ieized
on the citadel of Namur: but attempted to juftify his con-^mme^
duA to the States, by representing, that he was under a
neceffity of retiring to a place of lafety, while he faw the
flames of war and rebellion ready to break out all around
him ; and concluded with deliring the States to difarm the
burghers of Bruffels, who were clofely attached to the
4 prnce
U N I
[ ^74 1
U. N I
48
Don John
Ctpjttd,
Uniied prince of Oransre. This letter was anfwered by an invita-
Provnice?. tjon from tjie States to return ; promifing at the fame time,
that they would, to the utmoft of their power, bring to
punifhment all thofe who fhould form any defigns againft
him This, however, was not only refufed, but the whole
tenor of his conduft afterwards fhowed, that he was refol-
ved to commence hoftilities, and that he was encouraged to
do lo by Philip. The event was, that Don John was de-
pofed from his dignity, the archduke Matthias was appointed
governor-general, and preparations were made for a new and
vigorous war. The Spanifh troops were ordered to af-
femble in Naples and Milan ; levies were made in Burgundy
and Luxemburgh ; and a refolution was taken of fupporting
49 Don John with the whole power of the Spanifh monarchy.
treatt1y To oppofe this formidable power, the States, in 1578, en-
ti'izabeth? tered into a new treaty with the queen of England ; by
which that princefs agreed to advance them ioo,oool.
Sterling, and to affifl the provinces with 5000 foot and
1000 herfe ; on condition that the loan fhould be repaid
with interell in eight months ; that certain towns fhould
be ceded to her in fecurity ; and that the States fhouH de¬
fray the expence of tranfporting their troops, and take
them into pay, while they afted in their fervice. Eliza¬
beth, however, •'Pervvards departed from thefe conditions,
tinder pretence that the French would fufpeft her having
fome defigns on the Netherlands, and would for that reafon
unite their forces v/ith thofe of Spain againft her. Inftead
of the Englifh troops, fhe now propofed to fend John Ca
fimir, count Palatine, with 3000 foot and 30CO horfe ; re-
fufing at the fame time to pay the money ftipulated, until
the States had confented to this alteration.
Before this treaty was concluded, Don John was joined
by an army of 16,coo foot and 2000 horfe, all chofen ve¬
terans, commanded by Alexander Parnefe, duke of Parma,
the befl officer in the Spanifh fervice. Being thus fuperior
to the prince of Orange, the Spaniards gained feveral ad¬
vantages ; which, however, were more than balanced by the
lofs of the city of Amfterdam. This place had been clofely
blocked up for feveral months by fea and land, and at laft
treaty with concluded a treaty with the friends of the prince of Orange ;
the prince by which it was ftipulated, that the Proteftants fhould hold
cf Orange, their religious meetings without the walls, and have a bury-
ino.place within ; that the garrifon fhould be difbanded,
and 600 men, commanded by the burghers, levied for the
defence of the city ; that all perfons banifhed on account of
reli -ion fhould be recalled ; that Amfterdam fhould enjoy
all its ancient privileges, and that all vacancies in public
employments fhould be filled without diftindfion of party or
connexion. This capitulation, however, was foon after
broken ; the Catholic magiftrates were driven out of the
city, attended by the priefts and Popifh clergy of every de¬
nomination ; the images were pulled down, and only the re¬
formed clergy fuffered to preach publicly. Some ineffec¬
tual negociations next took place ; after which the States,
fenfible that the misfortunes and Ioffes in the winter arofe
from the irrefolution of the provincial ftates, vefted the
archduke, the council of ftate, and the prince of Orange, with
a power of levying what number of troops they fhould
think neceffary, and difpofing of them as they thought
proper, without referring to the ftates in every particu¬
lar : they only recommended that they would proportion
the expences to the revenue, which at that time amounted
Revolution to 6:o,o~o livres. About this time a revolution, greatly
in Guelda-]jengfici?j to the common caufe, was effected in Guelderland;
iwUJohn of Naffau, brother to the prince of Orange, had been
appointed governor of this province. Upon entering on
the adminiftration, he perceived that the whole condnft of
affairs was in the hands of perlons ftrongly affe&ed to king
jPhilijp and the Catholic religion $ molt of the cities profef*
5-0
Amfter-
dam con¬
clude?
fed Popery ; and the count, who had fworn to the pacifica- United
lion of Ghent, was reftrained from attempting any change Brovinag,
in religion. The face of affairs, however, took a iudden v~ ^
turn ; John acquired great popularity, and foon difeovered
that foreigners were the leading perfons. By his artifice
and policy he ftimulated the people againft them ; they
were deprived of their feats in the provincial ftates, and
turned out of their offices in the government or the cities.
Thus Naffau obtained the chief dire&ion, and was able to sz
co-operate with the meafures planned by his brother. Ano- -And in
ther revolution happened in Groningen, of which the fieur Groningen,
de Billy was governor. Billy was by birth a Portu^uefe,
by religion n Catholic, and confequently a dependent on
the court of Spain : he refufed to accede to the union of
the provinces, and the States-general found it neceftary to
fend to him Francis Martin Stella, with propofals for fign-
ing the pacification of Ghent. Billy, fufpefting that the
deputy’s real defign was to excite a revolt in the province,
put him to the torture to extort confeflion ; after having
firft wounded him with his own hand. The deputy bore
the moft excruciating tortures with firmnefs ; and having a
furgeon to drefs his wound to enable him to undergo a fe-
cond trial, he communicated fomething in the Greek lan¬
guage, which the furgeon foon made public : in confequence,
the mob affembled, refeued Stella, declared for the pacifi¬
cation of Ghent, and obliged Billy to quit his government.
The change of councils in thefe two provinces was of the
utmoft fervice to the confederacy; and would have enabled
the province to have encountered the whole power of Spain,
had not their affairs been diftradled by diffentions among
themfelves.
At laft the prince oF Orange, perceiving that little confi¬
dence was to be placed in the unanimity of provinces rent
by fa&ion, different in religion, and divided by ambition,
political maxims, and private intereft, formed the fcheme of
more clofely uniting the provinces of which he was gover¬
nor, and cementing tlrem with thofe more contiguous, in
which the Proteftant intereft prevailed. Such an alliance
was fubjeft to fewer difficulties than attended the more ge¬
neral one of uniting all the provinces ; it was in faft the
only meafure that could be propofed with fafety, and it was
profecuted with that alacrity and addrefs for which William
was defervedly celebrated. _ ^
On the 23d of January 1579, deputies from the provin-u- »ion of
ces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friefland, Groningen, Utrecht.
Overyffel, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, and figned the
alliance ever fince known by the name of the Union of U-
trecht, the bafis of that commonwealth fo renowned by the
appellation of the United Provinces. This treaty of alliance,
was founded upon the infraction of the pacification of Ghent
folemnly acceded to by Philip, and the late invafion of cer¬
tain towns in Guelderland. It was not hereby intended to
divide the feven provinces from the other ten, or to renounce
the pacification of Ghent; its objeCt was to preferve the
liberty ftipulated in that pacification, by more vigorous
operations, and united councils. The chief articles of this
union are the following.
The feven provinces (hall unite themfelves in intereft as
one province, never to be feparated or divided by tettamentj
donation, exchange, fale, or agreement; referving to each
particular province and city all its privileges, rights, cuftoms,
and ftatutes. In all difputes arifing between either ot the
provinces, the reft fhall interpofe only as mediators. i hey
fhall aflift each other with life and fortune againft every
foreign attempt upon any particular province, whether to
eftablifh fovereignty, the Catholic religion, arbitiary mea*
fures, or whatever elfe may appear inconfiftent with the
liberties of the provinces and the intention of the alliance.
All frontier towns belonging to the United Provinces fhall,
if
U N I
E 675 3
U N I
Uni'ed if oH, be fortified at the expence of the provinces ; if new,
Provinces. at the joint expence of the union. The public impofts and
duties fiiall be farmed for three months to the highell bidder,
and employed with the kincTs taxes in the public fervice.
No provide, city, or member of the union, fnall contrail
an alliance with any foreign prince or power, without the
concurrence of all the other members. Foreign powers fliall
be admitted into the alliance, only by confent of all the con¬
tracting parties. As to religion, the provinces of Holland and
Zealand fhall aft in that particular as they think advifahle ;
the rell (hall adhere to the purport of the edift publifhed
by the archduke Matthias, which prefcribed that no man
fhould be oppreffed on the account of confcience. All the
inhabitants, from the age of 1 8 to 60, fhall be trained and
difciplined to war. Peace and war fhall be declared by the
unanimous voice of all the provinces, other matters that con¬
cern the internal policy fhall be regulated by a majority.
The Hates fhall be held in the ufual confHtutional manner,
and coinage fhall be deferred to future determination. Fi¬
nally, the parties agree, that the interpretation of thefe arti¬
cles fhall remain in the States-general ; but in cafe ot their
failing to decide, in the fladtholder.
This alliance was fo uciverially approved, that in a fhort
time the cities of Ghent, Nimeguen, Arnheim, Leewarden,
Venlo, Yores, Antwerp, Breda, Bruges, with feveral other
towns, bcfides a great number of noblemen and perfons of
diff inftion, embraced and figned the union. Thus the foun¬
dation of a commonwealth was laid, but in a fluftuating and
uncertain date of affairs, when men were aftuated by dif¬
ferent paflions, views, and interefts; intimidated by the
great ttrength of the Spanifh monarchy, and fupported
chiefly by a zealous adherence to liberty, and firm refolution
to perifh in defence of freedom. The firft coin ftruck a ter
this alliance is expreflive of the fituation of the infant repu¬
blic. Here was reprefentfid a fhip labouring amidfl the
waves, unaffifted by fails or oars, with this motto, Incertum
quo fata ferartt.
It was expefted, that the important objeft of this alliance
would have attrafted the attention of the Walloons, and in¬
deed of all the Catholic inhabitants of the Netherlands : it
in faft did fo, but in a different manner from what was ima¬
gined. The Walloons not only refufed to accede to the union,
but they made the ftrongeft remonftrances to the States-
general upon the danger, impropriety, and illegality o; fuch
Intrigues ofa confederacy. It appears from Strada and Bentivoglio,
the :uke of that the duke of Parma was at the bottom of their intrigues.
Paima. flimulated and prompted their meafures, infpiring them
with a jealo'.’.ly of the Proteftant defigns on the Catholic re¬
ligion. In the end, he contrafted an alliance with them ;
and thereby confirmed by his own example the legality and
neceflity of the union of Utrecht. Immediately they began
levying an army ; but ft ill kept up appearances with the
conredcrated pr vinces, though it was obvious that hoftilities
muft foon commence. To prevent the effufion of blood,
the emperor, as mediator, let on foot another negociation ;
but Philip would allow no reafonable terms of accommoda¬
tion, and give no fecurity for liberty of religion. Inftead of
granting equitable conditions, he laboured to detach the
prince of Orange from the union ; made him extraordinary
propolals ; offered to reftore him to all his eftates, indemni¬
fy his Ioffes, raife him to the height of power, and give him
the firft place in his efteem and favour. But William was
too wife to rely on the promiles of a king who had fhown
himfelf perfidious. He determined to ftiare the fate of the
United Provinces, to fulfil his engagements, and the hope
conceived of his conduft.
While the prince of Orange was bufied in conciliating
&ftions, forming alliances, and ftrengthening the union,
United
Provinces,
54 .
Flift d in
flruck by
the repub¬
lic of Hol¬
land.
55
56
the duke of Parma was taking mesfures to difconcert his
projefts, and reduce the provinces to the king’s obedience.
He difipatched Gonzaga and Mondragon with 8000 men to
lay fiege to Mai lien. The town was taken by affault; the Hr fuc-
governor hanged; and 45 of the chief inhabitants werecelFes.
tortured to death, for having valiantly defended themtelves,
and faithfully difchanred their duty. It is faid the duke of
Parma dilavowed this bloody proceeding, fo incontiftent
with the charafter of a hero. After fome farther incon-
fiderable advantages obtained in the neighbourhood of Ru-
remonde, the king’s army infulted Antwerp, where the
archduke and the prince of Orange then refided. The States
army was intrenched near Borgerhont, a poll attacked with¬
out fuccefs by the duke of Parma, after a brilk Ikirmifh-
ing of two hours between the armies. La None, how¬
ever, the general of the ftates army, not drooling to expole
himfelf to continual alarms from the enemy’s cavalry, reti¬
red under the cannon of Antwerp. ^
On La Noue’s retreat, the duke of Parma invefted Mae- Maeftricht
ftricht. The fiege began on the 8th of March, and conti-taken, and
nued without remillion to the 29th of June. This defence ^
was deemed very extraordinary, as the fortifications were increj
bad order, the garrifon {lender, and the place but poorly
provided with the neceffaries of a fieg’"J,J?. One Sebaftian
Tappin, an engineer by profelfion, a Proteftant, and a brave
and alert foldter, by his indefatigable vigilance railed conti¬
nual obftiuftions to the duke’s approaches. The garrifim
had fuftained frequent affaults, and made divers bloody fai¬
lles, by which they were fo much fatigued, that during a
parley the town was furprifed and a great many foldiers were
put to the fword; but Tappin was faved by favour of the
duke of Parma, who gave ftrjft orders that he fhould have
quarter. For three days Maeltrichc was a feene of the ut-
moft defolation and horror, the Spanilh foldiers committing
every ex-cefs and enormity, in defpite of all the endeavours
of the general to reftrain their licentioulnefi, and maintain
difeipline. With fuch diligence did the duke apply himfelf
to this fiege, that, unable to fupport the fatigue, he was fei-
zed with a fever, which had near proved fatal. His fitua¬
tion infpired the enemy with frelh courage. They venluted
to appear in the field; reduced Aloft, and fome other places
of little confeqdence ; but could not prevent the lofs of Me-
nin taken by affauk, though it was foon after retaken by 'mmion of
the prince of Orange. In Brabant the Hates likewife ob-rep»b*
tained fome advantages, though of too unimportant a nature^c’
to merit attention. The truth is, all the United Piovinces
were in a deploi able fituation ; and their trifling fucceffes
were owing entirely to accident, or the duke of Parma’s ill-
nefs. Several provinces contributed nothing to the common
caufe; others furnifhed but a fmall proportion of the taxes
agreed Upon at the union. The army had lai ge arrears due,
and lived at diferetion ; in a manner more oppreflive ty the
people than taxes to the amount of their regular pay. The
people clamoured againft the ftates ; they threw the blame
on the officers for relaxing in the point o^ difciplir.e ; and
the officers recriminated, alleging, that the fault was in the
ftates, who failed in performing their engagements to the
army. All was in confufion ; but as no perfon would ac¬
knowledge his error, there appeared little hopes o amend¬
ment. In a woid, nothing behdes the fame diftrefs in the
Spanifh army could have prevented the duke of Parma from
reducing the revolted provinces to accept any terms he
Ihould think fit to preferibe. He was equally in want of
money ; and his late treaty with the Walloons required f/iat
he fhould difmifs all his foreign troops in the Ipace of fix
weeks after the publication of the treaty. His fituatioa
indeed was fo deplorable, that he requefted leave to refign
his command, and retire with the foreign foldiers to Italy;
4 Qj2 but
. 5s
ilftreffed
United
Province*.
59 ,
Duke of
Anjou cho
fen fove-
reign.
60
Prince of
Orange
proi'cribed.
UNI [6
tut the court of Spain had too much confidence in his abi¬
lity to entruft fo important a charge to another. In this
ftate of affairs the animofity of the parties remained, with¬
out the power of fhowing their refentment. The dates were
refolute, but unable to defend their liberties. Philip was de¬
termined, but too weak to be defpotic ; and both were obli¬
ged to content themfelves with publilhin^ bittev remonflran-
ces againft each other.
At laft the prince of Orange renewed the treaty with the
duke of Anjou. The.queen of England was again offered
the fovereignty, but fhe declined it for political realons. The
duke of Anjou was, however, oppofed by a great number of
the Reformed, on account of the fhare hia mother had in the
horrid maffacre of the Proteftants at Paris. All arguments
to remove their prejudices were in vain. Anjou was a Ro¬
man Catholic, and that alone was fufficient to render him
deteffable. The prince of Orange urged the neceffity of
receiving the prince. Theologians and civilians allowed that
it was lawful to have recourle in extremity to a Papift, but
the people continued obftinate. This determined the prince
of Orange to have recourie to the States-general, to whom
he fent a long remonltrance, pointing out the caufes why the
confederacy did not produce the intended effeft ; and ex¬
horting them to re-confider the affair refpefting the duke
of Anjou. In confequence, the States-general referred the
prince’s remonftrances to the provincial dates and cities ;
and after long deliberations, and warm debates, it was at
length determined, in 1380, to call in the duke of Anjou,
as the only refource in fo great a calamity. Accordingly
-the year began with a folemn treaty, whereby the United
Provinces renounced their allegiance to Philip, and acknow¬
ledged Francis Hercules de Valois, duke of Alenpon and
Anjou, for their fovereign. The treaty confifted of 27 ar¬
ticles, of which this we have mentioned was the chief. De¬
puties were fent to the duke of Anjou, to explain the arti¬
cles, and congratulate him on his acceflion. As to the arch¬
duke Matthias, finding himfelf unfupported by the emperor,
the empire, and the numerous friends whom he expe&ed
■would have joined him on his elevation, he expteffed no re¬
fentment at the conduft of the provinces, which with great
moderation he attributed to neceffity. He only demanded
to know their intention with refpeif to his own perfon; and
the Hates made their apwlogy, by reprefenting the fituation
of their affairs, affuring him o! their e.'leem, permitting him
to refide in the Netherlands as long as lie thought conveni¬
ent, and highly applauding the prudence and equity of his
conduit during his adminiftration. As to the provinces of
Holland and Zealand, they were left wholly in the hands of
the prince of Orange, whole power as lladtholder was in no
refpeit limited by the duke’s fovereignty. After all, Gro-
tius affirms, that the duke’s authority was merely nominal,
that the real power devolved on the prince of Orange,
whole name, however, was ufed in all public aits only in a
fnbaltern capacity. It was apparent indeed to the French,
that William concealed ambitious views under the cloak of
patriotifm ; but it was not convenient to difeover their fen-
trments.
When the king of Spain was informed of this open de-
feition of the Provinces, he attributed the-whole ro the
prince of Orange, and proceeded direitly to proferibe bim ;
he eon Heated his eftate, upbraided him with ingratitude,
and attempted to {lain his charailer with ignominy. He
even prorr.ilcd a reward of 25,000 crowns to whoever ffiould
bring him the prince o!- Orange dead or alive ; the lame to
his heirs, in cafe the perfon perifhed in the enterprile ; and
he declared all thole proferibed, their eftates coniilcated, their
honours and dignities abolifhed, who adhered to William a
Utonth after the publication of this edict.
76 ] UNI
The prince of Orange did not filently pafs over this pro. United
feription. He employed one Villiers, a Frenchman, to re- Provinces,
fute the edidl: his anfwer was w’ell received, and is recorded
by hiftorians as a proof of the fpirit, the equity, the pru¬
dence, and the moderation of the prince. However, when
it was propofed to the ftates for their opinion, with a requeft
they -would publilh it in their own name, they declined it;
affigning for a reafon, that it contained fome fafts too littie
known to be credited, and perhaps too much acrimony and
refentment againft a prince whole power they Hill dread¬
ed. With thefe recriminations ended the tranfa&ions of
the year. 61
The following year the ftates, after long deliberations atThe States
the Hague, publilhed an edidt, excluding king Philip from
any fovereignty, right, or authority, over the Netherlands, jjp froiu**
This writing appeared on the 26th of July 1581, under ihc fove.
the title ol The Abdication of Philip king of Spain. It wasrc‘gucy*
extremely well drawn up; ftated in the ftrongeft manner the
mutual privileges of the king and people ; proved that the
allegiance ol the latter was voiued by the bicach of contract
on the fide of the former 5 enumerated the oppreffive and
tyrannical a£ls of his government; fet afide his authority
for the moft cogent reafons; forbad money to be coined in
his name ; and took every other ftep towards independence.
It was in vain for Philip to remonftrate: he knew the ftates
were to be convinced only by the fword ; to this therefore
he appealed. The duke of Parma blocked up Cambray foCambray
clofely, that the garrifon was reduced to the extremity ofreiieve^
living upon horfes, dogs, and cats; though they ftill refufed
to capitulate, in hopes of being fuccoured. At length the
duke ©f Anjou affembled a body of 10,000 foot and 4000
horfe, and approached Cambray. The vifeount deTurenne
and count Voulandois undertook to force themlelves with
a body of men into the town ; but they were furrounded
and taken priloners by the Spaniards. This difappoint-
ment did not difeourage the duke of Anjou; he ftill preffed
forward with intention to attack the Spanilh lines : but the
duke of Parma, not caring to hazard a battle, deferted his
works, and retired to Bouchain. As foon as the duke of
Anjou entered the city, he took an oath to govern it agree¬
able to its ancient laws, and to preferve the citizens in the
full poffeffion of all its liberties. He was now preffed by
the ftates and the prince of Orange to march diretkly into
Flanders : he endeavoured to comply ; but his army, com-
pofed chiefly of volunteers, was fo weakened by delertion
that the defign was laid afide.
It was about this time that the duke of Anjou refumed
the notion of addreffing Elizabeth queen of England. Not
deterred by the ill iuccefs of his former negociation, he de¬
termined upon a voyage to England ; an excurfion which
proved equally unfuccefsful to himfelf and unfortunate to
the United Provinces, as daring his abfence the duke of
Parma made himfelf mafter of Tournay, which concluded 61 !
the tranfa£lions of this campaign. He was magnificently
entertained, led into a perfuafion that all would fucceed ac-ards^ aU1*
cording to his wifh, and at length tired out with tedious
expedition. In his abfence, St Guilan was reduced by
the prince of Efpinoi. This general diredled his march to¬
wards Dunkirk, with intention to join the French forces.
The duke of Parma, who had notice of his motion, repaired
to, feize the opportunity of invefting Tournay. He be¬
gan his approaches, and was vigoroufly received by that gar¬
rifon, infpirited by the courage of the pnneefs Maria d’Ef-
pinoi, niece of the count Horn fo cruelly beheaded by the
duke d’Alva. The town was ftormed in breach by the
duke of Parma, who fupported the affailants in perfon, re¬
ceived a wound, and had the mortification to lee his Spa¬
niards thrown headlong from the walls. The duke of An¬
jou
U N I
[ 677 3
U N I
United-
provinces
64
puke of
Anjou
makes his
public en-
uy.
Pnnce of
Orange af-
faffinated.
jou repeatedly promifed fuccours ; but either forgot, or
could not perform his engagements : the latter indeed is
the mod probable ; as he was certainly a dupe to the fupe-
rior policy of Elizabeth, who had not yet declared openly
in favour of the States. In the end, defpairing of relief,
harafied with perpetual watching, and weakened by Ioffes,
the garrifon capitulated on the 29th of November. The
conditions were honourable ; and the princefs d’Efpinoi was
treated with particular marks of diffin&ion by the duke of
Parma, who highly effeemed the heroic qualities of this
amazon. This advantage was fucceeded by another, ob¬
tained by the Spanifh general Verdugo, over the confede¬
rate army in Friefland, commanded by general Norris and
William Lewis of Naffau, a young prince of great expefta-
tion. It appears from the Spanifh account, that Norris
was attacked in a defile, where he could not draw out his
troops in battalia ; and that he was put in confufion, and
defeated with great lofs. On the other hand, the Dutch
writers allege, that he attacked the enemy ; but being in¬
ferior to them in cavalry, retreated in good order, with
fcarce any lofs.
The year 1582 began with a fpedlacle very unufual in
the Netherlands, the public entry of a fovereign eledled by
the people. The duke of Anjou fetting fail from England
on the 8th day of February, arrived on the toth at Flufh-
ing, where he was received by the princes of Orange and
d’Elpinoi. Next day they let out for Antwerp with a
magnificent retinue, and went up the Scheld attended by
50 barges. His reception at Antwerp was fplendid beyond
any thing ever feen in the provinces ; they even exceeded
the preparations made for Philip himfelf on his being ap¬
pointed to the government in the Netherlands by Charles V.
his father. A theatre was ere&ed before the walls of the
citadel, in which was placed a chair of ftate, covered with
cloth of gold. There the duke was feated, and the con¬
ditions were read to him, upon which he was received as
duke of Brabant. When he had fworn to obferve the ar¬
ticles, he was clothed with the ducal robe, and his head a-
dorned with the ducal coronet by the prince of Orange ;
who faid, “ I will pin it in fuch a manner that it will not
be eafily lhaken an expreffion which at that time was
taken for a happy omen, though it foon proved fallacious.
While the ffates of Brabant were employed in feffivity
and mirth, a Bilcayan merchant, named Gafper Anajlra^
had contrived a projtdl to redeem his fhattered fortune by
the death of the prince of Orange. He corrupted one of
his domettics, by the promife of halt the reward, to ftrike
the blow. The affaffin entered the citadel ; and as the
prince was paffmg after dinner into another room, difeharged
a piftol, and dangerouffy wounded him behind the ear. The
prince was ftunned with the force of the ball, and before he
recovered the affaflin was killed by his attendants ; which
prevented for a time the abfolute difeovery of the plot,
though it afterwards appeared from circumffances. It was
traced that he had confeffed the fecret to a Dominican
named Antonio Tunmermon, receiving from the wicked prieft
abfolution, and a promife of eternal rev/ard. Tunmermon
was hanged, drawn, and quartered, his limbs being fixed
upon the walls of Antwerp. But though for this time the
prince efcaped the danger, he was in i 5 84 affaffiuated at
Delft, by one Balthazar Gerrard or Guion, a peribn who
had before ferved his highntfs with fidelity and zeal. He
was at that very time employed by the prince to carry let¬
ters into France, and had received money to bear his ex-
pences, with which he purchafed piftols to murder his bene¬
factor. At the criminal’s examination, it appeared that he
had long meditated this bloody action, and was confirmed
in his refolution by the Jefuits and Catholic pridts; he even
affirmed on the rack, that the duke of Parma was privy to United
the defign, who promifed he ffiould have the reward: upon Frovjnce3*,
the whole, Gerrard feems to have been an enthufiaft, and
his crime the refult rather of infanity, than of any concerted
fcheme, or malicious intention. His punifhment, however,
regarded only the action : it was cruel beyond meafure,
fhocking to humanity, and a ftriking inftance of the vehe¬
ment party-fpirit of the times; not of the joffice of the
judges, or the attachment of the people to the jirince of
Orange.
The United Provinces were now in a mofl deplorable fi-
tuation. The duke of Anjou had been totally unable to
refift the duke of Parma, in confequence of which many
towns had been taken ; and in other refpedts the dates had
fuftained immenfe Ioffes. The duke of Anjou, chagrined
and difappointed, had retired to France, where he died.
But above all, the lofs of the prince of Orange feemed to
give the finifhing ftroke to the affairs of the {fates ; and
confufion and anarchy now reigned in their councils. The
provinces of Zealand and Holland alone endeavoured to re- 66
pair the lofs, and (how their gratitude to William by eleCl-Pr'nc®
ing his fon Maurice their ftadtholder and captain-general^^015
by fea and land. Maurice was at that time only 18 years-itadtholiea-
of age; but appeared in every refpeCt worthy of the high
dignity which had been conferred upon him. The firff ffep
taken by the confederates was a folemn renewal of the treaty
of Utrecht ; after which the mott vigorous preparations
were made for the defence of the country. But before anySuccefi* of
thing of conlequence could be done, the duke of Parma had t*ie
reduced Lifkenfhouk, Dendermonde, Vilvorde, Ghent, andards*
Antwerp ; which ffruck the ftates with fuch terror, that
they again offered the fovereignty to queer. Elizabeth. This
was once more refufed ; though that princefs engaged, by
a new treaty, to affift the ffates both with men and money.
An army was accordingly fent into the Netherlands under
the command of the earl of Leicefter : but it does not ap¬
pear that this was of any effential fervice to the caufe ; for
the condudl of that general was fo exceedingly improper,
that he was not only baffled in every military enterprife,
but drew upon himielf a general odium. It is very pro¬
bable indeed that the States could not long have fupported
themfclves in fuch circumffances, had not Philip rafhly en¬
gaged in a war with England, with vvhofe naval power he
could fcarce be enabled to cope by any fuperiority in num¬
bers whatever. The defeat of the Spanifh armada in 1 ^88* * See
gave fuch a blow to the power of that nation, as totally F”Slan!?>
•difabled them from carrying on the war in the Netherlands;0 ila*
Inftead of fending the proper affiftance to the duke of Par¬
ma, that general received orders to haften to the aid of the
duke of Mayence, who had been defeated by Henry IV.
The duke was obliged to comply with this order, though 0f
he was fenfible the lofs ot the United Provinces muff , be Parma
the confequence. Prince Maurice now carried every thingto>
before him ; and by the end of the year 159J, the Dutchmovo ^
faw their frontiers extended, the whole country iecured by ).rlaa:;e,
riveis and covered by,fortified towns, with the greateff pro¬
bability of driving,the Spaniards out of Eriefland in another
campaign.
Phe remainder of the hiftory of. this war is only a detail
of the Spanifh Ioffes and misfortunes, which now enfued.
Their affairs were at l?.ft totally ruined by a decifive victory
gained by prince Maurice, in the year i6co, over the arch¬
duke Albert, who had been appointed the Spanifh gover¬
nor of the Netherlands. King Philip II. died in 1598*
leaving the affairs ot his kingdom in the moft diitrefied fi.
tuation ; notwithftauding which, his fucceffor Philip Hi.
was too haughty to confent to peace, or allow that the
States were free, though he was plainly unable to keep.
them*
UNI [ 678 ] UNI
United them in fubje&ion. At laft, in 1606, the eourta of Ma-
Provmccs. anj ]3ril{ft;ls began to think of peace in good earnelt.
6^* 1° l6°7 a fuipenfion of hoftilities took place, and in 1609
A/ruoeof a treaty was concluded. In the firfl article of the treaty,
twelve the archduke, in his own and the king of Spain’s name, ac-
years con- knowledged the United Provinces, and renounced all claim
with6Spain to fovereignty over them, but in fuch general terms as would
admit of altercation. In the fecond, a truce for 12 years, by
fea and land, through all the dominions of both parties, was
concluded. By the third article, the parties were to remain
in poffeffion of what they now held, without ceffion or ex-
chanoe. In the fourth, a general amnefty was ftipulatec},
and full freedom of trade by fea and land to each others
dominions granted. This neceffarily implied a ceffatisn of
hoftilities in the Indies; however, great debates afterwards
arofe upon this account. Spain obferving the rapid pro-
grefs of the Hollanders in the India trade, apprehended
they would foon become too powerful in that quarter ; and
the Durch were willing to maintain the advantage of their
fuperiority. Both, for this reafon, difputed the article ;
yet it could not be fet afide without deftroying the whole
treaty, and the fruits of all their laboured conferences. The
fifth article regulated the imports, and the duties to be paid
by the fubje&s of the archduke and the States, trading to
each others dominions, which were to be on the fame foot¬
ing with thofe of other nations. The archduke ufed his'
utmoffc endeavours to have the duties at Lillo, on the Scheld,
abolifhed; and the commerce of Antwerp reftored to its :or-
mer grandeur; but this was fo diametrically onpofite to the
interefl of the Hollanders, that it was impoffible it ftiould
ever take place. The fixth and feventh articles likewife re¬
garded commercial affairs. But it would be unnecefiary to
dwell on particulars. Sufficient is it, that the truce was mu¬
tually benefici?.!, Spain being no longer in condition to fup-
port the war, and the Hollanders having obtained the end of
all their defperate reliftance and invincible perfeverance in the
caufe of liberty. Philip of Naflfau, by the truce, entered into
poffeffion of all his paternal eftates in the Spaniffi Nether¬
lands and Bur/undy; while the States rewarded the faith¬
ful fervices of Maurice with a penfion of 25,^00 florins, to
be paid annually out of the public treafury, befides an ap¬
pointment of 60,0:0 francs as governor-general Penfions
were likewife fettled on the other princes of the houfe of
Naffau : all were gratified in a manner that demonitrated
the high fenfe the republic had of their merit, though they
miiiht poffibly be difappointed in their great defign ot raffing
prince Maurice to the fovereign authority
No fooner were the Dutch freed from this extreme dan
ger, and felt the bleffings of liberty, than diffentions among
themfelves took place. The difputes betwixt the Armini-
ans and Calvinilts produced violent dillurbances, which fre¬
quently ended in the perfecution of the former. In 1621
NTa/re war was reRewe<1 Spain ; and it may be remarked, that
aewed. during the whole courfe of it, the iubjefts of the republic
traded to the Spanifh ports, as if there had been an entire
friendfhip lubfifting between *he two nations. It was no
uncommon pra&ice with them to fupply towns with pro-
vifion that were befieged by their own armies; and to fur-
nifh the enemy with ammunition and other neceffaries, with¬
out which they could not carry on the war. ’their motive
and apology fo- this conduct was, that thus they kept in
their own hands the profits by which other nations would
be enriched. By fteadily purfuing this line of conduct,
making as many prizes as they could by force, and at the
fame time making as much profit of their enemies as could
be obtained by a lucrative trade, it is no wonder that the
republic fhould fiourifh, and rival in wealth the greateft na¬
tions of Durope. In 1628 the Spaniards met with a dread¬
ful blow by the capture of their flyta from Mexico, i ms wa* United
the greateil prize the Hollanders had ever met with ; being Province*!?,
valued at no lefa than 15,000,000 livres. From this time
the Spaniards were everywhere defeated and baffled in almoftspa? ift 80,
every enterprize they undertook; nevertheleis, they carried ti taken,
on the war, with an obftinacy hardly to be matched, for 20 7J
years longer. A t laft, in 1648, a treaty was concluded, by Peace con.
which his Catholic Mujefty renounced all right and fove-eluded,
reienty over the Lords the States-general of the United
Provinces, who were henceforth declared a free and inde¬
pendent republic, and that both fides fhould remain in the
unmolefted poffeffion of what they held feverally at the fign-
ing o the treaty. ^
From this time to the year 1670 we meet with nothing Flouriiliinpf
very remarkable in the hiftory of the LFnited Provinces. ^afe
By invariably purfuing the maxims of prudence, induf-T11 1<:'
try, and frugality, the republic had attained the higheft
pitch of grandeur. Amfterdam was become the emporium
of Europe, and the richeft city in the univerfe. Holland
alone contained 3,000,000 of fouls, and all the other pro¬
vinces were proportionably populous. The .States difpatch-
ed minifters and confuls to China, Siam, and Bengal, to the
Great Mogul, the king of Perfta, the khan of 1 artary,
the Grand Signior, the czar of Mufcovy, and the princes of
Africa. They were confidered as an important weight in
the fcale of Europe, and no treaty was concluded without
their ambaffadors. i’he triple alliance vrith England and
Sweden, into which they had entered, gave Eouis futpicion
that they propofed to fet bounds to his ambition, and clip
thofe bold pinions which had fo fwiftly conveyed his con- _
quefts over the Low Countries. Van Beuningen’s info- Caufs of
lence, in comparing himfelf to Jofhua flopping the courfer " war
of the fun, which was the French king’s device, highly v,rh
difgufted his majefty ; who was fhocked at the prelumption r auc ’
and pride of a republic juft ftarted out of obfeurity, and
gained, in the fpace of a century, from the ocean. But
what was ftill more alarming to Louis, was the probability
that the Dutch would ruin the manufactures ot France,
and his new eftablifhed commerce o! the Indies His jea-
loufy difeovered itielf in divers inftances ; and the penfioner
De Witt, who at that time had the leading of affairs, his
brother, and his party, did all in their power to remove
thde prejudices ; but the unhappy differences which'then
prevailed in the United Provinces fruftrated all their en¬
deavours.
Louis now fought every opportunity of breaking with
the Dutch ; lefs perhaps from any dread of their power,
on ability to injure him, than with a view to enlarge his
dominions by the entire conqueft of the Low Countries.
He knew that the whole ftrength of the republic confiftcd
in her marine ; that her frontier was weak, her provinces
divided, and the chief power in the hands ot men invete-
rately fet againft the family ot Orange, the ancient captains
of the republic. Flis firft attempt was to diffolve the tri¬
ple alliance, and difengage from it Charles II. king of Eng- ^
land. In this bufinels the duchefs of Orleans was employed: Tr Jt5y t,{.
(he went to England unler pretence of vifitiug the king wen the
her brother ; and her negociation was fuccefsol. In the king* of
mean time Louis poffeffed himfelt ot Lorrain, under pre
tence that- duk« Charles was forming alliances in the empire ng (
againft France.
The following year was fpent in negociations with the
emperor, Spain, and Sweden, with the eleCfors of Cologne
and Brandenburg, with the bifhop of Munftcr, and other \
fpiritual and German princes. The defign of Louis was
to prevent their acceding to the triple alliance ; from which
he'had already weaned one power, the moft c nfiderable of
the whole. The bifhop of Munfter beheld with uneafinefs
U N I
[ M 1
U N I
United
Provinces
76
Branden
the rrow'ing- power of the United Provinces : he pretended
that they had made fevera! attempts upon the counties of
Stirum, Culemberg, Bentheim, and’ E?.il Friefland; that they
had feiz'ed on Ravenftein on the Meufe, and feveral other
places belonging to his bifhopric. In his own defence he
concluded a treaty with France, and prevailed on the ele&or
of Cologne to follow his example. By figning a treaty
with thefe two princes, the king opened a way to Holland
by the Meufe and the Rhine ; he eftabhfhed by this means
places or arms and magazines in a country diftant Irom his
own dominions, and fecured a retreat in cafe his enterpiife
proved abortive. With refpea to the emperor, every ar¬
tifice was ufed to keep him neutral; and indeed his own
inclinations co-operated but little in iavour of the Dutch,
whom he regarded as fubje&s revolted from the princes of
his family, and in poffefiion of feveral places belonging to
the empire. In Sweden, Louis’s negociations were equally
fuccefsful; for here he prevailed lo far with Charles XI. as
to obtain a ftipulation, ’that if the emperor, or any of the
princes of the empire, joined their forces to the Dutch, a
Swedifh army fhould march into the very heart of Germany
and join the French, in order to force thofe princes to ob-
ferve the treaty of Weftphalia.
ujo.ivxw.- Of all the Germanic body, the eleftor of Brandenburgh
burg afllfls alone interefted himfelf for the fafety of the States-general.
the repub- 'pke peace of Weftphalia had prevented this enterprifing
prince from extending his dominions in Germany, and re¬
taking Pomerania from the Swedes. Fie had long alpired
at the ftadtholderfliip of Holland; and though that office
had been for fix years fuppreffed, yet he flattered himfelf,
that in cafe of a war he might obtain it, perpetuate it in
his family, and in time reduce Holland by dint of force,
intrigue, and Aratagem. With this view, he reje&ed the
propofals of feveral princes of the empire, and even thofe
of Fiance, endeavouring by every poffible method to infi-
miate himfelf into the friendflrip and confidence of the States.
In the end he concluded a treaty with them, whereby it
was ftipulated that he fhould affift the republic with 25,000
men. Beverning, the Dutch ambafiador at Madrid, dif-
concerted all the fchemes of France at that court, and en¬
gaged the queen of Spain to furnifli money and troops for
the defence of the United Provinces. Thus was the face
of Europe wholly changed. France and England, who had
contributed largely to the raifing and aggrandizing the re¬
public, were now incited to deftroy her; while Spain, which
for an age had been endeavouring to fupprefs her, was arm¬
ing for her fupport. Pierre de Groot, the Dutch minifter
at the Hague, was employed to penetrate into Louis’s de¬
signs ; he gave his conftituents notice that he forefaw a ter¬
rible ftorm ready to fall upon them, which they might never-
thelefs break by feafonable fubmiffions and proper acknow¬
ledgments. Upon this the States wrote to the king, endea¬
vouring to appeafe his wrath ; but finding him inexorable,
they prepared for receiving him, and provided for the fecu-
rity of their provinces. But the long peace the republic
had enjoyed deftroyed her Handing forces, and little confi¬
dence could be repofed in her new levied foldiers.
As foon as matters were ripe for execution, Louis or¬
dered an army of ioo,occ men to file off towards the Rhine.
Before the opening of the campaign, and previous to his
declaration of war, he divided his army into four columns ;
commanding one in perfon, with the marfhal Turenne under
him. Another was led by the prince of Gonde, affifted by
the marfhals Humieres and Bellefonds ; the third was head¬
ed by Crequi; and the fourth marched to Weftphalia under
the conduct of the duke of Luxemburgh, to join the bifhop
of Munfter. As the marfhals Crequi, Bellefonds, and PIu-
snieres, refilled to receive, orders from Turenne, they were
77.
Hodilities
commen¬
ted.
banifhed ; but after fix months exile, were recalled, at the United
in fiance of the whole body of marfhals in France, upon their .
making proper fubmiffions.
Such an army drawing towards their frontiers could not
but terrify the Dutch, now torn with civil faffions. The
partilans of the Orange family were for abolifhing the per¬
petual edift, and railing William III. to the dignity en¬
joyed by his predeceffors ; but the De Witt faftion oppofed
him violently, though they could not prevent the young
prince from being chofen captain general and high admiral.
Many perfons hoped that William’s new dignity would in¬
cline his uncle Charles II. to return to the triple alliance :
but that hope w'as fruftrated by the con^.uA of his mzjefty;
who, in conjunftion with the moft Chriftian king, declared
war againft the States-general on the 7th day . of April.
A month after, the ele&or of Cologne and bifhop of Mun¬
fter followed the example of the two kings. The Dutch
put themfelves in the beft pofture of defence that circum-
ftances would admit. Maeftricht was ftrongly garrifoned ;
the prince of Orange had affembled an army of 25,000
men, with which he advanced to the banks of the Iffel,
and the Dutch fleet cruifed off the mouth of the Thames
to prevent the junftion of the naval forces of England and
France, which amounted to 150 {hips. All Europe watch¬
ed the firft motions of two powerful kings, feconded by the
beft generals of the age.
His moft Chriftian majefty joined his army at Charleroy..
It was compofed of 23 companies of gens d’armes, life¬
guards, mufqueteers, and light-horfe, two regiments of the
French and Swifs guards, 14 regiments of foreign in!antry,
and 60 regiments of light horfe or dragoons, comprifing in
all an army of 110,000 fighting men, under the command
of marfhal Turenne as captain general. Holland could only ^
be attacked by the Rhine or the Meufe ; and the generals
and minifters differed by which of thefe inlets they were to
make the firft impreffions. At laft, after feveval delibera¬
tions, it was determined to make both attacks at the fame
time, in order the more to difconcert their councils. It is
probable that Turenne always oppofed the fiege of Maef¬
tricht ; for we find him immediately after the lurrender of
Mafeik ftrongly diffuading the king from that enterprize,
in oppofition to the fentiments of the prince of Conde. At
laft he prevailed; and it was refolved in council to advance
towards the Rhine, and befiege at the fame time the towns
of Rhinberg, Veffel, Orfoi, and Burick. Thefe places were
all well fortified, and deemed the keys of Holland; how¬
ever, the Dutch did not appear difturbed at their being in-
vefted, as they were only under the proteftion, and did not
immediately belong to, the United Provinces. They were
befides in hopes that any attempts upon the territory of ^
Cleves would haften the preparations of the ele<5tor of Bran-
denburgh, and even rouze the emperor into a fenfe of the 7S
danger he was in from the vaft defigns of Louis. Nothing;’iueceftes
could oppofe armies fo well appointed, led by generals fotheyenc ^
fkilful and fo experienced. The four towns furrendered
within a few days of each other ; and Rhinberg, that held
out longeft, opened its gates on the feventh of June. A
few days after, the town and fort of Rhees, and the town of
Emerick, furrendered ; upon which the king vefolved to
pafs the Rhine by a ford, over which the cavalry were to
fwim. This bold enterprife was projected and conduced
by Conde ; who, in the face of two regiments of foot,
and feveral fquadrons of horfe, under general Wartz, iru
trenched on the oppofrte fide, effe&ed the paffage, in the
fame order, and with as much regularity, as if he bad
marched his troops on diy land. The enemy made a ftout
refiftance ; but were driven from their poft, after having
killed the duke de Lougueville on the foot, and wounded
•z ' ther
TJ N I f 680 ] UNI
tlic prince of Conde, which difahled him for fome time from
Provinces attending the fervice, and obliged him to refign the com-
”~v ""' mand oi his army to Turenne,
It Is almoft incredible with what rapidity towns and for-
treffes yielded to the fortune of his majdty’s arms. The
reduftion of Betau, the mod fruitful country of the United
Provinces, and the furrender of Tolhus fort, obliged the
prince of Orange to abandon the Iffel, left he fhould be
attacked in the rear, and to retire to the very heart of the
country, as far as Rhenen, in the province of Utrecht.
By this means the town of Arnheim, the forts of Knot-
femborough, Voorn, St Andre, and Shenck, this laft, the
itronpeft in the Netherlands (having coft the great Henry
Frederic prince of Orange a feven months fiege'), with a
'variety of other forts and towns, furrendered as foon as
fummoned ; and at lalt Nimeguen, a town ftrong from the
mature of the works and fortifications, and garrifoned by
8coo fighting men, including the inhabitants, was invefted.
After the citizens had for eight days exhibited fignal proofs
of courage in defence of their liberties, they were forced to
yield to the fuperior {kill of Turenne.
In the mean time the bilhop of Munfter and ele&or of
Cologne, having joined that body of troops under the com¬
mand of the duke of Luxemburgh, the united army entered
the province of Overyfiel, and by dint of cruelty, and ter¬
ror which the duke fpread, reduced the towns as foon as
he appeared before them. Animated by that implacable
rage that conftantly attends religious wars, tl« two prelates
obliged the duke to exert a feverity, by no means fuited to
his nature, againft heretics and the rebellious fubje&s of
the houie of Auftria. Next the king’s forces penetrated
into the province of Utrecht, where their conquefts went
on with the fame rapidity, and put the capital of the pro-
“TheDutehvince in the utmoft danger. To retard its fate, the Dutch
-obliged to could imagine no other expedient than opening their fluices,
-overflow ancj overflowing the country. The other towns followed
rne.rcoun- tjie exampie 0f utrec^t. an^ Holland, Brabant, and Dutch
Flanders, was one vaft lake, the towns rifing like iflands in
the midft of the waters. Farther to ftem the torrent of
X-ouis’s conquefts, the people were perfuaded the only bar¬
rier was to lodge the fupreme power in the hands of the
prince of Orange. They accordingly obliged the ftates of
Holland and Weft Friefland to unite the dignity of ftadt-
holder to thofe of captain-general and high-admiral, with
which the prince was already invefted. They likewife fent
remonttrances fo pathetic to the king of England, that
Charles, moved with the fituation of the republic, and jea¬
lous of the defigns of Louis, difpatched the duke of Buck¬
ingham and earl of Arlington into Holland, to quiet the
fears of the Dutch, and infill upon the king’s penetrating
>10 farther into Holland. In cafe of Louis’s refund, Charles
declared he would break the alliance; as he perceived
that, inftead of fecuring Zealand to the Englifh, agreeable
to the treaty, the defigns of France were to unite the whole
republic to their own monarchy. His moft Chrifttan ma-
jefty had in fadt no great regard to the menaces of his ally:
but as perfifting obftinately to advance into a country which
the inundation rendered impafiable, might terminate in the
-ruin of all his (cherries, he feemed, out of compliment to
the king of England, to liften to ter ms of accommodation ;
which, after all his vidlories, could not fail of proving ad¬
vantageous. In the fpace of three months he had conquered
the provinces of Guelderland, Overyfiel, and Utrecht, taken
about 50 towns and forts, and made 2:4,000 prUoners,
Conde and ■ urenne advited his majdty to lend the pri-
foners to work upon the canal of Languedoc, and to leave
all the places that were not cfiential to the prefervation of
fits conquefts; the mmifler Louvois was of a different opi¬
nion, and his fentiments determined the king. The pi-
foners were releafed for a trifling tanfom, and the king’s Evinces,
army totally reduced and exhaufted by the continual drains v-***
made to garrifon the conquered places. 80
A negociation was fet on foot at Boxfel, near Bois-le-Unfuccefk
due, whither the king, attended by the Englifh ambafladorsful 1 eSQC»*
and the Dutch deputies, repaired : but the terms required
of the republic were fo hard, that they were rejedled with
dildain by the Dutch ; who, animated by their fladtholder,
refolved to wait a change of fortune in the midft of the
waters. They ufed every expedient to roufe the princes
of Germany in their defence ; and fo fuccefsfully, that the
ele&or of Brandenburg, the neareft and moft interefted
prince, prepared to take the field. The undaunted courage,
the vigilance, the public fpirit of the prince of Orange,
gained him the entire confidence and affe&ion of the repub¬
lic ; and excited their refentment againft the two brothers
De Witts, his implacable enemies, whom they accufed of
receiving penfions from Louis. The fuggeftion was falfe 5
but poflibiy their love of liberty, and jealoufy ©f the houfe
of Orange, had carried thofe two great politicians too far ira
their pacific meafures and complaifance to the power of the
French monarch. The penfionary was attacked in the
ftreet by the populace; but by his perfonal bravery broke
through the crowd, and laved his life, though covered with
wounds. Soon after the fedition broke out afrefh, and the
partifans of the houfe of Orange again ftirred up the ani-
mofity of the republic againft the De Witts. Several crimes
were laid to the penfioner’s charge, but he cleared himfelf.
Suborned witneffes accufed his brother of an attempt to poi- gj
fon the prince of Orange. Cornelius was impriloned and The De
treated with great barbarity. While he was under the tor-Wirt*
ture, he fung that ode of Horace, JvJlum ei tenacem propofincmt'^ ,
virum. His brother took him out of prifon after fentencen‘ur 61
of banifhment was pronounced } the tumult rofe high, and
both the De W itts were cruelly torn in pieces in the ftreets.
William of Orange feemed touched at this terrible facrifice;
he made the penfionary’s eulogium, and ordered the mur¬
derers to be profecuted ; however, the clemency he {bowed
them, the advantages he obcained by the maffacre, and the
animofity he bore the De Witts, convinced all men that he
countenanced the murder.
William of Orange, in the mean time, daily ingratiated
himfelf more. He gave up his whole fortune for the fafety
of the ftate ; and exerted himfelf with fuch prudence and
ability, that all Europe began to unite againft the two kings
by the month of July. Every prince in Germany was in
motion to iuccour the Dutch. The emperor, the king of
Denmark, the ele&or of Brandenburg, the duke of Brunf-
wick Lunenburg, the landgrave of Heffe, immediately or¬
dered their troops to join ; fevcral of the other princes were
preparing^to take the field. All were jealous, England be¬
gan'to waver, and there was not a power in Europe upon
whom Louis XIV. could heartily rely. The army of Bran¬
denburg, commanded by the elector in perfon, and the for¬
ces of the empire under the famous Montecuculi, joined near g
Heidelfheim, and compofed a body of 42,000 men. l u-f7Xpj0;tJOj
renne, now appointed generaliffimo of the king’s army on hisTurenne.
majefty’s return to Paris, marched to oppofe the enemy’s paf.
fing the Rhine. For three whole months were the eleftor
and Montecuculi employed in abortive attempts to effe£t a
palfage at Mentz, Coblentz, Strafburgh, and other places*
This anfwered the purpofe of making a powerful diverfion
in favour of the Dutch, though they could not accompliib
iheir defign of joining the prince of Orange. After re¬
peated difappointments, the Imperial army directed its march
to Wettphalia ; and lurcnne followed, in order to keep the
bifliopoi Munfter fteady to his engagements. For half the cam-
* paign3
United
Province".
UNI [68
paiffn, he, with a body of 16,000 men, baffled every itrata-
s^em of the eledtor and Montecuculi, the latter the mo^t re.
no.vned general of the empire, at the head of an army near
triple his ftrength. He oblig-ed them to go into winter-
quarters, in a country harafled and exhautted ; and contirm-
ed the hifhop of Munfter in the alliance of France, at the
very time he was on terms with the' emperor. He obli¬
ged the eleftor of Brandenburg, who took the chief com¬
mand during: Montecuculi’s illnefs, to abandon the liege of
Werle ; took Unna, Kamen, Altena, Ikrkembatn, and feve-
ral other towi s and fortrtfles. By continuing his opera¬
tions, he forced the elector rut of his winter-quarters again
into the field, chafed him from poll; to poll:, until he obliged
him to quit Weftphalia, repafs the Wefer, and retire with
precipitation into the bifhopric oL Hildefheim. After ta¬
king poflefiion of the elector’s towns in Weftphalia, he pur-
fued him into the bifhopric of Hildefheim ; and at length,
by mere dint of fuperior genius, forced him to feek fhelter in
his hereditary dominions. A11 this was effe&ed after Louvois
had appointed the marlhal’s army quarters in A lface and Lor-
rain, amidft the rigours of a fevere winter, oppofed by a iu-
perior enemy, by the artifices of Louvois, and feconded only
by h is own prudence, and the affcftions of his trooo3, which
he maintained in defiance all the difficulties, hardfbips, and
danger^, they encountered. It was indeed fuppofed, that
Montecuculi was prevented from giving Turenne battle by
the remonftrances of prince Lobkowitz, the emperor’s am-
baffador, influenced by the gold of Louis. - Certain in¬
deed it is, that Montecuculi’s illnefs arsfe from his chagrin
at leeing all his projefts fruftrated bv the unfteady dilatory
conduA of the court of Vienna. Louis’s negotiations di¬
ll m bed Europe no lefs than his arms. His tools and crea¬
tures fwarmed in every court. Leopold could not be pre¬
vented from declaring in favour of Holland ; but his mini-
fters were bought off from feconding the emperor’s intentions.
The whole Englilh nation exclaimed againft the alliance of,
their king with France ; but Charles ftood in need of French
gold to fupply his extravagance and profligacy. The elec¬
tor of Bavaria had indeed been compelled by Louis to retire
to bis capital ; but it was by dint of intrigue that he was
forced from his alliance with Holland, and conftrained to
lign a peace with France.
While Turenne was thus employed on the-Rhine, Conde
having recovered of his wounds, returned to the command of
the army in Holland. He befieged and took Maeftricht in
13 days. Having repaired the fortifications, he propofed
making himfelf matter of feveral other towns ; hut the inun¬
dations everywhere flopped his courfe. All his attempts to
draw off the waters were in vain ; and he was forced to con¬
tent himfelf with preferving, without pretending to extend,
the king’s conquefts.
Whatever glory the king might have acquired by land,
certain it is that the conduct of his admirals deferved equal
praifc with that of his generals. In little more than 1 2
months the French were taught the art of naval v/ar. Before,
they fought fhip to Ihip ; but underflood nothing of thole
evolutions by which whole fleets imitate the movements of
armies. The duke of York, aiterwards James II. invented
the method of giving all orders at fea by means of fignals:
this and every other part of the art the French borrowed from
the Eir lifh ; and became lo apt fcholars, that they ventured
to give battle to the Hollanders, the great rivals of the Eng-
lifh on that element. Their fleet, amounting to 40 fail, be-
fides fire-lhips, joined to the Englifh, gave battle three dif¬
ferent times to the Dutch. De Ruyter gained additional
glory in thefe engagements ; and D’Eftrees the French ad¬
miral gained the efteem of De Ruyter.
In the mean time, Spain declares in favour of the Dutch;
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
1 ] UNI
and prevails upon the emperor to aft more heartily in the UAeU
caufc of Holland, and defence of the liberties of Europe. ^r,iv'ucer.
The prince of Orange was reinforced by io,ooe Spaniards,
fent to him by the governor of the Low Countries. Philip
had concluded a treaty with the States at the Hague,
whereby he declared war again,ft France, engaged the empe¬
ror to make a powerful diverfion on the Rhine, ftipulated
not to accept of peace before the Dutch had retrieved all
their Ioffes, and obtained from them a promife to liflen to
no terms of accommodation before his Catholic majefty was
reinftated in all his poffeffions in the Low Countries, pre¬
vious to the peace of the Pyrenees- Montecuculi was or¬
dered to advance with 30,000 men to Franconia ; and Tu-
renne, joining the troops of Cologne and Manfter, paffed
the Main, and took poll in the eleftorate of Mentz. The
prince of Orange receiving no impediment from Conde, who
was forced on account of the inundatiops to repafs the
Meufe, thought this a proper time for aftiou, as the enemy v
had no confiderable forces in the heart of the United Pro¬
vinces. He ordered fome troops to,file off fecretly to Am-
flerdam and Muyden ; lined with infantry the intrenchments
which fecured the paffage to Holland ; and to deceive the
duke of Luxemburgh, who commanded in Utrecht, fent
fome forces by fea to attack Bommel. The duke, not pe¬
netrating the prince’s defign, came to fuccour the place ;
and William, finding his ftratagem fucceed, marched to
Naerden, and with 25,000 men invefted and took the place
before the duke cjuld provide for its fecunty. Upon thiSp
fiiccefs, the Dutch took courage, fortune inclined in their^ecjires a-
favour, and in a fhort time all the horrors of war were re-pah ft the
moved from the interior parts of the United Provinces tofrcnch.,
the Spanifh Netherlands. Neither the experience nor con-
lummate addrefs of Turenne, the genius of Vauban, or the
indefatigable vigilance of Louvois, could repair the error
committed in ruining the army' to garrifon the conquered
towns. Even Conde’s fire feemed extinguilhed in the wa¬
ters with which the Dutch had drowned their country. In-
ftea l of penetrating farther, he was obliged to retreat. Tu¬
renne could not prevent the junftion of Montecuculi and
the prince o‘ Orange, nor the lofs of Bonne. This junc¬
tion, and the declaration of Spain, obliged the armies of
France to abandon the three provinces with ftill more rapi¬
dity than they had conquered them. The triumphal arch
at St Dennis was hardly erefted as a monument of Louis’s
viftories, before the fruits of thofe victories were r.elinquifti-
ed. In a word, the parliament of England would no long¬
er fuffer Charles to be the mercenary tool of France ; the
late ill fuccefs cooled the eleftor of Cologne and the bifhop
of*Munffer in their friendfhip ; and Louis, fa Taken by all
his allies, found himfelf under the r.eceffity of maintaining
Ttngly a war againft. the empire, Spain, and the United Pro¬
vinces. Si
From that time the United Provinces have been diftin-State of the
guifhed among the European nations as a very confiderable to
maritime and commercial power. Their conneftion \vithlhe PreleaC
Britain by the Revolution in 1688, when William III. !mt'‘
ftadtholder of Holland became king of this ifland, brought
on a much cloferconncftion between the two nations than had
ever taken place before. By means of this conneftion, Wil¬
liam formed a plan of humbling his great adverfery Louis
XIV. who had fo lately brought his country to the verge
of ruin. For this purpofe he renewed the war in 1689,
and commanded the army in perfon. However, he was
overmatched by the abilities of Luxemburg the French ge-
general; who oppofed him, and obliced him to conclude a
peace in 1697. His enmity to the French king, however,
was not yet extinguifhed. The remaining part of his life
he employed in forming the moft powerful confederacy
4 R againit
UNI [ 682 ] UNI
Unl'ed againd that monarcli; and fo much was he wrapped in this
Province . projeic^ even in his dying moments it feerned to pre-
♦"see^^rT va^ over cvery other conCderation*. His meafures, however,
i.0339,were adopted by his fucceflor Queen Anne ; and the French
340. '" monarchy had nearly funk under the united efforts of the for¬
ces of Britain, Holland, and Germany, headed by the experi¬
enced generals Marlborough and Eugene. But at halt the
whole plan was difconcerted by a revolution in the Britifh
rnhuftry ; the Dutch were difappointed in the moment of
their expectations, and obliged to content to the peace of
Utrecht, which left them exoofed to the attempts of France
as much as ever. A barrier competed of a great number
of fortified towns was indeed granted them ; but barriers of
this kind are a {lender defence again ft the modern improve¬
ments in war. In the war of 1739, thefe towns were taken
one after another by Marfhal Saxe, who thus revenged the
exploits of the duke of Marlborough ; while the Dutch and
. Britifh army, commanded by the late duke of Cumberland,
were driven from place to place, without being able to make
one fuccefsful effort from the beginning of the war to the
end of it. See Britain, n° 342—429*
It is probable that the bad fuccefs of this war cooled the
affe&ions of the Dutch towards Britain fo much, that ever
fince they have added rather as concealed enemies than
friends. In the war of 1753, their attachment to France
was evident ; and in the laid, it proceeded to fuch an height,
as to oblige the Britifh minidry to declare war againft them.
The iffue of this war is ftiil irefn in our memories. A fingle
naval engagement was the only event of confcquence that
took place, and {bowed that both were formidable antago-
nifts to each other.
This war was undertaken in oppofition to the wifhes of
the ftadtholder, who having been maintained in his preroga¬
tives chiefly by the powerful influence of Britain and Prui-
fta, could have no motive for making a rupture with the
court of London. S he fubfequent tranfaddions of the States-
generrd have been related under other articles (fee Prussia
and Revolution). Having deferted the grand alliance
formed againft the difturbers of the peace of Europe, and
the office of the ftadtholder being aboliihed, the Dutch re¬
public, under the name of an ally, is now in reality little
better than a province, of France, d he confequence of this
alliance is what might have been expedded. 1 he Britifh
government, obliged to attack its enemies wherever it might
find them, commenced hoftilities againld the United Pro¬
vinces, and in the compafs oc a very fnort period wrefted from
them their mold valuable oofieffions both in the ealiern and
in the weftern world.
Climate, The (even United Provinces being in great part furround-
&c. of the e(j gy tge fe3j lying low') and abounding in marfhes, have a
Provinces tiamP and unwkoleionie air- ^aIns and ‘°gs are Sequent ;
e8’ and the gout, feurvy, rheumatifm, and agues, very common
and difficult of cure. The effedds of human induftry here
are wonderful in the dykes and dams eredded for defending
the country againft the inundations of the fea, and in
ditches, canals, mills, and fluices, for draining the marfhes.
The quantity of grain produced is not iufficient for home
confumption ; but the paftures in the marflies are fo rich,
that they can fpare a great dead of butter and cheele for ex¬
portation. They have alio a good breed of fheep, whofe
wool is highly valued. There ia turf, madder, tobacco, feme
fruit, and iron ; but all the pit-coal and timber ufed in
this country, and indeed mold of the neceffaries of life, are
imported. All the provinces either he upon, or communi¬
cate with, the North Sea, by means of that called the Zuy-
der, or South Sta ; which was formed partly by the Rhine’s
right branch, then increafed by the Vecht, which has now
another outlet, overflowing the low fwampy grounds thro’
which it paffed ; and partly by the fea, in the 13th century, United
breaking in, and overflowing a large tradd of ground conti-^rov*nces-
guous to that before laid under water by the Rhine. The "" v
principal rivers are the Rhine, the Meufe, the Scheld,
and tiie Vecht. The firft is divided into feveral bran¬
ches, ©ne of which joins the Old Mel, and after that falls
into the Zuyder Sea ; another named the Le k, at the vil¬
lage of Krimpen, mingles with the Meufe ; a third, called
the Crooked Rhine, is branched out at Leyden into canals,
of which one runs into the lake of Haerlem, and another lofes
itlVlf in tiie fand hills between Catwyk on Qe Rhine, and
Catwyk on the fea ; and a fourth, called the IVaal, falls into
the Meuie over-againid Workum. The Meufe, after dividing
itfelf into two branches, and again uniting thefe, falls into
the North Sea below Rotterdam. The Scheld below Ant¬
werp divides itfelf into two branches, called the IVeflem and
Eajlem Scheld \ the firft feparating Flanders from Zealand ;
and the other, running north by Bergen op-Zoom, and af¬
terwards eaft, between the Hands of Beveland and Sehowen,
falls into the fea a little below. The Vecht runs from eaft
to weft through the province of O very Iff 1, anti falls into the
Zuyder Sea. There are many fmallei rivers tlr.-t join thefe,.
and a vaft number ot canals ; yet there are few good har¬
bours in the provinces The heft are thole of Rotterdam,.
Helvoetflnys, and Flufliing. As to the harbour of Amfter-
dam, it is indeed one of the larged and fared in Europe; but
there is a bar at the entrance of it, over which large vcffels
cannot pafs without being lightened or unloaded. There
are no mountains in thefe provinces ; rndlhe only lake, pro¬
perly fo called, is tbat of Haerlern. The provinces are ex¬
tremely well cultivated, and very populous ; eipecially that
of Holland, which, in this ref ped, perhaps has not its equal
in the univerie. 1 he towns are very agreeable, being kept
clean, and having canals in the middle o1 the ftreefs, planted
with trees. The number of inhabitants is computed at
about 2,coc,ooo. The animals here are much the fame as
in England ; but their horfes and horned cattle are of a lar¬
ger fixe. Storks build and hatch on their chimneys ; but,
being birds of paffage, they leave the country about the
middle of Auguft, with thejr young, and return the Febru¬
ary following. It is faid there are feme wild boars and
wolves here ; and that neither oyfters nor herrings are to
be found upon the coaft : but of other fifh they have the fe¬
veral lorts, both iu their feas and rivers,.that we have in Bri¬
tain. 26
The eftablifhed religion here before the Revolution wasFei'gion.
the Prefbyterian, orCalvinifm : none but Prefbyterians were
admitted into any office or pod in the government, except¬
ing the army all religions and (efts, however, were tolera¬
ted, and had their tefpeilive meetings or affemblies for pub¬
lic worflvip, among which the Papifts and Jews were very nu¬
merous. Since the late alliance with France, no particular
religion is eftablifhed •, and the phlegmatic Dutch have
drunk deep ot the cup of infidelity, mixed by their new and
volatile allies.
There are five univerfities in the provinces, viz. thofe of
Utrecht, Leyden, Franeker, Groningen, and Harderwic ;
but the three lall are inconfiderable. The diffentersin Eng¬
land often fend their children to thefe univerfities for edu¬
cation. Before the Reformation there was an archbifhop
at Utrecht, who had for his fufl’ragans the bifliops of De¬
venter, Groningen, Middleburg, Haerlem, and Lewavden
The language here is a dialeft of the German, but French
is muchlpojcen by the better fort, U
With regard to the commerce of this country, their Eaft Commerce)
India company had the'monopoly of the fine fpices for more &c-
than 100 years, and tvas long the molt opulent and power¬
ful of any in the world. Though the country itfelf pro-
ducss
u n r
[ 683 ]
U N I
88
Contlitu-
tion.
TJn’red duces very few thin . ,
l'ievinces. commoj[t;i3 Qf tlie pjobe may be found here, nearly as
'—• v L-heap as in the countries where they are made or produced.
A vaft variety of manufa&ures are carried on in the pro¬
vinces, and with extraordinary {kill and diligence ; and a
great number of hands are employed, and much wealth ac¬
quired, by the herring, cod, and whale filheries. No na¬
tion has hitherto equalled them in the curing of herrings ;
thole cured at Glaigow, in Scotland, are thought to come
neareft to them. About 1 50 Jail were annually employed in
the whale-fifhery, and about 200 in the herring, i he pro¬
fits of the latter, in a good year, after all deductions, were
thought to amount to 2CO,o:o Holland guilders. The prin¬
cipal manufactures here are thofe o!' hnen, paper, andeartnen
v/are or all forts. Ship-building alfo employs vatl numbers
of hands. Tire trade of this country, however, upon the
whole, has long been declining ; owing partly to a decline ot
their ancient Darfimotry and induftry ; but chieily to the im¬
provement oi manufactures, trade, and navigation, in other
countries; and at prelent (1796) it 18 aim oft annihilated.
The late conftitution was fomewhat fingular. Moft of
the towns in the feveral provinces are little republics, whole
deputies, with the nobility, compofed the ftates thereof ;
and the deputies of the provinces, in like manner, compofed
the States-general. Every town or province might fend as
many deputies as they pleaftd to the affemblies of the pro¬
vincial ftates, or States-general ; but thofe of each town or
province had but one voice, and prefided by turns. No re-
folntion taken by the States-general was of any force till
confirmed by the feveral provinces. The legiflative power
in the towns was veiled in the ienates ; and the executive in
the burgomafters, fyndics, &c. I he ftates of the provinces
were ftyled. Noble and Mighty Lords ; but thofe of Hol¬
land, Noble and Moft Mighty Lords: and the States general,
High and Mighty Lords, or the Lords the States-general of
the United Netherlands, or their High Mightinelfes. Be-
fides the States-geneval, there was alfo a council of ftate,
confifting of deputies from the feveral provinces, making
twelve in all; or which Holland lent three ; Guelderland,
Zealand, and Utrecht, two a-piece ; and Friefland, Gronin¬
gen, and Oveiyffel, one. In this council every deputy pre¬
fided a week by turns, and the liadtholder had a decilive
voice when the votes happened to he equal. 1 he principal
affairs that came under their deliberation, were thole rela¬
ting to the army and finances. The itadtholder was alio
prefident of the flates in every province, but had no leat in
the States-general. One diuenting voice in the provincial
Hates prevented their coming to any refolution. See Stadt-
HOLDER.
Such was the conftitution of the {'even United Provinces.
They are now employed in framing lor themfelves a new
ne, upon the plan dictated to them by their mailers the
French.
With refpefl to the adminiftration of juftice in this conn-
try, every province Iras its tribunal, to which, except in
criminal caies, appeals lie from the petty and country courts;
and it is faid, that juftice is nowhere diftribufed with more
impartiality.
Taxes. The taxes in there provinces are fo many, and fo heavy,
efpecially in Holland, that it is not without realon alferted,
that the only thing that has eleaped taxation there is the
r.ir they breathe. The ordinary revenues of the republic
are comouted at between two and three millions Sterling
annually. Out of ioj guilders, the province of Holland
contributes 58 ; and confequently above one half of the
whole public expences. For the encouragement of trade,
the duties on goods and mcrchandile are faid to be exceed¬
ing low.
yet aim oft all the produfls and With refoedl to their land-forces in time of7 peace, they
Un:terf •
feldom exceed 40,coo, and very often fall fhort of’ that num- l>r0V1Ilce*
her. They employ a great many foreigners in their fervice;
and in time of war hire whole regiments of Germans. Their  —j
navy, were they to enter heartily into any war, could foon^ 9°
be made formidable, as they have always vaft quantities of
timber prepared for building {hips, and great numbers °fiand.
{hip carpenters and mariners. It is under the direilion of
the five admiralty colleges, who, to defray the charges there¬
of, levy the duties on exports and imports. 91
As to the character of the Dutch, the boors or hufband- Character,
men are induftrious enough, but heavy, and flow of under-
llanding. ft. he feamen are a olain. blunt, but rough, lurly,
and ill-mannered fort of people. Their tradefmen are fome-
thing (harper, and make ufe of all their (kill to take advan¬
tage of thoie they deal with. Every clafs of men is ex¬
tremely frugal. All appetites and pafltons run lower and
cooler here than in other countries, avarice excepted. Quar¬
rels are very rare ; revenge is feldom heard of : and jealoufy
fcarcely ever known. It is very uncommon for any o( them
to be really in love, or even to pietend to it; nor do the
women feem to care whether they are or not. People con-
verie pretty much upon a level here ; nor is it eafy to diftin-
guifh the man from the mafter, or the maid from the mi~
ilrefs, inch liberties do they allow their fervants, or rather are
obliged to allow them ; (or they may not be ftruck or cor-
redled by them, but the difpute muft be left to the magi-
ftrate. The Dutch are tall and ftrong built; but both men
and women have the groffeft fhapes that are to be met with
anywhere. Their garb, except among the officers of the
army and fome few others, is exceeding plain, and the faihions
change as feldom as in Spain. The men are addifled to
drinking, which fome think neceffary in this foggy air, both
for their health and the improvement of their underftand-
ings. Among their diverfiona, that of Heating in winter is
one of the chief. It is amazing to fee the crowds in a hard
froft upon the ice, and their great dexterity in Heating ;
both men and women darting along with inconceivable ve¬
locity. The Dutch are remarkable for their cleanlinefs :
nothing can exceed the neatnels of their houies, towns, and
villages. Many of them have diftinguilhed themfelves by
their learning, and iome even by their wit and ingenuity ;
witnefs Lralmus, Grotius, See. The Dutch excel alio in
painting and engraving ; and fome of them have been no
contemptible ftatnaries.
UNITY, in poetry. There are three unities to be ob-
ferved, viz. the unity of adtion, that of time, and that of
place. In the epic poem, the great, and almoft the only,
unity, is that of the adlion. Some regard indeed ought to
be had to that of time ; for that of place there is no room.
The unity of character is not reckoned among the unities.
See Poktry, Part II. Se<ft. 3.
UNIVERSAL, iomethlng that is common to many
things ; or it is one thing belongin r to many or all things.
UNIVERSE, a collective name, fignifying the whole
world ; or the affemblage of heaven and earth, with all things
therein. See Astronomy and Geography.
UNIVERSI I Y, is the name of a corporation formed
for the education ot youth in the liberal arts and fciences,
and authorized to admit fuch as have Itudied in it, to cer¬
tain degrees in different faculties, which not only ftrved as
certificates of proficiency in fcience, but alfo confer on thoie
who obtain them coniiderable privileges within the univer-
fity, as well as fome rank in the ftate without it. Uuiver-
lities generally comprehend within them one or more col¬
leges : but this is not always the cafe ; for the univerfity of
St -Andrew’s was in being before either of its colleges was
founded, and it would continue in being with all its
4 R 2 pri-
UNI [ 684 1 V O C
Univcrfity, privileges though both its colleges were levelled with the
In every univerfity with which wre are acquainted, there
are four faculties, viz. Theology, La<w, Phyjic, and the Arts
and Sciences, comprehending mathematics, natural and mo¬
ral philofophy, &e. ; and in Oxford, Cambridge, and fome
other univerfities, Mujlc is confidered as a fifth faculty. In
each of thefe there are two degrees, thofe of Bachelor and
DoSlor ; for though in the univerfities of Great Britain and
Ireland we have no fuch degree as Dodor in Arts ami Sci¬
ences, our M jler of Arts anfwers to the degree of Doilor in
Philofophy, which is conferred by many of the univerfities
on the continent.
Univerfities in their prefect form, and with their prefent
privileges, are inftitutions comparatively modern. They
fprang from the convents of regular clergy, or from the
chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome, where young
men wrere educated for holy orders, in that dark period when
the clergy pofiefled all the little erudition which was left in
Europe. i'hefe convenes were feminarics of learning pro¬
bably from their firft inftitution ; and we know with cer¬
tainty, that in Old Aberdeen there was a monaftery in
■which youth were inftrudted in theology, the canon law, and
the fchoolphilofophy, at leait 2CO years before the univerfity
and King’s College were founded. The fame was doubt-
lefs the cafe in Oxford and Cambridge, and probably in eve¬
ry town in Europe where there is now a univerfity, which
has any claim to be called ancient ; for it w?.s not till the
more eminent of the laity began to fee the importance of
literature and fcience, that univerfities diftinft from convents
were founded, with the privilege-of admitting to degrees,
which conferred lome rank in civil fociety. Thefe univer¬
fities have long been confidered as lay corporations ; but as
a proof that they had the ecclefiaftical origin which we have
affigned to them, it will be iufficient to obferve, that the
Pope arrogated to himfelf the right of veiling them with all
their privileges ; and that, prior to the Reformation,"every
univerfity in Eurooe conferred its degrees in all the facul¬
ties by authority derived from a papal bull.
It is perhaps no improbable Ponjefture, that the church
of Rome derived her idea of academical honours from the
Jews, among whom literary diftinCcions extremely iimilar
iubfifted before the nativity of our -Saviour. Among them,
the young iludent, with reipedt to his learning, was called
a difciple ; from his minority a junior ; and the chofen or elec¬
ted, on account of his eleftion into the number of dilcioles.
When he had made fome progrefs in knowledge, and was
deemed worthy of a degree, he was by impofition of hands
made a companion to a Rabbi, tire per fon who officiates
ufing this form, I ajfociate thee, or, Be thou ajfociated ; and as
foon afterwards as he was thought worthy to teach others,
the ajfociate was raifed to the rank of Rabbi. Whether this
procefs fuggefted the idea or not, it has certainly fome re-
iemblance to that by which a young man in our univerfities
pafles through the degree of Bachelor to that of Majler of
Arts or Do ft or.
The moft ancient univerfities in Europe are thofe of Ox-
roRD, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and Bologna ;
and in the two Englifh univerfities, the firft; rounded colle¬
ges are thofe of Univerjity, Baliol, and Merton, in the for¬
mer, and St Peter's in the latter. Oxford and Cambridge,
however, were univevfities, or, as they were then called, Jlu-
dies, fome hundreds of years before colleges or fchools were
built in them ; for the former flourifhed as a feminary of
learning in the reign of Alfred the Great, and the other,
could we believe its partial partizans, at a period ftill earlier.
The univerfities of Scotland are four, St Andrew’s, Glas¬
gow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. In Ireland there is Univerfity
but one univerfity, viz. that of Dublin, founded by Queen 11
Elizabeth, and very richly endowed. ^Vocal.
An idle controverfy has been agitated, whether the con-
ftitution of the Englifh or of the Scotch univeriities be heft
adapted to anfvver the ends of their inftitution ; and, as
might be expected, it has been differently decided, accord¬
ing to the partialities of thofe who have written on the fub-
je£t. Were we to hazard our own opinion, we ftiould fay,
that each has its advantages and difadvantages ; and that
while the Englifh unive'rfities, aided by their great fchools,
to which we have -nothing that can be compared, are un-
queftioftably fitted to carry their young members farthel! iu
the knowledge of the learned languages, the mode of teach¬
ing in our own univerfities is better adapted to the promo¬
tion of arts and fciences, and the communication of that
knowledge which is of moft importance in aftive life.
UNirERsnr-Courts, in England. The two univerfities
enjoy the foie jurifdi&ion, in exclufion of the king’s courts,
over all civil adlions and fuits whatfoever, where a Icholar
or privileged perfon is one of the parties ; excepting in fuch
cafes where the right of freehold is concerned. And then
by the univerfity charter they are at liberty to try and de¬
termine, either according to the common law of the land, or
according to their own local cuftoms, at their diferetion ;
which has generally led them to carry' on their procefs in a
courfe much conformed to the civil law.
This privilege, fo far as it relates to civil caufes, is exerci-
fed at Oxfoyd in the chancellor’s court; the judge of which
is the vice-chancellor, his deputy, or afieffor. From his len¬
ience an appeal lies to delegates appointed by tbe congrega¬
tion ; from thence to other delegates of the houfe of convo¬
cation ; and if they all three concur in the fame fentence, it
is final, at leaft by the ftatutes of the univerfity, according
to the rule of the civil law. But if there be any difcordance
or variation in any of the three leniences, an appeal lies in
the lafl refort to judges delegates appointed by the crown,
under the great leal in chancery.
As to the jurifdi&ion of the univerfity courts in criminal
matters, the chancellor’s court at Oxford, and probably alfo
that of Cambridge, hath authority to try all offences or mif-
demeanors under the degree ot treafon, felony, or mayhem;
and the trial of treafon, felony, and mayhem, by a particu¬
lar charter, is committed to the univerfity jurifdidtion in ano¬
ther court, namely, the court of the lord high lleward of the
univeility.
The procefs of the trial is this. The hi fteward iffues
one precept to the Iheriff of the county, who thereupon re¬
turns a panel of 18 freeholders; and another precept to the
bedells of the univerfity, who thereupon return a panel of
18 matriculated laymen, iaicos priwlegio univerfitatis gau-
dentes : and by a jury formed de nudletale, half of freehold¬
ers and half matriculated perfons, is the inditlment to be
tried ; and that in the guildhall of the city of Oxford. And
if execution be neceffary to be awarded in coniequence of
finding the party guilty, the ftieriff or the county muit exe¬
cute the univerfity procefs; to which he is annually bound
by an o:\th.
VOCABULARY, in grammar, denotes the colleclion
of the words of a language, with their fignifieations, other-
wife called a difttonary, lexicon, or nomenclature. See Dic¬
tionary.
A vocabulary is properly a fmaller kind of dieftionary,
which does not enter io minutely into the origin and diffe¬
rent acceptations of words.
VOCAL, fomething that relates to the voice or fpeech 1
thus vocal mufic is that fet to words, efpecially verfes, and
Voca‘ive
II.
Volatile.
VOL [ 685 1 VOL
to be performed by the voice ; in contradiftintiion to in-
ftrumental mufic, compofed only for inilruments, without
hfiginr.
VOCATIVE, in grammar, the fifth ftate or cafe of nouns.
See Grammar.
VOETIUS (Gilbert), an eminent divine of the 16th
century, was proftfior of divinity and the Oriental tongues
at Utrecht, where he was alfo minifter. He affifted at the
fynod of Dort ; and died in 1676, aged 87. He wrote a
great number of works ; and was the declared enemy ol
Des Cartes and his philofophy. His followers are called
Voetians.
Voetius had two fons, Daniel and Paul, who alfo wrote
feveral works. 'John Voetius, the fon oi Paul, was doc¬
tor and profeffor of law at Herborn : he wrote a commen¬
tary on the Pandcdts, which is eileemed, and other works
on law.
VOICE, a found produced in the throat and mouth of
an animal, by an apparatus ot inftruments for that purpofe.
Voices are either articulate or inarticulate. Articulate
voices ate thofe whereof feveral con Ip ire together to form
fome affemblage or little fyftem of founds : Inch are the
voices expreffing the letters of an alphabet, numbers of which
joined together form words. Inarticulate voices are Inch
as are not organixed, or afiemblcd into words ; fuch is the
barking of dogs, the braying of afi’es, the hilling of ferpents,
the tinging of birds, &c.
The formation of the human voice, with all the varieties
thereof obferved in fpeech, mufic, &c. makes a very curious
article of inquiry ; and the apparatus and organifm of the
parts adminiiiering thereto, is fomething exceedingly fur-
priling. Thofe parts are the trachea or wind-pipe, through
which the air palfes and repaffes into the lungs; the larynx,
which is a fhort cylindrical ca-r al at the head of the trachea;
and the gloitis, which is a little oval cle‘t or chink left be¬
tween two femicircular membranes ftretched horizontally
withinfide the larynx ; which membranes, though capable
of joining clofe together, do generally leave an interval, ei¬
ther greater or lefs, between them, called the glottis. A
particular defeription of each part may be ieen in Anato¬
my, Part IV. Sedt. 5.
Voice, in grammar, a circumftance in verbs, whereby
they come to be confidered as either adtive or pallive, e.
either expreffing an adlion impreffed on another lubjedt, as,
I beat; or receiving it from another, as, / am beaten. See
Grammar.
Voice, in matters of eledtion, denotes a vote or fuffrage.
Voice, in oratory. See Declamation ; Reading, n°
5. ; and Oratory, n° 129—131.
VOLANT, in heraldry, is when a bird, in a coat of arms,
is drawn flying, or having its wings fpread out.
VOLATILE, in phyiics, is commonly ufed to denote a
mixed body, whole integrant parts are eaiily diffipated by
fire or heat; but is more properly uted for bodies whole
parts are eafily feparated from each other, and difperfed in
air.
Vola7ilr Alkali, in the new French nomenclature am-
moniaca, one of the three alkaline falts. It confifts, as Mr
Berthollet and feveral other chemifts have proved, of 807
parts in icco ol azot, and 193 of hydrogen. Several expe¬
riments, publifhed by Dr Prieltley, led the way to this ana-
lyfis, though he himfelf did not fee their refult. It is chief¬
ly procurable from animal fubilances by diftillation, during
which piocefs the azot and hydrogen neceffary to its forma¬
tion unite in proper proportions; it is not however procured
pure by this procefs, being mixed with oil and water, and
moftly faturated with carbonic acid. To feparate thefe fub-
ftances, it is firft. combined with an acid, the muriatic for in-
itance, and then difengaged from that combination by the Volatiffa-
addition of lime or pitch. In its greatdl degree of purity y
it can only exiil in a gafieous form, at leak in the common ^ «
temperature of the atmol'phere. It was at firft obtained
chiefly from urine, and was therefore called fal urina ; after¬
wards from horns, efpecially from thole of the hart, hence
its name,/a/ cornu cervi, “ hart’s horn.” See Chemistry-
Inilex.
VOLATILISATION, the art of rendering fixed bo¬
dies volatile, or of refolving them by fire into a fine fubtle
vapour or fpirit which tafily diffipates and flies away. All
bodies, even the moft fixed, as gold, may be volatilifed, either
of themfelves, or with the admixture of fome volatile iubftauce
or fpiiit, by diftillation or lublimatioo.
VOLCANO, a name given to burning mountains, or to
vents for lubterraneous fires.
The number of volcanoes with which we are at prefent
acquainted is very confiderable, not much lefs than too. In
Europe there are dEtna, Vefuvius, Hecla, Stromboli, Vol¬
cano; in Afia, one in Mount Taurus, three in Kamtfchatka,
five in Japan, two in the Philippines, aijd a great number
more fcattered through the iflands in the South Sea; in A- ,
frica, one in Fez, one in the ifland Bourbon, one in Fuego,
one o' the Cape Verd iflauds; and in America feveral in the
Andes, Morne Garou in St Vincent, and two difeovered by
Captain Cook on the weftern coal! ot North America. There
are others, but thefe are belt known.
It is remarkable that all the volcanoes with which we are
acquainted, four or five perhaps excepted, are fituated at a
fmall diftance from the fe". Moft of them have been burn¬
ing from time immemorial; fome tew however have bur ft
out in our time. Volcanoes all occupy the tops of moun¬
tains, we find none of them in plains ; lome of them indeed,
which are fituated in the ocean, do not rife much above the
furface ; but even thefe volcanoes feem to be the apices of
mountains, the greater part of which are covered by the
fea. The lubftances ejedled by volcanoes are fixed ?nd inflam¬
mable air, water, afhes, pumice ftones, (tones that have under¬
gone no fuiion, and lava. The phenomena which take place
during the eruptions of volcanoes have been fo tiflly deicri-
bed already in the articles Aetna, Hecea, Iceland, and
Vesuvius, that any repetition here would be unnectftary
and improper. All that remains, therefore, is to explain the
caules of volcanoes, or, to fpeak more properly, to ment ion the
opinions of philofophers concerning the caufes'of volcanoes ;
for the real caufe, we are afraid, after all that has been done,
remains ftill unknown. The maft elaborate theory tnat has
yet appeared is that of M. Houel *. * Voyage
According to him, water is neceflary for the formation ofPtaure/^f.
volcanoes. All volcanoes are near the fea ; they are even
extinguifhed when the fea retires from them, for we can ftill
perceive the craters of volcanoes in feveral lofty inland moun¬
tains, which difeover what they have been formerly. He
fuppofes that a long leries of ages was neceflary for the for¬
mation of a volcano, and that they were all formed under 1
the iurface of the fea. The firft explofion which laid openSuppofed
the foundations of the deep, would poffibly be preceded by °
an earthquake. The waters would be parted by a vaft aqon> 0rm
globe of burning air, which would iffue forth with a tre¬
mendous noife, opening at the fame time a large and wide
vent for the immenfe flame that was to follow ; and which,
as it iflued from the bottom of the fea, would be fpread
over iis furface by the firft gufts of wind which followed.
A fire which was to burn through thoufands of years, could
not be faint or feeble when it was firif li dited up. Its firit
eruptions therefore have undoubtedly been very violent, and
the ejedfed matter very copious. For a long leries of ages
it would contiuue to difeharge torrents of lava from the
bofom
vol re
Volcmo. |j0fom of its native earth; and its hill crater would be coui-
^ pofed of the fragments of the fame ea th.
Thus, according to our author, the foundations of the
burning mountain would be laid in the bottom ot the tea ;
and even then it would have an hollow cup or crater on the
a top fimilar to that which is to be found on all volcanoes at
Why the prefent. But the quell ion now very naturally occms, by
fire is noc what means was the internal fire prefer ved from extindlion
e iV/the" ^ tlie waters of the ocean, which mull thus have been in-
vattrsof cumbent upon it? To this he replies, that “ The fire, ba¬
the ocean, ving difpofed the fubilances in tufion to make an eruption,
next laid open the earth, and emitted as much matter as it
could diicharge, with force fufficient to overcome the refilt-
ance of the column of water which would oppofe its afeent;
but as the ftrength of the fire dimiriifhed, the matter dif-
charged was no longer expelled beyond the mouth ; but, by
accumulating there, foon clofed up the orifice. Thus only
fraall orificts would be le t fufficient for giving vent to the
vapours of the volcano, and from which only h-nall bubbles
of air could afeend to the furface ot the water, until new
circumllances, fuch as originally gave occafion to the erup¬
tion of the volcano, again took place in the bowels o1 the
^ earth, and produced new eruptions either through the lame
Ebullition or other mouths. The appearance of the lea over the new
of the let formed volcano, in its itate of tranquillity, would then be
in-iTtn ^ ’fimilar to what it is betwixt the if^ands of BafiUzzo and Pa-
voicaiio. riaria. Columns of air-hubbies are there afeending at the
depth of more than 30 feet, and burft on their arriving at the
furface. This air would continue to difengage itfelf with little
difiurbance as long as i: iffiies forth only in fmall quantity,
until, at the very inilant of explolion, when prodigious quan¬
tities, generated in the burning focus, would make their way
all at once, and the fame phenomena which originally took
4 place would again make their appearance.”
Action of A volcano, while under water, cannot aft precifely as it
1 ibmanne jocg jn 0pCn ?Jr. Jts eruptions, though equally llrong,
v o.canowS. cannot exten(f to {'0 great a diliance. The lava accumulates
in greater quantity round the crater; the.lands, allies, and
pozzolano are not carried away by the winds, but are de-
poiited around its edges, and prevent the marine fubfiancts
which are driven that way by the waters from entering.
Thus they agglomerate with thefe bodies, and thus a pyra¬
midal mount is formed of all the materials together.
In this manner Mr Houel fuppofes that the mountain
was gradually raifed out of the fea by the accumulation of
lava, See. at every eruption, and that the cavern of the vol¬
cano was gradually enlarged, being driven down into the
bottom of the cavern by the continued aftion of the Hones
which the volcano is conilantly throwing up ; that it was
there fufed, and at lall thrown out at the top of the moun¬
tain to accumulate on its iides. Mr HouePs opinion about
the volcanic fire we (hall give in his own words.
“ We cannot form any idea of fire fubllfting alone, with¬
out any pabulum, and unconnected with any other principle.
We never behold it but in conjunftion with fome other bo¬
dy, which nouri hes and is confiimed by it. The matter in
fulion, which iffiies from the focus is but the incombuttible
part of that which nouriffces the fire, and into the bolom of
which that aftive principle penetrates in fearch of pabulum.
But as the fire afts only in proportion to the facility with
which it can diffolve and evaporate, I am of opinion, that
it is only the bottom of the volcano on wdiich it afts ; and
that its aftion extends no farther than to keep thefe fub-
ftances which it has melted in a conflant Hate of ebullition,
F- '^at matter being difeharged from the mouth of the
of lava;! ' vo^cano> and hardening as it is gradually cooled by the ac¬
tion of the air, produces that fpecies of Hones which are di-
ilinguiflied by the name of lavas. This lava, even when in
56 ] V O L
tire focus, and in a (late of fluidity, mull alfo poflefs a cer- Volcano,
tain degree of folidity, on account of the gravity and den- y-—J
lity of its particles. It therefore oppofes the fire with a de¬
gree of rdiHanee which irritates it, and requires, to put it
into a Hate of ebullition, a power proportioned to the bulk
of the mafs.
“ That quantity of matter, when diflblved by the aftion
of the fire, muit conilantly relemble any other thick fub-
ilance in a (late of ebullition. Small exploiions are produ¬
ced in various parts over the furace of every fuch fubllance
while in a Hate of ebullition ; and, by the burlting of thefe
bubbles, a great number ot Imail particles are fcattered
around. This is the very proeefs carried on in the focus
of a volcano, though on a fcale immeufely more large ;
and the vail explolions there produced expel every body
which lies in their way with the utmofl violence ; nor is
there any piece of lava which falls down from the upper
part of the arch of weight fufficient to refill this violent
centrifugal force. 6
“ No eflimate can be made of the power of thefe explo-fncre!hfd-
fions, but' by obferving the obftacles they overcome, and °ic eI>
what enormous bodies are raifed up and thrown to an im-pj0fiL(ns<
menfe hei ;ht and difiance. Such vail pieces of lava are to
be feen on the top of Vefuvius and Lipari, that the projec¬
tile force by which they have been thrown out appears al¬
together incredible. No perfon can harbour the leak fufpi-
cion of their having been laid there by any human power ;
and the appearance of them demon Urates that they have been
ejefted from the bottom of the volcano, not in a Hate of fu-
fion, but coherent and folid. A piece of lava lies on the
top of kEtna of more than a cubic hithom in bulk, and
whole weight therefore cannot be lefs than 16 tons. What
an amazing i'orce then mull it have required, not only to
raife this enormous mals from the volcanic focus, but to
make it deferibe a parabola of about a league in diameter
after it had come out of the crater ?
When we confider how much the volcanic ftacus is funk
below the bafe of the mountain, that the mountain itlelf is
10,000 feet hi gh, and that confequently there mull'have
been a power luffieient to raife lueh a mafs 12,000 feet
perpendicular, the boldett imagination mult be loll in amaze¬
ment.—This may ferve to give us fome idea ot the nature
or that power which operates in the foci of volcanoes ; a.
power which is unknown and inconceivable, and may juitly
be reckoned among the mylleries of nature.”
The pabulum by which the internal fire fs fupported, Mr
Houel thinks to be fubftances contained in the mountain
itfelf, together with bitumen, fulphur, and other inflamma¬
ble materials which may from time to time flow into the fo¬
cus of the volcano in a melted Hate through fubterraneous
dufts, and the explofions he aferibes to water making its
way in the fame manner. The water is converted into
fleam, which fills the cavern and pufhes the melted lava
out at the crater ; this opinion is corroborated by the co¬
pious fmoke which always precedes an eruption. But, com¬
bined with the water, there is always a quantity of other
fubltances, whofe effefts precede, accompany, or tollow the
eruptions, and produce all the various phenomena which .
they display. The eruption of water from JEtna in the eruption of
year 1775 proceeded undoubtedly from this caufe. Bhe w.yer from
fea, or iome ol the refervoirs in ./Etna or the adjacent
mountains, by fome means difeharged a vail quantity ot wa-.gaTed,
ter into the focus of the volcano, i. hat water was inftantly
relolved into vapour, which inllantly filled the whole cavern,
and iflued from the mouth ot the crater. As foon as it
made its way into the open atmolphere, it was conden!ed
again into water, which ftreamed down the fides of the
mountain in a dreadful and deftruftive torrent.
Thus
V O L
[ 687 ]
VOL
Volcano.
Ojjrral
fire f ippo-
(ed to be
tl.C CaUi'c.
Beds, of r y
rites, &c.
10
Great
ejuanti-ies
of j yrifes
will take
fire fponta
lieoully.
Thus we have given a view of Mr Houel’s theory, ac-
; cording to which volcanoes originally began at the bottom
of the fea ; and not only the mountain, but all the adjoin¬
ing country, was formed by fucceflive eruptions. It is rather
a theory of mountains raifed by fubterraneeus heat than of
volcanoes, and dees not attempt to explain the origin of the
fire, which is the principal difficulty; neither does his theory
account for the inimenfe height to which matters are fome-
times thrown during eruptions. This indeed it is impoffible
to account for, without fiippofing that the rcMance of the
air is dirninifhed. The exceffive oppolition of the atmo-
fohere to bodies moving with very great degrees of velocity
lips been taken notice of under the article Gunnery. If
it has fo much effedl then upon folid and round globes of
iron, what ought it to be on irregular mafics of rock, or
Itreams of liquid lava ? Ntverthelefs, in the great eruption
of Veluvius m ) 779, Sir William Hamilton informs us, that
a v?.f. lire air. of lava was projected to the height of at lead
10,000 feet above the top of the mountain. Had the air ,
refilled this liquid matter as it does a cannon ball, it mull
have keen da filed in pieces a lip oil as foon as it iiTued from
the crater. Eiriier the extreme heat of the lava, therefore,
or fome other caufe, muff have contributed veiy much to di-
minifh, or rather, in a manner to annihilate the refinance of
the atmo'phere at that time. /Vs for the lighter materials,
though they may be luppofed to be carried to a vail dif-'
tance by 'he wind, after being projected to a great height
in the air, it is inconceivable how their motion was not fud-
denly flopped, and they fcattcred all around the top of the
volcano by the violence of the blafl. Subfiances of this
kind, when quietly carried up with fmoke, will indeed fly
to a great diftance ; for we are affured, that the allies of
the great lire at London in 1666 were carried by the wind
to the difiance of 16 miles. It is therefore the lefs incre¬
dible, that thofe of the ureat eruption of Vefuvius in 1779
fhould be carried to the diflance of 100 miles, as we are in-
fermed was the cafe.
To account for the volcanic fire, Dr Woodward and o-
thers have bad recourfe to the hy ppthefisof a central ' re, to
which the volcanoes are only fo many chimneys or {piracies.
Dr Hutton, in his theory of the earth, adopts the fame opi¬
nion ; but as it did not immediately concern the iubjedl of
which he treated, he evades any queftion concerning its ori-.
gin, by declaring hirrlelf fatisfied of its exiftenoe without
any inquiry into its origin.
Others, as Dr Lifter, have had recourfe to the well known
.experiment of the fermentation of fulphur and iron, which will
take fire when mixed in coniiderab’le quantity, and molften-
ed with water. Pyrites, therefore, which aie a natural mix¬
ture of thefe two fubftances, it is luppofed, may naturally
give rife to volcanoes. Inftances are indeed adduced, which
undeniably prove that thefe fubftances will ipontareoufly
take fire when thrown together in large heaps. Of this
we have a remarkable example in the following anecdote.
—“ A covetous copperas maker at Deptford having bought
up all the pyrites he could find, in order to ruin the trade
of his neighbours, colledled a vaft quantity below a fhade in
order to fecure them from the ram. He was foon, however,
punifhed for bis avarice ; for the pyrites began to fmoke,
glowed like red-hot coals, and melted into a kind of vitri-
fed and partly metallic fubftance, gricv'onfly annoying the
neighbourhood for a long time with the iulphureous Iteam
they emitted.” Beds of pyrites, therefore, taking fire in
the earth by means of a fermentation, occafioned by water,
are now generally luppoled to be the caufe of volcanoes ;
and the obfervation, that volcanoes are generally near the
fer, is thought to confirm this hypothefis.
When the matter is properly confidered, hewevaq it inuft
3
be evident, that neither of thefe hypothefes can anfwer the Volcano*
purpoie. The central fire of Dr Woodward and others is v
a caufe too magnificent even for volcanoes. If any fuch fircy0jc.,noe,
is fuppofed, we muft imagine a burning globe in the centre nor occ^-
of the earth, whole heat is fufficient to vitrify the molt folidfione l by
and refradfory terrcftrial fubftances. But of what dimen-centra‘
fions are w^e to fuppofe this globe ? Is it one, two, three,
four, or more thoulands of miles in diameter ?—Very large
indeed it muft be ; for we could fcarce fuppofe that {tones
could be projedled even from the depth of 500 miles into
the air. But even this {uppoiition is inadmiflible; for as the
fire of volcanoes is at times exceedingly augmented from
fome caufe or other, wer e this caufe general, as it mull be in
cafe of a burning central globe, the whole number of volca¬
noes exiftin r on earth would be in a Itate of eruption at
once. Befides, if we wrere to fuopofe a burning globe of
fcoo miles in diameter to fuller the leaft dilatation through¬
out its vaft bulk, which muft be the undoubted confequence
of an augmentation of heat from any unknown caufe, ail the
volcanoes in the world would not be fufficient to give vent to
it, though they fhould fpout ftrrth inceftant catara&s or lava
for centuries together. A diffolution of the whole globe
muft therefore undoubtedly take place; and though we fhould
leffen the diameter of our burning globe by 1000 miles, our
difficulties will be as far from being removed as before.
Volcanic fire, therefore, cannot originate from any ge¬
ne: al colkdtion of burning materials difperfed thr-oughout
the vaft n.afs of iolid earth which lies betwixt the turfa.ee
and the centre. All the volcanoes at prelent in an active
ftate would not be fuch a vent for that fire as a tobacco-
pipe would be to a glafs houfe furnace. We muft ha.ve re¬
courfe then to fome operation by which we know that na¬
ture can kindle and extinguilh nres occafionahy ; and if we
can luppofe fuch an operation to take place in the bowels
of the earth, we may then reafonably conclude, that we
have diicovered a caufe adequate to the production of vol¬
canoes. Such a caufe, however, cannot be pyrites, fill- ^
phur, or nitre, in any quantity under the lurface of the not j,e fet~
earth. It is imooffible that beds o', pyrites can remain lor on fire by 1
thoufands of years under the lame part of the fur face of pyrites, fu Le¬
the earth, be occafionally inflamed and ejected, and alter- l!lUa > ur
wards undergo a renovation, in order to enable them to go' ‘
through a hmilar operation. Hitre is never found in a
foffil itate ; nor can it be inflamed in luch a manner as to
make any conliderable cxplolion without a thorough mix¬
ture with fulphur and charcoal; neither would all the quan¬
tity which, we can fuppofe to exift under the bafe of any
mountain in the world be fufficient to give force to one of
thofe dreadful volleys which are di charged by volcanoes
an- hundred times in a day. Befides, neither pyrites nor
fulphur can be inflamed without .aeceis of air ; which can¬
not take place in the bowels of the earth ; lor it muft be
remembered, that the lirft queftion is concerning the means
by which the fire vtas originally kindled. Moll writers, how¬
ever, leem 10 overlook this difficulty, and to be felicitous
only about the immediate caule ot theexplofive force, which
is generally aicribed to {team ol one kind or other. Mr ^ ~ ^
Houel in general calls it the force or fire, or ot fleam ;C(-ncer lit
though he does not enter very particularly into its nature.the caule
Mr Whitehurft fays, that it is the force of “ fire and water, rhe
which is the primary agent in all luch operations ol nature.” jWgvc
He alfo gives a figure, Ihowing how, by means of confined
fteam, a jet, either of hot water or of liquid fre, may be
produced. Bur misapplies only to a particular calc, which Great'^n
we cannot fuppoie always to liappen; but volcanoes are con-^ncy of
ftantly attencwl with explufions^ nay, lo great is the ten-voicanic
dency of volcanic matters to this violent operation, thr!: niat,ters to>
many Hones have been obierved to burit in the air like
bombs.
VOX, L 688 ] VOL
Volcano borons, after they were thrown out of the volcano ; and
VJI. Mr Hmiel even informs us, that fuch have bur ft three times
^ - J *, Hurincr their Slight. Water therefore cannot be always the
15 caufe of volcanic exploiions. When thrown noon melted
Explosive lead, halts, or efpecially cooper, it explodes indeed with
warer°f'e va^ force. With the laft mentioned metal it is peculiarly
culiar to an^ incredibly violent ; infomnch, that it is faid that tur-
certai 1 cir-naces have been burft, and buildings thrown down, by the
cumllances. mere circumftance of fome of the workmen fpjtting among
the melted metal; and Mr Whifehurft calculates the force of
aqueous fteam, when thus fuddenly and violently^ heated, to
be no lefs than 28 times ftronger than inflamed gunpowder.
Many philofophers attempt to account for the origin
and continuance ot volcanoes by the agency of the electric
fluid ; but their theory is fo ill fupported by fadts, that we
think it would be improper at prefent to take up toom with
detailing it. It is certain that volcanoes exhibit many elec¬
trical appearances, and that great quantities of the elettri-
cal fluid are difeharged at every emotion. But our know¬
ledge of eleftricity is ftill too limited to draw any certain
conclufion from thefe appearances.
VOLERY, a great bird cage, fo large that the birds
have room to fly no and down in it.
VOLGA, the largeft river in Europe, rifes in the foreft
of Volkonlk?, about 80 miles from Tver, a town in Ruflia.
This noble river waters fon e of the fineft provinces in the
Ruffian empire, and at laft falls into the Cafpian Sea by
feverpl mouths, below Aftiacan.
VOLITION, the a£t of willing. See Metaphysics.
VOLLEY, a military falute, made by discharging a
great number of fire-arms at the fame time.
VOLONES, in Roman antiquity, (laves who in the
Punic war voluntarily offered their fervice to the Hate,
which is the reafon of the appellation ; upon which they
were admitted to citizenfhip, as none but freemen could
be foldiers.
VOLT, in the manege, a round or circular tread; and
hence, by the phrafe to make vo/ts, is underftood a gate of
two treads, made by a horfe going ftdevvife round a centre,
in luch a manner that thefe two treads make parallel trafts;
one larger, made by the fore-feet, and another {'mailer made
by the hind-feet; the crouo approaching towards the centre,
and the (boulders bearing out.
VOLTAIRE (Francis Arouet de),a celebrated French
author, was born at Paris, February 20. 1694. His.fa¬
ther, Francis Arouet, was ancien rwtaire an Chatelet, and
treafurer of the chamber of accounts ; his mother, Mary-
Margaret Draumart. At the birth of this extraordinary
man, who lived to the age of 8 years and fome months,
there was little probability of his being reared, and tor a
confiderable time he continued remarkably feeble. In his
earlieft years he difplayed a ready wit and a fprightly ima¬
gination ; and, as he faid of himfelf, made verfes before
he was out of his cradle. He was educated, under bather
Pore, in the college of Louis the Great ; and fuch was his
proficiency, that many of his effays are now exifting, which,
though written when he was between 12 and 14, fliow no
marks of infancy. The famous Ninon de 1’Enclos, to
whom this ingenious boy was introduced, left him a le¬
gacy of 2000 livres to buy him a library. Having been
lent to the equity fchools on his quitting college, he was
fo difgufted with the drynefs of the law, that he devoted
himfelf entirely to the mufes. He was admitted into the
company of the Abbe Cheaulieu, the marquis de la Fare,
the duke de Sully, the grand Prior of Vendome, marfhal
Villars, and the chevalier du Bouillon ; and caught from
them that eafy tafte and delicate humour which diftinguifii-
4
ed the court of Louis XIV. Voltaire had early i '.hiheft a Voltaire,
turn for latire ; and, for fome Philippics againft the go-
vernment, vras imprifoned almoft a year in the Baftile. He
had before this period produced the tragedy of 0 I'f'us,
which was reprefented in 1718 with great fuccefs ; and the
duke or Orleans happening to fee it performed, was fo de¬
lighted, that he obtained his releafe from prii'on. The poet
waitin r on the duke to return thanks ; “ Be wife (laid the
duke) and I will take care o' you.” “ I am infinitely
obliged (replied the young man) ; but I intreat your royal
highnel's not to trouble yeurfelf any further about my lod¬
ging or board.”
He began his /iG/r/Wi? before he was 18. Having one
day read feveral cantos of this poem when on a vifit to his
intimate friend, the young prefident de Maifons, he was
fo teafed with objections, that he loft patience, and threw
his manufeript into the fire. The prefident, Henaut, with
difficulty refeued it. “ Remember (laid Mr Henaut to
him, in one of his letters) it was I that laved the Henriade,
and that it coft me a handfome pair of ruffles.” Some years
after, feveral copies of this poem having got abroad, while
it was only a fket'ch, an edition of it was publiftied, with
many chafms, under the title of The League. Inftead of
fame and friends, the author gained only enemies and mor¬
tification, by this firft edition. The bigots took fii'e at it,
and the poet was confidered as highly criminal for praifing
admiral Cob’gny and queen Elizabith. Endeavours were
even ufed to get the piece fuppreffied ; but this ftrange de-
lign proved abortive. His chagrin, on this occafion, firft
infpired him with the thought of vifiting England, in order
to finifh the work, and republifh it in a land of liberty.
He was light; for king George I. and more particularly
the prjncefs of Wales, afterwards queen of England, railed
an immenle fubfeription for him. Their liberality laid tiie
foundation of his fortune ; for on his return to France in
1728, he put his money into a lottery eftablifhed by M.
Desfortes, comptroller-general of the finances. The ad¬
venturers received a rent charge on the Hotel-de-VUle for
their tickets ; and the prizes were paid in ready money; ,
fo that it a fociety had taken all the tickets, it would have
gained a million of livies. He joined with a numerous
company of adventurers, and was fortunate.
His Lettres Phllofophiques, abounding in bold expreffions
and indecent witticifms againft religion, having been Burnt
by a decree of the parliament of Paris, and a warrant being
iffued for apprehending the author in 1733, Voltaire very
prudently withdrew ; and was fhelcered by the marchionefs
du Chatelet, in her caftle of Cirey, on the borders of Cham¬
pagne and Lorraine, who entered with him on the ftudy
of the fyftem ot Leibnitz, and the principia of Newton.
A gallery was built, in which Voltaire formed a good col-
ledftion of natural luftory, and made an infinite number of
experiments on light and eleftricity. He laboured in the
mean tL e on his Elements of the Newtonian Philofophy,
then totally unknown in France, and which the numerous
admirers of Dcs Cartes were very little dehrous fhould be
known. In the mid ft of thefe philofcphic purfuits he
produced the tragedy of Altira. He was now in the me¬
ridian of his age and genius, as was evident from the tra¬
gedy of Mahomet, firft afted in 1741 ; blit it w^s repre*
Tented to the procureur-general as a performance offenfive
to religion ; and the author, by order of cardinal Fleury,
withdrew it from the if age. Meropt, played two years alter,
1743, gave an idea of a fpecies of tfagedy, of which few
models had exifted. It was ?t the repiefentation of this
tragedy that the oit and boxes were clamorous for a fight
of the author; yet it was feverely criticiied when it came
from
•VOL [ ] VOL
ftam the prefs. He now became a favourite at court,
through the intereft of madam d’Etiole, afterwards mar-
chionefs of Pompadour. He Was appointed a gentleman
of the bed-chamber in ordinary, and hifloriographer of
France. He had frequently attempted to gain admittance
into the Academy of Sciences, but could not obtain his
vvilh till 1746, when he was the firft who broke through
-the abfurd cuftem of filing an inaugural fpeech with the
fulfome adulation of Richelieu ; an example foon followed
■fcy other academician’s. From the fatires occalloned by
this innovation he felt fo much uneafinefe, that he was glad
to retire with the marchionefs du Chatelet to Luneville, in
the neighbourhood of king StaniOaus. The marchionefs
dying in 1749, Voltaire returned to Paris, where his ftay
was but Ihort. The king of Pruflia now gave Voltaire an
invitation to live with him, which he accepted towards the
■end of Auguft 1750. On his arrival at Berlin, he w'as
immediately prefented with the Order of Merits the key of
chamberlain, and a penfxon of 20,000 livres. From the par¬
ticular refpedf that was^paid to him, his time was now fpent
in the moil agreeable manner; his apartments w^ere under
thofe of the king, whom he was allowed to vifit at ftated
•hours, to read with him the beft w-orks of either ancient
or modern authors, and to afiift his majefty in the literary
produftions by which he relieved the cares of government.
But a difpute which arofe between him and Maupertuis
foon brought on his difgrace. Maupertuis w-as at fome
pains to have it reported at court, that one day while ge¬
neral Manftein happened to be in the apartments of M. de
Voltaire, w-ho was then tranflating into French, The Me¬
moirs of Rufiia, compofed by that officer, the king, in his
nfual manner, fent a copy of verfes to be examined, wdien
Voltaire faid to Manrtein, “ Let us leave off for the prefent,
my friend; you fee the king has fent me his dirty linen to
wafh, I will waffi your’s another time.” A {ingle word is
fometimes fuffieient to ruin a man at court; Maupertuis
imputed fuch a word to Voltaire, and fucceeded. It was
about this very time that Maupeituis publifhed his very
ftrange Philofophical Letters ; and M. de Voltaire did not
fail to heighten, with his utmoft powers of raillery, every
thing which he found, ;or could make, ridiculous, in the
proje&s of M. Maupertuis, who was careful to unite his
own caufe with that of the king; Voltaire was confidered
as having failed in refpedf to his mnjelty ; and therefore, in
the moft relpedtful manner, he returned to the king his
•chamberlain’s key, and the crofs of his Order of Merit; ac¬
companied with four lines of verfe ; in which he, with great
delicacy, compares his tituation to that of a jealous lover,
who fends back the picture of his miftrefs. The king re¬
turned the key and the ribbon ; but they were not followed
by an immediate reconciliation. Voltaire fet out to pay a
vifit to her highnefs the duchefs of Gotha, who honoured
him with her friendfhip as long as (he lived. While he re¬
mained at Gotha, Maupertuis employed all his batteries
againft him : Voltaire was arrefted by the king’s orders,
but afterwards releafed.
He now fettled near Geneva; but afterward being obliged
to quit that republic, he purchafed the caftle of Ferney in
France, about a league from the lake of Geneva. It was here
that he undertook the defence of the celebrated family of
Galas ; and it was not long before he had a fecond opportu¬
nity of vindicating the innocence of another condemned fa¬
mily of the name of Sirven. It is fomewhat remarkable,
that in the year 17745 he had the third time a lingular
opportunity of employing that fame zeal which he had the
good fortune to difplay in the fatal cataftrophe of the fami¬
nes of Galas and Sirven.
In this retreat M. Voltaire continued long to enjoy the
Vot. XVIII. Part II.
pleafures of a rural life, accompanied with the admiration
of a vail number of wits and philefophers throughout all
Europe. Wearied at length, however, with his fituation,
or yielding to the importunities of friends, he came to Paris
about the beginning of the year 1778, where he wrote
a new tragedy called Irene. By this time his underdand-
ing feems to have been impaired, either throin h the in¬
firmities of age, or continued intoxication by the flattery
of others ; and he ridiculoufly fuffered himfelf to be crown¬
ed in public with laurel, in telllmony of his great poetical
merit. He did not long furvive this farce : for having over¬
heated himfelf with receiving vifits, and exhaufted his fpirits
by fupplying a perpetual fund of converfation, he was firtl
feized with a fpitting of blood; and at laft becoming reft-
lefs in the night-time, he was obliged to ule a foporific me¬
dicine. Of this he unluckily one night took io large a
dole, that he llept 36 hours, and expired a very Ihort time
after awakening from it.
VOLUME, in matters of literature, a book or writing
of a juft bulk to be bound by itfelf. The name is derived
from the Latin volvere, “ to roll up the ancient man¬
ner of making up books being in rolls of bark or parch¬
ment. See Book.
VOLUNTARY, in mufic, a piece played by a mufician
extempore, according to his fancy. This is often uftd be¬
fore he begins to fet himfelf to play any particular compo-
fition, to try the inftrument, and to lead him into the key
of the piece he intends to perform.
VOLUN L EERS, perfons who, of their own accord>
either for the fervice -T their prince, or out of the efteem
they have for their general, ferve in the army without being
inlifted, to gain honour and preferment, by expofing them-
felves in the fervice.
Such are the volunteers who have been long known in
the army ; but the prefent age has witneffed whole regi¬
ments of volunteers arming themfelves for a Hill more lau¬
dable purpole. In confequence of thofe democratical prin¬
ciples which, in 1793, had been imported into Scotland
from the Jacobins of France, a number of gentleman in
Edinburgh, eminent for their rank and refpedlability of
charafter, affociated themfelves for the purpofe of prelerving
the internal peace of the city. Making their objedt known
to government, they were, in 1794, embodied in a regiment,
called The Royal Edinburgh Volunteers, with officers
appointed by his majefty ; and fo affiduous were they in
learning the manual exercife of the army, that, without in¬
curring the imputation of national prejudice, we may ven¬
ture to affirm, that there is not in the king’s fervice a regi¬
ment better difeiplined or more alert in their evolutions than
the Edinburgh Volunteers, who conlift of lawyers, phy-
ficians, and opulent tradefmen, attached to their king
and the conftitution of their country. They amount at
prefent (1796) to 850. The example of the metropolis
was quickly followed by many of the other towns in Scot¬
land ; and in Glafgow, Aberdeen, Stirling, and Perth, &c.
there are now volunteerregiments, which have certainly con¬
tributed to preferve the internal peace of the country, and
are prepared to repel any foreign invafion Ihouid an enter,
prize lo daring be ever attempted. Similar armaments have
been formed, we believe, in many of the towns in England ;
and Great Britain, at prefent, can boall a mighty force,
which, without receiving the pay of foldiers, is ready to
fight pro arts et Jocis.
VOLVOX, in-zoology; a genus of animals belonging
to the order of vermes infuforia. The body is round, Ample,
and pellucid. There are ten fpecies, all ot which hv^ in wUer.
VOLUSENUS. See Wilson,,
VOLUTA, in natural hiftory ; a genus of animals be-
4 s lon£ing
VOS [690] UPU
, Vofute longing to the clafs and order of vermes tejlacea. There are
VrJi * 144 fpecies. The animals are of the flag kind; the {hell
^ ‘ ■ is unilocular and foiral; the aperture narrow and without a
beak : the columella plaited.
VOLUTE, itr architecture, a kind of fpiral fcroll ufed
in the Ionic and Compofite capitals, whereof it makes the
principal characteriftic and ornament.
VOMICA, in medicine, an abfeefs of the lungs. See
Medicine, n° 186.
Nux Vomica, in pharmacy, a flat compreffed round fruit,
of the breadth of a {hilling, orfomewhat more, and of about
the thicknefs of a crown piece.
It is the nucleus of a fruit of an Eaft-Indian tree, the
wood of which is the I'gnum columbrinum of the {hops.
Some have preferibed fmall doles of the nux vomica as
a fpecific againft a gonorrhoea, and others againfl quartan
agues. But we have lo many good and fafe medicines for
all thefe purpofes, that there feems no occafion for our ha¬
ving recourfe to inch as thefe, which lhow fo many figns of
mifehief.
VOMIT. See Emetic.
VOMITING, a retrograde fpafmodic motion of the
mufcular fibres of the oefophagus, {lomach, and inteflines,
attended with ftrong convultions of the mufcles of the
abdomen and diaphragm; which, when gentle, create a
naufea ; when violent, a vomiting.
VOORN, one of the iflands of Holland, bounded by the
river Maes, which divides it from the continent and the
ifland of Illemunde, on the north ; by the fea called the
Bks-bofcb, on the call; by another branch of the Maes, which
divides it from the iflands of Choree and Overflackee, on the
fouth; and by the German fea on the weft; being about
24 miles long, and 5 broad.
VORTEX, in meteorology, a whirlwind, or fudden,
rapid, and violent motion of the air in gyres, or circles.
Vortex is alfo ufed for an eddy or whirlpool; or a body
of water, in certain feas or rivers, which run rapidly around,
forming a fort of cavity in the middle.
Vortex, in the Cartefian philofophy, is a fyftem or col¬
lection of particles of matter moving the fame way, and
round the fame axis.
VORTICELLO. See Microscope, Vol. XI. page
745-
VOSSIUS (John Gerard), one of the moft learned and
laborious writers of the 17th century, was of a confiderable
family in the Netherlands ; and was born in 1577, in the
Palatinate, near Heidelberg, at a place where his father,
John Voffius, was minifter. He became well {killed in
polite literature, hiftory, and facred and profane antiquities,
and was made direftor of the college of Dort. He was at
length made profeffor of eloquence and chronology at Ley¬
den, from whence he was called in 1633 to Amfterdam, to
fill the chair of a profefTar of hiftory. He died in 1649.
He wrote many learned works, of which a complete edition
has been printed at Amfterdam, in 9 vols folio.
Vossius (Ifaac), a man of great parts and learning, the
fon of John Gerard Voflius, was born at Leyden in 1618.
He had no other tutor but his father, and employed his
whole life in Undying : his merit recommended him to a
correfpondence with queen Chriftina of Sweden ; he made
feveral journeys into Sweden by her order, and had the
honour to teach her the Greek language. In 1670 he
came over to England, where king Charles made him canon
of Windfor ; though he knew his character well enough to
fay, That there was nothing that Vofiius refufed to believe,
excepting the Bible. He appears indeed by his publica¬
tions, which are neither fo uleful nor fo numerous as his fa¬
ther’s, to have been a moft credulous man, while he afforded
6
many circumftances to bring his religious faith in queftion, Vote
He died at V/indfor caftle in 1688. II r
VO 1 E, the fuffrage or refolve of each of the members ^> uPa’
of an affembly, where any affair is to be carried by a majori- v
ty ; but more particularly ufed for the refolves of the mem¬
bers of either houfe of parliament.
VO I IVE medals,^thofe on which are expreffed the
vows of the people for the emperors or empreffes. See Me¬
dal.
VOW, a folcmn and religious promife or oath. See
Oath.
The ufe of vows is found in moft religions. They make
up a confiderable part of the Pagan worfhip, being made
either in confequence of fome deliverance, under fome pref-
fmg neceflity, or for the fuccels of fome enterprize. A-
mong the Jews, all vows were to be voluntary, and made by
perfons wholly in their own power; and if fuch perfon
made a vow in any thing lawful and poffible, he was obliged
to fulfil it. If he appointed no particular time for accom-
plifliing his vow, he was bound to do it inftantly, left by
delay he fhould prove lefs able, or be unwilling, to execute
his promife. Among the Romanifts, a perfon is conftituted
a religious by taking three vows ; that of poverty, chaftity,
and obedience.
Vows, among the Romans, fjgnified facrifices, offerings,
prefents, and prayers made for the Csefars, and emperors,
particulary for their profperity and the continuance of their
empire. Thefe were at firft made every 5 years, then
every 15, and afterwards every 20, and were called quinquen-
nal't'J, decennalia, and Vincennalia.
VOWEL, in grammar, a letter which affords a complete
found of itfelf, or a letter fo fimple as only to need a bare
opening of the mouth to make it heard, and to form a di-
ftinCt voice. The vowels are fix in number, ■uia:. A, E, I,
O, U, Y.
Vowel (John). See Hooker.
UPHOLSTER, Upholsterer, or Upholder, a tradef-
man that makes beds, and all forts of furniture thereunto
belonging, &c.
UPLAND, denotes high ground, or, as fome call it,
terraJirma, by which it ftands oppofed to fuch as is moorifh,
marfliy, or low.
Upland, a province of Sweden, bounded on the north-
eaft byr the Baltic Sea, on the fouth by the lea of Suderma-
nia, and on the weft by Weftmania and Geftrieia, from
which it is feparated by the river Dela. It is about 70
miles in length and 4'J in breadth, and contains mines of
iron and lead. Stockholm is the capital.
UPSAL, a rich and confiderable city of Sweden, in Up*-
land, with a famous univerfity, and an archbifhop’s fee. The
town is pretty large, and as Itraight as a line ; but moft of
the houfes are of wood, covered with birch-batk, with turf
on the top. On an eminence, to the fouth of the town, is
a ruined caftle. Thofe that view the town from hence
would take it to be a garden, whofe ftreets reprefent the
alleys ; and the houfes, which are covered with tuif, the
grais-plats. It was formerly the refidence of the kings, and is
now the ufual place where they are crowned. It is feated
on the river Sala, over which there are two bridges. It is
27 miles north-weft of Stockholm. E. Long. 17. 48. N.
Lat. 59. 52.
UPUPA, in ornithology ; a genus belonging to the order
ofpica. The beak is arcuated, convex, and fomething blunt ;
the tongue is obtufe, triangular, entire, and very ihort; and
the feet are fitted for walking. There are ten fpecies ; one
of which, the epops, hoopoe, or dung-bird, is frequently feem
in Britain. It may be readily diftinguilhed from all others
that viftt this ifland by its beautiful creft, which it can ereft
01*
U R A [ 6gx ] U R I
tTr or deprefs at pleafure. It is in length 15 inches; the
11 bill is black, two inches and a half long, (lender, and incUr-
Uranium. vatej . the hides are hazel: the creft conlills of a double
row of feathers ; the higheft about two inches long; the
tips are black, their lower part of a pale orange colour: the
neck is of a pale reddiih brown ; the bread and belly white;
the leffer coverts of the wings are of a light brown ; the
back, fcapulars, and wings, eroded with broad bars of white
and black ; the rump is white ; the tail confids of only 10
feathers, white marked with black, in form of a credent,
the horns pointing towards the end of the feathers. The
legs are (hort and black ; the exterior toe is clofdy united
at the bottom to the middle toe.
According to Linnaeus, it takes its name from its note,
which has a found fimilar to the word ; or it may be deri¬
ved from the French huppe, or “ creded it breeds in
hollow trees, and lays two afh coloured eggs : it feeds on in¬
fers, which it picks out of ordure of all kinds. Dr Pallas
affirms, that it breeds in preference in putrid carcafes ; and
that he had feen the ned of one in the privy of an uninha¬
bited houfe, in the fuburbs of Tzaritfyn.
Ovid fays that Tereus was changed into this bird :
Vertitur in voliterem, cut Jlant in vertice crijht^
Prominet immodicum pro longa cufpidte rojirum :
Nomen epops volucri. Metam. lib. vi. 1. 672.
Tereus, through grief and hade to be reveng’d,
Shares the like fate, and to a bird is chang’d.
Fix’d or* his head the creded plumes appear.
Long is his beak, and (harpen’d as a fpear. Croxall.
UR (anc. geog.), a citadel of Mefopotamia, fituated be¬
tween the Tigris and Nilibis; taken by lome for Ur of the
Chaldees, the refidence of Abraham. What feems to con¬
firm this is, that from Ur to Haran, the other refidence of
the patriarch, the road lies dire&ly for Paledine. And it
is no obje&ion that Ur is faid to be in Mefopotamia; be-
caufe the parts next the Tigris were occupied by the Chal¬
deans, as feems to be confirmed from Afts vii. 2, 4. It is
called Orche, in Strabo ; Orchoe, in Ptolemy.
URALLIAN Chain, a range of mountains which
form part of the boundaries of Afia, and anciently known by
the name of Ripbcei Montes. See Riphjbi Montes., &c.
URANIA, in fabulous hidory, one of the nine Mufes,
was fuppofed to prefide over adronomy. She is commonly
reprefented in an azure robe, crowned with dars, and (up-
porting a large globe with both hands.
URANIUM, a foffil found at Johangeorgendad in Sa¬
xony, and at Joachimdal in Bohemia, and is, by the miners,
called Pechblend. M. Werner, a German mineralogift, be¬
ing convinced that it was not a blend, gave it the name of
Ferrum Ocbraceum Piceum, and thought it contained the
tungdic acid combined with iron : but M. Klaproth is of a
contrary opinion, and maintains that it is very different from
wolfram. There are (he fays) two varieties of pechblend:
the one is of a dark grey colour, with very little brilliancy,
the particles of which have the form of a flattened con¬
choid ; it is not very hard, and, when triturated, becomes
a black powder: its mean fpecific gravity is 7, 5. The
other is didinguiflied by its black colour, though* it fome-
times affumes a reddifh tint: its furface is more brilliant than
that of the former, and refembles pit-coal; it is alfo leis
hard ; and the black pbwder, to which it is reduced by tri¬
turation, has a greenifh hue. This kind is generally dif-
covered in compadt maffes, lying between drata of a mica¬
ceous (chid, which is found to be decotnpounded. In the
internal parts of this done, it is not uncommon to meet with
'veins of a peculiar yellow metallic earth. The pechbknd is
foluble in the nitric and in the nitro-muriatic acids, partial- Uranofcc-
ly fo in the muriatic, but not at all in the fulphuric. From P1!3
thefe folutions, the unfaturated ferruginous pruffiat of potafh, urjpai.
or phlogidicated alkali, precipitates the metallic fubdance, —v
which then refembles kermes mineral in colour. This,
when it does not unite in flakes, but is uniformly diffufed
in the folution, may be confidered as one of the mod di.
dinguifhing charafters of the pechblend ; another is, that
the precipitates, effedted by the volatile and fixed alkalis,
are yellow; the fixed caudic alkalis giving it a lemon colour,
the aerated a like yellow. This yellow oxyd, or calx, cannot
be fufed with alkalis. As this foffil cannot be claffed either
among the zinc or iron ores, and is very different from
tungdein, M. Klaproth propofes to give to it the appellation
of Uranium; and he didributes it into the following fpecies:
1. Uranium fuipburatum. (a) Dark gray, often exhibiting
traces of Galena. (3) Black, refembling pit coal.
2. Uranium Ochraceum. Brimdone colour, lemon colour,
deep yellow, reddidr brown.
3. Uranium Spatbofum. (a) Tinged with green by copper.
(£) Yellow. This is the green mica or chalcolithe.
URANOSCOPUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiffies
belonging to the order of jugulares. The head is large,
rough, and depreffed, the upper jaw being (horter than the
under one ; there are fix dentated rays in the membrane
of the gills ; and the anus is in the middle of the body.
There are two fpecies, one of which is found in the Medi¬
terranean Sea.
Raphael d’URBINO. See Raphael.
URCHIN, in zoology. See Echinus.
URETERS, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° roi.
URETHRA, in anatomy. See Anatoey, n0 107.
URIM uwJThummim, among the ancient Hebrews, a
certain oracular manner of confulting God, which was done
by the high pried drefled in his robes, and having on his
peftoral or bread-plate.
Various have been the fentiments of commentators con¬
cerning the urim and thummim. Jofephus, and feveral
others, maintain, that it meant the precious dones fet in
the high-pried’s bread-plate, which by extraordinary ludte
made known the will of God to thofe who confulted him.
Spencer believes that the urim and thummim were two
little golden figures (hut up in the pe&oral as in a purfe,
which gave reiponfes with an articulate voice. In (hort,
there are as many opinions concerning the urim and thummim
as there are particular authors that wrote about them. The
fafeft opinion, according to Broughton, feems to be, that
the words u'im and tbummim fignify fome divine virtue and
power annexed to the bread-plate of the high-pried, by
which an oraculous anfweT was obtained from God when he
was confulted by the high-pried ; and that this was called
urim and thummim, to exprefs the clearnefs and perfection
which thefe oracular anfwers always carried with them; for
urim fignifies “ light,” and thummim “ perfection :” thde
anfwers not being imperfcCt and ambiguous, like the heathen
oracles, but clear and evident. The ufe made of the urim
and thummim was to confult God in difficult cales relating
to the whole date of Ifrael; and fometimes in cafes relating
to the king, the fanhedrim, the general of the army, or fomc
other great perfonage.
URINAL, in medicine, a veffel fit to receive and hold
urine, and ufed accordingly for the convenience of fick per-
fons. It is ufually of glals, and crooked ; and fometimes
it is filled with milk, to affuage the pain of the gravel.
Urinal, in chtmidry, is an oblong glafs vcffel, clofed
for making folutions, and fo called from its refemblance to
the glaffes in which urine is fet to fettle for the inTpeCtion
of the phyfician.
4 S 2 URINE,
Ur’ne
U R S l 6g2 1 V R Si
URINE, a ferous and faline fluid, feparated from the
Urfus blood, and carried by the emulgent arteries to the kidneys,
from whence it deicends to the bladder by the ureters, and
is from time to time emitted thence by the canal of the
urethra. See Anatomy, n° 107. For the analyfis of
urine, fee Chemistry.
URN, a kind o1 vafe, of a roundifh form, but biggeft in
the middle, like the common pitchers, now feldom uft'd but
in the way of ornament over chimney-pieces, in buffets, &c.
The great ufe of urns among the ancients, was to preferve
the afhes of the dead after they were burnt; for which
rcafon they were called cineraria, and urna cineraria:, and
were placed fometimes under the tomb-ftone whereon the
epitaph was cut; and fometimes in vaults in their own
houfes. Unis were alfo ufed at their facrifices to put liquid
things in.
UROGALLUS, in ornithology. See Tetrao. .
URSA, in aftronomy, the name of two conftellations in
the northern hemifphere.
URSULINES, is church hiftory, an order of nuns,
founded originally by St Angela of Brefcia, in the year
1537; and fo called from St Urfula, to whom they were
dedicated. •
URSUS, the bear \ a genus of quadrupeds belonging
to the order of fera. There are fix lore-teeth in the upper
jaw, alternately hollow in the infide, and fix in the under
jaw, the two lateral ones being lobated. The dog-teeth
are folitary and conical; the eyes are furnifhed with a nic¬
titating membrane ; the nofe is prominent; and there is a
crooked bone in the penis. There are eight fpecies; the
principal of which are,
1. Arttos, the black bear, has ftrong, thick, and clumfy
limbs ; very fhort tail; large feet ; body covered with very
long and fhaggy hair, various in its colour: the largeft are
of a rufty brown ; the fmallefl of a deep black : fome from
the confines of Ruffia black, mixed with white hairs, called
by the Germans, Jilver hear; and fome (but rarely) are
found in Tartary of a pure white. It inhabits the north
parts of Europe and Alia; the Alps of Switzerland, and
Dauohine ; Japan and Ceylon ; North A.merica and Peru.
The brown bears are iometimes carnivorous, and will de-
ftroy cattle, and eat carrion but their general food is
roots, fruits, and vegetables : they will robe the fields of
peafe ; and when they are ripe, pluck great quantities up,,
heat the peafe out of the hulks on fome hard place, eat
them, and carry off the ftraw : they will alfo, during win¬
ter, break into the farmer’s yard, and make great havock
among his Rock of oats ; they are alfo particularly fond
of honey. The flefh of a bear in autumn, when they are
exccfiivcly fat, by feeding on acorns, and other mail, is de¬
licate food ; and that of the cubs ftill finer ; but the paws
of the old bears are reckoned the moft exquifite morfel;
the fat white, and very fweet ; the oil excellent for Crains
and old pains. The latter end of autumn, after they have
fattened themfelves to the greateft degree, the bears with¬
draw to their dens, where they continue for a great number
of days in total inactivity and abftinence from food, having
no other nourifhment than what they get by fucking their
feet, where the fat lodges in great abundance their retreats
are either in cliffs of rocks, in the deepeft receffes of the
thickefl: woods, or in the hollows of ancient trees, which
they afeend and defeend with furprifing agility : as they
lay in no winter-provifions, they are in a certain fpace of
time forced from their retreats by hunger, and come out
extremely lean multitudes are killed annually in America,
for the fake of their^flefh or Hein ; which laft makes a con-
iiderable article of commerce.
2. Martiimus, the polar or white bear, has a long head
i
and neck ; fhort round ears; great teeth ; the hair long, TTrfu**
foft, and white, tinged in fome parts with yellow : growing
to a vaft fizc ; the (kins of fome being j 5 feet long. See
Plate DX. fig. 3.
> This animal is confined to-the coldeft part of the globe ;
it has been found as far as navigators have penetrated north¬
wards, above lat. 80. The frigid climes only feem adapted
to its nature ; for we do not learn from any authority that
It is met with farther fouth than Newfoundland, its bounds
in refpeft to longitude are alfo very limited ; being an animal
unknown except on the fhores of Hudion’s Bay, Greenland,
and Spitzbergen, on one fide, and thofe of Nova Zembla .
on the other ; for fuch as have appeared in other parts have
been brought there involuntarily on floating iflands of ice ;
lo that the intermediate countries of Norway and Iceland
are acquainted with them but by accident. We cannot
trace them farther eafl than Nova Zembla ; though the
frozen fea, that is continued from thence as far as the land
of Tfchukfehi, that lies above Kamtfchatka, is equally
failed to their nature. The late hiftories of thofe countries- ■
are filent in refped: to them.
During fummer, the white bears are either refident on
iflands of ice, or paffing from one to another: they fwim
admirably, and can continue that exercife fix or feven
leagues, and dive with great agility. They bring two
young at a time: the affection between the paients-and
them is fo flrorrg, that they would die rather than deiert
one another. Their winter retreats ate under the fnow,
in which they form deep dens, fupported by pillars o£
the fame. They feed on fifh, feals, and the carcafes o£
whales, and on human bodies, which they will greedily
tear up : they feem very fond of human blood ; and are fo
fearlefs as to attack companies of armed men, and even to
board fmall veffels. When on land, they live on birds and
their eggs ; and allured by the feent of feals flefh, often
break into and plunder the houfes of the Greenlanders :
their greateft enemy in the brute creation is the morie,
with whom they have terrible conflitls, but are generally
worfled, the vail teeth of the former giving it a fuperiority.
The fielh is white, and faid to tafte like mutton: the fat
is melted for train-oil, and that of the feet ufed in medicine :
but the hver is very unwholefome, as three of Barentz’s
Tailors experienced, who fell dangeroufly ill on eating fome
of it boiled. One of this fpecies was brought over to
England a few years ago; it was very furious, almoft
always in motion, roared loud, and. feemed very uneafy,
except when cooled by having pailfulls of water poured on it.
3. The lufeus, or wolverene, has- a black {harp pointed-
vifage; fhort rounded ears, almoft: hid in the hairs; the
fides of a yellowifh brown, which gaffes in form of a band
quite over the hind-part of the hack, above the tail; the
legs are very ftrong, thick and fhort, of a deep black : the
whole body is covered with very long and thick hair, which
varies in colour according to the feafon. It inhabits Hud-
fan’s Bay and Canada,, as far as the ftraits of Michilimaki-
nac ; is found under the name of the glutton in the north
parts of Europe and Afia, being a native of the moft rigo¬
rous climates.
It is a moft voracious animal, and flow of foot; fo is
obliged to take its prey by furprife. In America it is.called
the beaver-eater, watching thofe animals as they come out
ol their houfes, and fometimes breaking into their habitations,
and devouring them. It often lurks on trees, and falls on
the quadrupeds that pafs under ^ will fatten on the horle,
elk, or flag, and. continue eating a hole into its body, till
the animal falls down with the pain ; or elle will tear out
its eyes : no force can difengage it; yet fometirr.es the deer
in their agony have been known to deftroy it, by running
y their
TJ R T [ 693 ] U S H
Urfus, their head violently againfl a tree. Ttr devours the ifatis,
Urtica. or white fox ; icarches for the traps laid for the fables and
■“""V—' other animals; and is often beforehand with the huntfmen,
who futtain great Ioffes by the glutton : authors have pre¬
tended that it feeds io voracioufly, that at length it is in
danger of burfting ; and that it is obliged to eafe itfelf of
its load, by fqueezing it out between two trees.
In a wild ftate, it is vaftly fierce ; a terror to both wolf
and bear, which will not prey on it when they find it dead,
perhaps on account of its being fo very fetid, fmelling like
a pole-cat: it makes a ftrong refinance when attacked;
will tear the flock from the gun, and pull the traps it is
caught in to pieces. Notwithftanding this, it is capable of
being tamed, and of learning feveral tricks. It burrows, and
has its den under ground. The fkin is fold in Siberia for
4s. or 6s. ; at Jakutfk for 12s. : and Hill dearer at Kamt-
fchatka, where the women drefs their hair with its white
paws, which they elleem a great ornament. The fur is
greatly eiteemed in Europe : that of the north of Europe
and Afia, whofe fkins are iometimes to be feen in the furriers
fhops, is much finer, blacker, and more glofiy than that of
the wolverene, or American kind. The glutton has by
fome authors been confounded with the hyaena.
4. The loior, or raccoon, has the upper part of the body co¬
vered with hair, afli-colcured at the root, whitifh in the mid¬
dle, and tipped with black; tail very bufhy, annulated with
black ; toes black, and quite divided. — It inhabits the warm
and temperate parts of America ; is found alfo in the moun¬
tains of Jamaica, and in the ifles of Maria, between the
fouth pomt of California and Cape Corientes, imthe South
Sea : is eafily made tame, very good-natured, and fportive;
but as unlucky as a monkey. It is almolt always in mo¬
tion ; and very inquifitive, examining every thing with its
paws. It makes ufe of them as hands ; fits up to eat ; is
extremely fond of fweet things, and ftrong liquors, and will
get exceffively drunk. It has all the cunning of a fox ; and
is very deftrudtive to poultry ; but will eat all lorts of fruits,
green corn, &c. At low water it feeds much on oyfters,
and will watch their opening, and with its pawr fnatch out
the fifh ; it fometimes is caught in the fhell, and kept there
till drowned by the coming in of the tide : it is alfo fond
of crabs. It climbs very nimbly up trees. It is hunt¬
ed for its fkin ; the fur is next to that of the beaver for ma¬
king hats.
5. The meleS) or common badger, is an animal of a very
clumfy make, with firort thick legs, long claws on the fore
feet, and a fetid white matter exuding from the orifice be¬
low the tail. It inhabits moft parts of Europe, as far north
as Norway and Ruilia, and the ftep or defert beyond Oren¬
burg h, in the Ruffian Afiatic dominions, north of the Caf-
pian Sea : inhabits alfo China, and is often found in the
butchers {hops in Pekin, the Chinefe being fond of them ;
but a fcarce animal in moft countries. It feldom appears-
in the day ; confines itfelf much to its hole ; is indolent and
fleepy ; generally very fat; feeds by night ; eats roots,
fruits, grafs, infers, and frogs; but is not carnivorous : it
runs flowly ; when overtaken, it comes to bay, and defends
itfelf vigoroufly ; its bite is dangerous. It burrows under
ground ; makes feveral apartments, but forms only one en¬
trance from the turface. It is hunted during night for the
fkin, which ferves for piftol-furniture ; the hairs for-making
brulhes to folten the fhades in painting. Its flefh makes,
good bacon.
URTICA, in botany : A genus of plants of the clafs of
monizcia, and order of tetrandria ; and in the natural fyftenr
clafied under the 53d order, Scabrida. The fmall flower
has a calyx of lour leaves ; no corolla ; a nedtarium minute,
eentral, ura-fafhioned. The female a bivalve calyx $ and a
fmgle, oval, gloffy feed. There are 28 fpecies ; three of PYtlca
which are British plants. xiihlr
1. The pllulfera, Roman nettle, has a flalk branched.. —1
two or three feet high. Leaves oppofite, oval, ferrated,
flinging. Fruit globofe.
2. The urens, lefs flinging nettle, has a ftem a foot high.
Leaves roundifh, deeply ferrated, oppofite, burning. The
flings are very curious microfcopic objetds : they confift of
an exceedingly fine pointed, tapering, hollow fubftance, with
a perforation at the point, and a bag at the bale. When
the fpring is preffed upon, it readily perforates the fkin, and-
at the fame time forces up fome of the acrimonious liquor
contained in the bag into the wound.
3. The dtoica, common nettle, has a fquare firm
three or four feet high. Leaves heart-fhaped, long-pointed,-
ferratcd, befet with flings. Flowers in long catkins. The
aculd, or flings of the nettle, have a fmall bladder at their
bafe full of a burning corrofive liquor : when touched, they
excite a blifler, attended with a violent itching pain, though
the fling does not appear to be tubular, or perforated at the
top, nor any vifible liquor to be infufed into the pun&ure
made by it in the flefh. It ieems certain, however, that
fome of this liquor is infinuated into the wound, though in-
vilibly, fince the flings of the dried plant excite no pain.
Nettle-tops in the fpring are often boiled and eaten by the
common people inftead of cabbage-greens. •
In Arran, and other illands, a rennet is made of a ftrong
deco&ion of nettles : a quart of fait is put to three pints of
the decodlion, and bottled up for ufe. A common fpoon-
ful of this liquor will coagulate a large bowl of milk very
readily and agreeably. The ftalks of nettles are io like in
quality to hemp, that in fome parts of Europe and Siberia
they have been manuradf ured into cloth, and paper has been
made of them. The whole plant, particularly the root, is
efteemed to be diuretic, and has been recommended in the
jaundice and nephritic complaints. It is alfo reckoned a-
ftringent; and of fervice in all kinds of hsemorrhagies, but-
is at prefent but little in pra&ice. The roots boiled will,
dye yarn of a yellow colour. The larvae, or caterpillars of-
many fpecies of butterflies, feed on the green plant; and -
fheep and oxen will readily eat the dried.
Urtica-Marina. See AuiMAL-FlorMr.
USANCE, in commerce, is a determined time fixed for
the payment of bills of exchange, reclconed either from the.
day of the bills being accepted, or from the day of their,
date ; and thus called becaufe regulated fey the ufage and
cuftom of the places whereon they are drawn.
USE, in law, the profit or benefit of lands and tenements;
or a truft and confidence repoftd in a.perfon for the hold¬
ing of lands, &c. that he to whofe ufe the truft is made fhali
receive the profits. .
USHANT, an ifland of France,miles wefl of the
coaft of Britanny, at the entrance of the Britifh Channel.
USHER (James), archbifhop of Armagh, one of the
moft illuftrious prelates in the 17th century, as. well with re-
fped. to his piety and other virtues, as his uncommon erudi-'
tion, was born in Dublin in 1580, and it is faid that two
of his aunts taught him to read, though they were both born,
blind. Dublin college being finifhed in 1593, he was one.
of the three ririt ftudents admitted into it. He made fo
fwift a progrefs in his itudies, that at 18 years of age ho
was able to difpute with Flenty Fitz-Simon, a famous Je-
fuit, who challenged all the Proteftant clergy ; and defend¬
ed his- caufe fo well in the caflle of Dublin, that he made
him repent his challenge. He was ordained prieft in 160),
and foon after was appointed to preach conftantly before the-
court at Chrift-church in Dublin, on Sundays in the after-.
noon. In 1603, he was feat over to England with Dr Luke
Challona,
U S K
[ <594 ]
Challoner, in order to purchafe books for the library of Dub
lin. In 1607, he took the degree of bachelor of divinity ;
foon after, he was made chancellor of St Patrick’s cathe¬
dral, and the fame year was chofen profefibr of divinity,
when he made choice of Bellarmine’s controverfies for the
fubjedt of his leftures. Some years after, he made it a con-
flant cuftom to come over to England once in three years,
{pending one month of the fummer at Oxfotd, another at
Cambridge, and the reft of the time at London. In 1612,
he took the degree ot dodlor of divinity ; at the latter end
of the year 1620, he was promoted to the bifhopric of
Meath, and in 1625 was made archbifhop of Armagh. In
the adminiftration of his archbiftiopric he afted in a very ex¬
emplary manner, and endeavoured to reform the clergy and
officers in the eccleliallical courts. In 1640, he came over
to England with his family, with an intention foon to re¬
turn to Ireland ; but was prevented by the rebellion which
broke out there in 1641 ; and in that rebellion he was plun¬
dered of every thing, except his library, which was in Eng¬
land, and fome furniture in his houfe at Diogheda. His
majefly, therefore, conferred on him the bifhopric of Car-
lifle, to be held in commendam : the revenues of which were
greatly leffened by the Scots and Irifh armies quartering up¬
on it; but when all the lands belonging to the bifhoprics in
England were feized by the parliament, they voted him a
penfion of 4001. per annum, though he never received it
above ©nee or twice. He afterwards removed to Oxford ;
and, in 1643, was nominated one of the aflembly of divines
at Weftminfler, but refufed to fit amongft them ; which, to¬
gether with fome of his fermons at Oxford, giving offence
to the parliament, they ordered his ftudy of books, of confi-
derable value, to be feized ; but by the care of Dr Featly,
one of the affembly, they were fecured for the primate’s ule.
I he king’s affairs declined and Oxford being threatened
with a fiege, he left that city, and retired to Cardiff in
Wales, to the houfe of Sir Timothy Tyrrel, who had mar¬
ried his only daughter, and was then governor and general
of the ordnance. Ele was afterwards invited to London by
the countefs of Peterborough. In 1647, he was chofen
preacher in Lincoln’s-Inn ; and during the treaty in the Me
of Wight, he was fent for by the king, who confulted him
about the government of the church. The death of his
majefty ftruck him with great horror. The countefs of Pe¬
terborough’s hcfcufe, where the primate then lived, being juft
©ver-againft Charing Crois, feveral of her gentlemen and
iervants went up to the leads of the houfe, whence they could
plainly lee what was afting before Whitehall. As foon as
his m^jefty came upon the fcaffold, fome of the houfehold
told the primate of it ; and afked him, whether he would fee
the king once more before he was put to death. He was
at firft unwilling, but at laft went up: where, as the cere¬
monial advanced, the primate grew more and more affefted;
and, when the executioners in vizards began to put up the
king’s hair, he fwooned away. He died of a pleurify in
1655 ; and was folefnnly buried at Weftminfter, in St Eraf-
mus’s chapel. He publHhed, 1. Brttanritcarum Ecclejiarum
Antiquitatcs. 2. Polycarpi ct Ignatii Epfiolce, Grace Ealine,
&c. 3. Annals of the Old and New Teftament, in Latin.
4. De Grace Septa iginta interpretum Verjione Syntagma ; and
many other books which are efteemed. A confiderabk
number of bis 'works ftill remain in manufeript.
Usher, an officer or fervant who has the care and direc¬
tion of the door of a court, hall, chamber, or the like.
Usher of the Black Rod, the eldeft of the gentlemen
nikers, daily waiters at court, whole duty is to bear the
rod before the king at the feaft of St George, and other fo-
lemnities. .
USK, a river of Wales, which rifes on the weft of
U T R
Brecknockftnre, and runs fouth-eaft through that county
and Monmouth (hire, falling into the mouth of the Severn.
USQUEBAUGH, a ftrong compound liquor, chiefly
taken by way of dram. .
There are feveral different methods of making this liquor;
but the iollowing is efteemed one of the beft : °To two gal¬
lons of brandy, or other fpirits, put a pound of Spanifh li¬
quorice, half a pound of raifins of the tun, four ounces of
currants, and three of fliced dates ; the tops of baum, mint,
favory, thyme, and the tops of the flowers of roiemary, of
each two ounces ; cinnamon and raace, well bruifed, nut¬
megs, anifeeds, and coriander feeds, bruifed likewife, of each
four ounces; of citron or lemon, and orange peel, feraped,
of each an ounce : let all thefe infule 48 hours in a warm
place, often fhaking them together; then let them ftand in
a cool place for a week : after which the clear liquor is to
be decanted off, and to it is to be put an equal quantity
of neat white port, and a gallon of canary ; after which it
is to be fweetened with a fufficient quantity of double-refi¬
ned fugar.
USTION, in pharmacy, the preparing of certain fub.
fiances by burning them.
USUFRUIT, in the civil law, the ufe or enjoyment
of any lands or tenements ; or the right of receiving the
fruits and profits of an inheritance, or other thing, without
a power of alienating or changing the property thereof.
USURER, a perfon charged with a habit or a& of u-
furv.
USURIOUS CONTRACT, is any bargain or contra&
whereby a man is obliged to pay more intereft for money
than the ftatute allows.
USURPATION, in law, is an injurious ufing or enjoy¬
ment of a thing for continuance of time, that belongs of
right to another.
USURY, an unlawful contraft upon the loan of money,
to receive the fame again with exorbitant increafe. Under
the article Interest, it was obferved, that by ftatute 37
Hen. VIII. c. 9. the rate of intereft was fixed at job per
cent, per annum: which the ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 8. confirms,
and ordains, that all brokers ffiall be guilty of a pramunire
that tranfaft any contra&s for more, and the fecurities them-
felves fhall be void. The ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 17. reduced
intereft to 81. per (ent.\ and it having been lowered in
1650, during the ufurpation, to 6 per cent, the fame reduc¬
tion w'as re-ena&ed after the Reftoration by ftatute 12 Car.
II. c. 13. and, laftly, the ftatute 12 Annae, ft. 2. c. 16. has
reduced it to 5 per cent. Wherefore not only all contra&s
for taking more are in themfelves totally void, but alfo the
lender fkall forfeit treble the money borrowed. Alfo if
any ferivener or broker takes more than 5 s. per cent, pro¬
curation-money, or more than 12 d. for making a bond, he
fhall forfeit 20I. with cofts, and fhall fuffer imprifonment for
half a year.
UTERUS, in anatomy. See there, n° 108.
UTICA (anc.geog.), a town of Africa Propria, on the
Mediterranean: a Tyrian colony, and older than Carthage,
(Sil. Italicus); its name, according to Bochart, denoting
old: reckoned fecond to it ; but after the deftruftion of
Carthage, became the capital and centre of all the Roman
tranfadtions in Africa, according to Strabo ; who adds, that
it flood on the fame bay with Carthage, at one of the pro¬
montories called Apollonium, bounding the bay on the weft
fide, the other to the eaft called Hermeia, being at Carthage.
It became famous by the death of Cato, who thence was
called Uticenfis.
UTRECHT, one of the feven United Provinces, or
States of Holland, wholly furrounded by Holland and Guel-
derland, excepting a fmall oart of it that borders on the
7 Zuyder-
Ffque,
baugh
V U L [ 6oc ] V U L
Utrecht Zuyder-Zee. Its preatefl; length la about 32 miles, and
II breadth about 22. It enjoys a good air ; and in moft pla-
Vnlcui*. ce8 tjje f0jj js fruJtful, but in fome fandy, or what is called
* turf-ground, and in others over-run with wood. It is wa¬
tered by the Leek, Rhine, Vecht, and other fmaller rivers,
befides feveral canals ; of which that extending from the vil¬
lage of Vreefwyk to Utrecht is one of the chief.
Utrecht, or, Latin, Uitraje'clum, TrajeSum vetus or in-
ferius, or Trajedutn Rbeni, capital of a province of the fame
name, fo called from its ancient ferry or pafiage here over
the Rhine ; the word being compounded of trecht, which
in Dutch fignifies e‘ a ferry,” and oud or o/t, i. e. “ old.”
It is a fair, large, and populous city, fituated 19 miles
from Amfterdam, 25 from Rotterdam, and 27 from Ley¬
den. Here is a {lately town-houle, with a commandery
of the Teutonic order, and a Celebrated univerfity, which
was founded in 1630, lince which it hath flourifhed greatly,
though it has not all the privileges of moft other univer-
fities ; being wholly fubjedl to the magiftrates of the city.
The mall without the town, having five rows of lofty limes
on each fide, is very pleafant ; and the phyfic-garden be¬
longing to the univerfity is extremely curious. There are
five churches here that have chapters ; but the members of
thefe purchafe the places, of which fome coft 6000 or 7000
guilders. The ftreams which run through feveral of the
ftreets, contribute much to the beauty and cleanlineis of the
town; and the canal that is cut from the Leek, and paffes
through it to Amfterdam, will carry (hips of any burden.
Pope Adrian VI. was a native of this city. Here, in 1579,
the memorable union was formed between the feven pro¬
vinces ; and, in 1713, the celebrated peace concluded be¬
tween France on the one part, and the allies on the other.
The Papifts have a nominal archbifhop of this city ; and
there is a filk manufactory carried on in it, which employs
a. number of hands. The inhabitants are fuppofed to amount
to 30,000. E. Long. 5. 8. N. Lat. 52. 7.
U TRICULARIA, in botany: A genus of plants of
the clafs of diandria, and order of monogynta ; and in the na¬
tural fyftem arranged under the 24th order, Coryda/es.
The calyx is ringent, with a neClarium refembling a fpur ;
the corolla diphyllous and equal; the capfule unilocular.
There are nine fpecies ; two of which are natives of Britain.
They have been applied to no particular ufe.
UVA ursi. See Arbutus.
VULCAN, in. Pagan worfhip, tire god of fubterraneous
fire and metals, was the fon of Jupiter and Juno ; and was
laid to be io remaikably deformed, that his father threw him
down from heaven to the ifle of Lemnos, in which fall he
broke his leg, and there he fet up his forge, and taught men
how to foften and polifh brafs and iron. Thence he remo¬
ved to the Liparian ifles, near Sicily, where, by the affift-
ance of the Cyclops, he made Jupiter’s thunderbolts, arid
armour for the other gods. Notwithftanding the deformi¬
ty of his perfon, he had a paflion for Miherva, and by Jupi¬
ter’s confent made his addreffes to her, but without fuceefs.
He was, however, more fortunate in hisfuit to Venus ; who,
after her marriage, chofe Mars for her gallant ; when Vul¬
can expofed them to the ridicule of the other gods, by ta¬
king them in a net.
VULGATE, a very ancient Latin tranflation of the
Bible, and the only one acknowledged by the church of
Rome to be authentic. See Bible.
VULNERARY, in medicine, an epithet formeily gi¬
ven to remedies fuppofed to poffefs virtues for the cure of
wounds and ulcers.
VULTUR, a genus of birds belonging to the order of
Accipitres. The beak is ftraight and crooked at the point;
the head has no feathers; on the forepart being only naked Vuln:r:
{kin ; and the tongue is generally bifid. There are 21' v
fpecies. The moft remarkable are,
I. Grypbus, the condor, which is not only the largeft of
this genus, but perhaps of alt others which are able to fly.
1 he accounts of authors in regard to its extent of wing are
various, viz. from 9 to 18 feet from the tip of one wing to
that of the other. One gives it ftrength fufficient to carry
off flieep, and boys of 10 years old ; while another ventures
to affirm, that it can lift an elephant from the ground high
enough to kill it by the fall! M. de Salerne fays, that one
of this kind was (hot in France in the year 1719, which
weighed 18 lib. and whofe extent of wing was 18 feet.
But to come nearer the truth, perhaps it is better to abide
by deferiptions which bear a moderate proportion. In
Hawkefworth’s Voyages, mention is made of one of thefe
birds ffiot at Port Defire, off Penguin Ifland, of which he
gives the following defeription : “ The head of this bird re-
fembled that of an eagle, except that it had a large comb
upon it. Round the neck it had a white ruff, exactly re¬
fembling a lady’s tippet ; the feathers on the back were'as
black as jet, and as bright as the fineft polifh could render
that mineral; the legs were remarkably ftrong and large,
and the talons like thole of an eagle, except that they were
not fo fharp ; and the wings, when they were extended, mea-
fured, from point to point, no lefs than 12 feet.” This
lait account feems by no means to exceed the natural fize,
fince we have an account in the Phiiofophical Tianfatlions
o!' one of the quill-feathers of this bird, brought from Chili,
which meafured 1 2 feet 4 inches ; the diameter of the quill
half an inch ; and the extent of wing 16 feet. This bird
was met in latitude 33 fouth, not far from the ifland Mocha,
in the South Sea, in the year 1691. The feamen (hot it on
a cliff by the fea-fide ; and taking it for a kind of turkey,
made a meal of it. In this account we are told that the
colour was black and white, like a magpie, and the creit or
comb fharp like a razor.
It feems now certain, that the account given by the edi¬
tor of Cook’s Voyage is very nearly, if not precifely, the
truth, as two birds of this kind are now in the mufeum of
Mr Parkinfon, and are probably male and female. The firft:
of thefe has an extent of wing fomewhat under 11 feet.
’I he bill is ftrong, moderately hooked, and blunt at the tip,,
which is white, the reft of it being of a dulky colour. On
the top of the head runs a kind of carunculated fubftanct.
Handing up like the comb of a cock. The head and neck
are flightly covered with brown down, in fume parts nearly
bare, and here and there a carunculated part, as in the neck
of a turkey. The lower part of the neck is iurrounded
with a ruff of a pure white and hairy kind of feathers.
The upper parts of the body, wing, and garl, are black, ex¬
cept that the middle wing coverts have whitifh ends, and ^
the greater coverts half black half white. The nine or ten
firft quills are black, the reft white, with the tips only
black ; and when the wings are clofed, producing the ap¬
pearance of the bird having the back white ; giving occafion
to Molruc, in his Hiftory of Chili, to fay, that the back was
white. The under parts of the body are rather flightly cover¬
ed with feathers ; but thofe of the thighs are pretty long.
The legs are flout and brown ; claws black and blunt.
The fecond bird in Mr Parkinfon’s colledtion, chiefly dif¬
fers from the firft, in having not the leaft appearance of a '
comb or creft, but tmooth for the moft part, except where
the head and neck are covered with down. The ruff on the
lower part of the neck is not fo full and confpicuoas; bat
as to the colour of the plumage, the difference is not worth
noticing,. It is not impoffible but this lait may prove to be
/ a
V U L 't 696 1 u z
■vuttur. a vontl£r male, for Molruc exprefsly fay§, that the female is iug^eft decree of cold, obliged them to crtep for fltelter.
■“"‘V— ftikller than the male, of a brown colour, and has no tuff In the Weft Indies, they rooft together of nights, in vaft
about the neck, only a fmall tuft at the back part. numbers, like rooks in this Country. They are reckoned
Thefe birds are laid to make the neft among the inaccef- a moft ufeful animal in the places where they refort; which
fible rocks, and to lay two white eggs, larger than thole of fecures their fafety, added to a penalty for killing one, which
a turkey ; are very deftruftive to iflieep, and will in troops is in force in Jamaica, and other iflands of the Weft Indies.
• often attempt calves; in which cafe, feme of them firft pick 4. The fa^/tvnus, or fecretary, is a moft Angular fpecies,
out the eves, whilft others attack the poor animal on all being particularly remarkable from the great 'length of its
fides, and foon tear him to pieces. i Ins gives rife to the logs j winch at fhft light would induce one to think it be»
following ftratagem, ufed by the peafants of Chili: One of longed to waders : but the charaaers of the vultur are fo
them wraps himfelf up in the hide of a frefh killed fheep or ftrongly marked throughout, as to leave no doubt to which
Vnltu*
II
Uz.
ox, and lies ftill on the ground ; the condor, fuppofing it
to be lawful prey, flies down to fecure it, when the perfon
concealed lays hold of the legs of the bird, his hands being
• well covered with gloves; and immediately his comrades,
clafs it belongs.
The bird, when {landing erea, is full three feet from the
top of the head to the ground. The bill is black, lharp*
and crooked, like that of an eagle ; the head, neck, breaft,
wen covered wu.11 giuvcs ; anu ,  ,    — 7 —   7   ,
who are concealed at a diftance, run in, and affift to fecute and upper parts of the body, are of a bluifli afb colour : the
the depredator, by falling on him with flicks till they have legs are very long, floater than thofe of a heron, and of
killed him. See Plate DX. fig. 4. ' a brown colour ; claws fhortifh, but crooked, not very fharp,
2. The Percnopterus, or Egyptian vultur. The appear- -'and of a black colour; from the hind-head fprings a number
ance of this bird is as horrid ascan well be imagined, viz. the of long feathers, which hailg loofe behind like a pendent
face is naked and wrinkled ; the eyes are large and black ;
the beak black and hooked ; the talons large, and extending
ready for prey ; and the whole body polluted with filth:
thefe are qualities enough to make the beholder fliudder with
horror. Notwithftanding this, the inhabitants of Egypt
cannot be enough thankful to Providence for this bird. All
the places round Cairo are filled with the dead bodies of afies
and camels ; and thoufands of thefe birds fly about, and de¬
vour the carcafes before they putrity and fill the air with
noxious exhalations. The inhabitants of Egypt, and alter
them Maillet in hisDefcription of Egypt,fay, thatthey yearly
follow the caravan to Mecca, and devour the filth of the
Haughtered beads, and the carcafes of the camels which die on
the journey. They do not fly high, nor are they afraid of men.
If one is killed, all the reft furround him in the fame manner
“as do the royfton crows; they do not quit the places they fre¬
quent, though frightened by the explofion of a gun, but im-
• mediately return thither. Maillet imagines this bird to be
'the ibis of the ancients : but it is fcarcely to be imagined,
that a wife nation fhould pay fuch honours to an unclean, im-
-pure, and rapacious bird, which was not perhaps fo common
-before the Egyptians filled the flreets with carcafes. If the
ibis is to be found, it mull certainly be looked for in the ordo
of grallse of Linnseus ; and we imagine it to be the white
dork (Ardea cicona), which is fo common in Egypt. The
Arabians call it rocbtme ! the French living in Egypt, give
it the name of chapon de Pbaraon, or de Mahometh.
3. The aura, or carrion vulture, according to Mr Latham,
is about the fisne of a turkey, though it varies in fize in dif-
^ferent parts. Ihe bill is white ; the end black ; itides bluifh
faffron-colour. The head, and part of the neck, are bare
of feathers; and of a red, or rather rufous Colour. The
fides of the head warted, not unlike that of a turkey.
The whole plumage is brown black, with a purple and green
glofs in different' refledlions ; but in fome birds, efpecially
young ones, greatly verging to dirty brown. 1 he feathers
of the quills and tail are blacker than the reft of the body.
The legs are flefb-colour ; the claws black.
This bird is very common in the Weft Indies, and both
in North and South America. It feeds on dead carcafes,
fnakes, &c. like moft of this genus ; which makes the fmell
of it very oftenfive. In general, it is very tame in its wild
flate, but particularly fo when trained up from being young.
This our author experienced in two birds fent home from
Jamaica. They vveie fuffered to run wild about the gar¬
den, and were alert and brilk during the fummer months ;
but impatient of the leaft cold; for a rainy day, with the
. 0 . T
creft ; thefe feathers arife by pairs, and are longer as they
arc lower down on the neck 3 this creft the bird can eredt or
deprefs at pleafure ; it is of a dark colour, almoft black ;
the webs are equal on both fides, and rather curled ; and the
feathers, when erefted, fotnewhat incline towards the neck ;
the two middle feathers of the tail twice as long as any df
the reft.
This fingular fpecies inhabits the internal parts of Africa,
and is frequently feen at the Cape of Good Hope. It is
alfo met with in the Philippine iflands.
The defeription was taken by Mr Latham from three
that were alike, which he faw in England alive fome years
fince 5 two of which are now in the Leverian mufeum. From,
confinement they had loft their two long tail feathers ; blit
this want was fupplied by fome accurate drawings by Sir
jofeph Banks, taken from the life at the Cape.
As to the manners of this bird, it is on all hands allowed
that it principally feeds on rats, lizards, fnakes, and the
like ; and that it will become familiar : whence Sonnerat is
of opinion, that it might be made ufeful in fome of our co¬
lonies, if encouraged, towards the deftru&ion of thofe pefls.
They call it at the Cape of Good Ylopt/langeater) i. e.
fnake eater. A great peculiarity belongs to it, perhaps ob-
ferved in no other ; which is, the faculty of ftriking forwards
with its legs, never backwards. Dr Solander has fecn one
of thefe birds take up a fnake, fmall tortoife, or fuch like,
in its claws; when dafhing it from thence againft the ground
with great violence, if the viftim was not killed at firft, it
repeated the operation till that end was anfwered ; after
which it ate it up quietly. Dr j. R. Forfler mentioned a
further circumftance, which he fays was fuppofed to be pe¬
culiar to this bird ; that fhould it by any accident break the
leg, the bone would never unite again.
VULVA, in anatomy. See there, n° 132.
UVULA, in anatomy. See there, n° 102.
UZ, or Utz, the country and place of relidence of Job.
In the genealogy of the patriarchs there are three perfona
called Uz, either of which might give this diftritt its name.
The firft was the grandfon of Sem, by his fon Aram (Gen.
xxii. 23.),who, according to Jofephus, occupied the Prache-
nitis, and Damafcus, to the north of Paleftine : but Job was
among the fons of the Eaft. Another Uz was the fon of
Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gen. x. 21.), who appears to
have removed, after paffing the Euphrates, from Haran of
Mefopotamia to Arabia Deierta. The third Uz was a Ho¬
me, from mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 28.), and thus not of E-
ber’s pofterity. Now the queition is, from which of thefe
Job’s
WAG r 697 ]
Vt. Job’s country, Uz, took its name ? Not from the firfl, as bable reafons.
i§ already Ihown } nor from the fecond, beeaufe his country
is always called Srir, or Edom, never Uz ; and then called a
fouth) not an eajl, country, in Scripture. It therefore re¬
mains, that we look for the count: y and place of refidence
of Job in Arabia Deferta j for which there was very pro-
WAR
The plunderers of Job are called Chaldeans
and Sabeans, next neighbours to him. Thefe Sabeans came
not from Arabia Felix, but from a nearer Sabe in Arabia
JDeferta (Ptolemy) ; and his friends, except Eliphaz the
Themanite, were of Arabia Deferta.
UZBECK Tartary. -See Tartary,
Uz,
Uzbeck,
W-
"W* °r W’ 'S t^e 2I^ ^etter our a^phabet; and is com rods, being th« two pieces which the hind horfe bears up ; Wagtail
* r 3 sic ifrc ncim/=« \r,o Tf ixrac trip \xrpJ A c • ^ ^*  "L! 1 1 J »1_ _ n r. I'l
Wag gon
pofed, as its name implies, of two v’s. It was not
_ m ufe among the Hebrews, Greeks, or Romans ; but chief¬
ly peculiar to the northern nations, the Teutones, Saxons,
Britons, See. But flill it is not ufed by the French, Itali¬
ans, Spaniards, or Portuguefe, except in proper names, and
other terms borrowed from languages in which it is ori¬
ginally ufed, and even then it is founded like the fingle v.
I his letter is of an ambiguous nature ; being a confonant at
the beginning of words, and a vowel at the end. It may
Hand before all the vowels except u; as water, wedge, win¬
ter , wonder ; it may alfo follow the vowels a, e, 0, and unites
with them into a kind of double vowel, or diphthong ; as
in faw,few, cow, &c. It alfo goes before r, and follows f
and th ; as in wrath, [wear, thwart : it goes before h alfo,
though in reality it is founded after it ; as in when,
what, See. In fome words it is obfeure, as inJJoadow, wi¬
dow, See.
WAAG, a river of Hungary, which rifes in the Carpa¬
thian mountains, and falls into the Danube oppolite to the
ifland of Schut.
WAAL, a river of the United Netherlands, being one
of the branches of the Rhine, which runs from eaft to weft,
thro’ Gueldeiland, palling by Nimeguen, Tiel, Bommel, and
Gorcum ; and, uniting with the Maes, falls into the German
Sea below the Btiel.
WACHENDORFIA, in botany: A genus of plants
of the clafs of triandria, and order of monogynia ; and arran¬
ged in Einnseus’s Natural Method of Claffification under
the 6th order, Infata. 'I he corolla is hexapetalous, unequal,
.and fituated below the germen ; the capfule trilocular and
fuperior. There are four fpecies; none of which are natives
of Britain.
WADD, or Wadding, is a ftopple of paper, hay, ftraw,
or the luce, forced into a gun upon the powder, to keen it
elofe in the chamber ; or to put up clofe to the (hot, to keep
it from rolling out.
WADSET, in Scots law. See Law, n° clxix. 1.
WAFERS, or Sealing Wafers, are made thus: Take
very fine flour, mix it with glair of eggs, ifrnglafs, and a
little yeaft; mingle the materials ; beat them well together;
fpread the batter, being made thin with gum-water, on even
tm plates, and dry them in a Hove ; then cut them out for
ufe,
You may make them of what colour you pkafe, by tin¬
ging the pafte with brafil or vermilion for red ; indioo or
verditer, &c. tor blue; faffron, turmerics, or gamboge, &c.
for bellow.
WAGER of Law. See (Wager of) Law.
Wager of Battel. See (Wager of) Battel.
WAGGON, a wheel carriage, of which there are
ous foims, accommodated to the different ufes they are
%ended for. 1 he common waggon confifts of the fhafts or
Vol, XVIII. Part IL
van-
in-
the welds ; the fiotes, or crofs pieces, which hold the fhafts
together ; the bolfter, being that part on which the fore¬
wheels and the axle-tree turn in wheeling the waggon acrofs
the road ; the cheft or body of the waggon, having the
ftaves or rails fixed thereon ; the bales, or hoops which com-
pofe the top ; the tilt, the place covered with cloth, at the
end of the waggon. See Mechanics, Se&. iv.
WAGTAIL, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
WAIFS, bona waviata, are goods ftolen, and waived
or thrown away by the thief in his flight, for fear of being
apprehended. 1 hefe are given to the king by the law, as
a pumfhment upon the owner for not himielf purfuing the
felon, and taking away his goods from him. nd therefore
if the party robbed do his diligence immediately to follow
and apprehend the thief (which is called making jrefh fuit)t
or do convift him afterwards, or procure evidence to con-
vi& him, he fhall have his goods again. Waived goods do
alfo not belong to the king till feized by fomebody ‘or his
ufe ; for if the party robbed can feize them firft, though at
the diftance of 20 years, the king {hall never have them. If
the goods are hid by the thief, or left anywhere by him,
fo that he had them not about him when he fled, and there¬
fore did not throw them away in his flight ; thefe alfo are
not bona waviata, but the owner m$iy have them again when
he pleales. rI he goods of a foreign merchant, though fto¬
len and thrown away in flight, fhall never be waifs: the rea-
fon whereof may be, not only for the encouragement of
trade, but alfo becaufe there is no wilful default in the
foreign merchant’s not purfuing the thief, he being gene¬
rally a ftranger to our laws, our ufages, and our lan-
guage.
WAIGATS straits, fituated between Nova Zembla
and Ruffia, through which the Dutch failed to the north, as
high as 7 50, in order to difeover a north-eaft paffage to
China and the Eaft Indies.
WAINSCO T, in building, the timber-work that ferves
to line the walls of a room, being ufually made in pannels,
and painted, to ferve inftead of hangings.
W A IVE, in law, a woman that is put out of the pro-
teftion of the law. She is called waive, as being forfaken
of the law ^ and not outlaw as a man is; by reafon women
cannot be of the decenna, and are not fworn in leets to the
king, nor to the law, as men are ; who are therefore within
the law ; whereas women are not, and fo cannot be outlaw¬
ed, fince they never were within it.
WARE, the print or track impreffed by the courfe of
a {hip on the furface of the water. It is formed by the re¬
union of the body of water which was feparated by the fhip’s
bottom whilft moving through it; and may be feen to a con-
fiderable diftaace behind the ftern, as fmoother than the reft
of the fea. Hence it is ufually obferved by the compafs, to
diicover the angle of lee-way.
4 T A
W A K r 698 1 W A L
"ITaUc, ^ fhip Jg faid to be in the wake of another when fhe fol-
lows her on the fame track, or a line fuppofed to be formed
on the continuation of her keel.
Two diftant objefts obferved at fea are called in the wake
of each other, when the view of the fartheft is intercepted
by the ntareft ; fo that the obferver’s eye and the two ob-
jedfs are all placed upon the fame right line.
Wake is the eve-feaft of the dedication of churches, which
is kept with feaiting and rural diverfions.
The learned Mr Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Manchefter,
hath given a particular account of the origin of wakes and
fairs. He obferves, that every church at its confecration
received the name of fome particular faint: this cuftom was
pradfifed among the Roman Britons, and continued among
the Saxons; and in the council of Cealchythe, in 816, the
name of the denominating faint was exprefsly required to
be infcribed on the altars, and alfo on the walls of the
church, or a tablet within it. The feaft of this faint be¬
came of courfe the feftival of the church. Thus Chriftian
feftivals were fubffituted in the room of the idolatrous anni-
verfaries of heatheniim : accordingly, at the firft introduc¬
tion of Chriftianity among the Jutes of Kent, pope Grego¬
ry the Great advifed what had been previoufly done among
the Britons, viz. Chriftian feftivals to be inftituted in the
room of the idolatrous, and the fuffering day of the martyr
whofe relics were repofxted in the church, or the day on
which the building was adtually dedicated, to be the efta-
blifhed feaft: of the parifh. Both were appointed and ob¬
ferved ; and they were clearly diftinguifhed at firft among
the Saxons, as appears from the laws of the Confeflbr, where
the dies dedicationisy or dedicalio, is repeatedly difcriminated
from the propria fejlinitas fanEli, or celeb ratio fanRi. I hey
remained equally diftinft to the Reformation ; the dedica¬
tion-day in 1536 being ordered for the future to be kept
on the firft Sunday in Otftober, and the feftival of the pa¬
tron faint to be celebrated no longer. The latter was, by
way of pre-eminence, denominated the church’s holiday^ or
jts peculiar feftival ; and while this remains in many parifhes
at prefent, the other is fo utterly annihilated in all, that bi-
fhop Rennet (fays Mr Whitaker) knew nothing of its
cliftindft exiftence, and has attributed to the day of dedica¬
tion what is true only concerning the faint’s day. Thus
inftituted at'firft, the day of the tutelar faint was obferved,
moft probably by the Britons, and certainly by the Saxons,
with great devotion. And the evening before every faint’s
day, in the Saxon Jewifti method of reckoning the hours,
being an aftual hour of the day, and therefore like that
appropriated to the duties of public religion, as they rec¬
koned Sunday from the firft to commence at the fun-fet of
Saturday ; the evening preaedtng the church’s holiday would
be obferved wuth all the devotion of the feftival. The peo¬
ple aftually repaired to the church, and joined in the fervices
of it; and they thus fpent the evening of their greater fe-
ftivities in the monafteries of the North, as early as the con-
dufion of the feventh century.
Thele fervices were naturally denominated from their late
hours wteccan or ivakcs, and •vigils or eves. That of the
anniverfary at Rippon, as early as the commencement of
the eighth century, is exprefsly denominated the vigil. But
that of the church’s holiday was named eyrie vuxccau, or
dmreh-wake, the church vigil, or church eve. And it was
this commencement of both with a wake,, which has now
caufed the days to be generally preceded with vigils,, and
the church-holiday particularly to be denominated the
churih-<tt>ake. -So religioufly was the eve and feftival of the
patron faint obferved for many ages by the Saxons, even as
fate as the reign of Edgan, the. former being fpeat in the
church, and employed in prayer. And the wakes, and all Wak®
the other holidays in the year, were put upon the fame foot- r II
ing with the oftaves of Chriftmas, Eafter, and of Pentecoft. ' ierf j
When Gregory recommended the feftival of the patron faint, ’
lie advifed the people to ereft booths of branches about the
church on the day of the feftival, and to feaft and be merry
in them with innocence. Accordingly, in every pariih, on
the returning anniverfary of the faint, little pavilions were
conftrufted of boughs, and the people indulged in them to
hofpitahty and mirth. The feafting of the faint’s day, how¬
ever, was foon abided ; and even in the body of the church,
when the people were aftembled for devotion, they began to
mind diverfions, and to introduce drinking. The growing
intemperance gradually ftained the fervice of the vigil, till
the feftivity of it was converted, as it now is, into the ri¬
gour of a faft. At length they too juftly fcandalized the
Puritans of the laft century, and numbers of the wakes were
difufed entirely, efpecially in the eaft and fome weftern
parts of England ; but they are commonly obferved in the
north, and in the midland counties.
This cuftom of celebrity in the neighbourhood of the
church, on the days ot particulac faints, was introduced into
England from the continent, and muft have been familiar
equally to the Britons and Saxons ; being obierved among
the churches of Afia in the fixth century, and by thofe of
the weft of Europe in the feventh. And equally in Afia
and Europe on the continent, and in the Hands, thefe ce¬
lebrities were the caufes ©f thofe commercial marts which we
denominate fairs. The people reforted in crowds to the fe¬
ftival, and a confideiable provifion would be wanted for
their entertainment. The profpeft of intereft invited the
little traders of the country to come and offer their wares ;
and thus, among the many pavilions for hofpitality in the
neighbourhood of the church, varieus booths were ere&ed
for the fale of different commodities. In larger towns, fur-
rounded with populous diflridts, the refort of the people to
the wakes would be great, and the attendance of traders nu¬
merous ; and this refort and attendance conftitute a fair.—.
Batil exprefsly mentions the numerous appearance of tra¬
ders at thefe feftivals in Afia, and Gregory notes the fame
cuftom to be common in Europe. And as the feftival was
©bierved on a feria or holiday, it naturally affumed to itfdf,
and as naturally communicated to the mart, the appellation
of feria or fair. Indeed feveral of our moft ancient fairs
appear to have been ufually held, and have been continued
to our time, on the original church-holidays of the places :
befides, it is obfervable, that laics were generally kept in
church-yards, and even in the churches, and alio on Sun¬
days, till the indecency and fcandal were fo great as to need
reformation.
IVake-RoBiN. See Arum.
WALACHIA, a province of Turkey in Europe,
bounded on the north by Moldavia and Tranfylvania, on
the eaft and fouth by the river Danube, and on the weft by
Tranfylvania. It is 225 miles in lengtlr, and 125 in.
breadth ; and was ceded to the Turks by the treaty of Bel¬
grade, in 1739. It abounds in good hovfes and cattle j
and there are mines of fevcral kinds. The. foil is fo fertile,
that it is capable of producing any thing ; and there are
good paftures, with wine,, oil, and all manner of European
fruits. The inhabitants are chiefly of the Greek church.
WALCHEREN, an Hand of the Low Countries, and
one of the principal of- thofe of Zealand; feparated from-
Dutch Flanders by the mouth of the Scheld. It is about
nine miles in length, and eight in breadth ; and though it s
lies low, has good arable and pafture land. The chief town
of. this Hand and the whole province is Middleburg.
WALDEN,.
W A L
C 699 1
W A t
^ajdon WALDEN, a town of EHex, commonly called Saffron
II Walden, with a market on Saturdays, and two fairs on Micl-
^Va{c*' lent Saturday for horfee, and November ill for cows. It
~1' is remarkable for the plenty of faffron that grows about it.
This town was incorporated by Edward VI. a^d is govern¬
ed by a mayor and 24 aldermen. It is 27 miles north-weft-
by-north of Chelmsford, and 43 north-ealt of London. E.
Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 52.4.
WALDENSES. See Waldo.
WALDO, a merchant of Lyons in the latter part of
the 1 2th century, who applying himfelf to the ftudy of the
Scriptures, and finding no warrant there for feveral of the
Romifh doctrines, particularly that af tranfubftantiation,
publicly oppofed them. His followers, who from him were
called Waldenjes, being dialed from Lyons, fpread over
Dauohine and Provence ; upon which Philip IT. is faid to
have razed 300 gentlemens feats, and deftroyed feveral v.'ailed
towns to Itop their growth : but this, inltead of fupprefiing,
fpread them over a ureat part of Europe. The articles of
their faith, which they drew up and dedicated to the king
of France, agreed in molt points with thofe of the prefent
Proteftants. In the year 1200, thofe of them who dwelt
in the province of Albigeois in Languedoc, from whence
they were called Alkigenfes, flood upon their defence; upon
which Philip drove them into Bohemia, Savoy, and Eng¬
land. The crufade againft them is faid to have confifted of
500,000 men, who wore their croffes on their breads, to
diflinguifli themfelves from thofe who went to the Holy
Land, and wore them on their fhoulders.
WALES, a county fituated in the fouth-weft part of
Britain, into which the ancient Britons retired from the
perfecution of the Saxons. Anciently it was of greater ex¬
tent than it is at prelent, and comprehended all the country
beyond the Severn, that is, befides the 12 counties included
in it at preient, thofe of Herefordfhire and Monmouthlhire,
which now are reckoned a part of England, were then in¬
habited by three different tribes of the Britons, namely, the
Silures, the Dimetae, and the Ordovrces. The Romans
were never able to fubdue them, till the reign of Vefpafian,
when they were reduced by Julius Frontinus, who placed
garrifons in their country to keep them in awe. Though
the Saxons made themfelves mafters of all England, they
never could get poffeflion of Wales, except the counties of
Monmouthlhire and Herefordlhire, formerly a part of Vv ales.
About the year 870, Roderic king of Wales divided it a-
irrong his three fons; and the names of thele divifions were,
Demetia, or South-Wales ; Pove/ta, or Pawn-Land; and Pe-
ncdoiia, or North Wales. Another divifion is mentioned af¬
terwards in the records, viz. North Wales, South Wales,
and Weil Wales ; the l-ft comprehending the counties of
Monmouth and Hereford. The country derived the name
of Wales, and the inhabitants that of Welfh, from the Sax¬
ons, who by thofe terms denote a country and people to
which they are ftrangers; for the Wellh, in their own lan¬
guage, call their country Cymry, and their language Cym-
raeg. They continued under their own princes and laws
from the above-mentioned period, and were never entirely
fubjefted to the crown of England till the reign of Edward
I. when Llewellin ap Gryffith, prince of Wales, loft both
his life and dominions. Edward, the better to fecure his
conqueft, and to reconcile the Welfh to a foreign yoke, fent
his queen to lie-in at Caernarvon, where Ihe was delivered
of a prince ; to whom the Welih, on that account, the more
readily lubmitted. Ever fmce that time, the eldeft fons of
the kings of England have commonly been created princes
<©f Wales, and as fuch enjoy certain revenues from that
country.
As to the chara&er of the Welfh, they are faid to be
a brave, hofpitable people; and though very jealous of af¬
fronts, palflonate, and hafty, yet are eafily reconciled. The
common people look with a fufpicious eye on ftrangers, and
bear an hereditary grudge to the Engliih nation, by whom
their anceftors were expelled from the fineft parts of the
ifland. The gentlemen are apt to value then.felves upon the
antiquity of their families ; and with fome reafon, as they
can generally trace them much higher than the inhabitants
of moft other countries.
All the better fort, both in town and country, can fpeak
Englifn, efpecially in the counties bordering upon England.
The common people, in general, only fpeak their own lan¬
guage, which is the ancient Britifti; and not only differs en¬
tirely from the Englifh, but has very little affinity with any
of the weftern tongues, unlefs we fhould accept the Gaelic,
Erfe, or Irifh. It is faid to be a dialed! of the ancient Cel¬
tic, and in many refpefts to refemble the Hebrew. Moft
of the clergy are natives of the country, and underftand
Englifh fo well, that they could exercife their funftions in
any part of Britain. The public worlhip, however, is as
often performed in Welfh as in Englifh, excepting in the
towns, where the latter is the prevailing language. The
inhabitants are computed at about 300,000.
The country, though mountainous, efpecially in North
Wales, is far from being barren or unfruitful; the hills,
befides the metals and minerals they contain, feeding vaft
herds of fmall black cattle, deer, fheep, and goats, and
their valleys abounding in corn, as their (eas and rivers do
in fifti. Here are alfo wood, coal, and turf for fuel, in a-
bundance.
Wales is bounded on all fides by the fea. and the Se"
vern ; except on the eaft, where it joins to the counties
of Chefter, Salop, Hereford, and Monmouth. Its length*
from the fouthermnoft: part of Glamorganfhire to the extre¬
mity of Flintfhire north, is computed at about 113 miles ;
and its greateft breadth, from the river Way eaft to St Da¬
vid’s in Pembrokefhire weft, is nearly of the fame dimenlions,
being about yo miles.
After the conqueft of Wales by Edward I. very materia!
alterations were made in their laws, fo as to reduce them
nearer to the Englifh ftandard, elpecially in the forms of
their judicial proceedings : but they ftill retained very much
of their original polity, particularly their rule of inheritance,
viz. that their lands were divided equally among all the iffue
male, and did not defeend to the eldeft fon alone. By o-
ther fubfequent ftatutes their provincial immunities were
ftill farther abridged : but the finilhing ftroke to their de-
pendency was given by the ftatute 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26.
which at the fame time gave the utmoft advancement to
their civil profperity, by admitting them to a thorough
communication of laws with the fubjedls of England.—
Thus were this brave people gradually conquered into the
enjoyment of true liberty ; being infenfibly put upon the fame
footing, and made fellow-citizens, with their conquerors.
It is ena&ed by the 27 Hen. VIII. 1. That the domi¬
nion of Wales fhail he for ever united to the kingdom of
England. 2. That all Welfhmen born fhail have the fame
liberties as other king’s fubje&s. 3. That lands in Wales
fhall be inheritable according to the Englilh tenures and
rules of defeent. 4. That the laws of England, and no
other, fhall be ufed in Wales: beiides many other regula¬
tions of the police of this principality. And the 34 and
35 Hen. VIII. c. 271. confirms the fame, adds farther re¬
gulations, divides it into twelve (hires, and, in fhort, reduces
it into the fame order in which it Hands at this day ; differ¬
ing from the kingdom of England in only a few particulars,
and thofe too of the nature of privileges (fuch as having
courts within itfelf, independent of the procefs of Weft-
4X2 tninftet®
Wales
II
Waller.
w A L r 700 ] W A L
mlriflar-hall), and feme other immaterial peculiarities, hard-
ly more than are to be found in many counties of -England
* xtfelf.
Netv Walks. See New Britain.
New South-Wales. See New Holland.
Prince of Wales. See Royal Family.
Walking Leaf. See Mantis Sycifolia.
WALL, in architefture, the principal part of a building,
as ferving both to inclofe it, and to fupport the roof, floors,
&c.—Walls are diflinguifhed into various kinds, from the
matter whereof they confid; as plaftered or mud-walls, brick-
walls, ftone-walls, flint or boulder-walls, and boarded-walls.
See Architecture.
Cob or Mud Wall. In thofe parts of England where
ftone is fcarce, it is ufual to make walls and houfes of mud,
or, as it is called in Devonfhire, coi; which is a compofition
of earth and draw, wet up fomewhat like mortar, but well
beat and trod together. When a wall is making, after being
railed to a certain height, it is allowed time to pitch or
fettle before the work is refumed. Some value themfelves
on their fkill in building with this compofition ; the price,
when materials are found, is generally in Devonfhire 3 s. per
perch of 16i feet; but a ftone foundation cofts more. Houfes
built with this, being covered with thatch, are very dry and
warm ; a cob wall, if in a good fituation, will laft 50 or 60
years or more. When pulled down, they are ufed as ma¬
nure, and new earth employed to rebuild with.
WALLACE (Sir William), a gallant general of the
Scots, who endeavoured to refeue his country from the
Englifh yoke ; but being taken prifoner, he was unjuftly
tried by the Englifh laws, condemned, and executed as a
traitor to Edward I. in 1304. See Scotland, n° 103,
ttfeq.
WALLACHIA. See Walachia.
WALLER (Edmund), a celebrated Englifh poet, was
the fon of Robert Waller, Efq; of Agmondeftiam in Buc-
kinghamfhire, by Anne, the filler of the great Hamden,
who diftinguifhed himfelf fo much in the beginning of the
civil wars. ^ He was born in 1605 ; and his father dying
when he was very young, the care of his education fell to
his mother, who fent him to Eton fchool. He was after¬
wards fent to King’s college in Cambridge, where he muft
have been very afliduous in his ftudies, fince, at fixteen or
feventeen years' of age, he was chofen into the laft parlia¬
ment of King James I. and ferved as burgefs for Agmon-
defham. He began to exercife his poetical talent fo early
as the year 1623 ; as appears from his verfes “ upon the
danger his majefty (being prince) efcaped in the road of St
Andero for there Prince Charles, returning from Spain
that year, had like to have been call away. It was not,
however, Mr Waller’s wit, his fine parts, or his poetry, that
fo much occafloned him te be firft publicly known, as his
carrying off the daughter and foie heirefs of a rich citizen,
againft a rival whofe intereft was efpoufed by the court. It
is not known at what time he married his firft lady; but he
was a widower before he was 25, when he began to have a
paifion for Sachariffa, which was a fidlitious name for the
lady Dorothy Sidney, daughter to the earl of Leicefter,
and afterwards wife to the earl of Sunderland. He was
now known at court, careffed by all who had any relilh for
wit and polite literature ; and was one of the famous club
of which Lord Falkland, Mr Chillingworth, and other emi¬
nent men, were members. He -was returned burgefs for
Agmondefham in the parliament which met in April 1640.
An intermiffion of parliaments having difgufted the nation,
a*nd railed jealoufies againft the defigns of the court, which
would be fure to difeover themfelves whenever the king
came to afk for a fupply, Mr Waller wag one of the firft
‘ 2
who condemned the preceding meafures. Pie fir owed him-
{elf in oppofition to the court, and made a fpeech in the
houfe on this occation ; from which we may gather fome
notion of his general principles in government; wherein,
however, ht^ afterwards proved very variable and inconftant.
lie oppofed the court alio in the long parliament which met
in November following, and was chofen to impeach Judge
Crawley, which he did in a warm and eloquent fpeech, July
16th '641. This fpeech was fo highly applauded/that
20,000 copies of it were fold in one day. In 1642, he was
one of the commiffioners appointed by the parliament to
prefent their propofitions of peace to the king at Oxford.
In 1643, he was deeply engaged in a defrgn to reduce the
city of. London and the tower to the fervice of the king ;
for which he was tried and condemned, together with Mr
Tomkins his brother-in-law, and Mr Challoner. The two
latter fuffered death ; but Mr Waller obtained a reprieve :
he was, however, fentenced to fuffer a year’s imprifonment,
and to pay a fine of r 0,000 1. After this, he became par¬
ticularly attached to Oliver Cromwell, uson whom he wrote
a very handfome panegyric. He alfo wrote a noble poemt
on the death of that great man.
At the Reftoration, he was treated with great civility by
Charles II. who always made him one of the party in his
diver lions at the duke of Buckingham’s and other places.
He wrote a panegyric upon his majefty’s return ; which be*
ing thought to fall much Ihort of that he had before written
on Oliver Cromwell, the king one day afked him in raillery.
How is it, Waller, that you wrote a better encomium on
Cromwell than on me ?” “ May it pleafe your majefty,’,,
anfvvered he, “ we poets generally fucceed beft in fidtion.’*
He fat in feveral parliaments after the Reftoration, and con¬
tinued in the full vigour of his genius to the end of his life,
his natural vivacity bearing him up, and making his com-
pany agreeable to the laft. He died of a dropfy in 1687,
and was interred in the church-yard of Beaconsfield, where
a monument is erefted to his memory. Mr Waller has
been honouied as the moll degant and harmonious verfifier
of his time, and a great refiner of the Englilh language.
The beft edition of his works, containing poems, fpeeches,
letters, &c. is that publilhed in quarto by Mr Fenton, in
WALLIS (Dr John), a celebrated mathematician, was
educated at Cambridge; where he became fellow of Queen’s
college, and continued fo till, by his marriage, he vacated
his fellowfhip. In 1640, he received holy orders, and be¬
came chaplain to the lady Vere. Whihrhe lived in this fa¬
mily, he cultivated the art of deciphering ; and it is laid,
that the eledlor of Brandenburg, for whom he explained
feveral letters written in ciphers, fent him a gold chain and
medal. In 1643 he publilhed, “ Truth tried; or, Animad-
verfions on the lord Brooke’s treatife, called The Nature of
Truth, &c”. The next year he was chofen one of the icribes
or fecretaries to the affembly of divines at Weftminfter. Di*
Peter Turner, Savilian profeffor of geometry in Oxford, be-i
ing eje&ed by the parliament-vifitors in 1649, Mr Wallis
was appointed to fucceed him in that place. In 1653 he
publilhed at Oxford a Grammar of the Englifh Tongue in
Latin. In 1655 he entered the lifts with Mr Hobbes; and.
their controveriy lafted a confiderable time. In 1657 *he
Dodlor publilhed his Mathematical Works. Upon the
death of Dr Langbaine, he was chofen cuftos archivorum
of the univerfity. After the Reftoration he met with great
refpefl, the king himfelf entertaining a favourable opinion
of him on account of fome fervices he had done both to his
royal father and himfelf. He was therefore confirmed in
his places, admitted one of the king’s chaplains in ordinary^
and appointed one of the divines empowered to review the
book
Waller,
Wallis.
W A L
Walloon* book of common prayer. He complied with the terms of
11 the act of uniformity, and continued a fteady conformift. till
Walpole. pjs He was one of the firlt members of the Royal
■~'ir~y Society, and correfpended with many learned men. In
1697, the curators of the univerfity preis at Oxford thought
it for the honour of the univerfity to colleft the mathema¬
tical works of the Doftor, which had been printed feparate-
lv, fome in Latin, fome in Englifli, and publifhed them all
together in the Latin tongue, in 3 vols, folio. He died in
^703. He fpeaks of himfelf thus: “ It hath been my en¬
deavour all along to aft by moderate principles, being will¬
ing, whatever fide was uppermoft, to promote any good de-
fign for the true interell of religion, of learning, and of the
public good.” Befides the works above-mentioned, he pub-
lifhed many others.
WALLOONS, a name fur the inhabitants of a confider-
a^le part of the Netherlands, viz. Artois, Hainault, Namur,
Luxemburgh; and part of Flanders and Brabant.
WALNUT-tree, in botany. See Juglans.
WALPOLE (Sir Robert), earl of Orford, was born at
Houghton in Norfolk, September 6th, 1674, and educated
on the foundation at Eton fchooh. Thence he was elefted
to King’s College in Cambridge ; but, fucceeding to the
family eftate by the death of his elder brother, he refigned
his fellowfhip. In 1700, he was chofen member of parlia¬
ment for King’s Lynn, and reprefented that borough in fe-
veral fucceeding parliaments. In 1705, he was nominated
one of the council to prince George of Denmak, lord high
admiral of England ; in 1707, appointed fecretary at war;
and, in 1709, treafurer of the navy. In 17 10, upon the
change of the miniftry, he was removed from all his polls,
and held no place afterwards during the queen’s reign. In
1711 he was expelled from the houfe of commons for what
they called notorious corruption in his office as fecretary at
war. The borough of Lynn, however, re-elefted him; and,
though the houfe declared the eleftien void, yet they per
[ 701 I
W A L
In two years time be refigned all his offices on account Walpole.
of a mifunderftanding which took place between him and   v "
the reft of the miniftry about certain fupplies demanded for
the fupport of his majefty’s German dominions. On the
day of his refignation he brought in the famous finking
fund-bill, which he prefented as a country-gentleman, fay¬
ing, that he hoped it would not fare the worfe for having
two fathers; and that his fucceffor Mr Stanhope would
bring it to pcrfeftion. His calling himfelf the father of a
projeft, which hath fince been fo often employed to other
purpofes than were at firft declared, gave his enemies fre¬
quent opportunity for fatire and ridicule ; and it hath been
farcaftically obferved, that the father of this fund appeared
in a very bad light when viewed in the capacity of a nurfe.
In the next feffion of parliament, Walpole oppofed the mi*
niftry in every thing ; and even Wyndham or Shippen did-
not exceed him in patriotifm. Upon a motion in the houfe
for continuing the army, he made a fpeech of above an hour
long, and difplayed the danger of a {landing army in a free
country, with all the powers of eloquence. Early in 1720
the rigour of the patriot began to foften, and the complai-
fanceof the courtier to appear; and he was again appointed
paymafter of the forces, and feveral of his friends were found
foon after in the lift of promotions. No doubt now remain¬
ed of his entire converfion to court meafures; for, before the
end of the year, we find him pleading as ftrongly for the
forces required by the war-office as he had before declaimed
againft them, even though at this time the fame pretences
for keeping them on foot did not exift.
It was not long before lie acquired full minifterial power,
being appointed firft lord commiffioner of the treafury, and
chancellor of the exchequer; and, when the king went
abroad in 1723, he was nominated one of the lords juftices
for the adminiftration of government, and was fworn foie
fecretary of ftate. About this time he received another
diftinguifhed mark of the royal favour ; his eldeft fon then-
HIV- IAWCIlV, j ^ w ^ .   O   —    J   7
fifted in the choice. In the well-known debate relating to^on his travels being created a peer, by the title of baron
Steele for publUhing the Crifis, he greatly diftinguifhed him¬
felf in behalf of liberty, and added to the popularity he had
before acquired. ' t ........
On the death of the queen, a revolution of politics took
place, and the Whig party prevailed both at court and in
the fenate. Walpole had before recommended himfelf to
the houfe of Hanover by his zeal for its caufe, when the
commons eonfidered the ftate of the nation with regard to
the Proteftant fucceffion : and he had now the honour to
procure the aifurance of the houfe to the new king (which
attended the addrefs of condolence and congratulation),
“ That the commons would make good all parliamentary
funds.” It is therefore not to be wondered at, that his
promotion foon took place after the king’s arrival; and
that in a few days he was appointed receiver and pay¬
mafter general of all the guards and garrifons, and of all
«ther the land forces in Great Britain, paymafter of the
royal hofpital at Chelfea, and likewife a privy counfellor.
On the opening of a new parliament, a committee of fecre-
cy was chofen to enquire into the conduft of the late mi¬
niftry, of which Walpole was appointed chairman ; and, by
his management, articles of impeachment were read againft
the earl of Oxford, lord Bolingbroke, the duke of Ormond^
and the earl of Strafford. The eminent fervice he was
thought to have done the crown, by the vigorous profe-
cution of thofe minifters who were deemed the chief in-
ftruments of the peace, was foon rewarded'by the extra¬
ordinary promotions to the offices of firft commiffioner of
the treafury, and chaneellor and under treafurer of the ex¬
chequer.
Walpole of Walpole. In 1725 he was made knight of the
Bath, and the year after knight of the Garter. The meafures
of his adminiftration, during the long time he remained prime
or rather foie minifter, have been often canvafled with all the
feverity of critical inquiry. It is difficult to difeern the truth,
through the exaggerations and mifreprefentations of party.
Fie has indeed been accufed of employing the finking fund for
the purpofes of corruption, of which it was long the faffiioa
to call him the father ; but the man who reflefts on the
tranfaftions of Charles II. and his infamous cabal, will acquit
him of the latter part of this charge. He was an enemy
to war, and the friend of commerce; and becaufe he did not
refent fome petty infults of the court of Spain fo fuddenly
as the fiery part of the nation thought he fhould have done,
a formidable oppofition was formed againft him in the houfe,'
which had influence enough to employ in its caufe almoft all
the wit of the nation. Pulteney and Pitt were the great
leaders of the party in the houfe of commons ; while Bo¬
lingbroke and Pope and Johnlon, and almoft every man of
genius, exerted themfelves without doors to enlighten, by
pamphlets in profie and verfe, the minds of the people, anti
fhow the neceffity of a Spaniffi war. This he ftrenuoufly
oppofed, becaufe he knew that the foreign fettlements of
that power are very remote, and in a climate deftrudtive to
Engliflvmen^ and that fuch of them as we might be able to.
take, we could not poffibly retain. The oppofition howe¬
ver prevailed. The nation was indulged in a war, of which
it furely had no caufe to boaft of the fuccefs; and it is now
univerfally known, that the greater part of thofe who with,
honeft intentions had, either in parliament or out of it, beenr
engaged!
W A L [ 702 1 W A t
vWalp/4ts engage^ to rnn down the minifter, lived to repent of their
^^ con£juft, and do juftice to the man whom they had fo per-
tinaeioufly vilified.
In order to encourage commerce and improve the reve¬
nue, Sir Robert projected a fcheme for an extenfion of the
excife, as the only means of putting a flop to the frauds of
■merchants and illicit traders. This was another ground of
clamour to the orators within, and the wits without, doors;
and while the oppofition reprefented it as a meafure big with
public mifchief, Swift and Pope occafionally alluded to it as
an opprefiion calculated to deprive private life of all its com¬
forts. The minifter was therefore obliged to abandon the
fcheme ; but in a fucceeding adminiilration it was partly
carried into execution, at the exprels felicitation of the
principal perfons concerned in that article of trade which it
was fuggeded would be mod affetled bv it; and afterwards
the mod popular minider that ever diredfed the councils of
this country declared in full fenate, that if a time fhould
ever arrive which was likely to render the projedl feafible,
he wopld himlelf recommend an extenfion of the txcife laws
as a meafure of the greated advantage to commerce, to the
revenue, and to the general intereds of the kingdom.
In 1742 the opoofition prevailed ; and Sir Robert being
no longer able to carry a majority in the houfe of commons,
refigned all his places, and fled for fhelter behind the throne.
He was foon aftei wards created earl of Orford ; and the
, king, in confideration of his long and faithful fervices, grant¬
ed him a penfion of 4000 1. per annum. The remainder of
his life he fpent in tranquillity and retirement, and died,
1745, in the 7 1 ft year of his age.
He has been feverely, and not unjuftly, cenfured for that
fyftem of corruption by which he almod avowed that he
governed the nation ; but the objefts which he had in view
are now acknowledged to have been in a high degree praife-
W'orthy. Johnfon, who in the earlier part of his life had
joined the other wits in writing againft his meafures, after¬
wards honoured his memory for the placability of his tem-
_ per, and for keeping this country in peace for fo many years;
*« a Kegi- and Hr Burke has lately * dcclarul, that his only defedl as
Muie fence. ^ minifter was the want of fufficient firmnefs to treat with
contempt that popular clamour, which, by his yielding to
it, hurried the nation into an expenfive and unjuft war. But
his rancorous profecution of Atterbury bifhop of Rochefter
(fee Atterbury), by a bill of pains and penalties, may be
coniidered as fomething worfe than a defedt: it was a fault
for which no apology can be made ; becaufe, whether that
prelate was innocent or guilty, of his guilt no legal proof
ever appeared. In that inftance the conduit of the minifter
was the more extraordinary, that on other occafions he chofe
to gain over the diffaffedted by mildnefs and beneficence, even
when he had fufticient proofs of their guilt. Or this the
following anecdote, communicated by lord North to Dr
Johnfon, is a fufticient proof. Sir Robert having got into
his hands fome treafonable papers of his inveterate enemy
Shippen, fent for him, and burnt them before his eyes.
Some time afterwards, while Shippen was taking the oaths
to the government in the houte of commons, Sir Robert,
who flood next to him, and knew his principles to be the
fame as ever, fmiled ; upon which Shippen, who had obier-
ved him, faid “ Egad, Robin, that’s hardly fair.”
To whatever objedlions his minifterial condudt may be
liable, in his private charadter he is univerially allowed to
have had amiable and benevolent qualities. That he was a
tender parent, a kind mafter, a beneficent patron, a firm
friend, an agreeable companion, ate points that have been
feldom ditputed ; and fo calm and equal was his temper,
that Puitency, his great rival and opponent, faid, he was lure
that Sir Robert Walpole never felt the bittereft inveflives
againft him for half an hour. !1
About the end of queen Anne’s reign, and the begin-
ning of George I.’s, he wrote the following pamphlets,
I. The Sovereign’s Anfwer to the Gloucefterfhire Addrefs.
The Sovereign meant Charles duke of Somerfet, fo nick¬
named by the Whigs. 2. Anfwer to the Reprefentation
of the Houfe of Lords on the State of the Navy, 1 709.
3. The Debts of the Nation flated and confidered, in four
Papers, 1710. 4, The Thirty-five Millions accounted for,
1710. 5. A Letter from a foreign Minifter in England
to Monfieur Pettecum, 1710. 6. Four Letters to a Friend in
Scotland upon Sachtverell’s Trial; falfely attributed in the
General Diftionary to Mr Maynwaring. 7. A fhort Hi-
ftory of the Pailiament It is an account of the laft Sef-
fion of the queen. 8. The South-Sea Scheme confidered.
9. A Pamphlet againft the Peerage Bill, 1719. 10. The
Report of the Secret Committee, June 9th, 1715.
WALRUS, in zoology. See Tiuchecus.
WALSH (William), an Englifh critic and poet, the foa
of Jofeph Walfh, Efq; of Abberley in Worcefterihiie, was
born about the year 1660. He became a gentleman-com¬
moner of Wadham college, Oxford, but left the univerfity
without taking a degree. His writings are printed among
the wo’-ks of the Minor Poets, printed in 1749. He was
made gentleman of the horfe in queen Anne’s reign; and
died in 1708. He was the friend of Mr Dryden and of
Mr Pope ; the former of whom efteemed him the belt critic
then living; and Mr Pope has celebrated his charadler in.
the Eflay on Crfticifm. n 1
WALSINGHAM, a town of Norfolk, with a market
on Fridays, and a fair on Whit-Monday,, for horfes and
pedlar’s ware. It is feated not far from the fea; and in
former times was famous for its college of canons, and was
greatly frequented by pilgrims who went to pay their de¬
votions to the image of the Virgin Mary at the chapel,
where there are two fine fprings, called the Virgin Mary's
•wells. Not many years ago there were found here 100
urns full of afhes by a hufbandman, which were fuppofed
to be thofe which the Romans filled with the aihes of the
dead. It is 22 miles north-well of Norwich, and 117
north-north-eaft of London. E. Long. o. 53. N. Lat. 52,
56- ...
WALSINGHAM (Thomas), an Englifh Benediftine
monk of the monaftery ot St Alban’s, about the year 1440.
He applied himfelf to the hitlory and antiquity of his country,
in quality of hiftoriographer to the king; and compofed the
Hiftory of King Henry VI. with other works.
Walsingham (Sir Francis), minifter and fecretary of
flare during the reign of queen Elizabeth, and one of the
greateft politicians ot his time, was defeended from a noble
and ancient family at Chiflehurft. After having made great
prog refs in his ftudies at Cambridge, he was twice fent am-
baflador to France, and at his return to England was em¬
ployed in the moft important affairs ; became fecretary of
ftate, and was one of the commiffioners for the trial of Mary
queen of Scotland. Sir Francis was undoubtedly one of the
moft refined politicians and moft penetrating (tatefman that
any age ever produced. He had an admirable talent, both
in diicovering and managing the lecret receffes of the heart.
He had his i'pies in moft courts in Chriftendom, and allowed
them a liberal maintenance ; tor it was his maxim, I hat
knowledge cannot be bought too dear. In 1587 ^ie
of Spain having made vaft preparations, which furpriled9
and kept all Europe in fulpence, Walfingham employed hia
utm ft endeavours for the difeovery of that important fecret;
and accordingly procured intelligence from Madrid, that the
W A L ■ [ 7°.’ 3 .. WAP
Valfirg. ym$ iiad informed his council of his having difpatched an
ham, eXprefs to Rome, with a letter written with his own hand
'iltheria. tQ the pope} acquainting him with the true defign «f his
prepaiations, and begging his blelltngs upon him * which
for fome reafons he could not difclofe till the return of the
courier. The fecret being thus lodged with the pope,
Waliingham, by means of a Venetian prieft, whom he re¬
tained at Rome as a fpy, got a copy of. the original letter,
which was llolen out of the pope’s cabinet by a gentleman
of the bed-chamber, w7ho took the key out of the pope s
pocket while he ilept. After this, by bis dexterous
management, he cawfed the Spaniards bills to be^ proteft-
ed at Genoa, which fhould have fupplied them with money
for their extraordinary preparations; and by this means
he happily retarded this formidable invafion for a whole
year. In fhort, he fpenc his whole time and faculties in
the fervice of queen Elizabeth ; on which account her ma-
jefty was heard to fay, “ That in diligence and fagacity he
exceeded her expeftations.” However, after all his emi¬
nent fervices to his country, this great man gave a remark¬
able proof at his death, which happened on the 6th of A-
pril 1590, how far he preferred the public intereft to his
©wn, he being fo poor, that excepting his library, which
was a very fine one, he had fcarcely effe&s enough to de¬
fray the expence of his funeral His principal works are,
1. Memoirs and Inftrudlions for the ufe of Ambafladors,
with his Letters and Negociations. 2. Political Memoirs.
WALTHERIA, in borany; a genus of plants in the
clafs monodelphia, and order triandria; and in the natu¬
ral fyftem arranged under the 37th order, Columnifene.
WAR.
chance; to be capable of making a good retreat on proper
occafions; to direft the forages without fatiguing or ex-
pofmg the troops; to fend out detachments with precaution ;
to conduft the convoys in fafety ; to know how to canton
an army ; to eflablrfh magazines in places, both fafe and
within reach of the army, fo that it fhall never be in want
of fubfiftence—thefe are the great ends of the military
fcience.
It is commonly thought fufHcient for a military man to
know how to obey ; and it is alfo fuppofed that the fuc-
cefs of a day cannot be dubious, if a general joins the con¬
fidence of the foldiers to perfonal courage, a cool head, and
a knowledge of the country.
It is true that, in cafes of perplexity, many generals >
have in a great meafure owed to their own capacity, and
the confidence their foldiers have repofed in them, the ad¬
vantages they have gained over the enemy ; and confidence
will always be repofed by the foldiers in that general in
whom they perceive coolnefs united with courage. At the
battle of Cannse, when Gifco feemed to be much^aflonifhed
at the fuperiority of the enemy’s number, Hannibal an-
fwered him coolly, “ There is, Gifco, a thing {till more
furprifing, of which you take no notice. Gifco aflctng him
what it was, “ It is (replied Hannibal) that in all that great
crowd there is not one man whofe name is Gifco.” Plu¬
tarch obferves, that this coolnefs of Hannibal greatly ani¬
mated the Carthaginians, who could not imagine that their
general would joke at fo important a time, without being
certain of overcoming his enemies.
Although bravery and courage are the mod efiential qua¬
lifications of a fubordinate officer, yet he fhould not be de- -
ficient in thofe which are required in a general, and which 1
have been already mentioned ; obedience to the orders de.-
T. Iime44
WAR is a great evil; but it is inevitable, and often¬
times neceffary. If he who firft reduced to rules
the art ©f deftroying his fellow-creatures, had no end in
view but to gratify the paffiens of princes, he was a monfter,
whom it would have been a duty to fmother at his birth:
but if his intention was the defence of perfecuted virtue, or
the punifhment of fuccefsful wickednefs, to curb ambition,
or to oppofe the unjuft claims of fuperior power, mankind
ought to ereft altars to his memory.
War, in the laft cafe, is the mod necedary and ufeful of
all the fciences: the various kinds of knowledge which ought
to furnifh the mind of a foldier are not without great diffi¬
culty to be attained. Of mod other fciences the principles
are fixed, or at lead they may be afeertained by the affiftance
of experience ; there needs nothing but diligence to learn
them, or a particular turn of mind to pra&ife them. Phi-
lofophy, mathematics, arcfoite&ure, and many others, are all
founded upon invariable combinations. Every man, even
of a narrow underbanding, may remember rules, apply them
properly, and fometimes draw jud confequences from them:
but the fciencc of war branches out into fo many particu¬
lars ; it takes in fo many different parts; there are fo many
refte&ions neceffary to be made, fo many circumftances and
cafes to be brought together; that it is only by a continual
application, grounded upon the love of his duty, and an in¬
timation to his profeffion, that any man can attain it.
To march an army in every fort of country, whether
open, woody, or mountainous ; to know how to form a
camp in all thofe countries, with which the general mud
be thoroughly acquainted in order to do it with fecurity ;.
to make a proper difpofition for a battle, whether with a
view to the pofture of the enemy, or to the fituation of the
country j to forefee events which depend .in a. manner upon
There is only one pibulum, and the capfule is unuocmar,
bivalved, and monofpermous. There are three fpecies, none
of which are natives of Britain.
WALTON (Bryan), btfhop of Cheder, a learned Eng-
lifh divine, who gained great reputation by his edition of
the Polyglot bible, with his Prolegomena in the beginning;
which is more exa6I, fays Father Simon, than any other
which had been publifhed on that fubjedt. He died in
1661.
WAMPUM, the money ufed by the North-American
Indians. It is much ufed in all their treaties as a fymbol
of friendfhip. It is made of a fhell of a particular fpeciea
of Venus.
WAPENTAKE, is all one with what we call a hundred}
efpecially ufed in the north countries beyond the river Trent.
The word feems to be of Danifh original, and to be fo call,
ed for this reafon: When firb this kingdom, or part there-
of, was divided into wapentakes, he who was the chief of
the wapentake or hundred, and whom we now call a hig/r
conjlable, as foon as he entered upon his office, appeared in
a field on a certain day on horfeback with a pike in his hand,
and all the chief men of the hundred met him there with
their lances, and touched his pike ; which was a fign that
they were firmly united to each other by the touching their
weapons. But Sir Thomas Smith fays, that anciently Hin¬
ders were made of the armour and weapons of the ieveral
inhabitants of every wapentake ; and from thofe that could
not find fufficient pledges for their good abearmg, their
weapons were taken away and given to others ; from
whence he derives the word.
Walton
II
Wapen¬
take.
I'vereJ to him Is no longer a virtue than whilft he compre¬
hends and knows the intention of them. War, .fays a cele¬
brated author, is a bu'mefs which, like all others/muft be
learned ; it fuppoles fome qualities tod e born with us, and
demands others which are to be acquired: but fince all
thefe qualities mufl have the oriVinal fource in genius, a
man who propofes war for his profeffion, fhould never en¬
gage in it without having corlulted his natural bent, or
without knowing the particular turn and power of his
mind. Ability, whether in a general or an officer, is the
dfe& of his genius, quickened by a natural liking to his
buftnefs.
. A clu’:ck e7e> which is of great importance to a foldier,
natuial to fome, and in them it is the effedt of genius;
others acquire it by ftudy or experience; he who knows
how to command himfelf, and has courage enough to keep
hirnlelf cool on the molt urgent occafions, has the readieft
ant. qu'ckefl eye. A quick, hot headed man, however
brave, fees nothing; or if he does, it is confufedly, and ge¬
nerally too late. °
It is this quick eye which enables a general to judge
of an advantageous poft, of a manoeuvre to be made, and
of a good difpofition for the troop,, whether with refpedh
to that of the enemy, or to the fituation and nature of
the country.
1 he quick eye is no other than that penetrating genius
which lets nothing efcape it. A general who knows how
to unite this quality with perpetual coolnefs, never is in
want of expedients ; he will fee how thofe events, which to
any other would be the prefage of his own defeat, may end
in the overthrow of his enemies.
, kc choice of the general officers depends upon this ge¬
rms, which difeovers every thing ; they ought to be the
right-hand o the general, and as capable of commanding
the army as himfelf. Whatever good difpofitions a gene¬
ral may make, they muft prove ineffectual if not fecoruled
by the ^general officers under his command ; he cannot be
everywhere,. neither can he forfee all exigencies that may
arife. Ue is obliged to give only general orders; it is
therefore the bufinefs of thofe who command under him to
know how to take the advantage of a wrong movement of
the enemy ; to take upon them to attack, or fuftain the
troops which are engaged; and, as circumftances vary, to
make them advance towards the enemy, either to keep him
back or to attack him.
But the qualities already mentioned would be ufelefs, if
order and difeipline were not feverely oblerved : the nioft
numerous and beft compoled armyr would foon become little
elfe than a body oi rangers,, who being only united by .the
hope of booty, would feparate as foon as that motive ceafed;
and ti ufting each to his own head, or indulging his own
humour, would be cut in pieces party by party : fo that if
the general does not keep up fubordination (the foul and
ftrength of difeipline), his army will be nothing more than
a troop of Tartars afting more from the hope of plunder
than the defire of glory.- What art and what genius is
there not requifite to maintain this fubordination t Too
much (everity dilgufts the foldier, and renders him muti¬
nous ; too much indulgence finks him into indolence, and
makes him negledl his duty ; licentiouinefs caufes that fub¬
ordination to feem burdenfome, which ftrould never in any
degree be given up : he lofes that refpeft, and often that
confidence, whrch he fhould have with regard to his officer;
and indulgence often makes a welldifciplined body become
a fet of fluggards, who march againft their will, and who,
on the moft preffing emergencies, think only on their own ■
Safety.
Befides thefe qualities, which are effential to a general,
an5 which ••• who would attain that rank ought of courfe
to have, there are ft ill m my others neceffary to make a
great man. A general who would merit the title ox a he o,
ouc-ht to unite in himfelf all civil, mi!- ary, and political
excellence. It is by this that he will e ,ly attain to make
war with faceds : nothin, will efcape fim ; he will know
without difficulty the trenius of every Lountrv, and of the
nations which compofe the enemy’s army, the abilities of
the f-enerals who command, and the nature of the troops
under them ;.he knows that he may venture a motion with
fome troops that he wc;ild not dare to attempt with others
tnat are equally brave. One nation is vehement, fiery and
formidable in the firft onfet ; another is not fo hafty, but
of mote perfeverance : with the former, a Angle in ft ant de¬
termines fuccefs ; with the latter, the adlion is not fo raoid
but the event is lefs doubtful.
No man is born a general, although .he brin -S into the
world with him the feeds of thofe virtues which makes a
great man : Cseiar, Spinola, i urenne, the great Conde, and
ipme others, (bowed, even in their earlieft years, fuch qua¬
lities as ranked them above other men ; they carried within
them the principles of thofe great virtues which they drew
forth to adfion by profound ftudy, and which they brought
to pei j ecf ton by the help of practice : tho(e who came after
them, with perhaps fewer natural talents, have by ftudy
rendered themfelves worthy of being compared to them.
Caefar and all conquerors had this advantage^ that they were
able to make their own opportunities, and always added
by their .own choice. A man may be a good general with¬
out being a Marlborough or a Turenne : fuch renlufes
ate (carceiy feen once in an age ; but the more they are
raifed above the reft of mankind, the more they ought to
excite emulation. It is by endeavouring to furpafs the in-
telledds of the fecond rate ; it is by driving to equal the
moft fublime. that the imitation of them is to be attained.
I his paffion in a foldier is neither pride nor prefumption ;
it is virtue : and it is by this only that he can hope" to be
ferviccable to the ftate, and add to the glory of his king
and country. °
How much foever the honour of commanding armies may
be (ought after, it degrades him who is not worthy of it;
this ranK, fo much defired, borders on the two extremes of
glory and ignominy. A military man who labours to make
himfelf capable of commanding, is not to be blamed ; his
ambition is noble: by ft tidying the art of commanding, he
learns that of obeying and of executing. But it is aftonifii-
ing in the higheft degree to fee (oldiers thinking only on
preferment, and negltding the ftudy of their bufinefs.' It
is perhaps lefs furprifing if we fee others,' without having
been tried, propoiing to themfelves to command in chief;
bec^ife iuch attempts fuppofe in the projector ,an abfurd
temerity, founded on a profound ignorance of the talents
he ought to have, and the virtues which he has not. Such
boldnefs is the chara&er of a man whole mind is too nar-
row to perceive his danger : We (hould rather approve the
timidity that fuffers itleli to be dejedted by terror, fince it
(hows at lead that he knows to what hazards he is expofed;
both one and the other are blameable : modefty' is the only
proper quality' of a foldier ; it gives fplendour to virtue, it
argues diffidence of himfelf, and defire of arriving at per-
fedtion.
i he title of general would be lefs tempting, if proper
attention was paid to the qualities it requires, and the duties
it impofes ; it would then appear a very honourable, but
painful burden. The moft firm and intrepid genius might
be difeouraged, merely by thinking that on the conduct of
a general depends the fate of the ftate, the glory of his
prince’s arms, and his own reputation.
But
Parti. W
Dcftnfive But yet thf reward that follows fuch irkfome labours
Operations ol3;rht to aniiiiate men to undertake them. Obftarles, how-
ever numerous they may be, are not infurmountable, Unce
fo many great men have got the better of them: difficulties
fliould ftir up a loldier’s emulation, but fhould never terrify
him; he fhould endeavour to copy fuch great originals,
though he fhould not be able to equal them.
This treatife is divided into four parts.
In the fifll are mentioned all the greater operations of a
A. R» Jo 5
campaign ; and the means of executing thofe operations, in Defer,five
any kind of country, are endeavoured to be laid down. Operanons.
in the fecond, the precautions that are to be taken
to attack the enemy in all the forementioned operations,, are
confidered.
i he third treats of the Petite Guerre, or the operations
of detached parties, and the war of polls.
The fourth, of lieges, both with regard to attack and
defence.
Part I. Of the GREATER OPERATIONS in DEFENSIVE WAR.
Sect. I. Of the Knowledge of a Country.
A Campaign of which the plan is well formed, and
the difpofitions well concerted, may neverthelefs prove
unfuccefsful, if the general, to whole direftion the opera¬
tions are intruded, hath not a thorough knowledge o! the
country in which they are to be carried into execution.
There is one knowledge of a country, which for an of-
feer to be wi.hout fhould be confidered as a reproach ; that
of the fituati i of cities, towns, villages, forefts, dreams,
rivers, which .. tr be acquired by dudying of geographical
maps. There . another branch of knowledge yet more
particular, fuch as, of the palfes, or the boundaries of the
country, the fituation, the nature of the ground, whether
it is plain, or divided by'hollows, rivulets, hills, &c. which
is to be acquired by the afliftance of topographical maps.
In the ftudy of theie lad, care mult be taken, not blindly
to follow the marks they lay down, ft very feldom hap¬
pens, that topographical maps are perfectly exaft : for, be-
fides the many circumdances which may fometimes in a year
alter a large extent of country, they feldom take notice of
lords, bridges over the fmall rivulets, fmall hills, and hol¬
lows of little importance ; neither can they mark whatever
may be occafm by recent inundations and difruptions of
the earth : whereas any of thefe unforefeen circumdances
may prove an obdrmSfion to a great defign, either by re¬
tarding the march of an army, preventing a column of
troops from advancing, or leaving the enemy in poffeflkm
of fome paiTes from which he might have been driven.
In order to avoid the errors into which a general may
be drawn by the maps, the fafeft method is to apply to the
inhabitants of the country, go over it with the mod intel¬
ligent of them, and remark every obdack, however trifling
it may appear. . •
For marching with greater fecurity, a general ought to
form a company of guides of the peafants, be ad'ured of
their fidelity, and attach them to him by all poffible me¬
thods, particularly by unbounded liberality. It is bv money
only that trudy fpies and faithful guides can be iecured ;
the latter are lefs .expenfive, but full as necedary as the
former. Parfimony fhould be avoided in war ; for, as Vi-
getius obferves, money fhould never be fpared when expence
is necedary toTecure podeffion. In proportion as an army
advances into a country, great care mud be taken to change
the guides.
The general fhould fend out detachments along with
feme of thefe guides to examine the dreams which crofs the
country, whether or no their mouths are at a didance, into
what river they empty themfelves, from whence they take
their fource, whether they may be eafiiy forded, if their
bar ks are deep or doping, marfhy or covered with bufhes ;
other detachments fhould be employed in examining the
woods, in order to find out whether troops can pafs through
them or not.
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
A general ought himfelf to examine into the truth of the
reports made to him by thefe fmall detachments, or fend
out ethers more considerable under the command of gene¬
ral officers : however certain a general may be of the fi¬
delity of his fpies and guide®, yet he fhould not always
rely upon their reports : midrud, which in general is ac¬
counted a vice, may almod be efteemed a virtue in the
bufmefs of war.
Furnifhed with thefe lights, a general can allot the eafiefl
road to the artillery and baggage, the fhorted to the infan¬
try, and longed to the cavalry : he can at once judge,
from the nature of the ground, into how many columns the
army can be divided in order to expedite the march, and
what dilpofitions will be necedary for the columns w-ith re¬
gard to the enemy’s poiition.
By the knowledge of the country, a general is informed
of what camps the enemy doth or can occupy, and of thofe
necedary to be taken to oppofe his defigns ; whether the
enemy’s detachments can ealily approach, or how he can
himlelf advance towards him, without being difeovered ; if
there is forage in the neighbourhood of the enemy’s camp,
or whether he is obliged to draw it from a ditfance; where
he hath fixed his magazines, and whether an attempt to
carry them off is pradlicable or not ; in what manner his
quarters are difpofed, and which of them is moll expofed ;
what diflance there is between himielf and the enemy; where
the enemy hath eflabhihed polls, and which thofe are that
himfelf ought to occupy with regard to the fituation of his
own camp and quarters, and thofe belonging to the enemy;
which is the properett road for the detachments and the
patrols to keep, in order to gain intelligence ; and laflly,
with what degree of eafe the enemy can attack the army on
its march, and whether in front or flank. This knowledge
is effential to a general in every kind of country ; but in a
woody or mountainous country it would become more par-
ticul uly dangerous, and even impoffible for him to march
an army, if unacquainted with it.
In 1702, the duke of Burgundy, being defirous to at¬
tack the enemy who were behind Cleves, but not being
peife&ly acquainted with the forefl in his front, he detach¬
ed the marquis d’Alegre with joo grenadiers, and 800
horfe, to fee if it was not poffible to find fome paffage thro’
it. M. d’Alegre met with a defile which wa's occupied by
the enemy : he attacked and forced it; but being advanced
beyond it, found it was not pofible to proceed farther, by
reafon of the great number of defiles that fueceeded to each
other: he thereupon turned back, fent, and had another
paffage fmveyed, where there were found Hill greater ob-
itacles. Fie gave an account of this to the duke of Bur¬
gundy, who, not choofing to mifs the opportunity of at¬
tacking the enemy, fent him out again with a larger de¬
tachment, that he might examine whether, by keeping along
the fide of the fortft, it would not be pradlicable f@r him
to march up to them by way of the heaths of Mook, on
4 Q the
o6
7
Deienfxve the fide of Grave and Nimeguen.'
O!eratiatis.^j{-covere(j a Jeflle which led to thefe heaths: he took pof-
‘i , ■■ - £e^on q£ an(j fent notice thereof to the duke of Bur¬
gundy ; who ordered the army to advance,.obliged the ene¬
my to fend their infantry into Nimeguen, and cannonaded
their cavalry which had taken poll on the glacis, but were
unable to maintain it ; and the confequence was, that the
enemy fuftained a great lofs in men, artillery, waggons,
and baggage.
This example tends to prove, that maps are not always
to be relied on. There can be no reafon to doubt that the
duke of Burgundy wras furnifhed with the moft exafi : but
yet it is probable that he might not have fucceeded in this
enterprife, if he had negle&ed fending M. d’Alegre to fur-
vey-the pafles, and examine two; betore he proceeded to that
through w'hich be marched.
The following is a general rule : That it is upon the
ground, and not upon maps, that the roads through which
an army is to march rriutt be examined, as well as the titua-
tion of places where camps are to be fixed, and fields of
battle chofen. An army fhould never move before ways
- are opened for every column : with regard to a detachment
♦t is different, as there may arife circumflances which will
prevent the general from forefeeing what road it may take.
The command of a detachment Ihould always be given to
an intelligent officer, and one who has made his bufinefs his
only ftudy ; who hath been particularly careful to acquire
a knowledge of the country, and of uhofe genius the ge¬
neral fhould entertain no doubt. A particular choice ftirs
up emulation in young men, and induces them to exert
their utmoft endeavours to deferve fo diftinguiflimg a mark
of approbation.
Into how many miftakgs have even the greateft: generals
fallen, by not being thoroughly acquainted with a country,
and by fuffering themfelves to be guided by general notions?
M. de Feuquieres cites many examples of great enterpriles
which have milcarried by it.
Toward the end of the year 1673, when a confiderable
body of infantry, with only few cavalry, was on its return
from Holland, under the conduft of M. de Luxemburg,
the prince of Orange having affembled the whole force of
the Dutch and the Spaniards (under his command), came
upon the Maefe, with an intention to fight M. de Luxem¬
burg between Maettricht and Charleroy. This march made
it neceflary for the court to fend an order to M. de Schom-
berg to affemble all the cavalry that were in Hainault and
Flanders, and immediately join M, de Luxemburg, who was
greatly inferior to the prince of Orange in cavalry. The
prince’s aim then fhould have been to prevent the two ge¬
nerals from joining, and to have fought one or other of them
before their jundiion. The prince’s being unacquainted
with the country, made him miftake for real the feints made
by M. de Luxemburg, whilft he was upon the river Ourte;
as if his intention was to march by way of the Condros and
the Ardennes, in order to gain Sedan and the Mtzuris.
The prince of Orange drew near Huy and Namur; and by
that means was at fuch a difiance from the high-road, that
M. de Schomberg had an opportunity of advancing with his
cavalry to Tongres; at the fame time that M. de Luxem¬
burg, by a forced march, pafied the Maefe at Maeftricht,
and arrived at Tongres, where the junction of the two armies
was effedied without any accident.
If the prince of Orange had made only two refkdtions
upon the nature of the'eountry, he would have avoided the
mifiake he fell into ; the firfi of which is, that fcarcely any
body can be ignorant that the Condros and the Ardennes
are fterile and mountainous countries ; from whence it is
evident, that M. de Luxemburg could not have fubfified
W A R. Part I.
The marquis d’Alegre his army, efpecially in the month of December : the roads Defenfive
in thofe parts, very bad in the fununer, are almoft impaflable' jPcraiion»»
during the winter ; confequently the carriages c' uld not '
have pafied but with the utmoft difficulty.
\ he fecond refledtion is, that if M. de Luxemburg had
adtually deiigned to pafs through the Ardennes, why did
M. de Schomberg advance towards Tongres, and fo expole
himfelt to the danger of being beaten, without a poffibility
of receiving help from M. de Luxemburg, who was on the
other fide of the Maefe ? If the prince of Orange had had
a thorough knowledge of the country through which M. de
Luxemburg pretended he would pals, he would loon have
perceived that it was only to throw him into a perplexing
uncertainty with regard to the road which the enemy’s
general fhould naturally take : in a word, he would not
have remained a moment in doubt on the part he had to
aA.
By this, then, it appears, that the prince ought to have
continued on the fide ot Liege ; by which pofition he would
have Hopped M. de Schomberg, who would have fcarcely
dared to advance to Tongres, nor would M. de Luxem¬
burg have attempted the paffage of the Maefe at Mae-
llricht : by this means, the j unit ion would have been pre¬
vented ; or- if either of the two armies had advanced,
the prince could have attacked and beaten it; neither
would it have been in the power of the other to have affifi-
ed it.
It hath frequently happened, and will continue to do fo,
that a general who knows how to take advantage of the
knowledge of the country, although inferior in point of
force, may change a defenfive into an offenfive war. In
1671, M- de Crequi, who began the campaign on the de¬
fenfive, ended it with obliging the duke 01 Lorrain to pafs
the Rhine :#that prince difperfea his army, and then M. de
Crequi formed the liege of Fribourg.
The knowledge of a country is Hill more elfential in
retreats: there is more art and more precaution required in
a retreat than in any ether aftion ; that operation is the
conclulion of all preceding ones. If a general, obliged to
retreat precipitately, hath but a fuperficial knowledge of the
country, how will he be able to re-aflemble his troops, re-
eftablilh order, or march with any degree of fecurrty ?
Xenophon’s retreat with the ten thoufand Greeks is
one of the molt ufeful leffons a commander can ftudy : in
that undertaking were united the virtues of a confummate
general, and the moft intrepid courage of a loldier ; and
in particular it exhibits the molt profound knowledge of
the country.
The knowledge of a country is as necefiary for a private
officer as for the commander in chief, becauie he is to exe¬
cute with part what the general performs with all the
troops. When an officer, to whbfe conduct an expedition
is intrufted, joins this knowledge, one ol the chief branches
of military fcience, to pra&ice and experience, he will with
fo much the greater eafe comprehend and execute the gene¬
ral’s intention and plan ; and he will be alio enabled to taice
the propereft meafures for fuccels : if, on the contrary, he
begins a march, without being acquainted with the country,
his mind mifgiving him, will increafe the danger,, by the
very means he takes to avoid it : he will fuppofe it in places
where there is nothing to be feared, and often fall mto it
where he w>as leaft apprehenlive. or it.
The general wrho commands in the cantonments and win¬
ter-quarters, and each officer who commands a particular
quarter, will never be able to take proper mealures i: they
are unacquainted with the country : they will be unable to
preferve a proper ftrength when feparated, or to affemble
without diffeultv on the firft order j and for want ol know¬
ing
Part T, v W
Ijefenfive ing the pofla whlah it is proper to gwan!, they will occv.py
Operatliu,.^^ as Pre unnceffary, ana. leave thofe defencelefs that are
" xnoft liable to be attacked; the troops will be greatly
fatigued by increafing the number of poils without occafion,
by iuperfluous or too numerous detachments orpatroles. In
a word, whatever precautions are taken within, the quarters
will never be in fecurity, if the country round about them
is not perfectly known, and every important pafs between
them and the enemy occupied.
Sect. II. Of the Preparations before taking the
Held) and the March of an /frmy on leaving its
Quarters to go into Cantonments. i
The time for an army to come out of winter-quarters,
is always regulated by the plan which the general has
formed for the enfuing campaign. But whether by the
fituation of the quarters the army is enabled to enter imme¬
diately on the campaign, or whether it nyaft be firit of all
cantoned, the magazines ihould be fo fituated as to be al¬
ways within reach, efpecially in that early feafon of the
year, when there can be no forage upon the ground, and
coniequently the cavalry muft be fubfifted out of the ma¬
gazines. The magazines ought to be diilributed about in
different parts, that the troops may have lefs way to go for
their forage. And this diflribution fhould be regulated by
the movements which the general forefees the army will
make on leaving its quarters, iuppofing it leaves them when
there is only dry forage ; but if the army is in an enemy’s
country, and there is forage upon the ground, it is certain¬
ly better to referve the magazines entire, by which not only
great trouble will be avoided in tranfporting the forage,
but alfo a great expence laved to the government.
Of what nature foever the country may be (an enemy’s
country is fuppofed), it fhould be foraged in front, as much
ss poffible, in order to referve that which is in the rear,
that, when the campaign is over, it may be found laid up
in the barns: if this precaution is not attended to, the
army will be deftitute of forage at its return, and will of
courfe be obliged to draw it from home, and confume thofe
magazinae which were before fpared; confequently there
will be nothing faved, the expence will only have been de¬
ferred, but it will be increafed by tranfporting the forage
from the magazines to the army.
i he forming of the magazines fhould never be delayed
till the time for opening thd campaign approaches. The
intendant, purfuant to the general’s order, fhould lay in
the provihons during the winter, and diftribute them in
the frontier towns, by which means they can eaiily be tranf-
ported to whatever place the general fhall order. By thefe
precautions, the general will not only avoid the inconveni¬
ence of being obliged to wait till there is forage upon the
ground, but he will alfo be enabled to be firft in the field.
J he fame precautions fhould alio be taken with refpeA to
the artillery. It (hould be afiembled upon the glacis of
the frontier towns, or rather upon that of the conquered
places; the more it is within reach of readily joining, the
fooner the operations will be commenced.
from prudence in the execution of thefe difpofitions, as
well for the magazines and for the artillery, as for every
thing that is necefl'ary to an army, it follows, that a gene¬
ral hath often formed a fiege, or at leafl invefted a place,
-and completed his lines of circumvallation, before the enemy
-could be in a condition of coming out of his quarters : he
way hkewife have made many marches, and will poffefs
Jumfelf of advantageous polls, without the enemy having it
jn his power to oppofe him.
fi. general fhould obferve, that, in order to caufe his
A It. 707
army to be cantoned within a march of the country where Deftnflvn
he dei’-j,ns to commence the operations, he muft make all°i’e ;U*,JT
the troops leave their quarters together; affernble them in
many bodies in different frontier towns ; proportion the
marching days to the diftance of the quarters and the ren¬
dezvous that fhall have been appointed for .them, that they
may arrive on the day appointed, and that from thence
they may march in a body to the place where they are to
canton.
All the bodies march, either in the number of columns
that the fituation of the country will allo c, and arrive at
the cantonment together; or elfe they march feparately,
and arrive on different days : but, in either of thefe cafes,
the cantonments for each regiment ought to have been mark¬
ed out; and, if poffible, forag'e for at leaft three or four
days diftributed to each quarter.
In the marching-orders which are fent to each corfr-
mander, the fituation and name of the place where each
regiment is to canton, fhould be carefully expreffed; whether
on the right, the left, or in the centre': the difeipline to
be there obferved, the place where to go and receive orders,
and that where to receive forage, {hould alfo be particularly
fpecified. «
Troops, when upon a march, fhould always obferve the
moft exaft diicipline ; and never be fuffered to advance, but
.in the fame order, and with the fame precaution, as if they
were in danger of being rnoleiled or attacked.
Whenever an army is cantoned, it is generally in an
enemy’s country ; therefore, for the greater fecurity of the
cantonments, there fhould at leaft be one place that may
ferve for a fupport. If no place of this fort can be found, *
the army muft then march out together and encamp, inftead
of going into cantonments.
As the cantonments are properly nothing more than a
halting place, where the troops are to remain till the feafon
permits them to take the field, till the proper quantity of
forage is collefted, or till the neceffaty .preparations for the
intended operations are completed, they fhould be more con-
nefted than the winter-quarters. But as foon as the wea¬
ther permits, and all the neceffary preparations which fhould
have been forwarded during the winter are finifhed, there is
then no time to be loft ; for an army will always find its ad¬
vantage in encamping early, getting the ftart of the enemy
as much as it poffibly can, and beginning the campaign, no
matter by what operations, before the enemy can have time
to affemble.
If any particular column, upon the march, prefents its
flank to any of the enemy’s towns, although it is indifpen-
fably neceffary for every column to obferve all poffible order
and difeipline on the march, yet this column is more parti¬
cularly obliged to it ; neceflity makes it become a duty.
But that it fhould not be too much expofed, fome huffars
ought to be appointed to march upon its flank, who fhould
alfo be ordered to advance till they come within fight of
thofe towns. This column, whether confifting of infantry
or cavalry, muft detach fome troops t© fuftain the huffars,
in cafe they fhould be attacked and repulled. By pofting
thefe detachments upon the flank, the enemy will be kept
at a diftance from the column, and the huffars will be alfo
fuflaiaed.
Sect. III. Ihe March of an Army in an open
Country.
To direft the march of armies is not the leaft difficult
part of a general’s duty, and it is only by a thorough
knowledge of the country that he can perform this duty ; 1
that he can concert the meaftares for conducting them in
4 U 2 fafety ;
/
oS
W
Defenfive fafety; and that lie will be enabled to fqrefee the enemy’s
Uier3“ motions. 7
There are but three forts of countries which may become
the theatre of war; an open country divided by rivers, a
woody, or a mountainous one.
When an army is In an open country, the general may
take whatever road he thinks moft convenient, without be¬
ing under a necefiity of keeping the beaten road. I; he
choofes to march acrofs the country, it may be done by
cutting down the hedges, filling up the ditches, levelling
tne. ridges, filling up the hollow ways, thereby rendering
their afeent or defeent eafy, and by building bridges over
the dreams and rivulets which divide the country. But
neverthelefs it is very imprudent for a general to fuppofe
himfelr entirely free .from danger upon a march; for"the
confequences of felf-fecurity are generally fatal. The effeTs
of negligence in any military operation are pernicious, but
more particulaily fo upon a march ; and although a gene¬
ral fhould never fear hiij enemy when in prefence of him, he
fnould neverthelds always apprehend the worit from him
when he is out of his fight.
The number of columns in which an army can march in
an open country is arbitrary, whilfc it is advancing, and
tne enemy at too great a diftance to attack or annoy it upon
its march. But if, on the contrary, the enemy is near at
hand, and there is a poffibility of his attacking the army,
it fhould then be difpofed after fuch a manner as to form in
order of battle in a very fhort time, and to be able to take a
favourable pofition for aftion upon the firft fignal.
If the army prefer.ts its flank to the enemy, the difpo-
fitions, without confidering the probability of its being
attacked, fhould be changed ; for an army noon a march
ought to be always prepared againfl any accident that may
happen.
A general fhould never caufe an army to move without
having previoufiy coniidered and examined the intended
march of it, nor without a thorough knowledge of the
enemy’s pofition, and where he is, or without knowing par¬
ticularly the ground intended to encamp on. An army
ought never to move but with fome defign, either to feize .
on fome advantageous poil, to prevent an intended march
of the enemy’s, to draw him into a difadvantageous fitua-
tion, to deprive him of iubfiftence, or to procure fome for
itfelf.
This maxim being eftablifhed, let it be fuppofed, that a
general would caufe his army to march, and the enemy’s
diftance to he aifo fuch as to feenre him from any danger
of attacks ; he hath it m his power to open four, fix, or
tight roads, in proportion to the number of the troops
under his command : for the greater the number or columns,
the lefs is the body of troops contained in each ; confequently
there will be Ids coufufion, and the fooner will the army
arrive at its deftined camp.
Before the march is planned, and the number of columns
determined upon in which the army is to march, notwith-
ftanding the general is acquainted with the country, he
fhould fend out a detachment fome days before, to recon¬
noitre the intended route of the army, as well as the camp
it is to occupy. This detachment is to be commanded by
the officers of the day appointed for its fetting out: they
nnift nave ftaff-cfficers and guides with them, to con dud
and to ni orm them of the nature of whatever may ptove
an obftacle, of the places where the roads begin, and thofe
where they terminate : they fhould alfo have labourers with
them, to mend the ways, enlarge the roads, and make
nevv ones, if neceffary ; to cut down the hedges, fill up the
ditches, level the ridges of the hollows, and build or repair
bridges.
a n.
When the general commanding this detachment t* ready
to enter the different ways through which the army is to
follow, he will divide his detachment into as many leparate
bodies as the army is to be divided into upon its march ;
and diftribute han-officeis, guides, and labourers, to each
detachment, witn oioeis to meet again at the fame dace
from whence they f’eparated.
Each of thefe detachments fhould advance to the extre¬
mities of the woods, if they meet with any. and of the roads
leading to the camp, intended to be occupied : the com¬
manding and ftaff officers will then advance with an eicort
to reconnoitre its fituation, and will leave part of their men
in ambnfeade in the woods, or concealed behind fome
heights, or in fomc hollows. The knowledge of the fitua¬
tion of the camp being attained, each detachment will re¬
turn by the road it came ; but firft, the commanding officer
of each detachment will make a report to the general of the
roads tncy have paffed, what difcovenes they have made,
and, in fhoit, will give him a particular detail of everything
they have met with cn their way, whether woods, villa res,
uollows, bridges, and of every thing they have done to render
the. road eafy for the column that is to pafs through it.
This detachment being aflembled at the place appointed
for meeting, will take the road to the camp, where being
arrived, the lieutenant-general will make his report to the
commander in chief of the army.
With thefe precautions the army may not only advance
in iafety, but the roads alfo for every column having been
reconnoitred and repaired, no accident can happen to retard
the march of the army.
The geheral mult take care to have detachments of huf-
fars or dragoons always in the front and upon the flanks, to
obferve and clear the march of the army ; neither fhould a
general fuppofe himielf to be in ahfolute fecurity from the-
diftance of the enemy: but whilft he fees all clear bemre
him, it would fhow great weaknefs for him to be apprehen-
five of a furprife, ei'pecially when every neceffary precaution
for avoiding it hath been taken. It is certainly a mark of
prudence to take precautions ; but multiplying them with¬
out caufe is an undoubted ftgn of fear and anxiety.
It is proper to make the army march, as near as poffible,
in the iame order in which it is to encamp ; by which means
the ti oops may enter the camp without confufion. - The
army being fuppofed to march in fix columns, the infantry
will form three, the artillery and baggage the fourth ; the
cavalry, with the remainder of the corps of hufiars that are
not detached, and the dragoons, the two laft upon the
flanks ; fo that the army, on its march, will be in the fol¬
lowing difpofition : The column upon the right will conlift
of cavalry, the one adjoining to it of infantry, and that
which comes next will be formed by the artillery and bag¬
gage ; then two columns of in antry, and the fixth clofing
the left, will be eompofed of cavalry. It is to be obferved,
that, if the baggage-waggons belonging to the army form
too long a row, fome of them may be feirt into the rear of
the columns of infantry, with exprefs orders to the officers
to make them march in the column.
There ftiould be an advanced and a rear guard to each
column, formed from the troops of which the column is
compoled ; there ftiould be alio detachments of light horfe
upon the flanks of the cavalry, in order to keep off any of
the enemy’s parties that, might advance to annoy the army
upon its march. The rear-guard to the column of baggage
ftiould confift of infantry, cavalry, or dragoons, befides the
efcort always appointed for it. The general officers who
are at the head of the two columns of cavalry ftiould not
march too faft, left they ffionld get too far advanced before
the infantry j a matter always to be avoided. The march
of
I.
Pefe«f,v«s
(ffiera'inn
*
If
Wati .
Plan, of tVie~MarrP o£ an A rm n Ji±_ SlX CoTllXrm.S .
Pla^e :nXIAr.
Scale of ^ aljeague
Part T. . w
pf«« *my * !.].■!» manner* w;:ry
O.'ffrado:!--. v'iil cnifv tlio c««np at vie faa\<i tune, anJ ->>ui itlelt oppolue
fc—-y-^^q jt? or.iUnd. See Flate DXIV, where a ia the army
forrntci in order of battle, ready to march. I he park
of artillery, where tire baggage belonging to the army, and
their efeorts, alfo are afi'embled. c, March of the cavalry,
to form the column on the right, cl, March of the cavalry,
to form the column on the left, e, March of the infantry,
to form in three columns, f, March of the artillery and
baggage, to form in a column, g. Parties of huflars, cover¬
ing the flanks of the army, and forming the rear-guards of
the column, when the army hath puffed, h, Bridges and
fords, difcovered by the advanced detachments, who have
marked the route of the army, /, Bridges built by the
lame detachments, k. Front and rear guards of the columns
drawn from the troops of which the columns are formed.
/, Parties of huflars, marching upon the flanks of the army.
vi, Parties of huflars marching at the head of the army,
to fcour the country through which the army is to pafs,
and alfo to examine the routes marked by the advanced
detachments.
If, by the enemy’s pofition, although at a diflance, the
army fhould, on its march, prefent ?. flank to the enemy,
without fearing its'being attacked; yet as the enemy may
have ftolen one or two marches, as hath happened on many
occaflons, there muft be only two columns of infantry placed
in the centre. The third mud be placed upon that flank
which the army prefects to the enemy; fo that the army
will find icfelf dilpolcd upon its march after the following
manner : Suppofing it is the right which prefents the flank
to the enemy, the firft column will conliit of infantry, the
iecond of cavalry,-the third of artillery,'the fourth and fifth
of infantry, and the iixth of cavalry. The baggage will
then be diifributed to the threfe columns upon the left; fo
that neither the two columns upon the right, or the artillery,
will have the leaft embarraffment, in cate an aftion enfues.
The fame difpoiition malt be made upon the left, if it is
that which prefents the flank. Particular care muft be
taken that the artillery haye orders, iuppofing the enemy
advancing in full force to attack, to traniport itfelf to the
column of infantry, and to divide itfelf along the front, when
it lhall be in order of battle, and to keep up a conilant fire,
in order to give the general time to make Inch difpolftions
as he fliall find neceffary.
The column of cavalry fhould de divided into two, and be
polled upon the flanks of the infantry that is drawn up in
the face of the enemy ; the other columns muft follow the
orders which have been delivered to them, and execute them
with the utmoft difpatch.
If it appears, either from the proximity or pofidon of
the enemy, that the army is liable to be attacked in front,
the difpofition for the march ftould be in the fame order as
the army is to form in for action : the artillery muft then
be diftributed among the columns of infantry ; fo that,
following the divifions where it is placed, the brigades wdl
find themfelves fpread over the front of the firft line. In
this cafe, the infantry will form four columns, which will
march in the centre of the two columns of cavalry upon
their flanks ; To that the head of each column, as far as the
A . . 709
centre, when placing itfelf in order of battle, fliall make the DJenfiva
firft line, and the remainder, from the centre downward, the Qeer-^! nv
fecond ; and the referve which follows fhall form itlelt be-
hind the other two lines.
It is necefTiry that an army difpofed after this manner
Ihouli have orders to draw itfelf into order ot battle on the
very firft fignal, which fhould be a difeharge of two 01 three
pieces (ft cannon. The fignal being given, the firft and
fecond lines, and the referve, will find themfelves formed in
a very Ihort time. If, from the proximity and pofition of
the enemy, and the facility with which he can attack, the
general hath rcafon to imagine he will do it, the heavy bag¬
gage, with a good guard and efcort, ought to be removed
into the rear.
On this occafion the campsment (a) fhould not be far be¬
fore the army, the elcort fhould be increafed, and lome de¬
tachments of light horfe fhould march in front to cover it,
and alfo to make obiervation at a diitance. The remainder
of the body of light horfe fhall continue upon the flanks of
the army inflamed by dragoons, who, on the fignal being
given, fhall immediately go and form themfelves in the place
afiigntd to them during the action.
On the firft fight of the enemy the campement ihould re¬
tire ; for when fighting becomes necefiary, all thought of
encamping muft be laid afidt ; but the eicort fhall put it-
ielfin order o" battle, and the light horfe {hall approach the
enemy as near as poffibie, in order to reconnoitre his difpo¬
fition and ftrength^ The officer commanding them will
immediately lend a report of the difeoveries he hath made
to the commander in chief, who on every occafion fnouid
be in the front, and even a little advanced, to furvey the
nature of the ground; it being very certain, that in thele
cales a man can much Letter rely upon his own than upon the
judgment of others. This was marfhal Saxe’s method;
particularly when he was apprehenfive of being attacked
upon a march, or had himielt an intention of attacking,
in proportion as the enemy fhall advance, the efcort of the
campeinent muft retire in good order; at tire fame time
not neglefting the opportunity, it it oilers, of handling the
enemy’s advanced guard, fo as to retard his march, and
give more time for the army to form in order of battle, and
to the general to make fuch difpofitions as he ihal! judge
neceflary : after which, the elcort having amufed the enemy,
or can fed him to flacken the brilknefs of his march, muit
retire in good order.; and when it fhali be near the body of
the army, each body lhall return to its own brigade.
If, from his knowledge of the country, although an open
one, the general knows there are any thickets, hoi'» vs, or
heights, either on the right or the left, and that tms fpot
may prove favourable to the enemy, he Ihould try to poflefs
himlelf ot it. If that attempt is not praflicable, as the
enemy will undoubtedly take advantage of it, and poll in¬
fantry either at thele thickets or heights, tire general muft
place a brigade of infantry at the head of each column of
cavalry, which fhall mix by platoons with that line or cavalry
when formed in order of battle. This difoofitiou was made
by M. de Turenne at the afition of Sinzheim, and at the
battle of Enzheim.
If, by the fituation of the country, the flanks cannot be
fheltered '
(a) This is a French term, for which we have not a fynoriyme equally expreflive in the Englifh language. It is
ufed to denote a certain number of troops, who proportion their time of fetting out before the army, by the diftance or
proximity of the enemy, in order to trace or mark out the camp. For this purpofe, a quarter-mafter and a trooper ia
draughted trom every troop of every regiment of horfe ; and a ferjeant and a corporal, in like manner, from every regi¬
ment of infantry, furnifhed with ropes and pickets, to lay out the ground for the tents and the intervals ; fo that every re¬
giment will, on its arrival, find its ground properly marked out. A field-officer of every regiment alfo marches with the
campement, befides the officers of each corps, who command the detachment. «
7 to
W
n feiifive Altered either by an hollow, a ir.orafa, a river, a town, or a
O, e attons. viii3ge) the huflais and dragoons mull be polled upon the
wins’s, but fidewife, fo as to be able to take the enemy in
ilank when he (hall come down to charge the tirll line, or
at leaf! to keep back his iecond : thefe hufiars and dragoons
fhould be lultained by the infantry of the light troops be¬
longing to the army. If the right can be formed next a
village, and the lelt next an hollow, fame infantry and artil¬
lery mult be polled there : if there is only the right or the
left that can be fheltered, that which cannot muf! be properly
lultained ; and the fame difpoiition mult be obferved that
hath been juft now mentioned, with regard to an army
whole Hanks cannot be covered.
If, on leaving the camp, the army prefents a flank to the
enemy, who may have it in his power to attack it on the
march, it muft then march but in two or three columns at
moft. Each column fh uld be difpo.!ed after luch a man¬
ner, that by a motion to the right or to the left, according
to the wing that is liable to be attacked, each battalion and
fquadron many find itielf formed in order of battle before
the enemy.'
The advanced guard flrould be compofed of light horfe,
fuftair.ed by dragoons : the rear-gnard of cavalry fuftajned
by infantry : there fhould be alfo fome light horfe’ upon the
flanks of the cavalry, and fome pieces of cannon with the
infantry. The artillery fliould be diftribut^d by brigades
in the column of infantry neareft to the enemy ; fo that,
performing the fame movement as the troops, it may find it-
fell placed in the front of the firft line, ready to fire on the
lirft order. The number of three columns is given to the
army, in order that the firft and fecond lines and the referve
fhall be formed at the fame time, which cannot be done if
the army marches only in two columns : for troops muft
then be taken from thefe two lines in order to form the
referve, which would require a confiderable time, and con-
fequently retard the difpoiitions ; whereas this referve, form¬
ing the third column, is feparated from the main body, and
in a condition to aft with readinefs. according to the orders
itdhall have received. As the baggage, in this manner of
marching, muft neceflarily be an embarraflment, it muft be
fent into the rear under a good efcort, with orders to join
the next day at the new camp.
Sect. IV. Ihe March cf an Army in a mountainous
and ivoody Country.
If the fituation of the places in a mountainous country
furnifl ts a general with a treater variety of expedients to
conceal his difpofitions, it alfo renders more precautions,
and a greater degree of knowledge, neceflary to avoid being
furprifed. If thele kind of countries, on the one hand, pre-
fent greater advantages for the concealment of marches,
they alfo, on the other, offer many difficulties in the tranf-
porting of the provilions and the artillery, and require a
greater degree of vigilance for the fafety of the magazines
and the prefervation of the communications with the frontier
towns.
It is to be feared, that in mountainous countries, in roads
' that cannot be enlarged, the troops preffed too clofe to¬
gether will not be able to move but with great difficulty ;
and as they will embavrafs each other, the front, the rear¬
guard, and the flanks, muft be equally fecured ; the columns
muft be unbroken and clofe, that there be no diftauce left
between them ; and halting ftiould be particularly avoided,
as that is a circumltance by which an army is moft fatigued.
It is again dangerous, as the commentator upon Onofan-
der obferves, when troops find themielves ftraitened of room
A R *
in a narrow road, for the general, in order to enable the'a
to move with greater eafe, to lengthen the columns too
much : from whence would arife two inconveniences; the
fe two inconveniences ; the
lull of which is, that the columns would be weakened,
and that in cale ot a turprife it would not be difficult for the
enemy to feparate them entirely, and it would alfo he im-
poffiblc for them to rally ; in the fecond place, thefe
columns thus lengthened, in going round a mountain and
defeending intp a valley, would take up a prodigious ex¬
tent ; from whence it hath often happened, that the wind¬
ings of the road hiding the middle ot the column, thofe who
march in the front tank can fee only thofe who are in the
laft, and retard their march, becaufe that, being deceived by
diitance, they will be fcarcely able to diftinguilh whether
they advance or whether they are halted.
In order to avoid thele inconveniences, it is not barely
fufficient for a general to have a thorough knowledge of
the country: he ought immediately to inform himitlf of
ever particular, however minute, relating to it; he flrould
take the fame precautions which have been pointed out as
neceffary for a march in an open country, and fend out a
detachment, fuch as hath been luppofed in the foregoing
fedtion. 1 his detachment will examine the narrow pafles,
furvey and found the tords, run round the windings of the
mountains ; and if there are many roads, it will find out
which is the moft practicable, and that through which the
army, the artillery, and baggage, can pafs with the greateft
eafe ; what ftreams crofs it, and whether there are bridges
over them ; it will examine whether they are fufficiently
ftrong, and repair them, or build new ones. It often hap¬
pens in a mountainous country, that the road which would
be very fhort and commodious proves to be divided, either
by the leparation of two locks or by hollows. As thele
breaches, however deep they may be, cannot be all of a
certain breadth, therefore, in order to avoid marching over
the unneceffary ground that going round them would take
up, bridges fhould be thrown over, if poffible, from one rock
to another.
But as in a march, whether in an open or in a moun¬
tainous country, occafions for throwing bridges very often
prefent themfelves, it is very neceffary to fay a word or two
relative to the manner of their conftru&ion.
Six or eight thick pieces of timber are laid acrofs a ri¬
vulet, or any other bad place neceflary to be paffed, at fix
feet diftance from each other; thefe muft be croffed again
by other pieces of timber not fo thick, at the diftance of
three feet from each other; which muft be fixed to one ano¬
ther by large pegs, and faggots well fattened together muft
be laid over them. When the bridge fhall be thus covered,
fome earth muft be thrown over it, which ought to be well
trampled, in order to fill up the vacancies of the faggots;
and then, for the greater firmnefs, new earth fhould be
thiown over it, which ought to be well beaten down. The
bridge thus made, the troops, the artillery, and the baggage,
will pafs over it with great eafe.
It muft be obferved, that the bridges fhould be of the
fame breadth with the roads ; they fhould be broader rather
than narrower, becaufe, exclufive of the danger the artillery
and baggage would run if they were narrower, the ranks
being obliged to be ftraitened and the column to be length¬
ened, the march would of courfe be retarded, and it would
be difficult to avoid confulion. The labourers that accom¬
pany the detachment ought to be furnifhed with every fort
of tool neceflary for the removing of earth, the telling of
trees, and working and fitting them for ufe.
Gn the report of the commanding officer of this detach¬
ment to the general, he will order as many detachments as
there
War .
Tli e Metcck of axt A rray Rixo ngb aAlo imtaino u s Coxmtry.
f’late I) XV.
Part*!.
Defenfive
Operations
W I
there are columns iutended, to fet out two or three hours
betore the time appointed lor the march of the army. Thefe
detachments will march careiully over the ways already ex¬
amined and prepared : they will fcour every thin r, hedges,
narrovy pofies, entrances of paffes, woods, heights, villages,
in (hart ?.ll that may lerve as (helter'for troops in ambul'cade;
and for treater fecurity, they will poll guards in the villages,
which ruards are not to retire till the rear-guard of the army
comes up.
The commanding officer of each detachment fhould pof-
fefs himfelf of the heights on the ri >ht and left, and fhould
diftribute platoons of infantry at proper diftances from the
rocks and narrow paffes : he fhould be careful o'- what may
be done to oppofe him, and he attentive even to the imalleil
paths. When the commanding- officer of the detachment
{hall be advanced to the end of the paffes, or to the ground
intended for the camp, he will eftablifh his infantry in the
mod advantageous pofts ; he will place his light horfe or
dragoons in the front, but within reach ol affiilance ; he
will fend out patroles of light horfe advanced before the in¬
fantry. If he receives any intelligence of the enemy, he
will fend immediate notice of it to the general; but if, from
the report made to him, the enemy does n t appear to be
fufficiently ftrong to ahnoy the army on its march, or only
fome parties were willing to try if they could enter the
paffes, his detachment will be fufficient to keep therm at a
diltance, particularly as he is in poffeflion of the heights and
the pafles.
With fuch precautions as thefe, if the enemy is at too
great a diftance to attack the army, the march will be per¬
formed without any trouble : there will be no obftacle in
the roads, or reafon to fear that the waggons will be mi¬
red ; and if the wheels or axle-trees of any of them fhould
break, they will be repaired from thole which have fpare ones:
if, on the contrary, the enemy fhould be lb near as to give
caufe to apprehend an attack, the necefTary precautions are
taken tor forming the troops in order of battle, and for the
necefiary difpolitions during the a&ion.
It has been already obferved, that an army on a march
fhould be divided into as many columns as the detach¬
ments have found openings or roads leading to the camp the
general intends to occupy ; luppofe two, the army will con-
iequently march in two columns. The difpolition of the
troops in their march differs entirely from what it would be
in an open country ; the advanced-guard of each column
muft confift of infantry, fome muft be diftributed either in
the narrow paffes or on the heights, and there fliould be
fome advanced detachments o: li ;ht horfe to fcour the nar¬
row paffes : the rear-guard fhould confift of infantry only.
The remainder of the troops may be difpofed after the fol¬
lowing manner:
Four or five brigades of infantry, according to the num¬
ber which compofts the army, fliould be placed at the head
of each column ; the fame partition fhould be made with
regard to the artillery, which muft follow the infantry; the
cavalry muft march next, and the baggage of each column,
well efcorted by infantry, muft follow the cavalry ; then
the remainder of the corps ot light horfe which are not
detached ; and the dragoons placed the laft, in order
to difmount and fuftain the rear-guard in caie it fliall be
attacked.
Each column fhould confift of the fame number of troops
as well infantry as cavalry. Platoons of infantry fhould be
detached to march on the heit> hts, at proper diftances, in
order to cover the flanks on the right and left. Care muft
be taken to march very leifurely in the front, otherwife the
rear w.ll not be able to keep up ; then, in order to give the
3
R.
7ix
rear time to come up, the front will be forced to halt, by
which the march will be much retarded and the troops fa- . rS ' s,
tigued.
Plate DXV. reprefents the march of an army through a
mountainous country. A is the polition of the army be¬
fore it begins its march. P is the artillery and baggage,
with their efforts in the front of the camp. B, Parties oz
huffars forming the advanced >, uard of the army on its
march. C, Parties of infantry of the advanced-guards
of the columns. D, The infantry of the army forming the
head of the columns. E, The artillery, and waggpns be¬
longing to the artillery. F, Battalions of artillery. G,
The cavalry. H, The baggage of the army. I The ef-
cort of the baggage. K, Parties of huffars. L, Parties
of dragoons. M, The infantry of the referve, forming the
rear-guard the army. N. Platoons of infantry marching
upon the heights, to cover the flanks of the columns. O,
Villages in front of the camp the army is to occupy, and of
which the light infantry h ve taken poffeffton.
Theff difpofitions are neceffary, becauff, as the enemy,
in a mountainous country will be able to attack with infan¬
try only, he muff be oppofed with troops .of the lame na¬
ture: the reafon why the artillery is polled behind the infan¬
try is, that in cafe the enemy fliould attack brilkly in front,
and the road through which the columns pals be broad
enough, fome pieces of cannon may be fent into the front,
which firing with grape-fhot will foon thin the enemy’s
rank-, and abate fomethinu of his ardour : if the road be too
narrow to permit the bringing forward of the artillery, re-
folution mufl fuoply the want of that affiflance which the
cannon would give, and the enemy muft be charged with
bayonets. The cavalry does not follow immediately, became,
not being able to adl in this fort of country, it muft be co¬
vered by infantry. The baggage which follows is luffieient-
ly defended by the columns that cover it, and the infantry
that elcorts it: this infantry fhould neverthelefs join as of¬
ten as circumflances wall permit, without being fearful of
expofing itfclf, that uoon the heights being to reinforce
it in cafe the head of the army fhould be attacked.
There are fome mountainous countries fo difficult of ac-
cefs, that it is impoffible for the cavalry to follow, becaufe
fome poft muft either be immediately fei&ed, or the enemy,.
being in poffeflion of the hills, muft be driven from them be¬
fore it can advance ; or becaufe it would be difficult for it
to be fubfifted.
If the army can march in four columns, the difpofi¬
tions fhould ftill be the fame; but as the head of the co¬
lumns will be weaker in infaiatry, the heights fliould be
guarded accordingly, and the rear-guard fufficiently ftrong
to refill the enemy : the fame difpofltion fhould be made
for one column only.
If the march is to be made through a woody country,
the precautions which have been already mentioned in re¬
gard to examining the ways througL which the army is to
pais, and for the detachments which let out in order to be
before the army, fliould ftill be obferved ; but the difpofltion
and order of the troops muft be different. If by the fitua*
tion of the country, the army is obliged to march continu¬
ally through woods till it arrive at the camp, the cavalry,
and the baggage fliould be in three columns in the centre j
but fome infantry fliould be placed at their head and their
rear-guard : the infantry fhould march in two columns, one
on the- right,, the other on the left of the cavalry and
baggage ; fome brigades of*artillery fliould be diftributed to
each column of infantry, the remainder muft march at the
head ot the columns of baggage ; the flanks of the columns
muft be covered by platoons of infantry, placed about at
proper
Defends'6 proper diftan^es, which are to follow the columns at 4c or
O^erat ons. paces piftance, without ever lofirg fight of them.
1'' plate DXVI. reprefents the march or an army through
a woody country. A, Is the army formed in order of
battle previous to the commencement of the march. B,
' The cavalry, which hath marched fome paces in advance,
in order to make room for the infantry. C, The .infantry*
which, by facing to the right, forms the column upon the
right. D, The infantry, which, by facing to the left, forms
the column upon the left. E, Bodies of infantry, which
are to march at the head of the columns of cavalry. V,
The park of artillery, where the baggage belonging to the
army, and the efcorts, alfo are afffmbled. G, The march
of the infantry, forming in columns. I I, The march of the
cavalry, forming in columns. I, lire march of the artille¬
ry and baggage with their efcorts, forming in column. K,
The army in march. L, Hu Oars of the advanced guard
keeping the roads, marked out by the detachments feut on
before. M, Infantry, forming the advanced guard oi the
columns. N, Small parties of infantry, marching upon the
flanks of the columns. O, Parties of buffets, marching up¬
on the flanks of the army. P, Infantry of the referve form¬
ing the rear-guard of the army.
If by the knowledge which the general has of the coun¬
try, or rather from the report of the officers who command¬
ed the detachment lent out to view, open, and repair the
roads, he knows that the country is interrupted by woods
and little plains, the difpofition ought to be wholly dun¬
ged ; it will then be fulficient that the lecond detachment,
which in other cafes ought to let out the evening before,
fets out only two hours before the campement. 'ihis de¬
tachment fhould be eompofed of infantry, light horfe, and
dragoons ; the infantry to (cour the villages and the woods,
the light horfe to penetrate into the woods whereveb they
oan enter, and clear the march of the infantry, and the dra¬
goons to fultain the whole.
When the difpohtion for the march of the army is fup-
pofed to be in five columns, the infantry fhould form two,
the cavalry two more, and the artillery and baggage the
fifth. If it is thought there will be any occafion for artil¬
lery, a brigade or two may be diftributed to the columns of
infantry ; and the remainder may march at the head of the
efcort of the baggage, which is to be defended by the regi¬
ment of artillery ; to which mull be added a detachment of
iqfantry, which will form the advanced guard. The caval¬
ry and dragoons ate to keep the open country as much as
poffible, and the infantry the inclofed ; and the beft and
molt aecefllble road fhould always be given to the artillery
and baggage. In Order that the columns may preferve the
fame length in marching, a brigade of infantry fhould be
placed at the heads of the columns of cavalry ; if tin’s pre¬
caution, which fixes the head of the columns of cavalry, is
negle&ed, the cavalry will extend a great way before the
columns-of infantry, which fhould always be avoided. The
rear-guard fhbuld contift of infantry, cavalry, or dragoons :
the light horfe fhould always march on the flanks on the right
?.nd left, and before the. army.
It is after this manner that the march of an army may
be difpofed through a woody and a mountainous country ;
but an army mud always fait its motions to circumftances,
and to the fituation of the country wEere the war is carried
on. If the general is inferior in point of number, he ftonid
make choice of defiles ; becaufe in them he can always pre-
fent a front equal to the enemy’s. Who can be ignorant
that Leonidas with 8000 Greeks, at the (traits of '1 hermo-
pylae, flopped the almofl innumerable army of Xerxes, who
was unable to force him?
A mountainous and woody country, when 'thoroughly
4
known, becomes a more favourable theatre for praexlfing
the wiles and ftratagems of war than an open country ; it is,
true that the knowledge of it is more difficult to attain, and
that it requires more vigilance and readinefs in the general.
Hannibal was even drawn into anibufeades by his own
guides ; an example worthy the notice ot a general who takes
guides that have either but little regard for him, or are unac-
cuainted with the country ; it is impofiible to try them too
much; and their ignorance is often more fatal than treachery
itfelf.
The marches that require mod precaution are thofe made
in the night, thofe made in light of the enemy, and thofc
that fhould be kept fecret. ^
The fir ft fhould be avoided as much as pofflble ; but if
circumftances require and foice an army to march over a
mountainous country in the night, care fhould at leaft have
been taken to furvey the roads during the day ; to make the
guides march at the head of the army ; to keep the rank*
very clofe together, that the men may not iafe. fight of each
other ; and that part of the troops do not rqiiiake one de¬
file for another, which may eafily happen in the dark, if
advanced guard has marched a little too faft, and the o h*
cfs haftened too much. The Greeks, according to Xeno¬
phon, on like occafions, gave the heavieft arms to the troops
that marched at the head, thereby to oblige them to proceed y
leifurely. . r f ,
In th”fe marches that are made in fight o< the enemy',
befide the precautions neceffary to be taken for the fatety
ot the troops, and which have already been mentioned, the
general fliould endeavour to deceive them by falfe appear¬
ances, and by an oftentation, often in fuch circumftances, ne-
ceilary : as extenfive a front as poffible fhould be given to ■
the army ; the intervals of the ranks and columns ihomd be
widened, but not fo as to weaken them ;^the general fhould
take advantage of an height, pofTefs hirnfelf or it, and poll
forne troops on it, in order to make the enemy iuipect there
may be ftill more behind : advantage fhould be taken or 4
wood, and, by marches and countermarches, the fame troops
fhould be made to pafs and repafs, in order to make the ene¬
my believe the army ftronger than it really is. I here have
been inftances of generals, who, on like occahons, have
made fuch good ufe of their ground, that, by the arrange¬
ment of troops, they have feerned m multiply them m the
enemy’s eyes ; and who, although inrerior in ftrength, ap¬
pearing to have the advantage of numbers, have kept the
enemy in awe.
But ftill, unlefs it is to deceive the enemy, a general
fhould conceal his force and management; his force, be¬
caufe, if fuoeriar, he will not lad to profit by that advan¬
tage ; and it inferior, he fhould avoid a battle : he will con¬
ceal his mana gement, becauie he will prevent the deligns ot
the enemy’s general, who wall receive as much information
from his fucceffes as from his mifearriages. Pyrrhus, who
taught the art of war to the Romans, was in the end con¬
quered by them. The Mexicans often turned the arts and
wiles of Coiter and the Spaniards againft them ; and the
- Czar Peter T. never regretted a defeat when it became the
means of inftrttfting him. how to conquer in his turn.
It is impoffible to lay down fixed rules for fecret marches:
it is by his add refs that a general will improve circuinltances;
it is by art and contrivance that he will evade the enemy’s
vigilance, and deceive his fpies.
General rules only can be given for the difpofitions to
be made of troops upon a march; particular ones would
be merely conjectural, becaufe the general of an army muft
always depend upon circumflances : it is the fituation and
nature of the country, the number of troops, the near-
nefs of the enemy, the facility of foraging, and the paffies
VV AH.
TlaJi of tiaelVf ar clo. of mi Atjuj tkcoTL^k aAVoody C oaxiitry:
Plafe \) W I •
Scale of X aLeagne
ttw-ri-T^";in
160 -l-oo OOo
jvlooT
*
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'
' Defetifive of which the enemy is poflefled, that ought to determine
vijierations,
In a word, whatever is the order and difpofition of the
troops, it mud be Inch, that they fhall always be able to
lullain each other ; that the flanks fhall be well guarded,
and the fronts fecured ; the roads mud have been furveyed
and opened ; and whatever the nature of the country is, all
the columns diould arrive at and enter the camp at the
fame time.
Sect. VI. Of Camps in defenfive War.
It is in general more difficult to carry on a defenfive than
an offenfive war, but more particularly fo in an open than in
a mountainous country. In the former, there is nothing to
conceal the movements and difpodtions of the army from
the enemy ; whereas, in the latter, the nature of the places
prevents the enemy from difcovering them : but whatever
may be the nature of the country, the choice of a camp,
when on the defenfive, and the art of pitching upon an ad¬
vantageous fituatidn, is what proves the genius and talents
of a great officer. Exclufive of a thorough knowledge of
the country, this operation requires a quick and penetrating
rye in a general, to enable him to feize the pods which from
their fituation may prevent the enemy either from attacking
him or penetrating into the country.
A general who a<fis on the ofienfive, takes what date or
circumdances he pleafes ; he may a£t as he choofes, and is
not under a neceflity of regulating himfelf entirely by the
enemy’s motions: whereas a general that is not fufficiently
drong to attack, is commonly obliged to continue cpiiet till
the enemy hath a&ed, and then to regulate his motions ac¬
cording to thofe made by the oppofke army, unlefs his fu-
perior abilities give him a particular advantage over the ene-
jmy’s general.
Although it is always necefiary for a general to have a
thorough knowledge of the country, this knowledge will
yet become more neceflary to him when adling on the de-
fenfive. He ought to prevent the enemy’s entering his
country, and forming any fiege there (a plan which he can¬
not execute, unlefs he is poffeffed of the mod advantageous
pods, and alfo of thofe which cover the towns liable to be
threatened), by proper difpolkions that fecure his camp ; by
covering his fronts and rears, and keeping the communica¬
tion between the camp and the places where the magazines
are ; by endeavouring to annoy the enemy in his convoys
nnd foragings; by haraffing him in his camp, and perplexing
him with fmall detachments, to which he will be obliged to
eppofe more confiderable ones : thefe difpofitions, properly
managed, may dedroy any enterpriies the enemy may have
formed againd the army.
Plate DXVII. reprefents an army properly encamped
to ferve thefe purpofes. A, Is the camp of the main body
of the army. B, An advanced camp, compofed of dragoons
nnd hudars, in order to cover the right of the army, to
guaid the pafles by which the enemy might make incurfions
-upon the flanks and rear of the army, moled the convoys,
end cut off the communications. C, Villages and bridges,
guarded by the light infantry. D, Pods of difmounted
dragoons in the front of their camp. E, Pods of dragoons
«n horfeback, to fecure the communication between their
camp and that of the main body of the army. F, Bridges
built, to keep up the communication between the grand
and the advanced camp. G, Bridges and villages guarded
by detachments of infantry. H, Grand guards of horfe.
I, Guards of infantry. K, Bridge, village, and mill, guard¬
ed by the infantry belonging to the army. 1., Camp of
■dragoons and huflars covering the left of the army, and fup-
Von. XVIII. Pan II.
R. 713
porting the light infantry* M, Villages and bridges guard- Pefenfive
dd by the light infantry. N, Polls of dilmounted dragoons^'u']
in the front and on the flanks of their camp. O, Polls of
dragoons on horfeback. P, Polls and detachments of huf-
fars, to patrole in the front and upon the flanks of the army,
and their camp.
By the enemy’s fuperjority, the nature of the country,
and the fuccefs ©f campaigns, the general fhould determine
whether or not his camp fhould be entrenched : the en¬
trenching of camps requires much obfervation. It is eafy
(fays Vigetius) to entrench a camp while at a diflance from
the enemy ; but it becomes a very difficult operation when
the enemy is near at hand. The Romans, according to
him, ufed to keep all their cavalry and half their infantry
drawn up in order of battle, in order to cover thofe troops
that were employed in working at the entrenchments. Cae-
far, when in Spain, fortified himfelf after this manner under
the eyes of Afranius and Petreius, without their having the
lead knowledge of it.
Before a general fortifies a camp in a plain, he muff
obferve the pohtion in which the ground will permit him to
form his camp ; whether or no it will be liable to be fur-
rounded ; if it will entirely cover the country it is to pro-
tedl, and the towns for which there is mofl reafon to be ap-
prehenfive ; if the parts in the rear are open ; if forage is in
plenty ; if provifion can eafily be brought; if there is wood
and water ; if it is impoflible for the enemy to enter the
country without forcing the camp ; if all thefe circumftances
concur, it is certainly moll advantageous to entrench the
camp.
A general flrould never be too fecure by having a fuperi-
ority of numbers ; he ought not on that account to negledt
fortifying his camp: even when he adls on the offenfive,
thele entrenchments will not hinder him from marching
out to the enemy whenever he judges it proper, and his
army will by that means be fheltered from the enemy’s at¬
tempts.
There are many methods of entrenching a camp by lines
beginning on the right, and covering the whole front of the
camp to the left; thefe lines, in their extent, have redoubts
and angles at proper dillances ; and the line being continued
from one to the other, forms the curtains. In the front of
them there is a large and alfo deep ditch ; fometimes a co¬
vered way is added, which is pallifadoed and lloccaded
throughout the whole front of the lines. To render them
yet ftronger and more difficult to be forced, there are pits
funk before the covered way. Thefe pits are ranged che¬
quered-wife, about fix feet deep and five broad, and are in
form like a reverfed cone. Such were the pits which the
duke of Berwick caufed to be made in 1734 to the lines of
circumvallation hefore Philipftmrg; only with this diffe¬
rence, there was no coveted way. Without doubt thefe
lines are formidable, and even very difficult to attack ; but
a great deal of time is required for conflrufting them ; and
if there is not a fufficient number of peafants in the army
to work at them, troops mull be employed to expedite
them ; which will not only greatly fatigue them, but may
alfo coll the lives of many ; becaufe the removing of earth
often caufes great diforders, particularly where the ground
is Iwampy or clayey.
The method pra&ifed by marfhal Saxe feems much fupe-
rior to thefe lines. It contained as large an extent of
ground, without diminiftiing the labour; becaufe, inftead of
lines, it confilled of redoubts, which require as much work
to form the four faces and the covered way as lines always
continued. At the fiege of Maellricht, in 1748, he ufed
thefe redoubts inilead of lines ; their diilance from each
other was 48 yards j they were floccaded, and the covered
4 X way
/
Defenfive way pallifadoed. Thefe redoubts prefented an angle to the
Operations. ancj COn('equently were a mutual proteftion to each
other ; they were each ot them capable ot containing a bat¬
talion.
His defign, fuppofing the enemy come to attack the ar¬
my, was to caufe all the redoubts to be occupied ; to plant
ten pieces of cannon between each, and to draw the army
up in order of battle behind them : by this means the ene¬
my would be obliged to force the redoubts before they couid
attack the army, which could not be done without great
lofs. But fuppofmg the redoubts to be forced, how would
the enemy be able to enter the intervals without dividing ?
The army behind, in order of battle, would charge him,
without giving him time to recover himfelf, and it is highly
probable would beat him.
By following this method of entrenching a camp, «
fome of the enemy’s battalions fhould, lor ^sample, force
three or four redoubts, they certainly would not dare to ad¬
vance as long as the remainder' Ihould hold out; io that a
general might, by detaching fome brigades, and cauhng
them to march to the affillance of the battalions that have
been lorced, retake the redoubts; or, without difordering
the order of battle, drive away the troops which are in pol-
feflion of them with bis cannon. In Ibort, this method
feems to be excellent, becaufe it proves that all the redoubts
may be forced, and yet the army not be beaten, becaufe it
has not fuffered in the a&ion, but remained the whole time
in order of battle with all its cannon; io that the enemy will
be reduced to the neceffity of beginning a fecond battle.—
Junes, on the contrary, have not the fame advantage ; all
the troops, or the greateft part of them, mud line them ; the
cannon is planted at proper diilances either on the ang es
of the redans, or thofe of the redoubts. If one part only
is forced, the army is beat, and the cannon taken, becauie
the enemy makes the attack with his whole front..
Lines are indeed never good, unlefs when there is a large
extent of country to be guarded, and fome irontier to be
covered from the incurlions of the enemy ; the front of an
entrenched camp leldom exceeds fix miles, more or leis,
whereas lines to cover a country have fometimes extended
rio miles in front. By fome it is thought, that, in order
to cover a country, it is fufficient to have certain holds,
which fhall be ftrong and well entrenched, with patroles
continually going from one end ot the polls to the other,
and each poll to be provided with fignals both for day
and night. It is unneceffary that thefe patroles Ihould be
ftrong, provided they follow, and are continually croffing
each other ; this will be fufficient to prevent the enemy pal¬
ling undiicovered. It is certain that the enemy will not
dare to pafs between thefe polls, whether he be ftrong or
weak ; it he pafs in a body, he will be.cut off behind, and his
convoys intercepted ; if he pals only in parties, they will be
cut off with the greater eaie. However, lines of this nature
would require much labour, and alfo take up years to com¬
plete them.
Marfhal Saxe’s method for entrenching a camp in a woody
country interlperfed with Imall plains, feems alio to be a ve¬
ry good one. The redoubts are to be ere&ed in the plain ;
ancf lines thrown up in the woods according to the ulual
method, with redans placed on the fide, of each other, at .24
toffes diftance ; there Ihould be a pallifadoed ditch in the
front, and the lines as well as the half-moon Ihould be frai-
fed with pointed Hakes; behind thefe lines, which cannot
be very extenfive, becaufe they only cover part oi the front
of the camp, mult be placed the troops neceffary for defend-
inu them ; a coniiderable entrenchment of felled trees mult
hz made behind, with the branches of the trees intangled
with each ether, and fome openings muff be left wide e-
R. PartL
nough to permit the troops who guard the lines to pafs Defenfive
through, in cafe they ffiould be overpowered and obliged to pPer^tlon»>
retire ; the cannon muft be planted in the irent of thefe ’
openings ; and the remainder of the army muft be drawn up
in order of battle, 100 paces at moft behind the retrench¬
ments of trees and the half moons. The retrenchments of
trees are placed about 60 or 80 paces behind the lines, and
not before them, hecaufe it will be a new and unexpected
obftaele to the enemy. Thefe retrenchments, carelully
made, and with large trees, can be deftroyed by cannon on¬
ly, which would take up a confiderable time ; if they were
in the front of the lines there would certainly be a rampart
more ; but that might be ufelefs, and perhaps hurtful, be¬
caufe the fire of the enemy to make a paffage would drive
the fplinters of the trees into the lines, which would do more
harm than even the (hot itfelf.
Plate DX VIII. reprefents an entrenched camp; in which A is
the main body of the army encamped behind its entrenchments.
B, The camp of the troops of the relerve. C, Camp of the
dragoons, to fecure the rear of the army. D, Camp of huffars,
to cover the ground upon the right of the army. E, Villages
and redoubts guarded by the light infantry, to fecure the camp
of the huffars. F, Bridges built to fecure the communica-
tion of the army with the ground upon the right, and to fa¬
vour the retreat of the troops polled on the oppofite fide,
G, Brigades of artillery diftributed upon the flanks, and a-
long the whole front of the army. H, The park of artil¬
lery. I, A bridge entrenched, to fecure the communica.
tion between the army and the ground upon the left. K,
Villages and farm-houfes, guarded by detachments of huf¬
fars and light infantry, to patrole in the front ot the army.
In a mountainous country the diipofitions for entrench¬
ments are different : it is impoffible there to find plains fuf-
ficiently large to draw up an army in order of battle, and
place it beyond redoubts, as in an open country ; the ave¬
nues and the paffes only can be entrenched ; the redoubts
would not be lufficient, becaufe not only the avenues, mult
be. guarded, but the heights alio occupied. Now, as it will
often happen among mountains that there is not a foot ot
earth, how can redoubts be ere&ed there? A genetal
mult then make ufe of inch affiltance as the country can
furnilh him with, whether by heaping Hones upon each o-
ther, or by retrenchments of trees well joined ; and thus
conftrudl lines fufficiently ftrong to fhelter the loldiers from
fire and all injury. In an open country, a general in a man¬
ner fuits the ground to his difpofitions ; in a mountainous
country, he muft apply his difpofitions to the ground;
but in any country whatever, he muft uie all the affift-
ance of art for entrenching of camps. In mountainous
countries there are more inequalities ot ground, which ren¬
der the enemy’s approach to the lines difficult ; and altho*
it is almoll impofiible for a camp in a mountainous country
to be att?.cked in front, nothing Ihould be negle&ed for its
fafety : but all the avenues by which it may be furrouqd-
ed muft be entrenched with care, and all the heights which
overlook it lecured ; becauie the enemy, without intending
to attack in front, will ana ufe him during the time necellary
for troops to take a long round, in order to penetrate to the
camp on another fide. If Leonidas, with his 8oco Greeks,
had been poffeffed of all the avenues, ways, and heights, by
which he could be cut off, in the lame manner as he was of
the pafs of Thermopylae, Xerxes with his innumerable ar¬
my could never have forced him in the aehles which he
guarded.
The entrenchment Ihould never he more than 250 or 300
toifes, which make from 500 to 600.paces, diftant from the
camp, and which ought to be divided into three parts.
This diilance Ihould be made, that the troops may be able
to
^v'y/^Yi/y'frrM
fart T. Vf I
Dcffnil ve to judge of the parts that can he carried with greateft
Operations 0f thofe which are moft in need of afliftance, that
tjiey may march there with greater order, difpatch, and fa¬
cility : whereas, if this diltance is not obferved, it will hap¬
pen, as hath been fometimes feen, that the troops not ha¬
ving ground fuffieient to range themfelves in order of battle,
the difpoiitions will be impeded by confufion and diforder,
and the enemy will have forced the lines before the troops
can be in a condition of oppofing him.
But in a mountainous country, it is not fuffkuent for a
general that he cannot be turned ; that he hath profited fo
well by the advantages of ground, as to render the enemy’s
approach to the camp difficult ; that the affiftance of art
hath been joined to nature ; and that the country to be
guarded is entirely covered : he mufl alto be careful that the
communication with the neighbouring towns where the ma¬
gazines of war andprovifron are eitablifhed, is late and eafy.
If any one of thefe particulars is negle&ed, the camp is ex-
pol'ed, neither can the general continue in it the time that
would be neceffary to retard the march and defigns of the
enemy. As it hath been already obferved, that there is
fcarcely any poll that is not liable to be turned or overlook¬
ed, the camp flrould be entrenched only fo far as the entrench¬
ments may become an obllacle to the enemy, and as they may
be a means of giving the general time to retire to occupy
another poll.
When the enemy undertakes the fiege of fome town,
and the general, although with an inferior army, is willing
to fuccour it, or caufe the liege of it to be raifed, he fhould
feek out a fpot naturally ftrong, and entrench it according
to its fituation : if an open countiy, according to the me¬
thod above mentioned ; if among mountains, according to
the affiftance that the nature of the country may give ; and
make ufe of thefe entrenchments as a fure afylum from
whence to make fallies upon the enemy, to attack his fora¬
ges and his convoys, and to oblige him to raife the liege as
well by the fatigues of it, when it hath been drawn out to
a greater length of time than was defigned by the enemy,
as by the want to which he is reduced by the continual in¬
quietudes that the entrenched army hath given him.
When an army is in an open country, it generally conti¬
nues in the fame camp for iome fpace of time ; becaufe it
is certain the enemy cannot conceal his defigns fo effedfually
from the general, but he may be able to circumvent them ;
but in a mountainous country, it is uncertain whether an
army will continue in the fame poft till morning that it oc¬
cupied over-night. A general muft then encamp in fuch a
pofition, and after fuch a manner, that in cafe the enemy
conies to attack him in force and with advantage, he may
be able, without danger, to proceed to another poft, and e-
vade the enemy s defigns.
It requires great Ik ill in a general to judge when it is pro¬
per or improper to make choice of places which have a great
many avenues on one fide ; becauie if he fhould be attacked
in a camp inclofed by rocks, or deep in a valley which hath
but one or two paffes open, it will be very difficult for him
to dilengage himfelf from the enemy : on the contrary, if
tho^e are many imall paffes or avenues to the ground of
which he is poffeffed, and by which the enemy may eafi-
ly inveft his camp, it will require a great number of men to
guard them. But on theie occafions a general ffiould be
■ever careful to make a good difpohiion ot his tr®ops, to
maintain ftndfc order and dilciphne in his camp, and to
fend out his patroles with the greateft regularity ; by which
means he will free himfelf from all apprehenfions of being
furprifed.
There ought to be no difference between a well-govern¬
ed town and a well-ordered camp j the exafteft. order ftiould
R- 7xs
be obferved, and the ftn£left difdplme kept up: if a fol- Defenfive
dier is at liberty to quit or enter it at pleafure, the 0liefKt!on*‘
enemy’s fpies will not fail to make their advantages of it.
If the camp is unhealthy, or diftrefled for provifion, water,
wood, or forage, and the foldier hath real caufe of com¬
plaint, every method ftiould be tried to avoid the danger
that will attend his being difeouraged. It is often owing
to the little order cxifting in the camp, that the foldiers are
feized with a panic, occafioned by the abfurd and ground-
lefs reports that are diffufed throughout it; troops thus
terrified, are in a manner vanquiihed before they come to
a&ion.
In a mountainous country, fuch places fhould be avoided
as are fubjedt to be overflowed, either by the melting of the
fnow, or by torrents, which at fome feafons appear no more
than trifling rivulets, but which, at others, fwell and carry
off every thing they meet with in their way : of this nature
were thofe mentioned by M. de Feuquieres, which he found
near the rock that he attacked and took in 1690 from the
Baduais. Situations in the neighbourhood of woods are
generally to be feared, becaufe the enemy may fet them on
fire, and the fiarnes be communicated to the camp. The
general ought alfo to fatisfy himfelf with regard to the na¬
ture of the fprings, which may agree very well with the in¬
habitants, but prove very unwholefome to ftrangers : fuch,
according to the reports of the French, is the nature of the
Ipnngs in many parts of Italy. The water belonging to
certain ftreams or rivers will be pernicious, while that belong¬
ing to the fountains and wells in the fame country will be
very wholefome and falutary.
Sect. VII. Of efcorting Convoys.
The condufting of convoys is one of the moft important
and moft difficult of all military operations. In the efcort
affigned them, and the number of horfe and foot of which
this dcort is compofed, the general ought to be guided by
the diftance of the town from whence they fet out ; the dan¬
gers to which they are expofed from the different parties
they may meet; the diftance and ftrength of the enemy,
and the extent and nature of the country they have to tra¬
vel over, whether an open or a mountainous one ; the num¬
ber of waggons, and the quality or the convoys, whether
they confift of money, or ammunition for war or provifion ;
and whether they are extraordinary or daily. When efcorts
are too numerous, the troops are fatigued, and no end an-
fwered ; and when they are too weak, they are liable to be
beaten. M. de Puyfegur obferves, that it is as dangerous
to give an efcort of 2000 men to a convoy where only ioco
are requiftte, as £0 give but 500 to one where icoo are ab-
folutely neceffary; in the firft, the troops are unneceffarily
fatigued, and in the fecond, the convoy is expofed to the
danger of being carried off.
All thefe confiderations fuppofe the general to be a man
whole natural parts are matured by experience, and who is
fenfible that, without a thorough knowledge of the country,
the foundation of all condud:, it will be impoffible to make
a proper difpofition of troops. If a general is ignorant
ot the places moft proper to form ambufeades ; of thofe
where there are bridges and fords ; of the paffes which are
moft dangerous, and thofe which will favour the enemy’s ap¬
proach in order to attack, and whether in head, flank, or
rear—he ads but as chance direds, and his difpofitions will
have no meaning, either with refped to the fituation of pla¬
ces, or the nature of the ground ; the orders will be ill exe¬
cuted, the evolutions performed wittiout exadnefs, and the
difpofition of the troops will be faulty ; the feparate bodies
being, confequently, unable to fuftain and afiift each other,
4X2 will
7i 6 W
Defenfive will Toon be beaten and dlfperfed, -and the convoy carried
operations. 0fr
v' The general officer commanding the convoy ought, for
its fecurity, to diftribute his troops after inch a manner
that they may be a mutual affiifance to it. The choice of
the troops to form the efcort is undetermined, as it is by
the nature of the country their quality fhould be decided.
In mountainous and woody countries, only infantry, huflars,
or dragoons, can be made ufe of; the huffars or dragoons
are to march in the front and on the flanks, to fcour the
woods, examine the avenues, and make fure of the defiles;
in an open country, the efcort fhould be compofed of infan¬
try, cavalry, huflars, or dragoons. But whatever may be
the nature of the country, the convoy ought never to ad¬
vance without firft fending out detachments to reconnoitre
at a difiance.
If the convoy marches through a mountainous country,
a large body of cavalry would not only be ufelefs, but alio
an embarraffineut, as it would be unable to aft, except with
great difficulty; whereas, in an open country, cavalry is
very ferviceable- In any kind of country a convoy can be
cfcorted with infantry, efpecially when the enemy can only
aft with his; but as in an open country it is neceflary for the
infantry to be fupported, the cavalry mutt be ufed tor that
purpofe. In a.mountainous country, infantry can carry on
war alone.
In this lafl cafe the officer commanding the efcort ought
to place a body of infantry' at the head, another i the cen¬
tre, and a third at the rear-guard ; to diftribute imall bodies
at proper diftances on the right and left; and he fhould be
particularly careful to poflefs himfelf of the heights. The
huflars mult be diftributed to the advanced and rear-guards,
and, in order to be more certain that every part hath been
Itriftly examinetf, as the convoy advances, notwithflanding
the huflars of the advanced guard have already fcoured the
avenues, woods, valleys, villages, and hollows, the huflars
belonging to the rear-guard fhould again look into thofe
places, to fee whether any thing hath efcaped the notice
of the advanced guard. Thefe precautions are never with¬
out their ufe, and do not in the lealt retard the march of
the convoy.
The fmall detachments fhould advance as far as poffible
into the country, without expofing themfelves to the dan¬
ger of being cut off, the huffars with piftol or mufquetoon,
and the dragoons with their carbine in hand, in order that,
if they fhould meet the enemy, they may, by firing, give
the officer commanding the efcort notice of it, fo that he
may have time to make his difpofitions for defending and
preferving the convoy. The convoy may continue march¬
ing on till the enemy is difcovered : but on the firtt notice
of him, it mutt; flop, and the officers belonging to the con¬
voy fhould park their waggons ; or, if the ground will not
admit of that, they fhould caufe them to keep very clofe to¬
gether, and double them up with the diflance of four paces,
which fhould be filled with infantry, between each waggon.
By this movement the length of ground taken up by the
waggons will be contrafted, the troops will be brought
cloler together, and will form a itronger and heavier body,
capable of affitting each other with more eafe.
In a mountainous country it is almoit impoffible for the
enemy to attack the advanced and rear guards and the centre
at the fame time. Neverthelefs, if he fhould find an opportu-
nity of forming thefe three attacks at once, by following the
difpofitions above mentioned, he will find troops at every part
to receive him : neither will he be able to make himfelf
matter of the heights without attacking them, and the troops
already in pofi'effion of the ground will eafily repulfe him ;
and by the affiitaace which the officer commanding the ef-
A R, Parti,
cort fhould endeavour to fend them, they will be enabled to Defenfive
maintain themfelves in them, to proteft the convoy, and 0i’erad°usi
the enemy will be unable to attack by more than one or 'rmmJ
two paffes.
If die enemy forms but one attack, only a part of the
troops mutt be oppofed to him, becaufe it is to be fuppofed
this attack may be made only with a defign to draw the
whole ftrength of the detachment to that part, and which,
by being altogether in that one place, will give the enemy
concealed in ambufh an opportunity of falling with eafe
upon that part of the convoy that is unprovided with troops,
and which will of courfe be incapable of making any de¬
fence. The troops of the centre fhould never march to the
affiflance of the advanced guard, if it is that which is at-
tacked, nor thofe of the rear-guard to the affiftance of the
centre; but a party from thofe troops which cover the flanks
of the convoy fhould be eollefted in a body, and ient to
affift the part that is attacked. However narrow and con¬
fined the country may be, a convoy may be eafily conduft-
ed by infantry, when it would be impoffible to do it with
cavalry.
When any pafs or avenue croffes the road on which the
convoy marches, it fhould be covered by a body of infantry,
which will remain there till the rear-guard is come up ; then
it will fall into the poft affigned it for conducting the con¬
voy. It is always to fee fuppofed, that this pafe hath been
examined by the advanced detachments. If the efcort is
compofed of infantry and dragoons, the latter fhould be difi-
mounted, in order to give an additional ftrength to the
guards, and their horfes may be tied to the waggons. The
huffars, if the nature of the country renders them unfer¬
viceable on horfeback, may alfo be difmoumed ; by which
means, inftead of being gn embarraffment to the infantry,
they will become ufeful to it. The nature of huffars is fuch
as will admit of their being employed on every occafion ;
and although the difference of their arms will not permit
them to be as ferviceable as dragoons, they may neverthe¬
lefs amufe a party of troops belonging to the enemy in fuch
a manner as to enable the infantry to beat them, or at leaft
to oblige them to retire.
Huffars are more particularly neceffary in the efcorting
of convoys, becaufe they fcamper about on all fides, and are
very aftive and ready in fcouring a country thoroughly ;
they leave no place till they have perfeftly examined it,
unlefs the thicknefs of the woods, or any other unavoidable
obftacle, fhould prevent their penetrating as far as they
would otherwife do ; and even then they proteft the iiv
fantry, who can with greater eafe pafs into thofe places
where the huffars cannot. Whatever country the convoy
pafles through, there ihould always be huffars with it; o-
therwife the officer commanding the efcort cannot be cer¬
tain that the country is thoroughly furveyed, becaufe for
want of huflars he muft employ cavalry on that fervice. Not
that there can be any doubt of the cavalry's expofing itfelf
to danger with as much cbeerfulnefs and courage as tlie
huffars ; but as the horfes belonging to the cavalry are na¬
turally heavier than thofe of the huffars, and often encum¬
bered with forage, they cannot venture to a proper diflance
without running the danger of being taken, becaufe they
cannot retire with that expedition which is requifite: On
the other hand, the huffar being more aftive, and more ac-
cuftomed to reconnoitre, knows how to go over a country
with proper caution and care to himfelf: beiides, the trooper
who is ufed always to march in a body, and to be under
command,, will have a very imperfeft idea of the method of
fcouring a country. Although the difpolition of the troops
fhould always be regulated by the nature of the count) y
through which the convoy marches, and by the nature and
5 ' number
’art!. W A
Defcnfive number of tlie'cnetr.y by which it is-liable to be attacked,
erations.ygt the general Ihould never neglebf, whatever his fituation
may be, to lecure the head, centre, and rear. Befoi'e the
convoy begins its march, the difpolition in cafe of an at¬
tack fhould be iettled ; by which means the commanding
officers of different corps will know where to poff them-
felves, and arter wdiat manner to abt at the time the attack
is made. By the knowledge which the commanding of¬
ficer ought to have of the country, he will form a judgment
of thofe places where it is moft probable he may be attack¬
ed, and of courfe make his difpoiitions accordingly. In
any dilpofition that may happen, a general fhould always
' forefee in what manner the attack, defence, and retreat,
will be conducted.
When a convoy marches through an open country, the
advanced and rear guards fhould confift of cavalry fuftained
by infantry ; the infantry in the centr e fhould be continued
on the right and left of the waggons, and the ^cavalry di¬
vided into troops fhould be diftributed on the flanks, at ico
or 150 paces from the infantry; fquadrons of horfe, in¬
termixed with platoons of infantry, fhould be plaeed at pro¬
per diftances on the flanks of the remaining part of the con¬
voy. By this poikion, if the convoy fhould be attacked in
head, centre, or rear, thefe fquadrons and platoons fhould
have orders to march immediately to the affiflance of the
party that is attacked.
The advanced detachments of huffars, and thofe upon
the flanks, by giving notice that the enemy is at hand and
coming to attack, will furnifh time for narking the wag¬
gons and uniting the troops; in which "cafe the infantry
mull foim in the park, and the cavalry poll itfelf on the
flank of that front which expeas to .be attacked, and the
huffars place themfelves upon the flanks of the cavalry.
The attack of a convoy is always hidden and rapid, and
the fuccefs of it is generally decided in the firft onfet; and
as the enemy, whether he fucceeds in his attempt or not,
muff retire with great expedition, for fear of any fuccour
that may arrive, it is evident that it can be attacked only
by cavalry, huffars, or dragoons ; there have indeed been
feme inflances where the cavalry have brought infantry be¬
hind them. It the convoy has had time to park itfelf, the
effort of the infantry can only be turned againtt that which
it intienched behind the waggons. I he enemy's cavalry
and that belonging to the efcort attacking each other, will
fight upon equal terms : but with regard to the infantry, it
will be different ; that which is flickered by the carriages
having a great advantage over that which attacks it. On
the contrary, if the enemy’s infantry is fuftained by huffars
only, they will be bnfkly attacked by the cavalry and huf¬
fars belonging to the efcort, who will take them in flank
and rear. 1 he enemy s huflars being hemmed in, his in¬
fantry , for want of being fuftained, will be eahly beaten :
part of the cavalry and huflars belonging to the efcort
ihould be left in purfuit of the enemy’s huffars, and the re¬
mainder ought to take his infantry in flank. If the enemy
is beaten, as it is probable he will, his retreat feems imprac¬
ticable, (.r at oeft very difficult.; becaufe, being deprived of
his cavalry, he will be forced to make head again ft the in¬
fantry that attacks him in front, and to repulie the cavalry
that haraffes him in flank.
If the enemy gives ground, the general fhould be cauti¬
ous of purfuing him too far, left, if lie fhould receive a re¬
inforcement, the troops in purfuit of him, finding them-
lelves at. to° great a diftar.ee, will not only be beat, but alfo
be deprived of every method of retreating.
I here are fome occafions on which the enemy muft not
>e PL1r‘uefi at all; ffich as when the armies are very clofe
to each other, or the convoy draws near to fume of the ene-
R.
717
my’s pofts; becaufe then, by the nearnefs of the army, the Defenfive
enemy’s infantry can come to the attack without being 0P£r^tlon3,‘
under themeceffity of mounting behind the cavalry. A ge¬
neral, to whole care a convoy is intruded, fhould never feek
any other advantage than the conducting it in fafety, even
though he fhould be hire of beating and taking a detach¬
ment belonging to the enemy ; a real advantage is often
given up by endeavouring to follow an uncertain victory.
There is lefs fhame in being beat, when an officer hath done
his utmoft, and afted with propriety, than there is glory
acquired in conquering when he hath exceeded the limits of
his duty. An officer is no longer praiie-worthy, thanwhilfl
he a£ts up to the orders he hath received with exaftnefs
and diferetion ; whereas he who, depending too much on
his own courage, rafhly fuffers himfelf to be drawn on by
the appearance of fuccefs, is not only charged with, but
ought to be anfvverable for, the confequences.
There ftill remains another difpofttion to be made in an
open country, whether the convoy marches on a caufeway
or in the high road, wTich is to divide the efcort into many
equal parts, with troops of every fort belonging to each ;
the fir ft body fhould fet out an hour before the convoy is
to begin its march, the fecond half an hour after, with or¬
ders to the commanding officers to fcour the adjacent
country with great exaftnefs, and to be careful not to be
cut off by any detachments the enemy may have in the
country; for which reafon thefe two bodies fhould never
be more than three quarters of a league diftant from each
other, by which means they will be within reach of affifting
each other. 1 he body which fets out laft fhould never be
more than half a league before the advanced guard of the
efcort.
As tire convoy is fuppofed to march through an open
country, the above-mentioned diftances are allotted between
the firft and fecond bodies, and between the fecond body
and the advanced guard of the convoy ; but if the country
fhould grow rough ahd unequal, thefe bodies fhould draw
clofer together, and always keep -fight of each other, fo as
to be able to affilt one another in cale of an attack.
When thefe bodies are fet out, the general muft put the
convoy in motion, and form the advanced guard of one of
the divided detachments belonging to the efcort ; the in¬
fantry of which detachment will remain at the head of the
waggons, the cavalry fliall march by troops 300 paces in
advance, and the rear-guard muft be formed equal to the
advanced ; but befides this rear-guard, there fhould be a
body of huffars and dragoons referved, to march a quarter
ot a league or more, according to the nature of the country,
in the rear of the convoy ; the remainder of the infantry
fhall be diftributed at proper diftances on the fides of the
convoy, and the remainder of the cavalry fhall be placed an
the flanks of the convoy, about 300 paces diftance.
When a convoy happens to be of fuch importance that
its being taken may influence the operations during the re¬
mainder of the campaign, the general Ihould not only affign
a ftronger or more numerous efcort to it, but fhould alio
fend oft detachments, which, without having orders to at¬
tack the enemy, fhould keep between him and the road
that the convoy keeps, in order to oppofe and baffle any
defigus the enemy may have formed to carry it off. The
following examples will ihovv both the fecurity-and neceffity
of this method.
During the campaign of 7746, marftial Saxe, being en¬
camped on the Orne, was in expettation of a confiderable
convoy from Judoigne. As its lafe arrival in the camp was
of great confequence, he caufed the marquis of d’Armen-
tieres, then major-general, to fet out with a large detach¬
ment in the night preceding the day on which the convoy
was
7l-8 W /
Defen'Hve v^3 to bc’jin itg march, with 0"tiers to march on the fide
Operations. 0f Ram;iHes. Ac the fame time, he caufed another de-
vT' tachment to ftt out from the camp of his ferene highnefs
the prince of Clermont, with orders to march on the tide
of the abbey of Rame : thefe two detachments; by a muling
the enemy on one llde, and by entirely concealing the march
of the convoy on the other, enabled it to proceed in fecu-
rity, and it arrived in the camp without having been at all
moSefted.
In the beginning of the campaign in 1748, the fame ge¬
neral having a delign to lay liege to Maellricht, and confe-
quently having occafion for all his troops, was willing to
throw a fupply of provifions into Eergen-op-Zoom, as he
was going to a diftance from that place, and could no
longer be in a lituation of affifting it. For that purpofe
he ordered a confiderable convoy, which fet out fiom Ant¬
werp for that town under a good efcorc ; but in order to
prevent an attack, which circumliance had often happened
during the winter, and that with lofs, the allies at that
time occupying a thain of quarters from Breda as far as
Voude, he detached the count d’Eftrees with a confiderable
body of cavalry to march on the fide of Breda, with orders
to pulh on detachments almoil to Voude. This detachment
had two obje&s in view ; one of which was to keep the
allies in fufpenfe with regard to the fiege that was to be
formed, and the other to caufe them to remain near Breda.
This large body of cavalry kept the allies, who were in the
neighbourhood of that town, in fufpenfe ; during which
interval marlhal Saxe marched to Maeftricht, the allies not
daring to attack the convoy, becaufe they would have put
themielves between the efcort and the troops under count
d’Eftrees. From thefe two examples may be concluded
the neceffity of covering convoys of importance by detach¬
ments, independent of the efcort affigned them. In Ihort,
a general Ihculd do every thing that will contribute to the
fecurity of his difpolitions ; and precautions ought never
to be thought luperfluous when they are managed with
orudence, and have for their end die fuccefs of a well-con-
certed plan.
Sect. VIII. Of Detachments for forming a Chain of
green Forage.
It is very difficult to provide a large army with forage ;
and a general often expofes it to inevitable danger, if he is
not thoroughly experienced in this operation, or if he is
dettitute of that knowledge which at once prefents all the
wants of an army, and the means of fupplying them, to
his view.
Foraging parties, like convoys, are attended with a greater
or leffer degree of danger, according as the country is more
or lefs accelfible, and the forage at a diltance or near at
hand. The dilpofition for the chain in an open country is
different from what it muft be in a mountainous one. When
forage is within reach ot the camp, and the enemy at a dif¬
tance, fewer troops and attendants are required ; becaufe,
in cafe of an attack, there is affiftance near at hand : but
in proportion as the forage is farther from the camp and
nearer to the enemy, the precautions fhould be increaled,
and more troops fhould be allotted to the chain, which
fhould alfo fomecimes be furnifhed with cannon.
A general fhould never forget that maxim which fays,
The enemy mull always be oppofed by troops of the fame
nature as thofe with which he makes the attack : if the
forage, therefore, is in an open country, the chain, as it is
certain the enemy will be more numerous in cavalry than
infantry, fhould confifl chiefly of cavalry, and only have
k R. Part!
infantry fuffictent to occupy fuch pods as are neceflary to ‘Xderfiv
be guarded : in a mountainous country the difpofitions will Ae‘&t'ur
be quite different ; becaule, as it is imoolfibie for cavalry
to move eafily, the chain fhould be ftrongefl in infantry.
In fhort, the number and quality of the troops for the
chain ihould be regulated in the fame manner as in re,/ard
to the convoys; in proportion to the nearnefs or diftance
of the enemy ; by the extent of ground to be foraged ;
and by the nature of the country : and as marfhal Puyfegur
obferves, before the ground to be foraged is examined, there
firould be a calculation made of the number of horfes to be
fed, and of the fertility of the ground that is to be fora¬
ged ; for if it is a plentiful fpot, a lefs extent will be fuf-
ficient ; if it is not plentiful, a larger muft be taken ; but
in either cafe the chain muft; be always proportionable.
Before a forage is undertaken, the ground on which it
is to be performed fhould be always thoroughly known ;
in order for which the general fhould fend out in the even¬
ing, or the day before, the officer who is to command it,
with a detachment, to furvey the fituatkm of the country;
the places where he muft poll his troops of cavalry and
dragoons ; the polls which the infantry muft occupy; the
ground neceffary for the foragers ; that where the corps of
referve muft be polled ; and what part in the front of the
chain it will be neceflary for the huflars to fcour. After
having examined all thefe particulars, the officer makes his
report to the general, who, from the account given him,
will order the troops neceflary to fecure the forage, and
render the execution of it eafy. The chain of forage Ihould
be in proportion to the number of troops that are to forage,
as well as to the quantity of fown fields and the thicknefs
of the grain. Belides the horfe, dragoons, and infantry,
there fhould be hufiars to fcour the country in the front
of the chain : the number of them is undetermined, as it
will be fufficient for them to cover and protect the front,
and give the commanding officer immediate notice of every
thing that makes its appearance.
If the forage is to be made at a diftance from the camp,
the troops deftined for the chain fhould fet out at day-break,
or the evening of the foregoing night. The commanding
officer mull take care to eftablifh the chain before the fo¬
ragers arrive, and alfo that the huffars have fcoured the
country ; firft, becaufe the foragers fhould not, by waiting,
fatigue the horfes; and fecondly, that no trooper or lervant
fhall pafs*; which will undoubtedly be the cafe if there is any
vacancy where troops are not placed.
The whole of the troops Ihould be difpofed after fuch
a manner as to be able to lee one another ; and the vedets
alfo, that are placed between the troops to prevent the fo¬
ragers from palling, Ihould be within hearing. The infan¬
try fhould be polled in hollows and villages and behind hed¬
ges, with horfe or dragoons to iuftain it and fupport the
flanks ; and the difpofition of the chain will be ftill better,
if thefe troops can be mixed with it, provided the infantry
can be flickered by any hollows, hedges, or bullies.
Grenadiers, luflained by horfe and cannon, if there are
any, ffiould be polled on thofe fides which, either from the
fituation of the country or the nearnefs of the enemy, are
moll liable to be attacked : but in reinforcing thefe polls,
the commanding officer mull be careful not to weaken
the chain too much in any particular part. When an ene¬
my attacks a foraging party, he generally attempts to pe¬
netrate at different parts ; but if he forms only one attack,
the difpofition of the chain becomes ufelefs, as all the troops
muft be brought to that part where the attack is made.
But as it is naturally to be fuppofed the enemy will form
many attacks, particularly if his general a<fts like a man
underftanding
3art I.
\V
Defenfive underftanding his bufinefs, he mud be ftrong jn every part;
iperations the referve, which is in the centre, will, with expedition
and fpeed, fend affiftance to the parts which are attacked.
Before the commanding officer fixes the chain, he fhould
detach fome huffars to furvey and fcour with great ex.a&-
nefs the woods, villages, hollows, and all fuch places, for
at lead three quarters of a league or a league, in front, as
may be capable of containing ambufeades : and during the
time of this furveying, the troops dedined for the chain will
remain in order of battle, in the front of the ground that
is to be foraged, in order to cover it and protedt the huffars,
in cafe they (hould be attacked.
When this examination is finifhed, the commanding of¬
ficer may begin to edablifh his chain, and the huffars will
remain in the front till the foraging is finifhed ; and will
detach {mall bodies to march round about the chain, crof-
fing each other, halting at times, and fending iome huflars
before them to patrole.
If the huflars gain intelligence of the enemy’s being either
in march, or placed in ambufeade, they will lend immediate
notice of it to the commanding officer of the chain, who
fhould always fix himfelf in a particular fpot, that there
may be no time fpent in feeking him ; his pod fhould be
in the rear of that part of the chain that is neated to and
mod in front of the enemy, and he will regulate the dif-
pofitions for his defence according to the report made to
him. When an ambufeade is difeovered, and troops march¬
ing to attack, a general thould always fufoedt there may be
more ambufeades, and more troops in march, to form dif¬
ferent attacks ; he mud therefore, inftead of weakening the
chain in any part, drengthen it as much as he can, by cau-
fing either the whole referve, or part of it, to march where
circumdances fhall require.
The avenues and the heights in a mountainous country
fhould be occupied by infantry ; the avenues, in order to
prevent the enemy from penetrating into the valley or plain
where the forage is made ; the heights, in order to obferve
the enemy at a didance, and to prevent his getting poffel-
fion of them, and flanking the troops which guard the ave¬
nues. In this cafe there fhould be a greater number of in¬
fantry than cavalry ; no more of the latter being requifite
than what is neceffary to fuflain and fuppott the infantry,
in cafe it fhould be attacked, repulfed, ana obliged to retire
through a valley or plain' Then, if it hath no cavalry to
fupport it, the wings will be entirely expofed, and the ene¬
my being fuperior, can at the fame time atack the front
and the flanks; whereas, by the means of horle, which can
a£t with cafe in a plain or a valley, this inconvenience will be
prevented, and the infantry greatly afiifled.
If the forage is made at a didance from the camp, and
in the neighbourhood of the enemy, the intantry guarding
the avenues fhould throw up iome entrenchments in its
front, which will be foon done ; and it is then cannon be¬
comes neceflary, as there fhould be two or three pieces
planted at each avenue. The hei hts alfo muff, on every
©ccafion, be occupied, which fhould be condantly obferved
as a general rule, whether the enemy is at a didance or
near at hand, in every difpofition that is to be executed in
a mountainous country.
If the enemy forms one or mere attacks, the fmall efcorts
belonging to each regiment mud join on the fird'order, and
cover the foragers as much as poflible, who fhould at the
fame time affemble in the centre by regiments. The fora
gers fhould always be provided with their carbine or fword;
and although they may not be very formidable againd troops
completely armed, yet there have been indances where they
have charged with fuccefs.
It it is in a plain, and the enemy, having formed but one
6
A R. 719
attack, charges the chain in one particular part, the troops -Defenfivc
of horfe and dragoons which are oopofite to him fhould lon ,*
march up refolutely and fudain his efforts : if they are re¬
pulfed, they will be fupported by the infantry that hath re¬
mained in its poft; the huffars which were in front will
unite, and place themfelves upon the flanks of the troops
which are attacked, in order to cover them, and endeavour
to defeat the enemy by charging him in flank and rear. If
the general is certain that the whole of the- enemy’s troops
are engaged in this one attack, he may then bring up all the
troops belonging to the chain, both cavalry and infantry, iu
order to oblige him to retire the fooner : which if he does,
fome huffars, fudained by horfe and dragoons, fhould be fent
in purfuit of him, till his retreat becomes certain ; but with,
caution not to purfue too far, led he fhould rally upon thofe
troops, who, beins/ too far from the chain, cannot receive
affidance fo foon as would be neceffary ; and befides, the
making and accomplifhing the forage being the grand ob¬
ject, the commanding officer fhould be contented with luc*
ceeding in that, without ieeking for any other advantage
unconnected with the original dedination of the troops.
If the enemy forms more attacks than one, the foragers,
who, as hath been already obferved, mud be mTembled iu
the centre, fhould have orders to take the road to the camp,
and will re-enter it covered by the fmall efcorts from the rear¬
guard : but as a forage fhould never be abandoned till the
lad extremity, they fhould be ordered to draw up in order
of battle, when they are within a quarter of a league of the
camp, in order to return and complete the forage on the
firft order. But if the enemy is in force, and by his fupe-
riority all hope of obtaining the forage is dedroyed ; or if it
is made at fo great a didance from the camp that the troops
belonging to the chain cannot expeft to be readily abided ;
the commanding officer ought to make a retreat, with every
difpofition a good officer is capable of, and to join courage
and vigilance with knowledge and experience.
If, on the contrary, the enemy is weaker, or of equal
force with the chain, he fhould be charged without heiita-
tion; becaufe the enemy, regulating his attack by his de¬
fence, will be obliged to contrad himfelf, in order to make
his attack heavier and more confiderable ; fo that the troops
being united, will charge the enemy : and if, by the abid¬
ance of the huffars who are advanced, and add after the man¬
ner already ment oned, the enemy is forced to retire, he mud
be purfued in the manner above directed ; after which the
troops mud return and complete the forage.
As a commanding officer is, in cafe of a forced retreat af¬
ter beinrr beat, obliged to fubmit to circumdances, and re¬
gulate his dilpofitions by the enemy’s, he mud retire with
the greated order poflibie, caufing the infantry to march iu
the centre, either in columns or ia order of battle, as the
fituation of the ground will bed allow ; the horfe and dra¬
goons noon the wings, the huffars upon the flanks, that they
may not confufe the difpofitions, but ferve as a fupport for
the chain, and prevent its being taken in flank ; and the dif-
pofition of the troops fhould be fo managed, that the enemy
fhall not be able to prefent a larger fiont than that which is
oppofed to him : and although it is impoffib’e fir a general
to forefee, for certain, what will be the difpofitions for an
attack and retreat, becaufe they mud be changed according
as thofe of the enemy alter, or as the nature of the ground
varies ; they fhould neverthelefs he fo ordered, that each
body fhall be fupported, and capable of adting without con-
fufion. It is only 00 occafions thus preffing, that the com¬
manding officer fhould fuffer the forage to be abandoned ;
and even then it will be fome fatisfadtion that he hath been
able to place the foragers and their horfes in a date of le-
curity.
7
20
Defenfive If, dtinng the retreat of the chain, it'fnould receive af-
. Operations fjflance from the army, it fhould charge the enemy, not-
^ withffanding ifs being too late to go on with the foraging ;
and if this charge fhould prove fucctfs'ul in either beating
r or caufing the enemy to retire, be fhould be purfued without
intermiffion, in order to deprive him of all defire for repeat¬
ing the attack. In order to improve this advantage to the
xitmofi;, the commanding officer fhould leave a large detach¬
ment, conlifting- of infantry, cavalry, dragoons, and huffars,
to continue all night upon the foot, and the next morning
betimes, the foragers, properly efcorted, will come to take
away the forage ; and as foon as the efcort Is arrived in the
front of the chain, the detachment which hath remained
there all night mult return to the camp.
There ftill remain many other precautions to be taken for
the fecurity of foraging parties, but the limits prefcribed to
us will not admit of our Hating them. We fhall only add,
that the foragers, in entering the ground they are to en-
compafs, do not occupy more than is abfolutely requifite,
and that they do not fpoil more grain than they carry away
with them ; firft, becaufe by extending the chain it would
be weakened, and become eafier to be forced ; and in the
fecond place, every prudent officer fhould be an economifi
in the article of forage ; the officers commanding the frrall
efcorts which march at the head of each regiment ffiould be
charged with the care of this. Thefe officers will caufe
their troops to march as much as poffible through roads and
over grounds which are untilled, till they arrive at the place
intended to be foraged. If all the grounds are fown, the
commanding officer mufl caufe the cavalry to difmount at
the place where the chain halts, and part of the troopers
furnifhed with fcythes muft go and cut the grain, while the
remainder hold the horfes ; and when there ffiall be no far'
ther room to fear damaging the forage, the cavalry will re¬
mount and take it up. Each place fhould be marked out
for a brigade or a regiment; which diftribution fhould be
made by the flaff officers before the troops arrive.
Sect. IX. Of the Detachments for forming a Chain
of dry Forage.
If there is great exa&nefs and knowledge required in the
conducing of parties for green forage, thofe for dry forage
W A ^ Tv. Parti,
in the foregoing fection' in relation to green forage: there* I>efenfive
fore the general who is to cotnntiand the forage ought to ®f’eratl0,is-
let out with a detachment in order to examine the ground, ""
the polls necefiary to be occupied, the villa.res which are to
be foraged, their iituation, the rivers which cover or run
through them, the bridges to he guarded, the diilance from
one village to another, and with what degree of eafe the
communication with them may be fecured. After havin.r
thoroughly examined into thefe pa'ticulirs, he can with
eafe form a judgment of the number of troops that will be
neceffary to form the chain and fecure the foragers ; after
having done this, he will order the bailiff or burgomafler
of every village to come to him, and inquire of them the
number of hufbandmen, and how many ploughs each huf-
bandman hath belonging to him ; by which he will be able
to calculate the number of fheafs reaped by each hufband-
man.
The general may, for every plough, reckon about 30
acres of ground ; and, in proportion to the fertility of the
ground, every acre will produce from 120 to ibofteafs:
by this method may be computed the number of ffieafs
reaped by an hufbandman who hath three or four ploughs ;
and from this calculation the general will judge whether the
number of fheafs, fuppofed to be in each village, will be fuf-
ficient for the troops coming to them.
Let every acre of ground be fuppofed to yield 144 ffieafs;
then a hufbandman who hath three ploughs will have reap¬
ed 12,960 ffieafs; fo by reckoning 12 ffieafs to a ttufs, and
every trufs to weigh 600 pounds weight, this hufbandman
will fupply fufficient for 124 truffes. It is true, that fome
dedu&ion ffiould be made from the number of truffes that
every acre may yield, as the hufbandman or farmer may
have preferved or confumed fome either for daily ufe or for
feed.
It is very neceffary that the general ffiould take care to
leave fufficient grain, not only to enable the hufbandman to
live, but alfo to fow his grounds; particularly if he forefees
a probability of the next campaign being carried on in the
fame country.
Neverthelefs, as this manner of reckoning may be attend¬
ed with inconveniences, becaufe there are fome villages which
keep up a particular trade of forage and grain, and therefore
the granaries and barns may fometimes be found empty, yet
perhaps require more ; and, in general, every thing that re- the quantity of ffieafs and grain remaining in the village may
gards foraging parties, whether green or dry, excites a par¬
ticular attention in the commander in chief; and, according
to the chevalier Folard, all fuccefs in v/ar depends upon fe-
crecy, diligence, a&ivity, and the thorough knowledge of
the country.
The difpofitions for forming a chain of dry forage, which
differ from thofe for forming one of green, will direft the
means for extending the chain in proportion to its ftrength,
and at the fame time place the foragers in fecurity; although,
in parlies of dry forage, the foragers generally take up lei's
ground, according to the diftance of the villages that are to
lie foraged from each other.
The difpofitions for a chain of dry forage are alfo varied
according to the nature of the country ; but whether it be
open or mountainous, each different body ffiould be placed
in that part where it can a£t with the greateft facility ; the
infantry therefore ffiould occupy the villages, and the cavalry
the plain in front, and ffiould be diipofed after fuch a man¬
ner as to be able to retire ealily to the proteftion of the in¬
fantry. Before the foraging is put in execution, the com¬
mander in chief ffiould mark out the villages to the general
officer who is to command the foraging party, and regulate
theif number by the quantity of troops that are to forage.
The firft difpolitions will be the fame with thoie mentioned
be calculated by the number of inhabitants to be lubiifted.
Marfhal de PuyieguTs method, which confifts in informing
himfelf of the number of horned cattle and horfes, and by
deducing the time they graze, is a very good one ; but
ftill there muft be fome deficiency in this calculation, as
it will be impoffible to fix with certainty the time of their
grazing.
When the general ffiall have arrived at a tolerable cer¬
tainty of the quantity of forage ; the ground where to efta-
bliffi his chain ; the polls which the infantry are to occupy;
and taken a nore of the quantity of forage ; he will carry
away one or two of the bailiffs or burgomafters, as hofta-
ges for the fecurity of the forage : he will alio dire£l them
to inform the inhabitants, that if they conceal or purloin
but even a fmgle ffieaf from the whole, he will caufe their
village to be firft pillaged, and afterwards fet on fire ; fo
that the peafants, on whom thefe threats have often great
effedl, will fcarcely give the enemy information of the in¬
tended forage. The general muft leave fome companies of
infantry, iuftained by a detachment ot huffars in every vil¬
lage, who, by conflantly patroling on the outfkirts, will
flop all comers and goers ; while the infantry will keep a
ftridl guard on the infide of the village, and permit no
perlon to go out of it; nor fufler the bells to be rung,
' colours
Part I, W A
Defenfive colours to be holAed upon tire fleeple, or fires to be light-
Operations. e(j. anj wiU pllt a {\0p j-0 every thing that may be fuppofed
y ^ £gnal agreed on with the enemy. Wiien the ge¬
neral hath completed all thefe difpolitions, he will return and
give an account of them to the commander in chief.
The fame general fliall, upon the clay appointed for the
forage, fet out at day-break, with the troops defined for the
chain, and the ftaff-officers. As foon as he (hall be got
within light of the villages, he will not fail to have them ex¬
amined, notwithftanding he left troous in them the forego¬
ing evening. When they are all examined, he will leave
them in the rear, march on into the front, and draw up in
order of battle ; after that, he will form the chain, regula¬
ting the difpofitions of it by the fitustion of the ground, and
of the villages examined over-night. The hufiars will ad¬
vance three quarters of a league or a league, in order to
fcour the country ; during which time the ftaft'-officers,
inftrufked by the general of the quantity of fheafs contained
in each village, will, attended by the bailiffs or burgomaflers,
make a diftribution of the forage by regiment or brigade,
and affign a barn to each, or one to two. When this diilri-
bution is made, the faff-officers will make a report of it to
the general commanding the party.
As all the villages marked out to be foraged are not
in the fame line, thofe which are in the rear, and covered
by others in which there is infantry, and by the chain of
horfe and dragoons in the front, require but a fmall number
of troops ; and if a detachment of infantry is pof ed in
R* 721
them, it is more with a view of preventing the troopers apd Defenfive
fervantj from marauding than any thing elfe. Operations,
The efcort belonging to each regiment, commanded by a ~~ v ' J
captain, ffiould remain upon the ipot where the regiment
forages, and, with the affiftance of the infantry, prevent
diforder among the foragers, and fend off thofe who are
loaded. As loon as a regiment is fet off, the captain com¬
manding the fmall efcort muff report it to the general of¬
ficer commanding the forage ; after which he will follow,
and form the rear-guard of it.
As foon as the general {hall be aporifed by the {faff-of¬
ficers, and the captains commanding the final! efcorts, that
a village is evacuated, he may contradf his chain, and draw ,
it nearer together, till the foragers are gone ; which when
they are, he will affemble his troops, and detach as many
platoons of infantry as there are villages : or rather the
body of infantry poited-in each village during the forage,
ffiouia leave a party to make a ft rift fearch after ail ftrag-
glers and marauders ; the hrft they fnould keep with them,
and make the others prifoners, and puniffi them feverely on
their return ,to the camp. When all the different bodies
fhall be re-affembled, and the officers commanding them
have made the report, the general will order the hnffars to
be called in, and form a rear-guard according to the man¬
ner direrfted in the foregoing ledlion, and return tothecamo
in the fame order, and with the fame difpofitions, as if he
expected to be attacked.
Part II. Of the OPERATIONS of OFFENSIVE WAR.
JUSTICE and humanity having been confdered, in this
article, as the firft principles of w ar, the chief intention
of the firft part hath therefore been, rather to convey maxinrs
for a juft defence, than to lay down rules for attacking.
But though defenfive war be that alone to which religion
and philofophy give their fandfion, it does not follow that
a nation is bound to wait patiently for the attack of its
enemies. Wffien the condueft of other nations is inch as
evidently to fhow that they meditate a war, the nation
threatened may arm itfelf, and ftrike the firft blow when it
can be ftrtick with advantage. There is only one precau¬
tion for avoiding the danger with which it is befet. By
obferving the various operations of an offenfive war, it may
indeed be often feen that the whole is nothing more than a
feries of defence, and that the fear of being attacked is the
veal fource whence thefe precautions for attacking fpring.
Sect. I. 0/ Spies.
It is impoffible for a general, or even for an officer char¬
ged with the command of a detachment, to adt with certain¬
ty if he have not fpies or fecret intelligence difperled about
the enemy’s army ; lor, without the information which they
alone can give, he will have the mortification to fee all his de-
figns mifearry, and all his precautions become ufelels, becaufe
improperly taken.
No expence therefore fhould be fpared to procure intelli¬
gent fpies ; but care ffiould be taken that they are unac¬
quainted with each other, and particularly that they are not
known to any inferior officer : they ffiould be always Ipoken
to alone, and never be fuffered to meet each other. t he
general ffiould ftudy their charadteq, and prove them by re¬
peated trials; he ffiould found them by degrees, beginning
with things not difficult to be explained, and which, if dif-
covered, will not be of great coofequence ; he ffiould en¬
gage them in long converfations, thereby to form a jndge-
' Voi.. XVIII. part II.
ment of their parts and comprehenfion ; and he ffiould alfd
employ them often in brin ging him intelligence.
Although a general ffiould always be upon his guard with
a fpy whom he hath caute to fufpeft of treachery, he may
neverthelefs draw great advantage from him, provided he
knows how to deceive him properly ; became he may be
very certain he will inform the enemy of all the relolutions
which have been taken.
The emperor Leo, in his TaAic, advifes a general, who
hath reafon to imagine his counfels are betrayed to the
enemy, to conceal his real defigns, by fpeaking in a manner
quite oppofite to them : For, lays he, in the maxims at the
end of his book, an enemy mull be deceived who receives
intelligence from fpies or deferters direftly contrary to what
is actually refolved upon. But, adds he, ffiould thefe fpies
be entrufted with the general’s real intention, he ffiould, by
fome alteration in his operations, endeavour to perfuade the
enemy that they have deceived him ; upon which he will
grow miftruftful of them, and be obliged to look out for
others, no longer daring to confide in the former.
If a fpy employed by the enemy is ditcovered, and
brought to the general, he ought to take him in private,
queltion with mildnefs, Ipeak to him with a lort of confi¬
dence. and, inftead of threatening, ffiould promife him a re¬
ward if he will difeover to him what he knows of the ene¬
my’s intentions. 11 the general finds him intelligent, he
ffiould endeavour to engage him in his fervice ; and, pro¬
vided he can gain him over by force of money, a thinj not
difficult, he may derive great advantage from him ; but he
ffiould be careful how h^ employs him, till he hath very good
reafon to be affured of his fidelity.
There are many different methods of trying the veracity
of a Ipy : if, for example, the general receives information,
that, on lucli a day, a detachment of the enemy is to fet
out on fome expedition, he ffiould then fend out troops to
double the .number of thole detached by the enemy ,; by
4 Y which
722 , W
OfTenfive wliich means, if the fpy'-s intelligence is true, the enerry
Oi erations. not oniy be baulked in his delign, but may alfo be beat
V~,”"v by the fuperior detachment. If the enemy’s detachment
has but a'trifling objedf in view, it will be fufhcient to fend
juft troops fufficient to examine into the truth of the ipy’s
reoort. The uener?.l may alfo pretend to appoint a fora¬
ging within two days, and order but lew troops for the
chain ; in which interval, if the fpy is falfe, he will find an
opportunity of giving the enemy notice of it: but, inllead
of the few troops publicly ordered, the general will privately
add another body to them, which will be placed in ambu-
fcade behind the place where the pretended forage is to be
made. If the enemy, in confequence of this information,
fhould come and attack the chain, it fhould immediately
retire, as if too inferior in number to continue the forage,
toward the troops in ambufcade ; when, being joined, they
will fall upon the enemy on all fides. If this attack is made
with vivacity and refolution, there may be great reafon to
expeft it will terminate in a complete viftory.
If, on the contrary, the fpy does not appear intelligent,
or affe&s ftupidity, the general fhould punifh him with
death, and caufe him to be hanged in the fight of the whole
army, in order to deter others, which may be difperfed in the
camp, by his fate. It would be needlefs to queftion him con¬
cerning the enemy, bccaufe it would appear inhuman to ex¬
ecute a man v ho had given intelligence of importance,
whether extorted from him by fear, force, or perhaps a pro-
mife of pardon.
Spies are as neceffary to a general as arms are to an
army : but it is money only that can fecure their fidelity ;
and if a general finds himfelf ill ferved, it is becaufe he has
been too fearing of the funds intended by his iovereign for
tfiat puvpole. Notwitbilanding it is the duty of a good
fubjedl to manage his mailer’s finances as much as it- is in his
power, yet there are intelligences of fo great importance,
that it is fcarcely poffible to pay fufficiently for them. A.
man is fufficiently indemnified when,- by means of the in¬
telligence he has received, he has concerted his meafures
in fuch a manner as to beat the enemy, gain fome marches
over him, or to be beforehand with him in fome enterprile.
Spies, when difeovered, Ihould not always be punifhed
with death; great advantage may be made of them by pre¬
tending ignorance of their real quality, efpecially if they are
not fufficiently difguifed. Tacitus, in his Annals, lays,
that Vitellius’s party got information of Otho's defigns by
means o' his fpies, who, by endeavouring to dive too mi¬
nutely into their enemy’s fecrets, did not fufficiently conceal
their own. Vigetius’s method for difeovering fpies who are
fufpefttd to be ranging about in a camp, is to order all the
foldiers and fervants into their tents during the day, and the
fpies will be taken immediately.
When a general is ignorant of the enemy’s defigns he
fhonld always affe& a knowledge of them ; but whenever
he is informed of them, he Ihould, on the contrary, pretend
to be ignorant of them ; by which means the enemy, being
eafy with regard to his fpies, will not alter his deligns, or
fufpeft the general of having any knowledge of them..
If the general can procure inch fpies as, by their em¬
ployment, are near the perfon of the enemy’s general;
as, for example, a fecretary, or any others who are near
him, ard who confequently can give intelligence more to
be relied upon than thofe who are conftantly palling from
^ one army to another ; their fervice may be turned to a very
great account.
If a general difeovers an enemy’s fpy to be one of thofe
who, by their employment, are near his perlbn, he can re¬
ceive great advantage, by forcing him to write a letter of
falfe iuttljigence, thereby to divert the enemy’s attention
A R. Part II.
from the plan he would execute; but he ffiould caufe him often five
to be hanged immediately after, for it would be very im-( P*--aJ-10R^
prudent to ufe him above once. The prince of Orange,
when he came to attack M. Luxemburg at Steinkirk, ha¬
ving difeovered one of his muficians who gave the enemy
intelligence of every thing he intended, made ufe of this
Ifratagem; and although it was rendered abortive by the
vigilance of M. de Luxemburg, and the courage or his
troops, there are rieverthdefs but very lew inftances where
it hath failed : and even M. de Luxemburg would have
been beaten, if he had not had early notice given him
by his advanced detachments ; by which means he had
time fufficient to make his difpofitions, and to avoid being
furprifed.
There is a flratagem which may be made ufe of when
fpies are wanting, and which is lefs expenfive; that is, to
fend fuppofititious letters by the firft peafant that comes in
the way, who will have nothing to fear; and fo far from
concealing himfelf, he mull take a road where he will be
fure of failing into the enemy’s hands: thefe letters ffiould
be dire&ed to the general officers commanding a body of
troops, or even to the general of the army, fuppofing they
come from an advanced body. They fliould contain fchemes
that are good, and pra&icable in their execution, but quite
oppofite to what is intended and will really be undertaken :
it often happens that the enemy, too credulous, abandons
his original defigns to purlue chimerical ones, which to him
appear very good, and do not prefent any obftacle to thofe
which the general defigns to execute. Prince Eugene
fucceeded, by this llratagem, in raifing the fiege of Coni,
formed by the French in 1691.
But neverthekfs a general fliould take care that, through
a fear of being deceived by fuppefititious letters, he does
not himfelf too much negledi the intimations which are given
him : a general ought, fays Onozander, to liften to every¬
body at all times, and upon all occafions. Alexander, when.
at a great diftance hom his own country, not being able to
receive his couriers till very late, refufed to give attention to
a peafant, who came to inform him of a ffiorter route ; but
foon repenting of what he had done, he fent to leek after
him, but in vain.
The fame reafon that fliould make a general always have
fpies in the enemy’s army, fhould alfo make him fufpedl
that the enemy has fome in his ; therefore he liiould endea¬
vour to deceive them, he fhould keep his intentions fecret,
mention them to very few, and always talk openly, contrary
to what is really defigned. Onozander obferves, that it
fiiows great folly in a general to mention his defigns pub?
licly, efpecially when they are on the eve of execution ;
fordefeiters generally go over to the enemy at the time an
action is unavoidable.
But if it is difeovered that the enemy haa received in¬
formation, Vigetius fays, that the diipofitions mult be im-
media: ely changed. Polybius, on like occalions, particular¬
ly recommends filence and diffimulation ; he even ilretcliea
this rule as far as the thoughts themfelves, which he fays
mull fometimes be repreffed, for fear our a&ions fhould
fometimes betray and dilcover them. Metellus anfwered
one of his friends, who, on an important accaiion, afked him
the reafon of certain difpofitions, “that if his fhirt knew
what he thought, he would bum it.”
To avoid the danger of treachery, fealed orders have
been ufed with great fuccefs, which have been fent to of¬
ficers, with exprefs orders not to open them till at fuch
a time and at fuch a place : this is an eftablifhed rule at
fea, and can alfo be pradifed on fhore when employed
in an expedition which it is effential to conceal from the
enemy.
J SfiTCi
w
Part II.
Offenfive
Operations. Sect. II. Of Ambufcades from the Army.
A general who lofes a battle, fays Vigetlus, may attri¬
bute his ill luck to fortune, although thei'e kind of events
are generally the effe&s of art and fi<ill; but he who fuffers
himfelf to be furprifed, and who falls into the fnares laid
for him by the enemy, has no excufe to make, becaufe, by
his vigilance, and the goodnefs ot his fpies, he might have
avoided them.
A defign (hould never be formed for an atta.ck upon
marches, detachments, convoys, forages, or upon one or
many quarters, without knowing the ways which are to be
paffed, and the places where ambufcades may be formed ;
whether to avoid, or whether to conceal troops in them, in
order to facilitate a retreat, or to draw the enemy into it.
A general who receives information from his fpies that
•fome enterprifes are intended upon fome bodies detached
from the army, upon one of his convoys, on a forage, or
upon his quarters, ought alfo, on his lide, to form ambu¬
fcades in the ways leading to it. i he number ot troops in
ambufeade ought to be regulated by that of the detach¬
ment intended to be turpi ifed *, it fhould be fufficiently
ftrong to attack the enemy on all Tides, that is, in head,
flank, and rear The troops who fet out to form an
ambufeade fhould always march by night, unlefs it be in a
country fo covered that the enemy capnot perceive them.
A general, according to Santa Cruz, fhould endeavour
to form as many ambufcades as poflible ; fo that if the
enemy fhould not fall into one, he may not efcape the
others : they ought to be diipoled after fuch a manner, that
one can neither attack nor be attacked without being heard,
fuftained, and aflifted by the others: this jundbion is a
flratagem which the enemy could not expefb, and which
will affure the vi&ory. If, from the fewnels of the troops,
or the fatigues of the campaign, it is impoffible to form
many, there fhould at lealt be one fufiiciently ftrong to re¬
fill the enemy it would attack : but ftill it is not requifite
that it fhould be as numetous as the enemy, becaufe troops
in ambufeade, who charge a detachment that is unprovided
on all lides, ought, by this furprife, to have a particular
advantage, and confequently fupply the place ot number;
which will certainly be the cafe, particularly it the enemy
falls into the ambufeade during the night, and that care hath
been alio taken to place a great number of drums and trum¬
pets, that when the troops of ambufh charge, they may ferve
to increafe the numbers in appearance, by the terror which
noife always raifes in the night time.
In order to deceive the enemy who is in detachment,
fmall bodies fhould be fent out towards him, with orders
to retire to the troops in ambufeade as foon as they meet
him.
Ambufcades fhould always have fome objedl. Before
they are undertaken, it fiiould be known whether the enemy
is in the field ; if he intends either to attack or moleft the
quarters ; whether it is proper to wait for him or to feek
him : without thefc precautions the troops will be fatigued,
and no end anfwered.
Ambufcades may be compofed of infantry, huffars, or
dragoons; but it is the fituation of the country that muft
determine which. Thefe troops may be mixed together
or fent feparately; but that mull be according to the dehgn
intended to be executed, or according to the nature of the
troops employed by the enemy in his detachments.
If the defign is to attack a convoy, all thefe troops are
neceffary, becaufe the efcort of it will undoubtedly conlift
of infantry, cavalry, or dragoons, and alfo lome hufiars to
clear the march , if a green forage, infantry is very nectf-
R
fary, but it fhould always be left in the rear to the OfFenhve
retreat: cavalry, with huffars or dragoons, is fuffxcient to ~ Pe'^a )n
attack a forage, to beat the efcort of it, or at lead to pre¬
vent the foraging being executed. If a dry forage is to be
attacked, it muft be done w ith infantry, becauft, as it cau
only be performed in the villages, it is certain they will :
occupied by infantry, and that there will be a chain ot ca¬
valry in the front, which will be protedled by it : if a de¬
tachment, it is according to the nature of the country
through which it marches ; if an open country, horte, hub
fars, or dragoons, muft be employed : but in a woody Or
mountainous country, infantry muft be made u e oc A iter
all that can be (aid, it is impoffible to lay down nxed luies
for the kind of troops which fhould be employed : there
are lame woody countries wher e huffars and dragoons can
adft with eafe, and be of great fervice: there are mountain.;
where they can a£l fecurely, becaufe very fine plains, air
vided by woods, are to be found in the bodies of .them,
where they can place thfemfelves in ambulcp.de ; but cam
muft be taken to fecure their retreat. i here aie, ou the
other hand, plains lo divided by hollow.'S and canals, that
infantry only are capable ot acting ; therefore it is the ge¬
neral’s bufinefs to dilcover from which kind of troops, iu
either country, he may expert the greateft advantage.
There is no country but prefents fome place proper for
forming ambuicades ; holiowrs from which it is ea(y to (ally,
the leait height, woods, hedges, ruins, vineyards, lomctimes
corn-fields, marfhes covered with reeds, all prelent expe¬
dients to a general who knows how to take advantage of
them : he muft only be careful to place the ambulcades after
fuch a manner that they (hall not be difeovered by the ene¬
my’s parties ; and that they are not themfelves diicovered
by the inattention of any of the foldier^, by noile, or by other
accidents.
If the ambufeade confifts of huffars or dragoons, the
horfts muft not be together ; their neighings may prove
very prejudicial. Even a pealant, attracted by the barking
ot a dog or the neighing of a horfe, may go into a wood,
difeover an ambufeade, and, often induced by the hope of
a reward, will go and give the enemy information of the
whole. Every "perfon paffmg near an ambufeade fhould be
flopped, and that without noife ; the peafants fhould be
tied to trees, and guarded by fentries. If the ambufeade
is formed in an hollow way, behind an high ground, or in
any places whatever, the general muft caufe every body
that is taken to be tied together, and well guarded.
The troops in ambufeade muft fall on all parties of the
enemy that pafs near them, unleis when the defign is to carry
off a convoy or to attack a large detachment. It fhould in
that cafe continue blent, and let them pafs: but if theie
parties, by making a ftrift examination, difeover the ambu¬
feade, as there can no longer remain any hope of attacking
the conypy or detachment, it {hould fall upon and endeavour
to furround them, and, it poffible, take them prifoners ; and
if the troops in ambufeade are io lucky as not to let any of
the enemy" efcape, the ambufeade may remain in its firft
fituation, but always purfue its firft objeft, becaufe here will
be no reafon to apprehend the enemy’s having received in¬
telligence of it.
The troops in ambufeade {hould attack thefe parties
fword in hand, and not with their fire-arms, and, it poffible,
prevent them from tiling theirs. From this manner of at¬
tacking, there will refult two confiderable advantages I he
firft is, that a brific and unexpected attack aitoniihes, and
fearcely gives them time to think o( their defence. 1 he
-fecund is, that, by firing, it is to be feared, that if there are
any other parties farther off they will hear it, and (end and
give notice. In that cafe, the ambufeade muft change litu-
4 Y 2 ation,
724
QfFet
w
Ten five ation, and place itfelf in Tame other part, but not abandon
‘^1“-its original projedt. till the laft extremity, and till there is no
R. ' Part If,
There are divers methods of drawing the enemy into Offenfivc
longer any hope of fucceediug othervvife.
The lead thing, as has already been faid, may be the
occafion of an ambufeade’s being difeovered. The fire ol a
pipe may be teen at a great diltance in the night-time : be-
fides, however (mail the number of foldiers who fmoke may
be, the wind may cany the imoke and the imell of the to¬
bacco toward that part where the enemy patroles. The
ambufeade ffcould not be cumbered with fervants, or any
thing elfe that is unneceffary ; orders firould be given that
the horfes are tied with care, and that a profound filencfi is
obferved by every body. As it is very difficult for huffars
or dragoons to march without leaving marks behind them,
by which means the road leading to the ambufeade may be
dilcovered, they fhould try to enter it by lome bye-way,
or at lead by as dry a one as poflible. In order to efface
the marks of the ‘horfes feet, eight or ten huffars or dra¬
goons may tie branches of trees to their horfes tails, and,
by marching behind the detachment, in as large a front as
the whole'body, will dedroy any marks that are made : as
foon as they (hall have entered the wood, they will dole up
the entrance with the fame branches, of which they will
make a fort of hedge.
If the detachment intended to form an ambufeade,
vdiether infantry or cavalry, is obliged to march upon a
high-way, as foon as it comes near the place appointed, the
commanding officer fhould detach a body on before, with
orders to take no the fame front as the whole detachment.
As foon as it (hall have proceeded a quarter or half a
league, it will return by another way ; and it fiiould alfo
make a large circuit, fo that the enemy’s parties, coming
the fame way, will not perceive that they ihall be (topped
by any troops in that place. This body wall rejoin the
troops which are in ambufeade, by a road the mod out of
the enemy’s view, never in a body, but fcattered, fo that
they may leave fewer marks behind them. Sentries
fhould be concealed behind bullies, in the front of the am¬
bufeade, fo that they may be able to fee the country and
ways about them, without being feen themfelves : two or
three foldiers diould alfo be made to climb into trees, in
order to fee at a great didance, and give notice if they per¬
ceive any troops ; the fame method mud be obferved with
regard to huffars or dragoons.
ilefore the commanding officer enters the wood where he
would form his ambufeade, he Ihould detach two or tiu-ee
patroles to fcour it, for fea*- the enemy Ihould happen to
be there in ambufeade himftlf; after every part has been
fearched, the troops mull enter the wood, and range them¬
felves according to the order that fhall have been given
them. The commanding officer will form three bodies of
his detachment, and place them at a diltance one from ano¬
ther ; one will be dedined to attack the advanced guard,
the other the centre, and the lad the rear-guard. If the
detachment confids of cavalry, the half of each corps fhouid
be on horfeback ; no perfons Ihould flip or pafs the [entries
or vedettes under pain of being declared deferters. Du¬
ring the night, the cavalry fhould be mounted, and the in¬
fantry under arms: in ghe day-time, half thofe on foot
will relieve thofe on 'horfeback every three hours ; and the
fame fhouid be done with the vedettes, as well as the in¬
fantry and fentiies.
If the ambufeade is behind an height or fmall mountain,
fentries mud be placed on the top, lying on their bellies,
and without hats : in other reipects the fame difpdfitions
ought to be obrerved, whether on the march or for the con.
dufting of ambufeades, always paying a proper regard to
circumtlances and the lituation oi the country.
ambulcades. The general commanding the army or quar-^Perat*°n»,
ters fends out a detachment under the command of an in-
telligent officer, to form an ambufeade, at the didance of
one or two leagues, more or lefs, according as the country
is fitting for thole fort of difpofitions, or according to the
difiance of the enemy. The general mud acquaint this
officer, that two hours alter he is fet out, he will fend out
another detachment, of lefs force, with orders to go on the
fide where the enemy is, to endeavour to meet him, and at
fird fight to make a feint of charging him ; but, as if find¬
ing him too drong, he will begin his retreat, direfting it
toward the place where the troops are in ambufeade;
furnifhed with thefe initrudlions he will let out.
Then the general will fend for the officer intended to com¬
mand the detachment that is to go in learch of the enemy,
and inform him of that which is let out to form the am¬
bufeade, and of the place where it is ; he will order him to
advance as near to the enemy as he can, and to draw him by
a feigned retreat upon the troops in ambulcade.
Thefe two officers fnould be the only perfons informed
of the defign : but neverthelefs the commandant of the de¬
tachment which is to go towards the enemy, may commu¬
nicate it to the principal officers under his command ; fo
that in cafe he Ihould be taken or killed in the retreat, he
that fucceeds in the command may be able to adl according
to the general’s intentions. He muff be particularly care¬
ful, that no foldier, trooper, huffar, or dragoon, penetrate
into the defign of the detachment, as it would then be in
the power of a fingle deferter to make the ambufeade mif-
carry. The detachment which is to go and feek the enemy,
in order to draw him into the ambufeade, ought to be com-
pofed of hufiars, unlefs the country be of fuch a nature that
infantry only is capable of adfiing.
D uring the time that the hulilus are gone before, endea-.
vouring to draw on the enemy, the troops in ambufh will
be on horfeback^and waiting in lilence lor their command¬
er’s order to go out and charge. As foon as they fhall
have charged and beaten the enemy, for fear left another
detachment, at a little defiance from that which has been
beaten, fhould come to its affifiance, they will take the
fhorteft way, and march leifurely, but with order, towards
the camp or the quarters. The detachment which drew
the enemy into the ainbufcade, rnuft iormthe rear-guard of
it, and will march flowly on, while the reft of the troops
will retreat, conducting the prifoners with them. It the
enemy fends any fuccours, us foon as the rear-guard per¬
ceives them, it will double its pace, but with order ; there
will be no reafon to apprehend the enemy’s coming too
brifkly upon it, becaule he will be fearful of falling into
another arabufeade : thus the rear-guard will retreat with
eale, and the troops who conduCl the prifoners have time
enough to reach the camp, without any moieftation.
It is on thefe occafions that a man ffiould know how to
keep his courage within proper bounds, and be feniible
that flight is glorious : the deipair of an enemy that is fur-
prifed, and even beaten, is always to be feared, when he is
not entirely defeated. A man fhould always be concent
with one victory, without attempting a feednd : he may,
by purfuing the enemy too eagerly, tall himfelf into ambu¬
feades more dangerous than that he has juft drawn the enemy
into.
If there is reafon to apprehend that the enemy, having
notice from fome deferters, are coming in full flrength, the
ambufeade mull then change its ikuation and draw nearer to
the place from whence it let out. This will lerve two pur-
poies; for fhould the enemy appear in force, the ambuicade
will have the Ihorter way to retreat; or it may again happen
that
Parc It. W , A
Offtinfl?e that the enemy, net finding the amhufeade tn the places
Operarions p0;ntecl out by the deferters, will imagine it to be retired,
"v  gn(j, in that belief, will negled the precautions necefiary in
fuch a lituation.
An ambufcade that is fuccefsful may caufe the deftruc-
tion of a whole army. The example cited by M. de Feu-
quieres, in his Memoirs, on that head, is ftriking. M. de
Luxemburg, ftill attached to the prince, took all the bag¬
gage belonging to M. Turenne’s army, becaufe the lieu¬
tenant general who commanded the efcort did not forefee
that the enemy, (hut up in his lines of circumvallation be¬
fore Arras, having two armies near his camp with a defign
of attacking him in hrs lines, could think ot fending out a
la-ge detachment of cavalry on an enterprifc of fuch a fort.
In the mean time M. Luxemburg, who was in ambufcade,
within reach of the column of baggage, feeing that the
lieutenant-general was gone on before with the head of the
efcort, imagining the baggage in fecuvity, marched fpeedriy
to the head of that column, whofe march he hopped, and
turned toward St Pol, where he conducted the whole bag¬
gage belonging to M. Turenne’s army, without his know¬
ing any thing of the matter. It is thus that, by the negli¬
gence of an officer, and by an ambufcade fealonably placed,
an army finds itfelf ftripped of all its baggage, and, as may be
fair!, not in a condition of continuing the campaign.
If this lieutenant-general had been provided with fpies,
detachments in front and on the flanks, thefe detachments
would have difcovered the arrbufcades, and, by the precau¬
tions ufual on fuch occafions, he would hcjve placed the
baggage of the army in lafety. Again, his fpies would
have given him notice, that a large body of cavalry was
detached from the camp before Arras, confequently he
would have been upon his guard ; inftead of which, being
full of a falfe confidence, he marched as if in a champaign
country, and, by this unpardonable remiffnefs, occaiioned
the lois of the whole baggage. An officer who commands
a detachment for any expedition whatever, cannot poffibly
take too much care to forefee the checks that may happen
to him ; if he is beaten, it fhould be wholly owing to a
fuperiority of force. He who, after having taken all the
precautions poffible, is beaten by an enemy who has the
advantage of number, has nothing to reproach himfelf with:
but he who, with ability, has neverthelels negledled certain
precautions, and is beat becaufe they were not taken, is
certainly culpable in the eyes of intelligent men.
Sect. III. Of Cdvips hi offer five JVar.
To take an advantageous petition for an army; to make
choice of a fpot that by its fituation is ftrongly feenred ;
to elfablith a camp there, and to be alfo able to have the
army within diltance of marching eafily to the enemy,
without fear or being moletted; in fhort, to throw Inch
difficulties in the enemy’s way as may prevent his haral-
frng the army, is one bf the molt effentiai branches of know¬
ledge for a general. He who is endowed with this talent
can, with an inferior army, not only make head again'ft the
enemy, but alfo caufe his defigns to mifearry ; fatigue him
the whole campaign by marches and counter-marches, which
lead to nothing ; oblige him to remain inadlive, and at
length draw him into a favourable pofition, where he will
be morally lure of beating him. All this was done by M.
Imenne in 1675, who, after having exhaulted every expe-
N dient wherewith his military knowledge could furnifh him
to draw M. de Montecuculi into a difadvantageous poll,
at length lucceeded, found an opportunity of attacking' him,
and glorioufly tell at the initant victory declared it felt in
his favour.
 7
Before a general takes the field, he ought to be very CfTenfi
certain what number of troops he fhall have, that his ma- Qp£ra:t
gazines both of war and provifion are ready, as well as the
waggons, pontons, and all other implements whatever that
are neceflary for an army ; for events may happen that it is
almott impoffible to forefee, and which often alter the belt
concerted defigns. But when every thing is in order, a ge¬
neral poffeffeb of the neceffary t?.lents can forefee the event
even before taking the field : he will know beforehand the
mr.rches he is to make, the camps he is to occupy, and thofe
which the enemy wull endeavour to feize in order to oppofe
his defigns. •
An effenfive war is undoubtedly carried on with greater
eafe in an open than in a mountainous country. But
whether in the one or in the other, no fuperiority of number
fhould make a general neglt&ful of the lately of his troops-
in their camp ; he fhould always be affiduous in preferving
the itridtelt order and dilcipline among them ; one or two
checks are generally fufficient to difeourage the foldier, and
take away that confidence wffiich he ought to have in his
general: the advanced pods fhould be well guarded, the
flanks fecured. and detachments frequently fent out towards
the enemy ; for as fuccefs is infnred by vigilance and care,
fo negligence and flack difeipline aie ruin to the moll for¬
midable army, and entertaining a contemptible opinion of
an enemy renders him more daring.
It is to be obferved, that a camp ought never to be fixed
on the banks of rivers; but a fuffiefent fpace fhould always
be left between them and the camp, to draw out ihe army
in order of battle. If this precaution is not taken, it may
happen that the enemy, encamped either near to or at a
diltance from the other fide of the river, beiny informed
of the pofition of the army, will come in the night to alarm,
the camp, and by a difeharge or artillery and fmall arms
throw the whole camp into confulion, without rifking the
lofs of a firrgle man. For this reafon, a camp fhould always
be placed at leait eight or ten hundred yards from a river ;
fo that the guards may be advanced without being expoied,
and within the circumference of the camp and compafs of
the guards the army may be fupplied with lorage lor at lealt
four days, and more it poffible.
There are feme fituations for a camp which are in ap¬
pearance ftrorig, but may notwkhlfanding prove very dan¬
gerous, if care be not taken to examine whether or not the
army can with eafe come out of it, to form itfelf in or!er
of battle ; or whether the enemy can prevent it, by block- ,
ing up the avenues and outlets. If this precaution be not
taken, an army may be the means of {hutting itfelf up ; as
was done at Sentff in 1674, and by the allies at Afchzffen-
bourg in I 743.
The choice and flrenoth of a camp depend on the pofi¬
tion of the enemy and fituation of the country : a general
fhuuld always avoid encamping the cavalry in a wood, and
fhould be particularly careiul that the wings are fheltered ;
the woods fhould be occupied by the infantry, and entrench¬
ments thrown up in front, according to the deiigns intended
to be put in execution. If the wings arc flickered by a
village, it fhould be entrenched, and infantry polled in it 5
and die camp fhetlld be covered by a river as much as pof¬
fible, unlels the intention is to march towards the enemy ;
then ail the obflacles that can prevent the army coming up
with him fhould be avoided : but if, from iome fuccefles of
the enemy, or from his fuperiority of troops, the general
cannot determine upon opening the campaign offenlively,
he mull ule other means to bring it about; and in the mean
time fhould Lengthen himfelf in his camp, eflablifii polls
on the banks of the river, and cover them by continual de¬
tachments of light boric; who, by extending themieives,.
Willi
726 W A R. Pan ][,
off n five will pfevent parties of the enemy from palling to feijfe on
Ojeratitns tjje hind-parts of the camp, molelt the convoys, and attack
^ ’ the foragers.
Whatever may be the nature of the country, it is often
neceflary to have corps detached from the body of the army,
to cover or keep open a communication with fome place, in
order to prevent the enemy from foraging too near the
camp ; to preferve the forage ; to raife contributions at a
•eliftance ; to occupy fome advantageous poll ; to oblige the
enemy to divide his forces in order to oppofe that body ;
to cover the camp either in the front or on the flanks, ac¬
cording to that fide which is left moft unguarded and ex-
pofed : in a word, there fhould always be continual detach¬
ments toward the enemy, as hath been the pra&ice of many
generals, and particularly of marfhal Saxe. The llrength
of this body is to be proportioned to the ufe defigned for
it by the general; but it is ufually compofed of light horfe,
fome regiments of light infantry, and a brigade or two of
dragoons. In the end will be feen what ufe fnould be made
of this body ; but in whatever fituation it is to be placed,
the communication between it and the army mull always
be kept open, that it may at any time be able to join it on
the firft order ; and its camp mull be lo chofen, that the ge¬
neral may always receive intelligence from it of the lealt
- movements made by the enemy. See Plate DXVI1.
In every country, and on every occafion, a camp is al-
ways defedlive if the wings are not Iheltered, or can be
ealily diftrefled by the enemy ; if the front is not guarded
and the rear well covered ; if the communications with
the frontier towns are not fecure and eafy ; if there is any
want of forage, wood, and water ; and if there are not de¬
tachments in front, to prevent the enemy from approach¬
ing the camp.
A general who joins experience and ftudy together, ought
to fee into the intention of the enemy’s general, and judge
of his defigns by any of his proceedings, however trifling.
All thofe who are deftined to the command o! armies can¬
not indeed be endowed with this quick and exa£t eye, that
ready power of judging of a good motion or a good poli-
tion upon the fpot. Some generals have excelled in marches,
others in the pofition of camps; thefe in the arrangement ot
troops in order of battle, thoie in their condudl in time of
adlion ; others in providing fubfiftence, others in project¬
ing a campaign. There have neverthelefs been lome of
thefe great men, whole genius and temper have united and
carried all thefe qualifications to the greatelt degree of per¬
fection ; but the rarer thefe examples are, the more a man
ought, by continual lludy, to endeavour to augment their
number, and llrive to merit the honour of being enrolled
among thofe heroes, the ornament of mankind, their coun¬
try’s fupport, and their mailer’s glory.
Sect. IV. Of the Attack of an Army on its March.
However difficult certain operations in war may appear,
they are neverthelefs not impracticable when a general knows
Jiow to take the necelfary precautions for leflening thole
* difficulties. The attack of an army on its march feems to
be above all reach of attempting ; whereas the fuccefs ot
iuch an attempt depends only upon knowing how to take
proper meafures, on choofing the ground, and on feizing a
favourable opportunity^.
When an army would attack another upon its march, it
ihould endeavour to be beforehand with it, and, by the
means of flolen marches, come up with it before it can know
any thing ot the matter: fome parties fhould be detached,
who mull place themfelves in ambufeade, in order to flop
all the comers and goers, fo that the inarch and defigns of
the army may be kept fecret from the enemy. Whenever offenfive
a general hath determined to attack his enemy, he Ihould<>‘>erH'K;tw~
fend off all the baggage, both great or fmall, belonging to
the army ; and it fhould be left in the rear under a good
efcort, near enough to join after victory, without the army’s
being obliged to wait three or four days for it.
The geneial fhould be well affured of the day on which
the enemy’s army fets out ; ot the country through which
it is to march; whether it is an open, mountainous, or
woody country ; if it is divided by rivers; whether there
are manyr bridges to pafs; and in how many columns it
marches : he fliould alfo get all poffible information of the
difpofition of it. In the third feCtion of the firll part, re¬
lative to the march of an army in an open country, the dif-
polition which it ought to make, in cale it prefents its front
or flank to the enemy, hath been laid down. The general
deligning to attack ought to regulate his difpofitions by
thofe which the enemy hath taken, and which he can only
know from his fpies ; but if he cannot receive any in Urina¬
tion concerning them, the beft rule for him is to iuppofe
them good, and to form his own accordingly.
As in the cafe of a furprife there cannot be fignals given,
without running the rifle of the enemy’s difeovering that he
is going to be attacked; it is therefore neceflary, that every
general officer leading columns fhould have a watch, regu¬
lated by the general’s, fo as to march all at the fame time,
at the hour agreed on and ordered. The ancients, defli-
tute of watches, regulated their motions by the courfe of
the liars; and it is, without doubt, on that account that
Polybius, Onozander, ^Elian, and many others, exhorted
military men to the ftudy of aftronomy : but as it is not
eften that an army marches by night, this knowledge would
be very ufelefs for an attack in the day-time ; befides, the
fun, by which they were alio regulated, could be no way
ferviceable to them, fliould tw** fky be overcaft.
If the general’s intention is to attack the enemy’s army
in front, he mull detach all his light troops, fuftained by a
large body of cavalry and fome battalions, with orders to
harafs the flanks, in order to perplex the enemy with re¬
gard to the real attack. It is impoffible to give the enemy
too many falfe alarms with regard to what is really defign-
ed : the huffars, from their readinefs in retreating, and their
quicknefs in paffing from one fpot to another, aie the fit¬
ted troops for thefe fort of expeditions. The fame rule
ought to be obferved if the real attack is defigued to be
upon the flank; then the falfe attacks fhould be upon the
front. In Santa Cruz may be feen the difpofitions which
he has made to attack an army on its march.
Stratagem, and the means of furprifing an army, are al¬
lowable in war, provided treachery is avoided. Whilft the
law of nations is not infringed, fuccefsful ftratagems add
luftre to the genius of the general; but there is no pro-
feffion in which redlitude of mind is more neceflary than in
that of war.
In order to carry on a furprife by ftratagem, one of the
moft certain methods is, to calculate what time is neceflary
for the army to arrive at day-break near the road by which
the enemy is to pafs, fo as to be able to examine the coun¬
try, and make the necefliary difpofitions for the attack. In
an open country the army may be concealed behind corn,
or behind a riling ground. Prince Eugene, in 1702, after
the battle of Croftolo, having gained fome days march of
the king of Spain, polled himfelf between the Zero and the
Po. He fo well concealed his army behind the bank of
the Zero, that the combined army of France and Spain,
which was on its march, and ready to enter into its camp,
was obliged to range itfelf in order of battle, and to fight,
without having fcarcely time to make any difpofition.
Fart U.
W
R.
727
Offer, five
(h.eratioii’
A country oto more expea^. the-ccal P^ncc of
n«S of troops: but as .»_»«« .f ,5^,^.“^ ^ iteO.er they are well difcipUued or not; whether they are
compofed of one or of many nations; the quality of the
^ ^ * * -
\pnced guard will be advanced at leaft a hair or three quar
ters of a league, to fcour the country ; therefore, if the
general’s defign is to attack the enemy’s flank, he mull
prefent feme cavalry and huffirs in the front of the ene-
rry’s army, lb as to engage his attention. Some infantry
fhould be placed in the woods, in the rear of thefe tro0?3’
in order to fuftain them : this cavalry and the huffars Ihould
retire in proportion as the advanced guard advances, in or¬
der to induce the enemy to believe they are not fufficiently
ftrong, and that the reafon of their advancing was only to
examine the march of the army. As foon as the enemy
{hall have reached the place agreed on by the generals lead¬
ing columns that are to attack, the body of infantry that
is in ambufeade in the wood, the number of whofe columns
{hould be regulated according to the fituation of the coun¬
try, will march filently, and near enough to the enemy,
and will charge him with bayonets, without giving him
time to recover himielf t during this attack the cavalry,
dragoons, and huffars, who keep the enemy’s front in awe,
will charge the troops who have paffed the wood and fpread
themfelves over the plain. Thefe troops of civalry muff be
fuftained by the infantry which was in their rear in the
wood, and which Ihould be furnifhed with cannon. Thefe
two attacks, made one after the other, but at fome fmall
diftance of time, will render the enemy doubtful with re¬
gard to the difpofitions he is to make ; he will be unde¬
termined where to fend affiftance, as the cannon which he
will hear at the head will induce him to believe that attack
the real one: he will fly to that part, and will confequently
weaken the flank, which is defigned to be attacked by all
the infantry. By this diverfion the flank will with greater
cafe be broken through, and the enemy taken in rear: the
enemy thus furrounded, and nnding himfelf between two
fires, cannot avoid being beaten.
It is more difficult to form ambufeades in an open coun¬
try, particularly for a whole army, unlefs it Ihould find a
bank like that at Zero ; then the general fhould ennfider
whether or not the attack of the army on its march is prac¬
ticable. If the general by his fuperiority can, without
weakening himftlf, divide his army, and find means to con¬
ceal it, he will attempt the attack, provided that each de¬
tached body is polled before the enemy has begun his march,
and that they can all join on the firft order, without a pof-
fibility of being cut off or finding anyr obllacle to prevent
their marching up to the enemy : but, in order to a greater
certainty of fucceis, thefe firft difpofitions being made, great
exa&nefs in giving, and diligence in the execution of the
orders, is neceffary ; each feparate body fhould charge at
the fame time, and at different parts. But as the attack
may prove unfuccefsful, whether owing to the good difpo-
fition of the enemy, or whether becaute the attacks were
not made together or executed with equal vivacity, it is ne¬
ceffary that the general Ihould have provided for a retreat,
and that the officers commanding different bodies Ihould
know after what manner and from what part it is to be¬
gin. For'the greater fecurity, the general officers ought
to communicate their inftruftions to the commanding of¬
ficer of e?.ch body compofing that which they command,
fo that at the time of the attack or of the retreat, they
may inllantly comprehend the meaning of whatever they are
erdered to perform.
H the army intending to attack the enemy on his march
is weaker, or equal, either in number or in the nature of
the troops, it is then only the fituation of the country, and
the facility with which the enemy may be furprifed, that
ffiould determine the attempt of this grand enterprife.; th«
troops to be attacked ; and, in Ihort* the genius of their ge¬
neral, are circumftances by which the attacking or not at¬
tacking Ihould be decided. It is impoffible to be deerfive
uoon thefe circumftances, which depend entirely upon the
ground, upon the vigilance of the enemy’s general, upon the
order which he caufes his troops to obferve in their march,
and in fhort upon the troops under bis command. A general,
at the head of a well-difciplined army, compofed of veterans
and Tood {general officers, will undertake and execute de-
figns which he would not even dare think of with a new-
raifed army, however numerous : it is alfo very difficult
to furprife a vigilant general, who is befides a good iol-
dier, and who is alio affifted by the counfels of able and in¬
telligent officers. t ,
A general fhould alfo be guided, in attacking the enemy
on a march, by the country and the nature of the troops or
which his army is compofed. If the enemy marches-through*
an open country, and the general is equal to him m infan¬
try but fuperior in cavalry, he {hould make no hefitation m
attacking him; but if the country is woody or mountain¬
ous, and the enemy’s army is more numerous in cavalty than
infantry, the general has ftill the fame advantage^ with a
fuperiority of infantry ; becaufe the enemy’s cavalry m thole
kind of countries Is unable to adl againft infantry ; and the
infantry alfo which the enemy may have will never be fut-
ficiently ftrong to maintain itfelt upon the heights againft.
forces fo fuperior : and if the heights are forced, there can
be no doubt of the enemy’s being beaten, of his cavalry
being ruined and crufiied to pieces, or that his retreat will
be attended with great difficulty, and that he will lofe the
greater part, if not the whole, of his army.
Sect. V. Of the Attack of entrenched Camps.
T ie principles of war among all nations and in all times
have been ftill the fame; but the little experience of the
early ages of the world would not permit thofe principles to.
unfold themfelves, as they have fince done, and to which it
is owing that new expedients both for attack and defence
have been difeovered.
What a fenfible difference is there in the military art,
fiich as it at prefent is, compared with that of which the
rules aie handed down to us by Onozander, Vigetius, the
emperor Leo, Frontinus, jElian, and many others ? 1 he
towns, in their times, had no other defence than walls,
railed at a great charge, flanked at little diftances with
towers, and a large ditch in front: it is true that the little
force of their weapons contributed much to the advantages
of their fortifications. Their entrenched camps had only
a large ditch with fome waggons placed behind it; and
whenever the ancients were willing to praflile all the art
at that time known in war, they furrounded the camp with
walls, in the lame manner as they did their towns, with
towers at little diflances. Of this kind was Pompey’s camp
at Dyrachium in Epirus, the plan of which is given in the
mzrfhal de Puyfegur’s Art of War the wall by which it
was furrounded wras-155000 paces in extent.
The emperor Leo was unacquainted with any other me¬
thod of entrenching a camp, than by heaping fafcines to¬
gether, putting trees upon one another, and polling adv<n.
ced guards. ,
The experience which hath been fince acquired, hath,
without increafing the labour, rendered the works of places-
ftronger, and eafier to bo defended r the hbour of the en*
3 trenchmcnts-
jzt W A
Oftcnfive trencliment'a for camps bath been fhortened ; they have
O^HUionN j-a^en a new form • and being conftrufted upon the fame
princioles as the fortiiications of townp, they are become
more difficult to be forced (fee Part I. feft. vi.). By this
fame experience the means of attacking them hath been dif-
eovered ; and in proportion as offenfive weapons have chan¬
ged, and are become more powerful, the fyilem of fortifica-
- tion has been new-modelled.
Let an army be iuppofed entrenched behind lines where
art and na me are both joined; whofe flanks are fuflained
and fecured, farnifhed with troops and artillery alonr the
whole front, with more troops behind to fuftain thofe which
line the lines. The general who would attack, ought firft
to furvey the fituation of the lines himfelf, and as much
a.s pofiible the enemy’s difpohtion ; he fhould examine the
conltrudHon of the lines, how they are fupported, their ex¬
tent, and whether the foil is firm or light. As foon as he
fhall be perfectly acquainted with thefe circumllances, he
may form his plan of attack, and caufe his army to march
in as many columns as there are attacks to be made ; but
he fhould endeavour as much as poffible to occupy the
. whole front of the enemy, in order to prevent him from
tending affiftance to thofe places where the attack will be
brifkelt. 1 he head of each column fhould be well furnifhed
with artillery ; and as foon as it fhall be within diftance of
cannonading the lines with effedt, it fhould keep up a briflc
and continual fire for the fpace of an hour at leaft, fo as
to beat down the earth of the parapet, and tumble it into
the ditch, which will in fome meafure render the paffage
of it lefs difficult for the troops. The time of the attack
fhould be an hour before day, fo that the cannon may have
fired before the enemy fhall know where to diredl his artil¬
lery : after every difeharge, the fituation of the cannon
fhould be changed either to the right or the left, in order
to deceive the enemy’s gunners, and prevent their knowing
where to diredt their pieces. If there fhould be any height
within proper diftance, the cannon fhould be planted upon
it: if the cannon can be brought to crofs each other upon
the lines, the artillery will then have a very great effedb
The infantry fliould' follow the artillery, furnifhed with
hurdles, planks, fafeines, pick-axes, and fhovels; tire fafeines
will ferve to fill up the wells, if there are any, before the
ditch ; or if there are no wells, they will fill up the ditch,
and the hurdles will be thrown over them. The cavalry
ihould be formed in two lines in the rear of the infantry,
in order to fuftain it. The general fhonld endeavour to
find iome ridges, to conceal the cavalry from the enemy ;
but fhould there be none, it mufl be placed at fuch a dii-
tance, as not to be expofed to the cannon of the lines ; for
fhould it be placed too near, it will very foon be deftroyed,
without having it in its power to be of any fervice. In the
beginning of an attack of lines, the cavalry cannot be of
any affiflance, and cannot even aft till the infantry hath pe¬
netrated in fome part. It would therefore be ufcdcfs to
caufe it to advance too near, provided it is within reach of
marching readily when the infantry has paffed, and hath
made a paffage large enough for it, by beating down the
lines and filling up the ditch ; the cavalry then will have
no more to fear from the cannon of the lines, becaufe
the enemy’s attention will be more engaged with endea¬
vouring to repulfe the infantry, than with firing upon the
cavalry. As loon as the lines have been beaten down, and
the enemy thrown into confufion, the infantry fhould march
refolutely and together; and fhould take care to leave room
for the artillery, fo that it may advance at the fame time,
and continue its fire. The attack fhould be made by the
grenadiers, luftained by the piquets : they will protect the
foldiers who fill up the wells and the ditch; and as foon as
R. Part IF,
they find an opportunity of pafilng, they will endeavour to Offenfrie
get over the entrenchments, Inflamed by the whole in- Qperatjqn*
fantry of the column, which "will then be dilencnmbered
pf the fafeines, hurdles, &c. in order to drive the enemy
from his lines. As foon as there are foldiers enough upon
the lines to bear the refiftence of the enemy, the foldiers
who have the (hovels and pick-axes, and who ought to be,
la ft, will finifh the filling up of the ditch by beating down
the parapet of the lines, and making an opening fufficient
for the paffage of a fquadron in order of battle. Then the
whole infantry of the column that has broke through, will
pals and divide into two parts, to let. the cavalry pafs, which
will form under the cover of the fire of the infantry, and
will not attack the enemy’s cavalry till it fhall have collected
its whole force together.
If one of the attacks fucceeds, on the firft news, which
will foon be fpread throughout the army, all the troops at
that time ought brifkly to attack the whole front of the
line, in order to employ the enemy, and prevent his fend¬
ing afffftance to that part that is forced. The referve,
which is compofed of infantry and cavalry, ought to join
the troops that have broke through tike lines, to fuftain the
cavalry which is charging that of the enemy, and cannot
be fuftained by the infantry who paffed firft, becaufe it is
employed in taking the enemy in flank to the right and
left. In this fituation, when the referve and all the cavalry
which followed the column that hath paffed, and to which
others may yet be joined fhall have palled, it fliould attack
the enemy ; if it is repulfed, it can never be to any great
diftance, becaufe it has infantry behind it, to fuftain it, and
by its fire to flop the enemy. If the lines are forced by
many columns, the fuccefs and alfo the defeat of the enemy
will be thereby rendered more certain.
When the duke of Savoy and prince Eugene, ftill en¬
camped between the town of Pianeza and la Venerie, in
1706, marched to attack the lines of the French army that
fcefieged Turin, they caufed their armies to march in eight
columns ; the infantry formed the advanced guard, the ar¬
tillery, diftributed by brigades, marched at the head be¬
tween the columns, the cavalry was behind in fix, and out
of reach of cannon-fhot.
The difpofition of marflial de Coigny in 1744, in order
to attack the lines of Wh’ffembourg, of which the enemy
were in poffeffion, was fimilar to this, except that the whole
of his army had not time to get up; but as the moments were
precious, he did not wait for it. The army which c .me
from Landau divided itfelf into four, which formed the four
attacks; one of which was at Wiffembeurg, the other at
the mill between that town and the village of Picards, the
thiid at the village of Picards, and the laft was made above
that village, which was entrufted to the Heffian troops.
His cavalry, which was behind, paffed after the infantry
had broke through the lines ; but the enemy were then
almoft either killed or taken, and thofe who could fave
themfelves, retired to Lautrebourg, where their army had
affembled after having paffed the Rhine. It is difficult to
determine which is molt to be admired, whether the gene¬
ral’s difpofition, the quicknels and exadfnefs of his eye, and
his coolnefs in a circumftance fo delicate, or the courage
of the French troops, who forced thefe lines in lefs than
two hours.
As icon as the enemy is beat and abandons his lines, he
mull be purfued, but with precaution. The vivacity with
which he fhould be purfued depends upon the order with
which he retires : if it is an open country, the general may-
follow him fo long as he fees all clear before him ; but if
the country is divided with defiles and woods, it would by
no means be prudent for him to engage himfelf in them.
Part II. W A
offenfive for fear of any ambufcades being placed there by the enemy,
O}crations.j'n order to iecure his retreat: neverthelels, the general
endeavour to make the moil of his vidhory, and ihould
never be content to win a battle by halves ; at Icail it ihould
be carried fo far as to make the enemy fenfible of his lofs,
and of rendering him incapable of continuing openly in the
held.
But if the army that attacks the lines ihould be unable
to force them, after many repeated attacks, and if the general
perceives that his troops are difcouraged, he ihould imme¬
diately retire. If the retreat is made over an open country,
he ihould begin it by marching off the cannon, the infantry
next, and the cavalry will form the rear-guard in two or
three lines; the huffars and dragoons will be upon the flanks
of the cavalry : if there are any defiles or woods to pais
through, the general ihould leave fome infantry at the en¬
trance of them, to fuflain and protedl the cavalry, which
will retreat by files. If the enemy is in full ftrength, the
general ihould leave fome field pieces with the infantry that
is polled at the entrance of the woods and defiles, which
will certainly flop the enemy’s impetuofity : if, on the con¬
trary, the enemy purfues the army with only a few troops,
it will be proper to charge him if he approaches too near.
In this difpofition an army may retreat eaiily, provided that
order is obferved, and the movements not made with too
much precipitation.
R.
729
Sect. VI. Of the Attack of a Convoy.
The fame motive that ought to oblige a general to prac-
tife every refource of art, in order to condudl the efcort of a
convoy in fafety, ihould alfo induce him to ufe the fame ex¬
pedients to carry off the enemy’s fubiiftence ; for to deprive
him of the means of fubliiling, is, in reality, to overcome
him without fighting.
An advantageous method for attacking a convoy is, by
forming three attacks, one real and two falfe. Thofe at¬
tacks are called real which the troops make with vigour and
in full ftrength, and when their charging is provided for and
determined ; the falfe ones are when the enemy’s intention is
only to keep back the enemy, and prevent his fending affiil-
ance to the troops that are really attacked.
Thefe attacks, true or falfe, are determined by the fitua-
tion of the country, and in proportion to the degree of cafe
with which the convoy may be turned from the road it is in ;
that is,* if the general fhould meet with an avenue near the
advanced guard, which will draw the fnemy lome diflancc
from his main body, and which alfo leads to that of the
troops which attack, it is at that part the real attack ihould
be made : if this avenue is found at the rear-guard, the two
falle attacks ihould be made at the advanced guard and at
the centre, fuppofing there is an opportunity of attacking
the centre. Thefe falie attacks ought to be fufficiently nu¬
merous in troops, to be able to employ the enemy, without
running a hazard of being beaten, and to prevent his fending
afliilance to other parts.
If the troops deiigned to attack the convov are fufficient¬
ly numerous, although divided into three bodies, to attack
every part at the fame time with equal vigour, the fuccefs
will thereby become more certain. The eicort of a convoy
is often more numerous than the troops which attack it; but
it being certainly weakened by the divifion it is obliged to
make in order to guard the whole length of the convev, the
troops which attack have greatly the advantage, although
inferior in number, becaufe thole which they attack cannot
fend afliitance to the parts attacked, efpecially if attacked
on all iides.
If the road is wide enough, and there is room for
Vol. XV1IL Part II.
wag¬
gon to turn, the general fhould rather choofe to attack the Offenfive
advanced and rear guards than the centre, to prevent the °Pera'i)n8;
enemy’s faving any of the waggons belonging to the rear- v "~
guard, which will undoubtedly be the cafe, if only the ad¬
vanced guard and centre are attacked. If the road is fo
narrow that the waggons cannot turn about in order to go
back, the general fhould attack the advanced guard, and em¬
ploy the centre and rear-guard as much as poffible.
A convoy may alfo be attacked at the opening of a de¬
file into a fmall plain ; then it is again the advanced guard
that the general fhould attack, though he fhould alfo con¬
trive to have the rear-guard attacked at the fame time. The
troops in the centre will be confufed, and not know where
to fend affiftance, becaufe they will hear firing both in front
and rear ; neverthelefs, the general flisuld defer charging
till part of the waggons are paffed, and the troops of the
centre are Hill on this fide the defile. An attack, when
unforefeen, brifk, and fuftained, can never fail of fucceeding,
particularly when the troops attacked are fo divided as not
to have it in their power to affifl each other; and if the
whole convoy is not taken, there is almoft a certainty of
taking a great part of it, or at lead of fetting it or\ fire, and
hamftringing the horfes, if there is not time to carry them
off.
The fuccefs of thefe attacks partly depends upon the
choice of thofe places where the troops which are to fall
upon the convoy are placed in ambufc&de ; the moll fecure
are thofe which are leaft liable to the infpeftion of the ene¬
my’s parties. It is fufficient to have fentries upon the tops
of the hills, fo that they may fee into the roads, and give
notice when the convoy is near the place appointed for the
attack : then the troops charged with the attack of the,rear¬
guard, having nothing more tb apprehend from being dif-
covered by the enemy’s parties, may draw near the entrances
of the avenues.
If the ambufeade is difeovered, the conduft which ought
to be obferved by the troops compofing it depends entirely
upon their force and that of the efcort ; neverthelefs, even
when they are weakeff, the attack fltould be attempted,
which, if unfuccefsful, will at leaft have retarded the march
of a convoy, for want of which the enemy may be greatly
diftreffed. A general never rifles much in attacking a con¬
voy ; the objedl of the officer Commanding the efcort being
to conduft it in fafety, and to avoid fighting : it is the fame
with the efcort of a convoy as with a chain of forage,
the end of which is only to complete it ; and confequently
the troops charged with them will rather be attentive to
execute the orders which have been given them, than to pur¬
ine the enemy, although beaten and driven back.
When a convoy marches through an open country, there
fhould be many ambufcades formed : an enemy is lefs ap-
prehenfive in an open country, becaufe, feeing all before
him, his fearches become the lefs exaft, in proportion as the
country is unfavourable for troops to form amlmfcades ; ne¬
verthelefs, a general may always find fome hollows, heights,
or places of the fame nature, where troops may be conceal¬
ed. As foon as the convoy {hall be arrived at the place fix¬
ed on for the attack, the general ffiould fall upon the ad¬
vanced and rear-guards, in order to take in the whole, and
to induce, if poffible, the troops in the centre to divide
themlelves, to run to their affiftance; then the third ambuf¬
eade muff fhow itielf, and attack the centre, and endeavour
to divide the convoy, before the commandant of the efcort
has had time either to park it or d&uble it up. If the
general fuedted-; in dividing the convoy, and if the trobps
in the centre of the efcort are beaten and bioke, he ftrould,
detach fome infantry, cavalry, and huffars, in purluit of
them: the remainder muff be divided into two parts, in or-
4 Z der
7^ _
OfFenfive
W A
(^.er to att?.ek tlie troops I'ning the convoy; after which
^Operations t]iey muft join thofe who attack the advanced and rear-
i guards. The troops, when re-united, ou.^ht to make this
attack with vigour, and entirely determine the defeat of
the efcort, and confequently the taking of the convoy.
A convoy that is disnded is half taken, as loon as the
detachment of the centre is beaten ; becaule the viftori-
ous trooos can be divided, and part fent in purluit ot the
body that is beaten, and the other part employed to rein¬
force thofe who ftill meet with refiftance ; whereas, if only
one part is attacked, that which is not attacked can readily
fend afliftance, efoecially in an open country, where there is
nothin;! to prevent either cavalry or infantry from acting,
and being a mutual affiftance to each other.
A general who would attack a convoy never runs any
hazard by dividing big troops, in order to divide thofe of
the enemy : the more the troops of an efcort are divided,
with the greater eafe will they be beaten. An officer who
would attack, fhould know the ftrengtb of the efcort, in or¬
der to regulate the number of his troops by the enemy’s,
and to be proportionably ftronger. He who is attacked,
being ignorant of his enemy’s force, and being charged on
all fides, is at a lofs where to fend affiftance, and how to
take care of every part : he who attacks by the knowledge
he fhonld have of the country, is enabled to poll his troops
after fuch a manner as to employ all thofe belonging to the
enemy, without weakening himfelf. I he troops which at¬
tack have certainly great advantages, becaufe, in dividing
them, they are Hill ftronger than the body attacked; and
then they can choofe the place moft favourable for the at¬
tack: whatever may be the precautions taken, hy the officer
commanding the efcort, whatever may be his vigilance, it will
be very difficult for him, confidering thefe different attacks
and the number of the enemy’s troops, to difpofe his own
with fufficient quicknefs to place the convoy in fecurity,
efpecially if the attack is made with great quicknefs and
vigour.
When a convoy is to be attacked as it paffes a bridge,
the commanding officer Ihould divide his troops into three
bodies, placing two of them in ambufcade on that fide of the
bridge to which the convoy is advancing, and the third on
the fide from which it is marching. All the three bodies
ftrould remain concealed, if poffible, till the advanced guard
of the convoy, the hotly at the centre, and fome of the wag¬
gons, have paffed the bridge ; when they fhould inilantly
advance and attack, each that divifion of the convoy pro¬
perly oppofed to it. Three fuch attacks, made at the fame
time by fuperior force, will have the whole advantage of
the adtion ; and the more fo as the troops of the elcort be¬
ing everywhere employed, cannot fend affiftance to any par¬
ticular part. If the two bodies which attacked the advan¬
ced guard and the centre fliould break them and put them
to flight, there fhould be troops enough left in purfuit of
them to finifh their entire defeat, without any fear of being
repulled ; the remainder ought to march to the bridge, and
caufe the waggons that are upon it to be ranged in order,
and march to the rear-guard> in order to finifh its defeat, if
it ftill continues to make refiftance.
It is neceffary to obferve, that fome troops ought to be
left at the head and along the convoy, in order to take
care that the hcrfes are not taken off from the waggons,
and that none of the foldiers or drivers make ufe of that me¬
thod to efcape.
If the general has not troops fufficient to be divided into
three bodies, he can place ambufcades to attack ©nly the ad¬
vanced guard and the centre. This muff be done with vi¬
gour, but not till the troops of the centre {hall have paffed ;
and the attack fiiould always be executed by the infantry
R # Part II,
with the bayonets fixed, and without firing, and by the ca- Oftenfive
valry, huffars, and dragoons, fword in hand. The gene- Perjll°ns
ral fhould not then ftay to make pritoners ; but fhould put
to death all thole whom he finds armed. If the two firil
detachments are beaten, he fliould march with the remain¬
der to the rear-guard, which, not being ftrong enough to
refill a body of troops much more numerous, will undoubt¬
edly betake itfelf to a retreat. As it is the convoy, and
not the troops of the efcort, that is the principal objetl, the
general ffiould leave only fome troops of huffars to purfue
the rear-guard ; he fhould make the waggons file off as faft;
as poffible, and conduct them the neafeft way to the camp
or the neighbouring town; or if this cannot be done, he mult
burn them and carry away the hories.
Sect. VI. Of the Attack of green and dry Forages.
Next to the convoys, the forages become moft neceffary
for the fubfiftence of an army, as it is by them that the ca¬
valry is fupported ; and if a general can contrive to deprive
the enemy of them, or to moleft him in the making of
them, his cavalry will loon be without refource, his infantry*
without baggage, and his artillery without the means of be¬
ing conveyed.
The detachment deftined to attack a party on a green fo¬
rage, made in an open country, fhould be compofed of in¬
fantry, cavalry, and* huffars : the infantry fhould not appear,
but ought to remain in ambufeade in fome hollows, behind
fome hedges, or other favourable places ; and it (hould be^
careful not to fliow its arms; becaule, by the glittering of
the ft eel, they may be dilcovered : the cavalry fhould be di¬
vided into two bodies, three quarters of a league one troin
the other, taking care to be able to join in cate of neceffity.
As for the huffars, they fhould be diftributed about in many
fmall detachments to the right and left, and in the centre
of the two bodies of cavalry ; upon one of the flanks, there
fhould be a more numerous body of huffars placed in am- .
bulb, at a greater diflance than the Imall detachments.
Every one of thofe fmall troops fhould have a numoer of
trumpets with them ; and when the chain is formed, and
the foragers fpread over the plain, a part of theie detacti-
ments fhould leave the arabufeades, making a great noife,
and attack thofe belonging to the enemy which are advan¬
ced ; and thefe detachments will charge them with fo much
the more vigour, as they will be fuftained by the large body
of huffars in ambufcade behind them, and which fhould march,
to fuflain them, and attra& the attention of the officer com¬
manding the efcort. It may happen that this fiiil attack,
made on one fide only, may induce the enemy to unfurniih
the chain in fome place, by which it will confequently be
weakened ; and it fo the other detachment of huffars fnad
inilantly advance, followed by one of' the bodies of cavaliv,^
in order to attack that part that has been uniurmfhed. E
the enemy, more prudent, does not weaken the chain in any
particular part, but contents himfelf with making the referve
march to the affiftance of the troops which have been at¬
tacked, the fecond attack ought always to take place ; but
in order to employ the enemy everywhere, the fecond body
of cavalry Ihould march and attack the centre. 1 his at¬
tack ought to be made with great brifknefs fword in hand,
whether the enterprife fucceed or not : if it fucceed, a great
advantage may be drawn from the rout of the chain. Vv huii
the cavalry and part of the huffars are purfuing the troops,
of the chain, the other part fhould fall upon the foragers,
where they will without doubt find but little refiftance. H
the attack do not fucceed, and that, by the good difpofi-
tion of the troops of the chain, the detachment has not been
able to force it, it fhould retire to the infantry that has re¬
mained
Pan IT. W . A
OfTei five mjuried bekfnd In arabufcade i thU infantry will facilitate the
Operations |-ejreat of the cavalry and KuiTars. But fuppofe that the
—v-"" gnemv, too eager, is carried away by this fir'd fuccefs, a
great advantage may be derived from his imprudence, by
attacking him refolutely. The whole ftrength, and each
body being united, it is to be imagined, and even hoped,
that the advantage will turn on the fide o thofe troops
which were icpulfed but a moment before ; and the more
fo, as the general commanding the chain can have purfued
only with his cavalry, his huffars, and dragoons; becaule lus
infantry will have remained in the polls which it occupied,
either to guard them, or to lultain the hoile, fuppofing they
fhould be repulftd. # .
If the forage is made in a mountainous country, the in¬
fantry muft aft alone, the cavalry being only neceffary when
it can have ground on which to aft, and futlaiu the infant! y
in cafe it is repulfed : the infantry fhould attack the ave¬
nues and the heights, and poffefs itfelf, as much as poflible,
of thofe which have the greateft command, and make the
attack in many places, as in an open country. 'I befe dif¬
ferent attacks render the enemy undetermined with regard
to his difpoiitions ; he does not know where to fend affifi¬
ance : the uncertainty of the general becomes vifible to every
officer, and communicates itfelt to all the troops ; and thence
proceeds their confufion, and confequently their defeat.
The prifoners and horfes that have been taken fhould be
Cent off fir ft with an efcort; the reft of the troops will re¬
tire immediately after by the ftiorteft road. It is cruelty
to abandon the wounded, whether friends or enemies ; and
as the detachment has undoubtedly found, within the cir¬
cumference of the chain, lome waggons with horfes to them,
they Ihonld be made ufe of to carry off the wounded, who
fhould alfo be fent on before : if there are no waggons, the
detachment muft take them from the neighbouring towns.
The attack of a dry forage is condufted nearly in the
fame manner as that of a green one ; but it is often neceffa-
ry to employ a greater number of troops; becaufe, as the
forage is made in the villages, it is almoft a certainty they
will all be guarded by infantry fuftained by cavalry ; where¬
as the chain of green forage is formed with a much greater
number of cavalry than infantry, unlels it Should be in a
country where cavalry cannot aft. It is-difficult to force
the villages where infantry is fuftained by cavalry ; whereas
it is eafy for cavalry to attack each other in a plain, where
the affair is immediately determined ; but it is not fo foon
decided when entrenched infantry is attacked by infantry :
but whatever refiflance a commander may find, he fhould al¬
ways attempt to force it. As the principal objeft is to
-prevent the* forage, it is obtained by attacking the chain
brilkly and in all parts; becaufe it is certain that the gene¬
ral commanding the forage will cauie the foragers to af-
femble ; cr elfe, feeing the chain attacked, without waiting
for an order, they will of their own accord difmifs, and fly
toward the camp : but whether they affemble, retire in or¬
der, orfhift for themfelves, the end is anfwered, and the fo¬
rage is left unperformed. If by their flight the commander
cannot hope to make any prifoners, he muft keep the troops
of the chain at bay fuch a length of time as to make it im-
poffible to continue the forage for that day : he fhould even
if poffible endeavour to force them to retire ; which if they
do, he fhould purfue them long enough to be certain of
their retreat, and then colleft all the waggons from the
neighbouring villages, caufe them to be loaded with the fo¬
rage intended for the enemy’s army, and conduft it to the
camp : if they do not retire, the commander muft remain in
fight of them during the night, and fend to the camp to
demand a reinforcement of troops, in order to oblige the
enemy to retire. For the fame reafon that a forage fliould
R. 73i
not be abandoned till the laft extremity, die troops that Offcrrfive
would prevent the enemy from attacking itljjftiould be ablo- *g ^l"t';
lutely bent upon it, at the fame time without expofing
themfelves to the danger of being beat by any affiftance that
may come from the camp to the troops belonging to the
chain.
Sect. XL Of the Pajfage of Rivers.
There is hardly an operation of war more difficult than
the paffage of rivers, whilft war cannot be carried on in
countries'where there are not rivers to be paffed.
Rivers may be paffed by fwimmtng, by fording, or upon
bridges ; but* fmall bodies alone can pafs with fafety by
fwimming, and, unlefs the ftream be very (hallow, none but
the cavalry fhould pafs at a ford ; for it is furely much bet¬
ter to throw over a bridge or two, than to expofe the infan¬
try to the fatigue of wading through a deep current, or the
artillery and baggage to the danger of being damaged by
water." When a ford is difeovered and intended to be made
ufe of, it fhould be fecured in every part, and the ioldiers
employed for that purpofe fhould be furmlhed with pi viper
inftruments to clear the bottom of every thing which may
retard the paffage. Its banks fhould likewiie be examined,
that it may be known whether they are of difficult or eafy
accefs, and whether the ground on the other fide be mai fh} ,
or fuch a>s will permit the troops to form immediately on
their landing. When bridges are to be limit for the p.ef-
fage of the army, they muft he laid upon boats, pontons,
piles, or wooden horses (fee thefe articles) ; or in fome
cafes rafts may be employed inftead of them ; and when a
general is furniihed with thefe neceilaries, he will pais the
largeft river, in the abfence of the enemy, without difficulty
or the lofs of a man.
It is not, however, to be fuppofed that the enemy will
be ablent. When a country is invaded, the army that is
defending it will endeavour to meet the invaders with the
greateft advantage ; and as in the paffage of rivers the ad¬
vantage is wholly on the fide of the defenfive army, the ge¬
neral commanding it fho’fid there, if poffible, oppofe the
enemies of his country. We (hall therefore, in this feftion,
treat, \Ji, Of the defence neceffary to be made for oppoling
the enemy, and preventing his paffage ; 2<i/y, Of the means
which a general fhould employ in order to facilitate the paf¬
fage, notwithftinding the enemy’s oppofrtion ; and, $d/yt
We (hall demonftrate by fafts the fecureft method of re¬
treating.
I. It would be impoffible to run through every precau¬
tion that can be taken to difpute the paffage of a river ; we
fhall therefore confine ourfelves to the principal ones, by a
fuccinft relation of the different fyftems of the authors who
have treated on that fubjeft.
The firft precaution to be taken, according to the che¬
valier de Folard, is, to draw off all the boats which are up¬
on the river ; to obferve whether any other river has a com¬
munication with it : to examine the courle, the windings,
and the moft acceffible parts of it ; to raile good redoubts
near the banks ; to render the bottom uneven by means of
facks and bafkets filled with ftones, large trees with their
branches, and by flopping them with flakes.
To this precaution may be alfo added another, which,
executed with exaftnels, may produce great effefts ; that is,
to throw whole trees with their branches into the river, not
fo heavy as to fink to die bottom, but whofe fize and quan¬
tity fhall be fo conliderab'e as not to be eaiily flopped ;
their branches fhould alio be interwoven, and formed like a
chain from one bank to the other ; they fhould be held fall
till the enemy’s army is engaged in the fords or upon the
aZz bridges,
Offenfiv? bridges, at which time they fhould be let into the current.
Operation?, q^^nels of which will increafe the force of this kind
v”'' of moving bank, which will overturn every thing it meets
with, foldiers, baggage, horfes, bridges, and boats : in (hort,
nothing tv.’ll be capable of withftanding it, if there is any
degree of rapidity in the torrent. This method is pointed
out in M. de Puyfegur as levelled againtt bridges only.
To avoid alfo giving any fufpicion to the enemy, this chain
of trees can he placed upon the bank oi the river, of which
fome engineer muft have been carebil to take the dimen-
ilons before hand ; and when it fhall be nearly the fameiize
of the river, and the enemy is palling, it muft be held at
one end, whil'i it is Ihoved off by the other ; the whole ol
it will be taken by the current, which, without any other
affiftance, will direft it againft the enemy.
In regard to the troops defigned fur the defence, the bell
method, according to M. Fulard, is to lorni final! camp's of
2000 or 3000 men, a league diilant one front another, with
patroles and lignals from one to another; to have canoes,
in order that the river may be crofted filently in the night
by foldiers, who will endeavour to make fome pnfoners, and
who wall alfo liften in order to diicover whether the enemy
is preparing to march. A general Ihould particularly en¬
deavour to poffels himfelf of the iftands, if any, under cover
of which the enemy may attempt the pafta -e ; and if the
general can be certain that the enemy’s intention is to throw
over a bridge where they are, in order to fet out from
thence, to fave fo much of the way, the general will by this
means aft’ure himfelf of the place where the enemy will at¬
tempt the paftage, which circumftance will be almoft fuflici-
ent to prevent him.
But in order the better to explain the manner in which
a river Ihould be defended, let two armies be fuppofed,
one of which, confifting of 40,000 men, defends the
paffage againft another of 60,000. This laft is divided in¬
to three bodies ; that of the centre conftfts of 40,000 men,
and the two others of 10,000 each : the centre-body is en¬
camped nearly oppolite to the place where the paftage is
intended to be effected ; of the two bodies which are upon
the flanks of the centre, one will ferve to keep the enemy in
fufpence, with relation to the true place where the paftage
is defigned. They ought to be continually moving, fome-
times at a diftance from the main body of the army, and
pretend to throw bridges higher up, or lower down, in or¬
der to induce the enemy to divide and feparate the diffe¬
rent bodies of his army in fueh a manner, that they can
no longer be of afliftance to each other, or be in a condi¬
tion of oppofing a luperior body of troops that may attempt
the paffage.
The army defending the paffage is divided into many bo¬
dies ; three of 10,000 men each, at a kague diftance from
one another, and two. others of 5000 men each, compo-
fed of the light troops, both horie and foot, and dra¬
goons, encamped at half a league upon the two flanks of
the army. The communication fhould be preferved be¬
tween each feparate body, and conftant patroles kept uoon
the fide of the river, which ought continually to crofs each
other ; arid detachments of huflars upon- the right and the
kit, both up and down the river : the general is alfo fuppo¬
fed to have planted batteries of cannon, in different parts
upon the fhore ; and to be poffeffed of two iftinds which he
has fortified, and in which he has alfo placed troops and can¬
non : in fhort, he is fuppofed to have taken every advantage
of ground for rendering the paflage difficult to the enemy,
and to oppofe troops to him in every part where he may at¬
tempt it.
See Plate DXIX. fig. 1. where A reprefents the camp of
the main army, divided into three parts, for the defence of
the river. B, The camp of the light liarfe, light infantry, O enf>ve
and dragoons upon the wings of the army. C, Caftle and )l>erationSi
village, guarded by light infantry. D, A town occupi- * ^
ed by the infantry belonging to the army. E, Bridge
broken down. F, Iflands occupied by itftantrv. O, Pofts
ot infantry diftributed along the fide of the river. H, Bat¬
teries eftablifhed along the fide of the river. I, Pofts of ca¬
valry, to keep up the communication between the camps.
K, Bridges conftrufted to prderve the communication of
the iflands. L, Bridges conftru&ed for the communication
of the camos.
If. notwithftanding all thefe obftacles, the enemy attempts
the paftage, he fhould be attacked as he debarks; and it is
for this reafon that the defending army fhould not be divi¬
ded into very fmall bodies, which, too-weak to rcfift a fupe-
rior number, will be eafily routed. In attacking the ene¬
my, there is no danger to be feared from their cannon,,
which they cannot make life of without annoying their o.vn
troops ; whereas the cannon planted upon the fide of the ri¬
ver, to defend the paftage, can always fire upon the troops
which follow, in order to fuftain thole who attempt the paf¬
fage : there fhould alfo be infantry placed near thefe batte¬
ries, to defend them, and to flank fueh or che enemy as have
already^ pxffed.
There yet remain many ftratagems to be praftifed on
thele occafions : a general may make ufe of chore mention¬
ed in the feftion which treats of ambufeades ; and they
fhould be particularly directed againft fach places as are
fuppofed to be moft favourable for the enemy. Tne hifto-
ry of prince Eugene, whom the chevalier Folard ftyles a
great traverfer of rivers, furnifhes many examples.
T he general fhould be particularly attentive in difturbing
the enemy when ccnftruCting his bridges ; which appears
the more practicable, as the bridge is never properly efta*
blithed, if not guarded at each end : befides, by the affift¬
ance of artillery, the enemy may be eaiily prevented from
going on with his work. M. Feuquieies indeed redates ex¬
amples, where the enemy hath not been able to prevent the
bridges from being built under their very nofes ; but befldes
the rarity of thefe examples, the precautions he ufed are a
very convincing proof of the difficulty attending fuch under¬
takings.
A prudent general, and one who is himfelf acquainted
with the river, of which the enemy would attempt the enf-
fage, is guided by its depth, by the difficulty of gainiiiJ its
banks, and in proportion to its lapidity : he often pretends
to be inactive, permits the enemy to throw his bridges over
it, and waits till he is in the middle of his-paftage ; at which
time he makes a furious fire upon him, fpreads diforder a-
mongft his troops, and overthrown his ranks ; and the ene¬
my, befides lofing a great number of men, alfo fails in the
fuccefs of his enterprife.
II. With rtffpeCt to the means to be employed for paffing
a river in the face of the enemy, it is to be oblerved, that
the general who attempts fuch a paflage, ought, in the firft
place, to be very certain of the fteadinefs of his troops. He
fhould place the moft intrepid in the front, in order to en¬
courage thoie w'ho follow them : on fuch occafions every
thing is to be apprehended from ill-difc;plined troops, who,
as foon as they are engaged in the river or upon the
bridr/es. having no longer any’ place of refuge to fly to, will
be difcouraged, and fpread the panic throughout the whole
army.
If the army paffes upon two bridges, it is impoffible
to take too much care for their fecuiity: hiftory is filled
with fatal examples of bridges falling under the weight of
troops. One of the greateft dangers ever experienced by
Charles XII. was when, having cauied a budge to be
thrown
>art IT. W A R. 733
Offe. five thrown across the Vlftula, the wood which had been made ver, and the left with Its left. When all thefe columns ©ffenfive
iterations. ufe Df being too weak, and the timber-work ill fecured, ftiall be formed, and ready to march towards the enemy,
 v  the bridge broke down whilft the king waspaffing. Charles, the right and left of the two lines of cavalry muft luftain
the prince of Wirtemberg, and many others, fell into it; and the right of thofe of the right, as well as the left
the water : the king, having caught hold of a piece of the of thofe of the left, will march to put themfelves in a line
timber that was floating, was carried away by the current, in prefence of the enemy : in this pofition the army mull
The troops which had already palled found themfelves at march towards the enemy, and attack him, d he is fo rafh
the enemy’s mercy, who might have dellroyed them ; but as to hazard an aftion ; and if he Ihould retire before the
they did nothing, fays the hiftorian Nordberg, Vecaufe of army is entirely palled, the paffage will be the more eafily
the heights of which the Swedes were in polTeffion, and effected.
from whence they kept a fire upon the Saxons. Was it See Plate DXIX. fig. 2. where A. A A are bridges of boats,
not rather an inltance of the good fortune which ufuaily at- B, Redoubts which cover the bridges. C, A battery, un¬
tended that intrepid prince ? der cover ot which the infantry work at the conftruaron
It is probable, when a river is palled upon bridges in of the redoubts. D, A battery to prevent the enemy from
pretence of the enemv, that they have been built before his annoying the army on its march. E, The march of the
arrival, and confequently there has been time to entrench army. F, The artillery diltnbuted among the brigades of
them at each end, but particularly on that fide next the enemy, infantry. G, Infantry, forming in columns to open on the
Thefe entrenchments Ihould be made, in inch a manner as oppofite fide through the intervals of the redoubts. H,
to prevent the bridges from being flanked by the enemy’s March of the columns into the front of the redoubts, where
cannon ; therefore, inftead of the entrenchments ufual at the they halt in order to give time for a part of the cavalry to
heads of the bridge, fuch as a horn-work, a crown-work, form upon its flanks. I, A battery erected to iacilitate the
ota half-moon, the general Ihould caufe redoubts to be forming of the cavalry. K, Cavalry, which, m gaming the
thrown up, the farthell of which fhouid be 400 yards di- oppofite (hore, forms in order of battle, and pods inelf upon
fiance, and oppofite to the bridge ; and the others fnould be the flanks of the infantry. L, Eight battalions in column
thrown up nearer to the barks of the river, forming a fe- upon the right wing ot the army, to go and examine the
micircle : in order for their better defence, the general ihould village, and attack the enemy in it, in cafe he Ihould be
follow the fame Jifpofuions which have been laid down in podefied of it. M,_ Huffars and dragoons, who have taken
the preceding part. If there are many bridges, they ihould poffeffion of the height which is on the left wing o! the ar-
be conftru&ed as near each other as poffible, that the fame my. N, A brigade of infantry polled next the height, co¬
redoubts may equally ferve to cover them : the reafon of vering the left wing of the cavalry. O, Fhe difpoiition of
thefe redoubts being placed at a diftance from the bridges the army marching up to the enemy.
is, that, as the troops pafs, they may have room to form, From this difpoiition it appears, that the army which at-
and Luilain thofe occupying the redoubts. Thefe redoubts, tempts the paflase is almoil certain of fucceeding ; it is
it mult be acknowledged, require a greater degree ot labour fheltered behind the redoubts during the pafluge ot the
than is requiiite for the e nltr action of a half-moon, or even bridges ; it has ground to form itfelf upon, and to (how it-
a crown-work ; but it teems impofiible to paf, a river upon felf in fu'l llrength. But it is feldorrv that a general ha»
bridges in prefence of an enemy, however llrongly they may time to build the bridges and entrench them alter this
be entrenched, if there is not fpace enough left between the manner, when the enemy is on the oppofite fide with au in-
can enchments and the bridges to contain a number of tent ion of dilputing the pafiage : fo circumdanced, he mult
troops fufficient to oppofe the enemy, and to give time tor endeavour to find fome fords, and, under flicker of one or
the remainder of the army to pafs. Labour fiiouid never moie iflands, confirud a number of rafts behind them; he
be confidered when an enterprife is fuccefsful; a general, muft. endeavour to keep the enemy at a diftance from thole
therdore, thould never fpare any pains for the attainment places by marches and counter-marches ; and when that is
of his ends, but Ihould take every precaution neceflary for done, he muft caufe the cavalry to ford over with grenadiers-
fuccefs, v/ithout troubling hirnfelf about the time and the and labourers behind them ; theie labourers muft throw up
labour it will coft : the glory of having forced the enemy entrenchments as fall as they can, whilft freth infantry is:
to leave the pafiage open to him makes fufficient amends caufed to pafs over upon rafts. Provided thefe entrench-
for the trouble he has given himfelf in order to attain it. ments can ftop the enemy for feme time, and contain infan-
Suppofe an army of 60,000 men would pafs a river, try enouglqco refill him. the remainder of the army will be
guarded by an army of 40,000. Let it aifo be-fuppofed, very loon paffed : the cavalry will at the fame time pafs atr
that the army intending to pafs has got the ftart of the ene- the lords which have been difeovered, in order to cover the
my, either bccaufe he was not yet arrived, or becaute he flanks o: the inf^itry ; when it will fpread over the plain,,
has been amufed with marches and countermarches; that being itfelf protedfted by the infantry, as it leaves the en-
the general has alio had time to conftrudt three bridges, trenchments in columns.
and to entrench them in the manner above-mentioned : he The paffage ot a river cannot be fafely attempted, if the
mall begin the paffage by caufing the redoubts to be oc- general does not provide for a defence, and take infinite pre*
cupied by a battalion, or half a battalion, according to their cautions to prote.it the army in its paffage.
fize; and he muft plant cannon between thole redoubts, All that authors have laid upon this fubjeft, arifes from
with infantry to guard them. Thefe difpofitions being this principle of Vigetius, which they feen> to have corn-
made, the army rnuft march in three columns ; the centre mented upon, and to which they have applied different ex-
column muft be entirely irfirantry, and the other two corn- ainples- “ As the enemy (fays he) are accuftomed to form*
pofed of infantry and cavalry. As the infantry paffes the arnbufeades, or to attack, openly at the paffage of rivers, the
bridges, it muft divide, and form columns, confiding of four general fhouid po.Tefs him fell beforehand of a good poll oa
battalions each, which muft pafs between the redoubts, ha- the oppofite fide, and entrench himielf even on that cn
vin'g cannon upon their flanks : the cavalry muft pafs to the which he already is, to hinder the enemy from attacking his
right and left through the interval of the two redoubts near- troops, feparated by the channel of the river; and 11 ill; in
eft the river, and lorm in order 0! battle upon the flanks of order for greater fecurity, the ge^ieral fhouid caufe the two-
the columns; the right wing with its right towards the ri- polls to be entrenched and well palliladoed, that in cafe oi
an
734 W A
offenfivc an Jttt-aek, he may be able to fuftaln the cfForts of the ene-
0( eratiun ■my without great lofe/’
It may not be improper, in this place, to relate a difpoli-
tion of M. deValiere’s, formed upon this principle.
He fays, After the cannon are planted, a parapet
Should be railed upon the banks of the river, 200 yards
in length or thereabouts, behind which fome infantry fhould
be immediately launched from the centre of the parapet,
and fome foldiers with labourers fent over, who muft imme¬
diately ere£t a fmall hall-moon : as foon as that is done,
more foldiers fhould be fent in order to defend it in cafe it
fhould be attacked ; more labourers fhonld alfo be fent to e-
redf another half-moon, both upon the right and the left.
■ “ If the labourers are not annoyed by the enemy, they
fhould at the fame time ereft an horn-work, whofe wings
fhould be flanked by the firft parapet, and the cannon plant-
c-d in it: if the river is fo large that the wing of the horn-
work cannot be defended by mufquetry, it mufl; be defend¬
ed from the half-moon, made from thence to the water.”
In the mean time, the general fhould caufe the bridge to
be continually worked at; and, as foon as it is finiflred, make
the troops pafs over it, if the enemy is not in flght; but if
he is, the horn-work muff be completed, to prevent the
enemy from falling upon the troops as they pafs. The
horn work being made as ftrong as is judged neceffary, as
much infantry as it will hold fhould be lodged in it, with
feme field-pieces; and as .the cannon upon the riilng will
* keep the enemy at a diftance, the general may order the ca¬
valry to pafs : but ftill all this cannot be effedted but be¬
fore an army very inferior. If the enemy’s army is of fu-
perior force, the fafeit method is to try a paflage at fome
farther didance, ftill keeping the army in fight as long as
' pofilb’e, and concealing from the enemy that any troops
have been detached.
It is impofiible to forefee every ftratagem that may be
employed, as they depend upon many circutniiances ; but it
is always right to fend, if pofiible, fome trufty fpy to difeo-
ver the enemy’s pofition on the other fide of the river, what
obflacles he can place in the paflage, what methods are to
be ufed to avrid them, and what parts of the bank are moil
aeceffible or heft guarded.
A general fhould make many falfe attempts, particularly
at thole parts where he leaft intends palling ; they fhould
be made as fecretly as poflible ; and alfo, in order to deceive
the enemy, the general may throw over two or three bridges
at hazard, in fight of the enemy, at thofe very places where
he has refolved not to pafs : the enemy’s whole attention
will be directed to that fide; and a conftant fire fhould
be made on him from the other fide, f® that he may not be
miftruftful of the ftratagem. There is no doubt of thefe
bridges being taken, which is of no conftquence, provided
the enemy is amufed, and the general has time to throw over
another bridge at a diftance, from that place, by which he
can pafs.
We cannot pretend to recapitulate every ftratagem which
a general may praClife : in the hiftories of prince Eugene
and Charles XII. the reader may fee the different methods
which they made ufe ef; it will be fufficient here to relate
the rules laid down by Montecuculi, with fome modern ex¬
amples, by which they feem to be corroborated.
1. The general muft plant artillery upon the bank oppo-
fite to the poft he intends taking ; which will be attended
with great advantage, if the river forms a re entering angle,
and it there is any ford near it. 2. In proportion as the
conftruCtion of the bridge advances, he fhould poft fome in¬
fantry upon it, in order to keep a fire upon the oppofite
fhore. 3. When the brid.e is completed, he muft caufe a
|>ody of infantry, fome cavalry, fome field-pieces, and fome
R. Pan if(
pioneers, to pafs It, In ordcp to fortify the bead of the Offenf/VQ
bridge on the other tide. 4. The general muft take great Tperation?,
care that the enemy has not pofted armed barks, or other
machines, to break down the bridge when half the army
fhall be pafled. 5. It the general would preferve the bridge,
he rnuft fortify it at both ends, and place fufficient guards
in it.
In 1743, prince Charles intending to pafs the Rhine,
kept a continual fire upon all the French pofts from 11
o’clock at night till three in the morning, in order to con¬
ceal his real defign with regard to the paflage. Marfhal
de Coigny affembled his army in three large bodies, and lay
all night upon his arms, the only prudent ftep he could take
bn that occafion. By this difpofition he found himfelf in
a condition of tranfporting himfelf oppofite to the ifle of
Raignac, @f which the enemy was in poffeflxon ; and it is
well known that they ended the campaign there, without
being able to penetrate into Alfaee.
The number of columns ought to be regulated by the
breadth of the ford, or by the number of bridges that are
eftablifhed.
The third of June 1747, at day-break, the army com¬
manded by M. de Belleifle palfed the Var in five columns.
This paflage was effected without any reiittance on the part
of the enemy, and M. Belleifle had 15 men drowned, al¬
though there was a chain formed of peafants, acquainted
with the fords, to direft the march of the columns, and to
aflift the foldiers who were carried away by the rapidity of
the current.
III. All paflages of this nature, whether in a march,
in defence, or for an attack, may be torefeen. A gene¬
ral may, at a diftance, make all the preparations neceffary
for thefe operations; he may anticipate or forefee the
dffpofitions of the enemy : in regard to a retreat it is other-
wife ; for although it may have been provided for, a gene¬
ral cannot be certain whether it can be effected after the
manner he hath intended ; befides, he muft, in a retreat,
unite all the different difpofitions already mentioned : the
leait negligence becomes irreparable, and gives the enemy a
very great advantage. A moment loft, a movement difeo-
vered, may alto be the caufe of a rout, and render the re¬
treat impofiible, or at leaft very bloody 5 therefore if a ge¬
neral, in thefe circumftances, has not a perfeft knowledge
of the river he has to pafs, if he has not been careful to pre¬
ferve the bridges, or to keep the materials and inftrumenta
proper .for the throwing over of new ones, he will he unable
to pafs in fi^ht of the enemy. Xenophon’s retreat with
the 10,000 Greeks, furnifhes examples of the^paflagesof ri¬
vers, which a general ftiould always have prefent to his view.
What prudence, what activity in founding the fords himfelf,
whenever he met with any itream or river to be crofied !
What orders to prevent confufion among his troops, and what
ftratagems to avoid being repulfed !
If a general is certain of returning by the fame place at
which he has-formerly paffed, the beil way would be, as Vi-
getius fays, to have the bridges guarded, and to erect a ‘oft
with large ditches at the head of each, for their fecurity, and
to place troops in it to guard the bridges and the paffage,
as long as fhall be thought neceflary.
Thus circumftanccd, a general fhould entrench the heads
of the bridges in the manner already directed ; and that the
troops may pais the bridges without confufion, according
as one brigade of infantry fhall enter the circle formed by
the redoubts, another fhall pafs the bridge, and that which
enters fhall take pofleflion of the pofts which that which
paffes occupied ; he muft be careful to cftabliflr batteries of
cannon to the right and the left, on the other fide of the ri¬
ver, to flank the redoubts, and defend the approach to them;
Op
„ TT W A
Part II<
Oft*' fo that when the whole arnr.y A,all have pafTeJ, the tmops
)pci ations. who occupy the redoubts may retire with eale. _ 1 lie ca-
valry will pal’s the bridges without Hopping behind the re¬
lit a retreat of this kind, the infantry fliould march in co¬
lumn, and the cavalry in ©rdcr of battle, upon the flanks of
the infantry. Before the march is begun, fome troops mint
be fent to occupy the redoubts ; and as foon as they fhall
be in poflefTion of them, the army will put itfelf in march,
and proceed towards them. The cavalry of the right mud
pafs over the bridge nearell to it, and that of the left will
do the fame. The columns of in'antry mult enter by the
fpaces which are between each redoubt; the grenadiers and
the piquets muit remain, in order to fuftain the troops oc¬
cupying the redoubts : fome pieces of camion fhould alio
be leftTto fire upon the enemy in cafe he fhould approach
too near; the columns muit pafs over the three bridges ;
the grenadiers and the piquets muft alto draw near the
head of the bridges at night-fall; the troops occupying the
redoubts muft. quit them filently,and pafs the bridges; they
xnuft be followed by the cannon that has been left during
the day ; the grenadiers muff pais lafl of all; after they are
palled, the bridges muft be broke down. I his may be ea-
fily executed, provided order and fileuce are pieieived ; but
if the enemy entertains the leaft fufpicion of the redoubts
being abandoned, he will come in full ftrengtli to attacic.
the trooes ftill remaining on that fide. Fhele troops, too
weak to relift a fuperior number, cannot avoid being beaten,
flaughtered, or drowned, the cannon taken, and the bridges
burnt.
For greater fecurity, the grenadiers and the piquets may
he furnifhed with chevaux-de-frife, which will make an en¬
trenchment, till the troops which occupied the redoubts are
retire b A retreat never merits the epithet of fine, except
it is performed with order, and with the lofs of as few brave
men as pofiible, to fave the reft of the army.
In every enterpnfe formed by a general in difficult places,
he muft, according to hi. de la Valiere, provide for his re¬
treat. In retreats of all kinds, adds the duke of Rohan, a
general cannot be too attentive to render it fafe, and to
avoid diforder : when it is the effedl of his own choice, it
ought to be made fo early, and fo expeditioufly, that he
may not be under a neceflity of fighting.
During the paflage of a river, or even after a general has
paffed it, if he fhould be repulfed, the retreat becomes very
difficult, and cannot be performed without great lofs; it is
for that reafon that many generals, who have been miftruft-
ful of the firmnefs of their troops, have burnt their fhips in
the port, in order to animate them to viffyory, from confi-
dering the impoflibility of retreating.
The following retreats by M. Saxe acrofs rivers, will give
the reader fome notion how fuch enterprifes fhould be con¬
duced.
In the campaign of 1742, the difpofition of that com¬
mander for paffing the Danube owed its whole fuccefs to
fecrecy, to his addrefs in profiting by circumfiances, and
particularly to a very thick, fog.
The two armies were encamped two leagues diftant from
each other, and the light troops fkirmifhed together the
whole day. At feven o’clock at night, count Saxe fent for
the general officers, furnifhed them with inftruCions, and
caufed the guards to be doubled. At nine o’clock, the
baggage filed off over two brid J-es ; one of rafts and ano¬
ther of piles: after which the infantry paffed, and the gre¬
nadiers, who formed the rear-guard, cut down and burnt
the two bridges. The enemy advanced in order.to charge
his rear-g.uard; but 18 pieces of cannon that had been
planted beforehand, very foon filenced the fire of their
4
, R. , , 735
mufketry, and he loft not a Angle man. At daybreak the
™ formed in order of battle, upon two hnes, m order to   
give7time for the Imperialifts to retire from 1 ladling ; and
as foon as they had joined, the army put itfelf m march in
fOU[tTs^particularly neceffary, either in paffages or retreats,
to be acquainted with the nature of places, and if they are
fit to furnifh the timber neceffary for making rafts and
brid res. In Germany, and countries where wood is very
plenty, in order to pafs with greater expedition, a general
can Lake ufe of rafts or flying bridges. 1 lying
Bridge. ) Two may be placed, one upon the right, the
other on the left, of a bridge hu.lt upon piles ; oy which
means three columns can pafs at once, it fhould he ob-
ferved, that the flying bridges are by no means fecure
742'count Saxe h..m* befot.hand poffeffed himfelf
of Thonaftauf, caufed two flying bridges of ratts, and a
great work of redans, to be erefted, in which he polled five
battalions and fome cannon.
On the otli of September all the baggage paffed the D
nube: on the 10th the army put itfelf in order or battle m twa
lines, which retired fucceffively toward the 1 iver. 1 he hnes
paffed one after the other ; that is, the cavalry at the ford,
and the infantry upon the flying bndges,—Six thoufand of
the enemy’s advanced guard were w.rneffes of this retreat
without daring to moleft rt; fo prudently were the orders
given, and fo exaAly executed. n , , ,
b It is in retreats that bridges are moft.liatle to break un¬
der the weight of the troops ; it is at that time the precau¬
tions are negleded, becaufe the danger becomes more pi-ef¬
fing, and they are not fufficiently acquainted with the rivers
over which the bridges are thrown.
Sect XI. Of Battles.
Oi? all the operations of a campaign, the moll important^
and that which is moft deferving of attention, is a battle,,
becaufe it is generally deciftve; every other operation is but
preparatory to, or confequent of ft. A general engage¬
ment, fays Vigetius, is often decided in two or three .lourst
after which there fcarceiy remains any refoutce for the van-
quifhed. Batiks, fays M de Montecuculi, bellow and
take away crowns ; from their decifrons princes cannot ap¬
peal ; by them war is put an end to, and the name ol the
conqueror immortalized.
A general fhould by no means fuffer himfelf to be forced
to a battle ; neither fhould he offer it but when there is a
real neceflity for it; and even when he gives battle, it fhould
be rather with an intention of laving than fhedding blood ;
more w ith a view of afferting the rights of his mailer, and
the glory of his country, than of opprefting mankind.
How-ever bloody a battle may be, it is always lefs io than a
long war; whreh, by reiterated troubles, confumes the trea-
iures of foverergns, that finew of a ftate, and drains the blood
of the fubjects.
Neverthelefs, there are fome occafrons where it is not left
to a general’s choice, either to give or accept of battle. An
army of obfervation, and an army adling on the defenfivc,
neither can nor ought to be defirous of coming to aftion.
Both the one and the other fhould have no other objeft in
view, than that of polling itfelf in fo advantageous afrtuation,
that the enemy may neither entertain a thought of attack¬
ing it in its camp, or any hope of forcing it. The army
oi obfervation, whofe only objeft is to protedl, or to cover
the troops forming a liege, fhould never feek to fight the
enemy, unlefs attacked by him : the other, obliged by ita.
want of ftrength to adt upon the defenffve, fhould only be
defirous
73<S
W
Offt-nfive Jefirous of occupying advantageous pods, to prevent the
, ! U^t‘or!5,enemy’s penetrating into tlie country, and attacking it in
any pofition it (hall have taken.
If the choice is left to the general, he ought to be parti¬
cularly careful, before he comes to a refolution of giving
batde, to examine whether he can gain greater advantage
by winning it, than he will fuftain damage by lofing it.
It is therefore neither capn’ce, nor a miilaken courage,
or the defire of diftinguifhing hitnfelf at an improper time,
that fhould determine a general to give battle ; but his fu-
periority over the enemy, both in the number and quality
of troops, the enemy’s incapacity, his ill-chofen encamp¬
ments and negligent marches, the neceffity of fuccouring a
place, or the certainty of a reinforcement, by the jundfion
of which the enemy will become fupetior, or circumftances
which may change the original ddigns of the campaign.
This was the reafon which induced the vifcount Turenne,
in 1674, to give the battle of Einfheim, becaufe the prince
of Bournonville waited the arrival of theele&orof Bran den-
bourg, who was coming to join him with a confidetable re¬
inforcement ; and if he had not given battle before that
junction, the enemy’s army would have had a very great fu-
periority over his. The reafons given by Montecuculi for
avoiding a battle are, “ when the lofs of it will be more
prejudicial than the gaining will be advantageous ; when in¬
ferior to the enemy, or when luccour is expedted; when the
enemy has the advantage of the ground; when it is percei¬
ved the army is-working its own ruin, either by the fault or
divifion of the commanders, or through the difagreement of
confederates.” It may alio be added, when the enemy’s
army labouts under fomediieafe^ when it is in want of pro-
vifions and forage ; and that, difheartened by theie circum-
Ilances, his troops defert from him.
It is on a day of battle that it becomes particularly ne*
cefiary for a general to be acquainted with his own ground,
and alfo that which is occupied by the enemy ; to know in
what manner his wings are fupported, the nature of the
places where thefe fupports are ; whether he can be fur-
rounded, and in what part he can be attacked with the
greateft facility.
But however eflential thefe branches of knowledge may
be, it is not always the fuperiority of number, or quality of
the troops, or advantage of ground, that will fecure the bell
difpofed army from being routed : it is the forefight of the
general in the precautions he has taken before the battle;
it is his genius, his a&ivity, his coolnefs, in the time of ac¬
tion, and the capacity of the general officers adfing under
him, that determine the fuccefs.
Ground, feemingly the moil advantageous, often prefents
obftacles, which do not immediately flrike a general, al¬
though an experienced one, and which may prove fatal in
the courfe of a battle ; how, therefore, will a general be
z+ble to corrett theie miftakes, if he confiders them as only
trivial ? At the battle ot Cerignoli, fought on the 28th of
April 1503, the enemy’s front being more extended than at
full it was fuppoied to be, in order to give a greater extent
to that of the French army, it was neceflary to continue the
lines acrofs vineyards and thickets ; by which means, the
neglefting to fill up a ditch caufed the defeat of the French,
and the death of M. de Numours their general.
A general fhould not always purfue his own opinion, it
being impoffibie for one man to fee every thing; he fhould,
therefore, caufe an exadl account to be given to him of
whatever he cannot have an opportunity of feeing perfonally ;
to inform himfelf by fpies of the enemy’s order of battle, and
aft in confequence of that knowledge; he fhould poffefs him¬
felf of all places capable of containing ambufeades, which he
ought to have had examined fome days before the battle.
, Put ir.
Santa Cruz hath given a particular detail of all thefe pre- Offenfive
parations. ‘ Operation!,
It is in thefe moments, which decide the fate of nations, "'
that the genius and prudence of a general ought to be con-
fpicuous ; he fhould fee, at the fame time, what is doing
among his own and the enemy’s troops. Befide the pre¬
cautions which ought to hrve preceded the day of battle,
thofe which ought to be taken in the courfe of the a&ion
are fo numerous, that it is impoffibie for them all to find a
place, here.
Some depend upon the general’s ability, others upon cir-
cumftances, which it is almoft as difficult to deferibe, as to
mark out the neceffary dilpofitions for them.
It depends upon the general’s genius and forefight to
make choice of intelligent, active, and prudent aids-de-
camp, to affign to each particular body the propereft com¬
mander ; not, for example, to place, at the head of in¬
fantry, one who has been long accuftomed to the fervice
oi the cavalry; or, at the head of cavalry, one who is more
ufed to the infantry, &c. j to encourage the foldiers by the
hope of rewards, and by motives which may fpirit them up,
and to threaten thoie who are lo unmanly as to tremble at
the fight of an enemy, or rafh enough to run forwards with¬
out order.
i. he general fhould alfo be capable of forming new
fchemes, in order to render thofe of the enemy abortive;
he fhould alfo take care, whatever may be the nature of the
country, to difpofe his army after fuch a manner, as to
render it equally flrong in every part, that all the bodies
of which it is compofed rmy protedl and affift one another
without con’ufion; that the intervals neceffary for a&ing be
well preferved, aud that the reftrve can eafily march where-
ever it fnall be ordered: in a word, the troops fhould be dif¬
pofed after fuch a manner, that even before the action they
may perceive in what manner they are to aft.
It is the work of genius to take advantage of circum-
flances, and to fubmit to them ; it is impofiible t@ forefee
the precautions dependent on them, as the very circum-
ftances mufi be themfelves unforefeen : it is by a general’s
addrefs, in knowing how to profit by circumitances, that
he ffiows his tuperiority in the day of battle. M. de Mon¬
tecuculi reduces all the advantages that can be gained over
an enemy to four principal heads, which, in reality, are of
themfelves reduced to the knowledge of profiting by cir-
cumftances ; fuch are the advantages of number, when the
enemy is beaten in his pofts, his convoys, and in his forages;
when an ambufeade is furrounded, or when a whole army
falls upon a frnall, weak, and feparated body : the lecond
head confifls in the knowledge of the commander; the third
in the manner of fighting ; and the fourth in the advantage
oi the ground. A general, who properly confiders theie
heads, will difpofe of a combined army after fuch a manner,
that it may, at the fame time, receive orders without mil-
take, and execute them without confufion ; a very neceflary
precaution, and one which Hanno, general of the Cartha¬
ginians, neglefted to take with regard to the ftrangers allied
with them, which occaiioned the troubles related by Poly¬
bius. He fhould have mixed the foldiers belonging to thofe
countries, where bravery is in a manner natural to them,
with thoie belonging to countries where it is more extra¬
ordinary.
Vigetius points out the precautions neceffary to be taken
by a general, to avoid having either the wind or the fun in
his front. The wind, which raifed the duit, and blew it
into the eyes of the Romans, contributed to the lofs of the
battle of Cannae : the fun, on the other hand, dazzles the
foldiers, and lays open their difpofitions and evolutions to
the enemy ; in a word, the general fhould not negleft even
' thofe
^AN of tke sitioii o£ an Army fot t'ae3) efence o£ aliTVER.
Plaie DXTX.
TxA^r of tKe TafTap-e o£ a lllA^EU.
IT. °
V$o ' 300 ' 600
a2.oo X
Part IT. . W
Offenfive. thofe precautions which may be in appearance ufclefs, whe-
Oi't-rations tjier before the battle, or at the very time they may be put
'’—“'V""" jn execution after the aftion ; as the rallying the troops, the
refrelhing of them, the retreating from before the enemy, or
the purfuit of him, fuppofmg the battle to be gained. A
general fhould have beforehand formed the plans of the
marches and the enterprifes he would attempt, and be al-
moll certain of the means of executing them : if, on the
contrary, he fails, he {hould have determined the pofitions
by which the army, fixed in a camp ftrong by fituation,
may prevent the enemy from reaping any great advantage
from his vi&ory : he {hould alfo have provided for the (ecu-
rity of the prifoners, the hofpitals, the plunder of the tol-
diers ; in (liort, for all that is neceffary for preferving order
and discipline, and every thing contributing to the fecurity
of the troops : the dill refs of the enemy, and the glory of
the fovereign, {hould be provided for without waiting for
the event; for at that time confufion and diiorder would
prove more fatal than even the battle.
In the treatife written by Santa Cruz, upon the difpofi-
tions before and after a battle, may be feen a long detail of
the precautions depending upon genius, and of thole which
are regulated by circumftances.
The general’s poft during the aftion ought to be, ac¬
cording to Vigetius, on the right wing, between the cavalry
and the infantry. Onozander fixes it upon iome height,
and Santa Cruz towards the centre, in the front of the fe-
cond line. Titus Livius and Polybius have obferved, that
the polls of Scipio and Hannibal were always in thofe parts
which were leaft expofed : becaufe, as oblerved by Onozan¬
der, a general who runs into Ganger is a rafh man, iuller of
prefuniDtion than courage : neither is daringnefs, adds his
commentator after Plato, always a fign of courage ; befides,
a man who is really brave, is never daring but when it is
abfolutely neceflfary.
A general {hould not always fuppofe that what particu¬
larly ftrikes him is right; he {hould reafon calmly upon the
probability of it, in order to come to a greater degree of
certainty with regard to the pradxicability : he ought alfo,
fays Vigetins, to be acquainted with the nature ot the ene¬
my, and the charafters of his generals, whether they are
prudent or rafii, daring or timid; whether they fight upon
principles or at hazard : in effect, a general ought to be ear¬
lier or later in making an attack in proportion to the rafli-
nefs of the enemy. I{, lays M. de Montecuculi, any fign
of fear or confufion is perceived among the enemy, which
will be known when the ranks are disordered, when the
troops mix together in the intervals, when the colours wave
about, and the pikes flrake ail at the fame time, then he
fhould charge and purine the enemy without giving him
time for recolledlion : fome dragoons, light cavalry, platoons,
feme loofe troops, fhould be fent forward ; who, whilft the
army advances in order of battle, will go before to feize
fome polls into which the enemy mud fall. A general
ought alfo, fays Vigetius, to found the fpirit of his foldiers,
and obferve whether they have a firmer countenance than
the enemy. It is dangerous to lead an army on to aftion
that is not thoroughly determined to do its duty. “ Bat¬
tles,” lays Vigetius elfewhere “ are generally wan by a
fin all number of men.” The great myftery con fids in
the general’s knowing how to choofe them, to poft them
well, con ormable to his plan, and the fervices required of
them.
I cannot affign the reafon (fays he) why particular bo¬
dies fight better againft other particular ones, or why thofe
who have beat bodies ftronijer than thernielves, have in their
turn been often beaten by thofe that were weaker x It is
wndoubtedly owing to want of confidence; becauie the place
Von. XVIII. Part II.
i R- , 7.57
of a&ion has been different; or from other circumftances Offenfive
which cannot be laid hold of, but on the very inftant. I he -peir 10:13.
lituation of the mind is fhown in the countenance of the
foldiers ; it is declared in their difeourfe, and by the mofi:
trifling of their actions. The general fhouid coniult them ;
he ought even to go farther—the belt countenance is not aL-
ways a fign of the firmed courage. Cowardice often con¬
ceals itfelf under the mailt of intrepidity ; but foon as the
aftion begins, the veil falls off, and the coward fhows him-
felf, notwithftanding all his endeavours to the contrary.
Neither at this time {hould a proper degree of fear be
thought blameable ; nature mud be allowed to {brink in
that awrul and uncertain fituation : the coward gives him-
felf up to his fears ; the bully feeks in vain to diffemble
them ; and the rafh man, who cannot diftinguilh between
danger and fafety, is fenfible of both ; the real foldi'er is
always modeft, and contented with having done his duty.
A good general turns every thing, even want of ftrength,
to advantage. Hannibal, at the battle of Cannae, pofted
his bed troops upon the wings, that the centre, which w’as
compofed of thofe on whom he had the lead dependence,
might be the fooner broke, in order to give the wings an
opportunity of furrounding the Romans.
It alfo requires a very drift examination in a general, in
order to be thoroughly mader of the-circumllances on which
he fhould regulate his difpofitions ; and he will alfo find
it fometimes neceffary to make fome change in his original
intentions. It is always proper that the corps of referve
{hould be compofed of veteians, and even ot part o' the
flower of the army ; for fliould the army happen to be
broke, this referve alone may probably give a new face to
the aftion : it was this method which Hannibal purfued at
the battle of Zama ; where Scipio, after having defeated
the troops which prefented themfelves to him, was afto-
nifhed to find he had a new army to fight with. At the
battle of Fontenoy, the houfehold troops placed in referve,
with fome brigades of infantry, determined the luccefs of
the day. Neverthelefs, on tome occafions this diipolition
may prove difadvantageous; as, for inftance, where it would
be neceffary to prefent a large front to the enemy, or where
it is neceffary to prevent his getting pofTeffion of a pafs or
a defile ; where a general finds himfelf too inferior, and
where there are alfo pods to be defended.
It would be unneceffary to repeat every thing mentioned
by Vigetius, relative to the precautions neceffary to be taken
before a battle ; time, and the difference of weapons, have
greatly altered difpofitions : fire-arms, which are now made
ufe of irfllead of darts and flings, and the bayonet in dead of
the pike, have contrafted the intervals which mud necel-
farily be left between every foldier.
The order and diipofition of troops for aftion depend
entirely upon the general, who knows how to profit by
circumdances ; the juft execution of them depends upon
the capacity of the general officers. The general cannot
be everywhere, or ice every thing ; he is obliged to rely
upon the underftanding of thofe who command under him
for the juil execution of his orders ; the general officers
{hould know how to vary them, in proportion as circum-
flances, and the fituation of the enemy changes. They
{hould have an exaftnels and quicknefs of eye, both to op-
pole and profit by them ; and, as M. de Puyfcgur obferves,
the diipofition of the troops being once regulated by that
of the enemy, by the fituation of the country, and the ge¬
neral orders that have been delivered, the only part the ge¬
neral can have in the aftion lies in thofe places where he is
within reach of giving orders himfelf.
M. de Montecuculi with great reafon obferves, that there
cannot be too many officers in an army on the day of battle,
5 A in
738 W A
Offenfive ln order to fupply the places of thofe who are killed : but
(^eraiims can a man poflefTed of any degree of humanity approve of
wjiat aggS} j-hat this number fhould be increafed in time
of war, and reduced in time of peace ? What a profpedt for
a foldier, who, after having lavifhed his blood for the fafety
of his country, and the glory of his prince, fees himfelt ex-
pofed to the fate of Belifarius! Whatever were the virtues
of his mafter Juftirjan, can any one, without indignation,
fee this general, after having overcome the Perifans, reu-
iiited Africa to the empire, punifhed the Vandals, driven
the Goths out of Italy, ravaged AfTyria, fcattered at a
diftance from both empires that throng of barbarians by
which they were over-run, and preferved the throne, and
the life of the emperor ; upon the bare fufpicion, or ratlier
under the pretence of a confpiracy, deprived of fight, and
reduced to beg alms of paffengers in the itreets of that city
which he had fo often faved ?
It has been already feen, that the difpofitions in a moun¬
tainous country change according to the fituation of the
ground. Vigetius repeats, fpeaking of a field of battle,
what has been fo often eftablifhed in the foregoing fe&ions,
that an open country is always moil advantageous for an
army that is ftrongeft in cavalry ; and that an enclofcd foot,
divided by ditches and marfhes, covered with mountains
and woods, is raoft convenient for infantry. In this lall,
the knowledge of the country, the art, the ability of the
general, and the underftanding of the general officers under
his orders, fooner afeertain the iuccefs, than a fuperiority
of troops in an open country, which prefents little or no
variety of ground, and which allows the greatefl part, or
indeed the whole, of the troops to aft; the fuperiority in
troops is attended with great advantage, provided alfo the
difpofition is good.
The different difpofitions fpr troops are fo many, the cir-
cumftances differ fo greatly, that were it even poffible to
conneft in one body only all the battles which have been
fought fince the time mankind refolved to regulate their
properties by the law of the ftronueft, the number of con¬
trivances which remained to be colkfted would be greater
than of thofe which have been aftually executed. It is
impoffible to give a detail of every thing ; for in that cafe
every particular fpot, and the difpolition proper for it, every
country, and all the circumftances that may oblige thefe
difpofitions to vary, muff be deferibed. Thofe now going
to be mentioned, are only with a view of giving the rules,
and of more clearly demonftrating thofe precepts which lead
to the knowledge of all others.
Disp. I. Let two armies of equal force be fuppofed,
in an open country divided by a river, confiding of 57
battalions and 72 fquadrons each, cavahy, huffars, and dra¬
goons. The two armies are on the fame fide, the right of
the one, and the left of the other, to the river. The left
of the army whofe tight is to the river is unlupported ; and
that whofe left is fupported, has a wood on its right. By
this difpofition may be feen the neeeffity of covering the
wing ot the army A, that is expofed. Plate DXX.
The army I, whofe right and left are fupported, is form¬
ed upon two lines, and prefents the fame front as the army
A, with a referve in the rear. The following is therefore
thought to be nearly the difpofition which ihould be made
by the general commanding the army whofe left is unfup-
ported. The firft line ought to confifl of 20 battalions,
with intervals of about three toifes between each battalion ;
12 fquadrons on the right, with their proper intervals; four
battalions on the right of the cavalry, 10 pieces of cannon,
and a battalion in column clofe to the river; 12 fquadrons
on the left of the firfl line, with their proper intervals ;
x 6 battalions in the focond line, 300 paces diftance from
Part II.
the firft; 11 fquadrons on its right, placed behind the in- OffeTive
tervals of thole in the firft line ; and on their right, fix Qperati°n».
fquadrons of dragoons next the river, in order to fuiiain the
infantry and cannon covering the right ; I 1 fquadrons on
the left, placed in the fame manner as thofe on the right;
10 pieces of cannon, iupported by a battalion in column,
between the infantry and the cavalry of the right; 10 others,
fupported alio by a battalion between the infantry and the
cavalry of the left ; four battalions in the rear of the fecond
line on the left, with orders to tranfport itfelr obliquely,
or fidewife, as foon as the army moves to attack that which
is drawn up againll it; 12 fquadrons of cavalry in the rear
of the firft line upon the left, to poll themfelves obliquely
upon the flank, at 100 paces diftance fiom the firft iqua-
dron on the left, next to the four battalions and the cannon j
the referve, confiding of t o battalions and eight fquadrons
of dragoons, in the third line upon the left flank, fo that
it may fall into the firft line as foon as the fquadrons ot ca¬
valry, which were in the rear of thofe of the firft line, {hall
be pofted obliquely : in this pofition, the army will move
forward, the right never quitting the banks of the river.
If the enemy’s army fhould advance, the difpofition of
the army A will become ftill better, becaufe the army I
will quit the fupport it had on its right; but if, on the con¬
trary, it remains in its poft, in order to keep this fupport,
then the 10 battalions of the referve, followed by the eight
fquadrons of dra toons, will join the four which fupport the
flanks of the cavalry which is pofted obliquely. When
marching, this line pofted fidewife fhould proceed oblique¬
ly;. and when the cannon lhall be near enough to cannonade
with effeft, it fhould make feveral difeharges, in order to
break and beat down the entrenchments, or felled trees,
which,the enemy may have made, and alfo to deftroy their
difpofition. As foon as the army A ftiall be near enough
to cannonade the army I with fuccefs, it muft halt, and a-
mufe it with a continual fire of the cannon. The principal
attack ought to be made at the wood by the 14 battalions
in order to give more ftrength and certainty to this attack,
fix other battalions, with 10 pieces of cannon, (hould be
detached to it from the fecond line, always keeping up a
fire from the front. If during this attack, it is perceived
that the enemy weakens his line, in order to carry affiftance
to the wood that is attacked, then the centre and the right
of the army fhor.ld march up and charge him brifkly. The
troops who cannonade the wood ought not to advance, but
fhould only keep the troops pofted in it at bay ; becaufe
that part which the enemy has weakened will then become
the principal objeft of attack : it is probable, that the ene¬
my having weakened his front, will certainly be broke. If
the enemy fhould not weaken his front, and the attack of
the wood fhould fucceed, as foon as the enemy is driven
out of it, the troops which attacked it fhould take the ene¬
my, in flank; then the body of the army, by advancing,
ought to determine an affair already halt gained. If by
the intelligence the general hath received, and the number
which he knows the enemy’s army to confift of, and which
he fees before him, he judges the wood is filled with infan¬
try, and that confequently the attack of it will be attended
with difficulty, he muft attack on the fide of the river, by
marching by degrees from the right, as if to luff am the
left. For the greater certainty of fucceeding in this at¬
tack, he fhould reinforce the five battalions upon the right
with fome others from the fecond line : the left fhould
continue in the pofition already mentioned, to keep back
the enemy. If it fhould happen that the enemy, feeing
his left attacked, caules the troops to leave the wood in
order to replace thofe of the centre, which he caufed
to march to the affiftance of the left, the 14 battalions
which
Part IT, W /
1 Offer five which crc pnllctl n^ewife, ought hrlfkly to attack the
Operations WOO(j fuftaineci by dragoons, The.fe lait ihould poll them.
VJ,,TV ” felves upon the left flank of the Infantry in order to cover
it; and as foon as it fhall be within 60 paces of the enemy,
it ihould march up to him with bayonets fixed ; and the
dragoons ought to attack him in flank at the time the in-
fantry does the lame in head. . The wood is all this while
iuppoted to be practicable tor the dragoons on horieback ;
but in cafe it fliould not be fo, they muft difmount, the in¬
fantry being fufficiently fupported by the 12 fquadrons of
cavalry, which are placed fidewife.
The general may with eafe, ei'pecially in an open country,
attack the enemy’s whole army together; but this may be
attended with great danger, and if the whole front of the
firft line is broken, there will not be much difficulty in
breaking the fecond: whereas, by attacking the enemy’s
army in one or two parts, if one of thefe attacks fucceeds,
the battle is won ; becaufe the troops who are victorious,
take the enemy in flank, at the fame time that he is attack*
ed in head by the reft of the army. In cafe it fhould not
iucceed, the troops who made the attack can retreat, pro¬
tected by the whole army, which hath not at all fuffered.
The general fhould, as much as poffible, conceal the mo¬
tions he intends making from the enemy ; coufequently the
five battalions and 10 pieces of cannon which fupport the
right of the army next the river ought to march in the
rear of the fquadrons of the firft line, the infantry with their
aims feciued, and not range themfelves in the order of bat¬
tle intended, till the two armies are ready to march to charge
each other. It is the fame with regard to the fqu.i Irons of
cavalry, which fhould be pofted behind thofe of the ftrft line,
to execute the defign already laid down.
Pisp. II. If the two armies are not fupported either
on their right or their left, the fame pofition fhould fubfift
that hath already been eftablifhed for the cavalry, which is
in the rear of that belonging to the firft line, except that
it fhould be diftributed on the right and the left. If there
is not cavalry luffieient, hufiars muft be fubflituted in its
place ; but if there fhould be cavalry enough, it muft be
ufed on this occafion; becaufe cavalry being a greater body,
its charge is heavier, and it alfo makes a greater irnpref-
fion upon other cavalry oppoled to it, provided they exe¬
cute their order with gieat quicknefs. This cavalry or
huffare, which a^e pofted fidewife, fhould not quit their
poll, but wait the fuccefs of the attack. If the enemy is
repulfed, they muft then fall upon his flanks, and by a brifk
and vigorous charge endeavour to involve the fecond line in
the confulion of the firft; they will be followed by part of
the wing of cavalry that is viftorious, in order to give a
greater force to the attack of the fecond line, taking as
much care as poffible not to leave any body of cavalry upon
the wing of infantry that is in a condition of protecting it.
After thefe two lines of cavalry have been broken and pur-
fued, half of the victorious line fhould remain in order of
battle; and, by a motion to the right from the left, take
the enemy’s infantry in flank, at the fame time that it is
attacked in head by the infantry of the army. The fecond
line fhould then move into the place of the firft, in order
to be near enough to affift it in cafe the enemy’s infantry
fhould ftand its ground firmly ; but it is probable, that be¬
ing deprived of its cavalry, it will neither have the fame
firnanef*, nor the fame fpirit, as if it was fupported, efpeci-
ally when it is attacked on every fide.
The cavalry and the huftars who purfue the beaten wing
fhould not expofe themfelves too much, or break their order
in the purfuit, for fear tire enemy’s huffars which are behind
fhould fall upon and beat them by attacking them on all
hdes; which may very probably happen, if they do not
n.
take care to keep in order pf battle • which fhouM at lead
be attended to by the cavalry. After the huffars have pur-QperatlQ''a*
fued the enemy’s cavalry fo long as to entirely diforder
them, they fhould return and take their former pofts, in
order to march from thence to whatever place they may be
fetviceable. Although it may appear fomething hard to
make the huffars return, there is nothing fo difficult but
what may be accomplilhed, when order and difeipline are
firmly eftablifhed, and when an officer has the art of making
himfelf obeyed.
At the battle of Canme, the Carthaginian cavalry, fupe*
rior to that of the Romans, having broke through them,
one part continued the purfuit, and the other fell upon the
rear and the flanks of their infantry ; at the fame time the
Carthaginian infantry charged that of the Romans in ail
parts, which decided the vieftory, Thus Hannibal owed
his viftory partly to his fuperiority in cavalry, and to his
attack upon the flanks. The Nurmdians, who were upon
the right wing of the Carthaginian army, and who fought
nearly in the fame manner as the huflars, performed on this
occafion the fame fervice as the hufiars would certainly do
in the difpofition now before us ; fo true it is, that infantry,
deftitute of its cavalry, hath no longer the fame firmnefs,
nor the fame fpirit ; and if it is alio attacked in head by
infantry, it cannot avoid being beat. The principal atten¬
tion of a general, fays M. de Montecuculi, ought to be to
fecure the flanks ; experience having taught, that when the
wings of cavalry are broke, the in’antry is eafily furrounded,
and hath no longer the means, nor even the courage, of de¬
fending itfelf. The reader may fee the principles he lays
down upon that fubjetft. It is feen by the example of the
battle of Cannse, what ufe the cavalry ought to be put to,
particularly in an open country where it can eafily act.
What advantage may not be expe&ed from it, when an
army of Romans, 80,000 flrong in infantry, and 6000 horfe,
was overcome by the Carthaginians, weaker by the half in
infantry, but which derived its principal ftrength from
10,000 cavalry, all veterans, and well difeiplined.
But if the wing of cavalry is beat, it ought to retreat
with as much order as pofiible. The cavalry, or huflars,
that are pofted fidewife, ihould always continue in the fame
place ; there is no reafon to fear that the enemy will ad-
vance brifldy to the purfuit; becauie he will be taken in
flank by the body that is potted fidewiie ; a eircumftance
which ought not only to abate the eagernefs of the con¬
querors, but alio animate the conquered. By this man¬
ner of acting they gain time to pafs through the intervals
of the fecond line, and to rally in the rear of it, which they
can perform with the greater eafe, as they are neither pur-
fued nor molefted, at leaft but very {lightly.
In order to prevent the inconveniences that may arife if
the huflars in charging the firft line of the enemy in flank
are charged by the fecond, it is neceflary to detach inflantly
from the reierve a body of dragoons fufficient to fill up
the intervals of the hulfars, which will form a full line with¬
out taking up more ground ; this can be fo much better ef¬
fected, as there would be no ground on the other fide of the
troops who are pofted fidewife, and that, bdkles, thefe
troops would be at too great a diftance from the main body
of the army.
Again, without caufing them to fill up the intervals of
the hufiars, they may be placed in a fecond line behind
them; and when the huflars attack the flank of the ene¬
my’s wing, the dragoons will take their place* in order
to keep back the enemy’s fecond line. This method hath
the lame effedt, and is performed with lefs difficulty. It
is almoft evident, that the fecond line will not dare ad¬
vance to proteft the firft for fear of being charged in flank
5 A 2 by
2
740 r W j
Offenfi^e by tbe dragoons, but that on the contrary it will be obliged
^ ‘.eranons. ^ retrea}-
This difpofition, the performance of which appears very
dilEcult, is not in reality fo, if the general hath taken the
neceffary meafures, and if his troops are well difeiplined,
and know how to move with order and exa&nefs. Even
when this motion is not performed with all the exadnefs
poflible, it can never be dangerous, becaufe the front of the
two lines will not be deftroyed, and becaufe it is alfo made
upon the rear ; and that ii the dragoons and huffars are at¬
tacked and beat in marching up, their defeat cannot beany
way prejudicial to the main body of the army.
When the field of battle is in an open country, ?.ll the
troops {"enerally come down, efpecially when there is no
obftacle to prevent them. On thefe occafions, it is requifite
that the difpefition oi the troops fhould be ftrong in every
part; there fhould always be a relerve, whether of infantry
or dragoons, in order to be ready to a lull the troops which
have fuffered.
If it is poffble, in an open country, to find any hollow
to fupport the right, and a village to fupport the left, the
general fhould make choice of that fituation, fuppofing his
intention is to accept, and not offer battle. If he defigns
to give battle, it would he unnecefiary to take this pofition,
becaufe he muff quit it in order to attack the enemy : but
if circumftances require his accepting it, he mult feize this
poft, and place infantry and cannon in the village, and fta-
tion other infantry in the rear to fupport that which is in
the village.
As to the difpofition for the order of battle, efpecially
for the front of the line, it muft be regulated by the ground,
by the difpofition the enemy has. taken, by the troops that
can moil eafily a£I, and by thofe that the enemy can oppofe
to them.
If the enemy has pitched upon a field of battle, and the
general would attack him in it, he fhould keen his whole
front employed ; but fhould make his chief efforts, on one
or two parts, upon the wings, or at the centre. This was
the method prabfifed by marfhal tiaxe in all his battles :
when he accepted battle, as he was obliged to do at Fon-
tehoy in 1745,116 was in expeftation that the oppofite army
woul d'attack him on one fide kroner than another ; in this
fituation the diipofitions fhould be properly regulated, the
pofls intrenched and occupied, the cannon diftributed, and
troops placed in the rear or each poft to fuftain thofe which
are in it : viftory fhould then be expefted from the capa¬
city of the commanders, the firmnefs of the troops, and the
affiftance that is properly given them. But when a general
gives battle, he may attack either the right, the left, or
the centre, always conforming to the fituation of the ground,
and the field of battle which the enemy has chofen, which
cannot be afeertained but by a thorough knowledge of the
country.
It is dangerous to attack the whole front of the oppofite
army with equal vivacity, becaufe, if the attack does not
fucceed, the troops are difheartened, and are witneffes of
each other’s defeat. If the firft line is repulfed, the fecond
is feldom of any great ufe ; whereas, by only employing
the whole front of the enemy, and making a ftrong attack
upon one or two parts, if it is fuccefsful, the troops can take
the enemy in flank ; and thofe which amufed his front will
then attack him brifkly, and prevent him fending afliftance
to the troops that are beat. If the general does not luo*
ceed in the firft attack, he can try it again with greater
force, by caufing the troops of the fecond line to march
as was done at the battle of Lafeldt fought in 1 747 : the
French troops being repulfed four times, M. Saxe fent
them a reinforcement j thefe troops being united, carried
^ R. Part IT.
the village at the fifth attack, which determined the fate of Offenfive
the battle. operations.
In a plain but inclofed country, a general can attack ^ J
only part of an army. Antiquity turnifhes many examples
of this. Epaminondas, at the battle of I.eudtra, attack¬
ed only the right of the Lacedemonian army, with a
large column of infantry that formed his left; caufing the
right to be fupported, and making the left march, the whole
army, according to the opinion of the chevalier de Folard,
wheeled. The battle ot Mantinaea, won by the lame ge¬
neral, is alio of the fame nature ; with this exception, that
it was the centre oi the Lacedemonian army that was at¬
tacked. Thele examples are only propofed as what may
pofiibly happen, but which it would be dangerous to imitate
on every occafion, and which fhould he purfued in circum¬
ftances only where a general experts great advantage from
them. ^
As the cavalry can eafily aft in an open country, and be
of g’-eat afnftar.ee to the in'antry, all pollible means fhould
be 11 fed to contribute to the lucccis of their attack ; they
fhould always be fupported by troops in their rear. Cavalry
is of great ufe, particularly where the two armies, from the
fituation of the country, find no obftacle to prevent their
joining ; and if the cavalry,' as M. de Puyfegur obferves, is
beat, even when the infantry of the fame army is victorious,
the beft thing that can afterwards happen to it is, to retire
in good order.
The ground fo often varies, that even is an open coun¬
try there are unevenneffes, thickets, moraffes, and hollows *
in each of thefe fituations the difpofitions fhould be chan¬
ged. If thefe thickets happen to be in the line of cavalry,
and it can aft there (for it it cannot, it would be a very
great fault to place it in them), it fhould be intermixed with
platoons of infantry, obierving alfo not to take them from
the main body of the army, but from the referve, in order
not to diminifh the ftrength of the front ; which fhould
nevet be done on any occafion whatever, unlefs part of the
army, either by its own or the enemy’s pofition, cannot aft: 1
offenfively, by reafon of fome morals, hollow, or any other
obftacle that the enemy may have placed before him ; if,
neverthekfs, a general can take an advantageous pofition, by
caufing thefe thickets or thefe hedges to be occupied by I
infantry, he fhould give it the preference, to enable "the ca-
varly to aft with the greater facility.
The difpofitions vary not only according to the fituation
of the ground, but alfo according to the general’s views.
Some draw up the battalions without intervals, or like a
wall; others, with fmali intervals ; others leave the diftance
of half a battalion between each ; and others, in purfuance
of the chevalier de Folard’s method, place them in columns.
The firft difpofition is without doubt formidable as to
infantry ; but, as it has been already remarked, it is defec¬
tive with regard to cavalry. In the third, the interval of
half a battalion is too wide : it would require an immenfe
traft of ground; befides, the battalions would not be near
enough to have it in their power to proteft each other.
The fecond items better, becaufe the front is not fo large,
the battanons are more within reach of aflifting each other,
and have only the diftance neeeffary to prevent their mixing
confufedly together. The fourth is undoubtedly very
good ; but can a general promife himfelf, that the foldiera
can always march at an equal pace together, and without
flopping ? The fire of the column is continual, it defends-
itfelf on all fides ; but its oblique fire does not do much
execution, and there are iitu^tions and fpots where this po¬
fition in column would be faulty. When it cannot ap¬
proach the enemy, and is alfo expofed to his cannon, this-
difpofition would be dangerous ; becaufe it is cettain that
cannon
AVku.
•1? Ian oi aq. Oilier of ]B attle U^f Dj s p o situni.» Pi ate IDZSXT.
Parc II. W A
offenfive cannon plays with much greater advantage upon depth
Operations. than Up0n breadth : beiides, not being able to get near uhe
—v enemy, there are only the heads of the columns able to fire,
and the reft remains inactive, expofed to the cannon. The
po fit ion of the column is therefore only very good, when it
can get up to the enemy and charge him.
The marftial de Puyiegur afterts, that an army in an open
country, formed in two lines, the firfi of which is without
intervals, oua'ht of courle to beat an army that is formed
with intervals.
The reafon he gives for it is plaufible : it being certain,
that a full line keeps itfelf much clofer in marching ; and
that, charging the firft line of the armv that has intervals,
it ought to have broke through it before the fecond line,
which is 150 toifes or 300 paces behind, can have time to
come up to its affiftance ; which might very well happen,
and examples oi it may alio be cited. Put could not there
be another difpofition oppoled to this diioofition in wall,
keening the necefiary intervals, not only capable of refilling
it, but alio ftronger, whether by the pofition and arrange¬
ment o' troops, or by the ready afSftance they can give each
other, without being confuted in their motions ?
Let two armies be fuppofed in a plain country, without
fupport to the wings of either tide, or without any obftacle
that may prevent their getting up to eacn other. 1 he
enemy’s "army, as hath already been faid, is in two lines ; the
firft of which is formed in wall, both infantry and cavalry ;
the fecond is formed with large intervals, and a body of hul-
fars in the rear. The army to be oppofed to it is of equal
force, and confifts of 40 battalions and 54 fquadrons, caval¬
ry, huffars, and drap oons. The following teems to be near¬
ly the manner in which it ought to adl againft ttic enemy,
who is fuppofed tg> be drawn up in wall.
The firit line of infantry compofed of 15 battalions, has
the diftance of three toifes between each battalion, and the
diftar.ee of half a battalion between each brigade, eight
fquadrons on the right, and as many on the left, with their
proper intervals : 1 s battalions in the lecond line, 200 paces
dift nt from the firft, feven fquadrons on the right, and the
like number 011 the left, in the rear of the intervals of thofe
of the firft line, fupporting the infantry of the fecond; to
battalions in referve in two columns, one of which in the
rear of the fquadrons on the right of the fecond line, and
the other of the fame force polled in the fame manner on
the left; J2 fquadrons of dragoons in the rear of the le-
cond line, half on the right, half on the left ; and 12 fqua-
drons ©f cavalry, or hufiars if there is not cavalry, in the
rear of thofe of the firft line.
By this diipofition, the army appears to be ranged in
two lines, with a referve, and will leave no room tor the
enemy to doubt of the motions it may make in marching :
this difpofition will undoubtedly have that effedt, and does
not appear very formidable ; but as foon as the two armies
begin to move forward, the fecond line of infantry muft ad¬
vance as unperceived as poffible, forming itlelf in columns
by battalions, each of which, with its head to a battalion of
the firft line, will form as many T’s. The 10 battalions in
referve, which form two columns of five battalions each, will
march and fill up the fpace on the right and left, between
the infantry and cavalry. The cavalry, or huffars, which
are in the rear of the firft line, one by a motion to the
right, the other by a notion to the left, will poll themfelves
iidewife, at 100 paces from the wings of the army ; the
dragoons muft poll themfelves in the rear of them in a fe¬
cond line. This will be performed much eafier marching,
becaufe it is not complicated ; it is aifo performed in the
rear, and the front of the firft line is not put into dil-
order ; and confi quently, the enemy will not perceive it
boon enough to change his pofition, and oppofe the dilpo-
R. 74*
fitron which is prefented to him. This firft line, by this OfTepuve
difpofition, forming as many columns as there are battalions, i er ‘
of courfe ought to break through the enemy’s army, which
is in wall, but not above lour deep, becaufe the impreffion
of a column ou jht to he much ftronocr than that of a bat¬
talion four or fix deep. See Plate D^XI.
Suppofing the wings pi each T to give way, the batta¬
lions which penetrate there'will find themfelves between
two columns hedged in with bayonets ; the 10 battalions
in referve, which, according to this difpofition, ought
to join the right and the left of the infantry, fhould of
courfe feparate the two wings of the infantry, which are on
the outfide of the difpofition in columns. Four battalions
fhould remain in purluit of them, and the two laft take the
line in flank, at the fame time that it is attacked in head*
The cavalry fhould charge the line which is in wall with
great vi jour ; and the fecond line fhould follow it very clofe,
but in good order : the cavalry, or huffars, which are poll¬
ed fidewife, will attack it in flank, and the dragoons mud
remain in their poll, in order to keep back the enemy s fe¬
cond line.
Whatever difpofiti-ons are made in the drawing up of an
armv, they fhould always have fome object. A general
fhould foreiee all that may be done by the enemy, whofe
diipofition he fhould always tuppofe to be a good one, and
to which he fhould oppoleone at leall as ftrong, and always
better if poffible ; he fhould particularly conceal from him
the motions he intends making, or diiguife them from him
in fuch a manner, that he fhall not have time to oppofe
them, or at leaft not readily enough: neither fhould a general
be lo near as to give the enemy an opportunity of dilcover-
ing and profiting by the method he intends following.
The diipofition of an army in wall is good ; but in gene*
ral only fo with refpecl to infantry, beeaufe that body t
aiding by itfelf requires but very little ground to retreat,
or prefent itfelf to the enemy, or to make a motion to the
light or to the left. But this fame difpofition is defedlive,
and even hurtful lor cavalry, unleis there is a moral certain¬
ty of its getting the better : but as, with regard to war, a
moral certainty would be a real prefumption, this difpofition-
of cavalry in wall would be dangerous, became it may be
broke. If that which is oppofed to it marches up to it re-
folutely without confufion, and without being afraid of that
mafs of cavalry, and charges it the firft, Iwordin hand, how-
can it retire in order if it is broke, being as much itraitened
in its retreat as in its dilpohtion ? All the fquadions filling
up the ground, it will neither be able to make any evolution,
or to adl ; and if it retreats through the large intervals of
the fecond line, it will carry it away with it in its flight 1
were there even fix lines behind it, they would all be carried
away, the fecond by the firil, the third by the iecond, and
fo on with the others.
It is true that it may give the firft charge, and confe-
quently make thofe fquadrons which have intervals give
way ; but as thefe laft have more ground to aft on, they
can retreat with greater eafe than thofe who have none, by
paffing through the intervals of the lecond line, which is
not to be done by a line that hath no interval. They can
rally in the rear, while the iecond will charge the line that
is without interval, and which is already difunited by its
firft attack ; even when thefe two lines are beaten, they can
retire with greater eafe, each fquadron having ground
enough to aft upon. They will never be lo much diiorder-
ed as the line which has no interval, which cannot efcape
being cut in pieces ir broke, or which can only find its fafety
in flight ; whereas, thofe that have intervals can retire one
after another, and in a foldier-like manner, fuftaining each
other.
Befides, in order to prevent the impetuofity of this caval-
3 ry
W A
ry in wall, It appears tliat nothing is to be clone but to pod
huffars, if there is not a fufficieney of hosfe, behind the fqua.
drone of the fir ft line, who, when the two armies begin to
move 'orward in order to charge, will place themfelves on
the right and the left f.dewife, 10c paces diftant from the
hrft lines of cavalry : by this pofttion, they will be able to
take the enemy’s line in flank, whenever it comes to attack
the cavalry. If a part of this line perceiving this motion,
divides into two, one part to attack the line that has inter¬
vals, and the other the huffars, it is fo much ftrengtn loft 5
confequently, the line with proper intervals has fewer troops
to fight, and may expert to break them by giving the firft
charge. If the huffars fhould be beat, it is of no great con-
fequence, the defeat of thofe troops never deciding the fuc-
ceis of the battle : it is the body of the army the enemy
muft break, and not two regiments of huflars, wnich retreat
with great eafe from before cavalry, and rally and return to
the attack as readily as they retired. But if, inftead of
huffars, cavalry can be polled there, the enemy’s line, which
is divided into two, will find itfelt obliged to fight upon
equal terms: the certainty of iuccds depends upon the
quicknefs with which the enemy is attacked ; and the more
In, as he will be obliged to make a motion in the prefence
of troops already potted and ready to charge. If this line
without intervals advances, without fhowing any attention
to the huffars, in order to charge the cavalry, the hufl'ars,
at leall a great part of them, ought to fall upon the flanks;
and the dragoons, which are in the rear of them in referve,
fhould take their place, to keep back the enemy’s-fiecond
line, and to prevent the hufl'ars from being taken in the rear.
Thefe two difpofitions are ideal. A general fcldom
choofes to fight upon a fpot where the wings are void of
fupport; and prevents the enemy, as much as pofSble, from
getting poffefuon of an advantageous poll, or at leal! does
not attack him when he cannot prevent him doing it, elpe-
cially if the ground vdiich he occupies is everywhere ex-
pofed ; there are, neveithelefs, circumftances where a gene¬
ral is obliged to fight, although not in a poft ftrong by fitu-
ation. By the two difpofitions juft now deferibed, the
order which would be moft proper to be preferved for co.
vering the wings, which may be expofed by the fituation
of the ground, has been endeavouted to be fhown ; it has
been feen of what conlequence it is for a general to know,
and to fecure all the heights, moraffes, hollows, and every
obftacle he may meet with. On occafions fo important, a
general fhould take the fame precautions that he would ufe
under the cannon of a place, if he found heights that over¬
looked the works ; in which cafe he would not fail of con-
itrufting others more advanced, to prevent the enemy from
getting there, and retarding their approaches.
If the duke of Savoy, at the battle of Marfaille, gained
In 1698 by the French army, commanded by M. de Catinat,
had been pofleffed of the heights of Piofaca, the two wings
of that prince’s army would have been iupported ; inftead
of which, his left wing was expofed. M. de Catinat, pro¬
fiting from this fault, extended his right to the foot of thofe
heights, of which he poffeffed himfelf, and outftretched
the enemy’s left : it was from thefe heights that the diforder
in the duke of Savoy’s army commenced ; it foon com¬
municated to the whole front, and got poffeffxon of the
whole army : fo true it is, that the moil trifling object, be-
ing neglected, changes the order of things ; that the leatt
fault becomes effential; that confidence in the number
and in the courage of the troops is often dangerous ; and
that having a contemptible opinion of an enemy is always
fatal. The enemy, although inferior in troops, will loon
attain a degree of fuperiority, if he has the advantage of
ground.
Armies can engage in fo many different pofitions, that it
R * Part ]?,
is impofible to partlcularife all af them. In this Off;F:fiv#
two armies have already been prefented in an open country,
without any lupport to their wing : two others have been j
polled, one ot which is upon a fpot advantageoufly fituated, 1
its two wings covered ; the other hath only its right wing
fupported, and its left expoied. It has been endeavoured
to give to that, whofe left wing is unfupported, the greateft
ftrength in its whole front that is pofljble, and by the dil-
pofition o'- the left wing it is both iliong and fecure ; but
there are fuch a variety of fpots where two armies may meet,
that it will fuftice -to know in general the advantages they
may derive from their fituation.
1)isp. III. A thud difpofition very different from the
two former is as follows. The enemy’s army is fuppoied to
be advantageoufly polled; it hath a hollow on its right,
through which run the waters of an impaffable morals, form¬
ing a rivulet. Its left is fupported by a large town, crofted
by a rivulet. In the centre is an height, capable of con¬
taining 12 battalions; in the front of it is a plain of 700
or 800 toifes, which extends from its left to the cavalry on
its right, Oppofite to this cavalry the plain grows narrow,
er, by reafon ot an height which reaches to the rivulet, and
which the cavalry could not occupy, becaufe the enemy hath
taken pofleffion of it during the night. The town is en¬
trenched, and filled with imantry and artillery ; 16 batta¬
lions in two lines are polled next the town, in order to fuf-
tain the troops that are in it. Behind the town there are
three bridges upon the rivulet: in the front of the town, on
the other fide of the rivulet, are polled four battalions and
five pieces of cannon, in order to flank the troops intending
to attack the town : thefe four battalions are fuftained
by eight fquadrons of dragoons. The centre of the army
confifls of 20 battalions in the firll line, and as many in
the fecond ; eight of which are next to the morafs, iuftain*
ed by fix fquadrons of dragoons; r 2 fquadrons in the
ftrtl line, and 12 in the fecond. The cavalry on the right
confifts of 11 fquadrons in the firft line, and 1 r in the fe¬
cond. Thirty iquadrons of huffavs, diftributed hall on the
riuht, and half on the left, and the whole front of the army
lined with artillery. Plate DXXIi.
The army A, which was encamped a quarter of a league
from the height by which it is leparated from the enemy,
began its march at dark ; it halted at the foot of the height,
and fent fome detachments of infantry to take poffeffion of
the fummit of it. The army I made the above-mentioned
difpofitions, becaufe the army A was too near to be able to
avoid a battle. The army I is compofed of 78 battalions
and 90 fquadrons: thefe two armies are nearly of equal
ftrength. _ ,
The left of the army A hath a fine plain before it, ex¬
tending from the morafs to that part where the height com¬
mences. In that place are polled eight battalions in two
columns of four battalions each, next the morafs, with 10
pieces of cannon between the two columns: there are 14
battalions in the firll line, and j 3 in the fecond ; four
battalions towards the height, and next the cavalry. Six¬
teen battalions occupy the height as far as the fmail wood ;
four battalions occupy the other fide of the wood, and 32
battalions upon twm lines very dole together ; 12 battalions
behind the height next the rivulet; I 2 fquadrons of horie,
jmd 20 huffars, who have orders to pals three bridges
thrown over the rivulet, and attack the town with three
columns of four battalions each, fuitained by the 12 Squa¬
drons of horfe, and the 20 of dragoons. In the rear ol tne
cavalry upon the left, are polled 16 fquadrons of dragoon*
at . f tie diftance, with intervals; fo that, if the enemy
fhotiA attack this left and beat it, the cavalry may eafily
retire ■ ough the intervals of the dragoons, to give them
the gi eater facility of ailing, and turn their defeat into
Part IT. W • A
Offenfive arv almoll certain vlftory. Fifteen fquadrons of horfe are
Pjierat ons. nofted behind the height, with their. right toward the
w—'v 1 height, and their left toward the camp, in order to take the
enemy in flank, whilfl he is employed in purfuing the caval¬
ry of the left, which he has beaten. The chief objeft of
the attack fhould be the town, although the moil difficult.
If it is forced, the enemy wdl be beat without refource :
beesufe the infantry who has driven him from that poil,
will attack him in the rear ; at the fame time that the in¬
fantry which remained on the height will come down from
it, and join, either to attack, or at bail to employ the enemy
upon the height, and by that attackprevent him from fending
affillance to the troops already driven from the town and put
to flight : the cavalry upon the left will advance at the fame
time to fupport the infantry, and, if neceSTary, to charge the
enemy’s cavalry.
The 32 battalions which are upon the height in two lines,
will be divided into fix columns, of which four ot fix bat¬
talions will be employed in attacking the town, the lail bat¬
talion of every column excepted ; which mult remain at the
entrance of the wood, with four columns of four battalions
upon the left, in order to fullain the infantry attacking the
town, and to keep back the enemy’s cavalry upon the left.
They will defeend from the height under the proteftion of
the wood by which it is covered, and which ends at about
400 toifes from the town. Thefe troops will be followed
by artillery, which mud be polled between the columns;
they muil halt on leaving the wood, and will begin by
making a continual fire of cannon upon the town and the
cavalry: during this fire of the artillery, the (2 battalions
on the other fide of the rivulet ought to attack the four
battalions and the eight fquadrons of dragoons belonging
to the enemy ; and when they have forced them to give
way, they will amufe them by a conilant fire of mufquetry.
When the artillery fhall have played long enough to have
broken down the enemy’s entrenchments, and deilroyed the
order of the troops, the four columns, formed of 20 bat¬
talions, will march up, and with their bayonets endeavour to
penetrate at fome part; the 1 2 battalions on the other fide of
the rivulet will charge at the fame time ; the two columns of
four battalions each, as well as the four lail battalionsbelonging
to the columns which attack the town, will remain at the en¬
trance of the wood with the artillery, in order to keep back
the enemy’s infantry and cav'alry which was next the town.
If any one of the columns can penetrate as far as the bridge
that is in the town, it will take pofieffion of it, as well as of
the market-place ; the others following it will take poifef-
fion of the hedges and gardens. One column only will be
fufficient to fecure the banks of the rivulet, and take pof-
feffion of the bridges. As foon as the bridges are free from
the enemy, the 12 iquadrons of horfe and the 20 ofhuifars
will pafs and attack every thing they find to- oppofe them ;
then the left ought to advance : the battalions which have
remained upon the heights fhould come down from them,
and all together attack the front of the army, whole left
wing is already broken and taken in flank.
But if the enemy, after having examined the difpofition
of the army A, imagining that the principal attack will be
dire&ed againil the town, inftead of remaining in his firft.
difpofition, changes it entirely, and caufes a part of his fe-
cond line of infantry to march to the town ; and if he
ftrengthens his right by the cavalry of the left (a fpot more
favourable for cavalry than infantry), the attack of the town
will then become impradlicable, becaufe of the great fupeti-
ority of the troops defending it; therefore it would be ufe-
lefs to perfift in it ; but his right (hould be vigoroufly and
briflely attacked. It is true, that it is reinforced by the
cavalry from the left; but as the ground between the height
R. 743
and the eight battalions which are next the morafs can con- OfTlnfive
tain but 12 fquadrons, thofe which the enemy hath drawn
from the left can only be polled behind the height, or in
the third line ; if they are behind the height, nothing can
prevent their being attacked: but fuppofing the firil line
broken, it Ihould rot he too warmly puriued, for fear of ie-
parating, and being taken in flank by the cav?.lry behind
the height. The 16 fquadrons of dragoons which are be¬
hind, ought to remain in that fituation ; the 15 fquadrons
of horfe, which are with their right to the height, and their
left to the old camp, ought to take the place of thofe who
have attacked the enemy ; and then the 20 battalions which
are upon the height will come down into the plain and
attack the enemy’s infantry, at the fame time that the 15
fquadrons of cavalry and the 16 of dragoons attack the ca¬
valry which is polled behind the height. If they fucceed
in beating it, or whether they do or not, if the enemy fends
affiitance, he will weaken his left, and then the 44 battalions,
who till this time have remained inactive, may come down
from the height and attack the town, not fo much with a
defi.rn of forcing it, as to oblige the enemy not to take any
troops from it; if no affillance is feut to th£ right wing, it
will be undoubtedly beaten, being attacked by fotces fo-
greatly fupperior to it: the whole of the cavalry being thus
put to flight, the molt prudent part the enemy can take is»
to endeavour to pafs the rivulet by the three bridges be¬
hind the town, and by fo doing fecure hirnfelf from farther
infult: if the enemy does this, the 12 battalions, the 12
fquadrons of horfe, and the 20 of dragoons, will retire by
the fame road they marched up, and they will be in- fecuri-
ty as foon as they are in the wood : befides, a beaten army
is ieldom to be feared ; therefore, they may retire uiitnolefl>
ed, and in order.
But if it happens that the enemy, without changing hi»
pofition, is not to he forced in any of thefe attacks, the
general had better retire to the height, where there will be
no danger of the enemy’s endeavouring to attack him : but
it he fhould attempt the attack of the left wing of the army
A, it mull he reinforced by all the cavalry that can be em¬
ployed without caufing confufion, and two brigades of in¬
fantry fhould be joined to the two which are next the mo~
rafs.
Di sp. IV. The fourth difpofition is fuppofed in a coun¬
try mixed with thickets and plains. The enemy’s army
hath its right to fome mountains, and its left to a river ; in
about a third part of the length of his front, there is a vil¬
lage a little behind its right. His difpofition is, four bat¬
talions and fix pieces of cannon upon an height which over¬
looks the plain, to which is alfo added the cavalry of the
right. Behind are two pafl'es entrenched and guarded by
four battalions ; upon the heights of thefe pafles there are
f@ur more, to prevent the enemy penetrating at the flank.,
There are eight fquadrons in the firil lige, four battalions
polled at the village, and 1 2 in it with cannon: 1 6 battalions
on the left of the village, 14 fquadrons and four battalions next
the river. The fecond line coniifts of 1 1 fquadrons upon the
right, eight battalions behind the village, in order to carry
timely afliftanceto it; 1 2 battalions in the rear of the 16 of the
firlt line ; 15 fquadrons and four battalions to the river. The
referve confifts of 18 fquadrons of dragoons next the moun¬
tains (in order to difmount and be within reach of affifting the
battalions guarding the pafles), and of 24 fquadrons of huffars,
on the left next the river. An ifland is fuppofed a little in
the front of the firlt line: in this ifland are placed two
battalions and fix pieces of cannon. A flone bridge is allo-
fuppofed between the two lines, behind which is polled two
battalions, to fupport thofe in the ifland, and to facilitate
their retreat. It feems impoflible to attack an army thus.
4 fituated ^
744 W A I?
o“ aI11 tror a? a routral fuppon .» each other, .he u,^. ^ each bri^de Tl,, N 4 r ■ , Part H
<     ! ffc“r'd »<1 «!1 guarded , artillery Is plant- right flank will advance „n ,I era ^ fupp0r"nS ,!,c «*M»
eft p Jon nr the* airVmU . —i .i 1 ■ ^uvance on the hae of the river: and then Operaiior, J
ed along the whole front ; and the paffes are entrenched,
and troops polled in them.
In the front of the enemy’s army is a laige plain, which
nins nom the mountains as far as the rh. r ; but the large-
ne , Jt lsb!«ke ‘nto by tome thickets, where nevei thelefs
cavahy may a ft: m order to attack this army, thus advan-
tageonfly ported, a difpofition mult be made, entirely dif-
feunt from that which it is in. If the village, which is en-
tunched am well furmfheu with troops and artillery, is at-
tacked the forcing it will be doubtful: but fuppofing it
hould be forced, it will not be without lofing a great number
of men ; which fhould be avoided, becaufe it is the duty of a
general to (pare the blood of his foldiers as much as poffible,
and even, .fpraaicable, to employ but few of his troops
afo?.inft a greater number of the enemy’s. Ifthe paffes on y
«.e attacked in order to H<e the enemy in flank it is very
re‘^ln, he- Can ffnd. afliftance to it without weakening l/s
refe vp'r^ i L" h'°PoWcr to caufe the eight battalions in
refe ve behind the village to march there, and to.caufe the
18 iqu?drot'R °! d,--?goons to difmount. If only the left
wing next the river is attacked, it is true that attack is more
p. amicable, there being no obftacle or entrenchment to p-e-
vent coming up with the enemy : but ftill there is but one
xying beaten ; and that, by falling back upon the troops i„
i martef’ tT retreat by thc mountfns of which the enemy
, •' J,ere ^ greft reafon to imagine it will be beat;
t? ,.th-Agenera TUft endeavour to reap as much profit from
o loffth7f 8> h;-C2 V * i8 th^F™ th, uglm that, Z
left wi f rUlt lt} the enemy ftouId bo attacked on the
rtlr ZZ'T theCentr to withIn about 200 toifesof the
nver, at the lame time that the entrenched partbs are attack
€d During thefe two attacks, a briik cannonade fhouid
the rirh.UPri P-V1'' Vi!1fge’. lhe i"fan,rl a"d <=»vulry upon
th. right, the infantry that is ported in the ifland, and that
fromhanflnC-X Vhc ^ Z7 thefe tW° ?'ttack8 the enemy’s
f ont and nbrht wing will be equally annoyed; he will not
know where to lend affiftance, ?nd in' that Le’of uncertain!
fn , frpl0Dauy rnd 11 t0 a Part wbere the danf?er is not
rre lnp ^)llt buPP°fe he fhould aft in the moft prope>-
and Fuden manner, as if fhould always be imagined he
vill, the affiftance which he will fend to'that partf cannot
be effedea without unfurmfhing or weakening lome other :
battlhWbeh^d h Pa7 and th£ hei^htS with the oight
forced but hf 11 ^ thCy Pf lhaPS Wfl1 Rot be
the vffiarre inH Z take any troops from
frnnl lh • • dT ,° knd them to the afliftance of the
fa e ft 1ft tf^K Z if he 010111(1 unfurniih the vil-
fa,,e, it muft then be attacked, and that vigoroufly ; which
nouadcV a ^ Patb bccn for ,ome time can-
dowlf d’ 1 1 C°nfeqUendy the earth hath been tumbled
fd °Pen,ngi ™ade> at lead large enough for the in-
p— ‘—t
In order to execute the attack upon the enemy’s armv
iolW ^ troops ought to be diflributed'after the
fir ft inann5r : ?dl the infantry ffiould be placed in the
20 fhat °f the re!erve’ wh''ch fhould confift of
20 battalions ; the fecond line fhould conlift tfto t
-d t!- ^ouUhe f0rmcd oolfed"
Tl,e 20 battalions on ,he left, forming fi.f Zm
t ,he “">4 cut „tgthe ihicitete!
Se hn k b r fWeen ,l,e i,,te'vals of cach bri-
f e» the 28 battalions, after making feven brigades as
the!! Ihe 2Cy rmt! °Ut °pthu thfcketS’ wiI1 form in column:
formed in 4 qUadron.,whlcb a^ ^ the rear of the infantry,
med m CoIunin' Wljl Poll themfelyes, four fquadrors in
the feven columns and the 24 fquadrons will marcTurio
tl e enemy and attack him with their bayonets, without
loling time firing. As foon a, the columns have broken
01 llaggered the enemy’s firft line, the cavalry will fall furl-
onflyupon them, iivord in hand ; a part of the dram n,
and hiilTais Ihpuld lolloiv, in order to be within dittan’ee of
folia,ntngthe troops who have attaeked, or to join them.
•f ,v.“ llK ca,allT who have broken in arnone the enemv •
it hould be obierved, that as fool, as the huflirs JZZ’.
gee and purlumir the enemy, the cavalry (hould ,ally in order
toludatn them, or to flank the infantry which may ft 1
make refinance. The brigade of iniant,/which fopL. d
he f^tr'ban r ^ ,,the, f,luadrons> ftc-U attack
lie fom battalions on the left of the firft line, and the feven
(quad,ons will take them in flank ; which they can wfth
IC ereauu- e?fe '“fC'1’ !,s the cavalry hath been put to
attack f" f e"t ,,Col,u,:n (houli!> “ith four fqnadrons,
attack the four battalions of the fecond line, at the fame
time that this attack is executed from the front as far as the
H'CI , 16 oattahons ol the 20 in referve (hould attack the
pafles, and alfo the heights ; the remainfog four t/ftmamh
dei cover of the mountains, fuftained by a brigade of in-
antly a?d eight fquadrons, in order to attack the cavalry
on the right ; thus of the whole front of the enemy’s army,
there will remain only the village that hath not been attack¬
ed, unlels there hath been fuch a number of trooos drawn
tram it, as to render the carrying of it not difficult. It is
to be iuppofed that one of thefe attacks will fucceed : that
made by the columns fooner than the reft : the dilpofition
of columns intermixed with cavalry is very formidable be-
caule each body is fupported without confufion : be Tide's it
is to be fuppoied that a column four battalions in depth
and rom 18 to 20 men in front, ought to break through a
me that is only four deep, and which, being once penetrated.
S/e Hafo DXXia "0d;ffiCUlty “ ‘hrough ,f.
7be movement of the infantry to form itfelf in column,
and the evolutions or the cavalry to fill up the intervals of
each column, ought to be performed with great quicknefis-
and near enough to the enemy to furprife him, but not at
luen a diftance as to give him time to remedy it.
. ^ btr liature of the. ground, which is continually chan"
gmg, cannot be followed through all its various fhapes ; the
author from whofe work we take this article hath therefore
endeavoured to form his ditpofitions in thofe fixations
which molt ordinarily occur, in order that thefe general dif-
pofitions may be affirtant to the ideas in more particular and
critical Situations. Mountainous countries have not been
mentioned, becaufe it is very rare that they prefent an op¬
portunity of coming to a general atfticn : the affairs which
happen among them are generally with regard to fome port,
winch can never decide the fate of an army, however brifk
they may be. The four difpofitions now mentioned are
ideal ; and although the propriety of them may be defend¬
ed, it would be very imprudent to anfwer tor their fuccefs :
becauie with regard to the bufinefs of war, the whole de-
pends upon arcumftances, and the leaft accident often ren.
ders a difpofition, feemingly the beil, the moft prejudicial
that can be taken. A motion of the enemy’s troops ill
condu&ed by therr commanders, too much floth or too
much eagernefs in the execution of orders, an accidental
woid falling from the mouth either of an officer or a foldier,
and which is always increafed when told again, may occa-
uon the defeat of an army, however well difpofed or ad-
vantageoufly fituated. The epithet “ beft” ffioul l be
given to that general who commits the feweft faultsfor
there
Partlir. W A
Petite there is no man who can flatter himfelf with having com-
Guerre. mjtted none : it is impoffible for a general to fee every thing
— w himfelf, or to remedy any unforefeen acident that may hap¬
pen, if he is not affifted by his general officers, who fee
things which it is impoffible he can : they ought not only
R. 745
to be the means of petting hts orders in execution ; but
even, in certain circumftances, they ffiould prevent them, . i
and make the fame difpofitions which the general ought to
make, and would certainly order, were he in their lituation*
Part III. Of the PETITE GUERRE.
THE Petite Guerre confifts in the manoeuvres of the
Partifan in fecret marches, occupying, defending, or
attacking polls, reconnoitring countries or the enemy, pla¬
cing of ambufeades, &c.
Sect. I. Of the Qualifications of a Partifan, and
the Nature of his Corps.
They generally call every officer a partifan who is def-
tined to go at the head of a detachment, whether draught¬
ed from the body of the army, or of a party which he be¬
longs to, and for that reafon has no other name than that of
a partifan.
Of all military employments, there is none which require
more extraordinary qualities than that of the partifan. A
good paitifan ought to have an imagination fertile in pro-
je&s, fchemes, and refources ; a penetrating fpirit, capable
-of combining the whole circumftances of an action ; a heart
intreoid againft every appearance of danger ; a Heady coun¬
tenance, always alfured, and which no figns of difquiet can
alter ; a happy memory, that can call every one by his
name ; a difpofition alert, to carry him through every thing,
End give a foul to the whole ; a piercing rapid eye, which
inftantly catches faults or advantages, obltacles and dangers
of frtuation, of country, and every objtdl as it palfes ; his
fentiments ought to be fuch, as to hx the rdpeft, confi¬
dence, and attachment of the whole corps. Without thefe
difpofitions, it is impoffible to fucceed.
A partifan ought to fpare nothing to be affirred by his
fpies of the march, force, defigns, and pofition of the ene¬
my. As chief, he owes the example of an irreproachable
conduft to his corps, by which he will infpire relpedl, love,
zeal, and vigilance, and gain the hearts of the whole to his
fervice. It is extremely dangerous for fuch an officer to
nontradl the leafl attachment to v/omen, wine, or riches.
The firft makes him negleft his duty, and frequently occa-
frons the mod ruinous treacheries : the iecond leads to dan¬
gerous indiferetions, and is fare to draw down contempt:
the third leads to guilt, and deftroys all fentiments of ho¬
nour. The partifan mud be content without the delica¬
cies of the table, as he may be often expofed to want
provifion ; his bed the fame with the mens, a cloak and
draw, never dripping but to change linen. Nothing ani¬
mates foldiers fo much as the pretence and vigilance of a
commanding officer (haring with them the fatigues of the
fervice : the officers follow his example ; the men are affured,
encouraged, and content.
A corps capable of carrying on the Petite Guerre to ad¬
vantage fhould be compofed of infantry and cavalry ; and as
it is incontedable that the cavalry ought to be the mod ac¬
tive in carrying on the Petite Guerre, it were to be widied
that they were like wile the dronged, fo as to have 600 ca¬
valry and 400 infantry in a corps of 1000 men, making four
companica of infantry and I 2 troops of cavalry.
The commanding officer fhould have the naming of the
officers of this corps, or at lead have liberty to rejedl fuch
as he is convinced are not qualified for fuch fervice, as eve¬
ry officer who may be ambitious to ferve in the corps, tho’
Von. XVIII. part u.
pofTeffed of great military merit, may not have the talents
requifite for the duties of the partifan.
To fupport the honour of this corps upon a folid and re-
fpeftable footing, the drifted fubordmation mud extend
from the chief to all the officers, and the mod rigid dife-i-
pline infpire vigilance, patience, bravery, and love of glory,
to the whole corps.
It is of the utmod importance for the officer that com¬
mands, to have the choofing his men and officers whom he
knows to be fitted for his enterprife, and thereby prevent¬
ing many difficulties, contradiftions, and dangers, which jea-
loufy and didrud always occafion among drangers.
No recruit for the corps of a partifan, either cavalry
or infantry, (hould exceed 30 years of age ; but the young¬
er they are, if they can carry arms, fo much the better for
fuch a fervice, to which youth is particularly inclined. In •
the choice of recruits for the cavalry, it were not unworthy
the attention of officers to prefer men that are lovers of
horfes, and to recruit chiefly in thofe countries where Inch
are moflly to be expefted.
As for arms, the firelock and bayonet is fufficient for a
foot foldier ; and in the corps of the partifan, barrels of 36
inches, with a long bayonet, but to have the caliber the
fame as that of the red of the army, which, for the lake of
having ammunition made up to fuit the whole, ought to be
invariably the fame. A helmet likewife is preferable to a hat,
as the fw'ord is ahnod the only thing to be dreaded from the
enemy’s cavElry. Four fpades and tour pick-axes fhould be
given to each company of infantry.
The prefent manner of equipping the light dragoons is
fo perfeft, it is unneceffary to fay any thing on that head 5
but no white horfe, done horfe, or mare, fhould be fuffered
in the corps of the partifan, as the lead neighing or percei¬
vable colour may make enterprifes fail. No horfe diould be
mounted for fervice till fix years old. The fize of the light
dragoons is very proper for the partifan ; and while they
have firm ground to aft upon, and plenty of forage, none
can excel them ; but when they come among moraffes, and
feel the feverity of want, perhaps the Hungarian huflars
may be found more equal to the duty : poffibly, therefore,
in forming the corps of the partifan, 200 horfe, fuch as
are bred in the mountains of Wales or Scotland, mounted
by the lighted men, might be found ot good fervice.
The principal attention of an officer of cavalry fhould be,
to fee that the men feed and drefs their horfes well. Du¬
ring the whole campaign they fhould have dry food only,
as green weakens them. When the exigency of the fervice
requires the horfes to be kept faddled day and night, every
horieman fhould feize lome moment to turn the faddle-cloth,
which greatly comforts a horfe, keeps him at eafe, and lefs
apt to gall ; and care ihould be taken to keep the cloth foft,
and clean from fweat and dud.
Sect. II. Of Pojls* &c and the different Jforks ivith
•which they may be fortified.
Posts are generally fufch places as bodies of troops can.
fix in when detached from the army, to cover and fecurc
the frontiers } and upon the vigilance and refidance-of the ,
2 B partiea
746 W
Petite parties that are detached there, depends the fafety of the
G061"15, army. Whatever the abilities of a general may be, it is
fcarce poflible that he can have an eye to every detail that
contributes to their defence ; it is fufficient if he knows that
the guards are properly placed, and the line that they
make properly eftablifhed. It is then the bufinefs of the
particular officers who command them, to make the bell dif-
pofition for a vigorous defence, and anfwering the views of
the general.
An officer who is detached to a poll, is either to relieve
a party, or take poffeffion for the firlt time. In the firll
cafe, if the guard which he relieves happens to be entrench¬
ed, as foon as he arrives at the poll, and has taken his inftruc-
tions from the officer who commands, he (hould prepare
himielf for his defence, as (hall be mentioned in that article.
In the fecond, if an officer who is detached is to entrench
himfelf, he mult examine if the place is advantageous for the
execution of his projedls, the defence of his people, and the
fecuring a retreat.
He muff confult, ift, Whether the fituation be conveni¬
ent for fending parties to difeover the enemy ; whether
to give intelligence of their fituation and march, or to di-
flurb and furprife them, 2d, If it has fome natural defence
on its front or flanks, fuch as a river, rivulet, morafs, or
fmall wood that can be eafily penetrated. 3d, If he can
preferve his communication with the army, and if there are
fome covered places to favour his retreat. 4th, If he can
difeover all the approaches ; becaufe if the enemy can come
within a fmall dillance of the poll without being feen, he
will place himfelf under cover there, and reft while the be-
fieged are obliged to remain continually under arms, and will
watch the moment for making an attack. If then he finds
hollow roads, clumps of wood, or any place where the ene¬
my can fecure himftlf in the neighbourhood of his poll,
he muft fill them up, or guard them with detachments of fix
or feven men. t;th, He muft take care not to be command¬
ed by any neighbouring heights, or muft prevent the enemy
from profiting by that advantage ; becaufe if they can take
his foldicrs in the rear, it will be impoffible for them to de¬
fend themfelves. 6th, The extent of the work muft be pro¬
portioned to the number of men that are to defend it. Good
fenfe and numberlefs examples prove, that too large en¬
trenchments can only be defended by confiderable bodies.
7th, He fliould take care to have all the parts of his en¬
trenchment nearly of an equal llrength, fo as to be able to
make an equal refiftance everywhere and, laftly, He will
take care to fulfil exa&ly the intention of the general in poll¬
ing a guard in that place.
There are fome places fo advantageoufly polled by na¬
ture, that though they are not fortified, they may in a
ihort time, and with little charge, be made fo ftrong, that
it will require as much art to befiege them as many others
that are perfect fortifications ; fuch as iflands, peniniulas,
and places feated on eminences of difficult accefs, or in mo-
raffes.
It the poll is in a level country, or upon a height that
may be furrounded, as happens almoft always to fmall de¬
tachments, they fhould conllrudl a redoubt, or fmall fquare
fort, compoftd of a parapet with its banquette and ditch.
The ground being chofen, you muft trace a ftraight line
Hate AE (fig. I.), and raife the perpendicular BC, as diredled
XXIV. jn pra<qical geometry; obferving to give to each of thefe
lines which mark the interior fide of the parapet but two
toifes, or two and a half for 30 men, four toifes for 50, and
eight for 100 ; which will leave a fpace of two feet at leaft
againft the parapet for each man. Having traced the two
firft lines A, B, you muft put the cord over the picquet C
of the perpendicular B; and with the fame length trace the
2
A R. Part II[,
arch D, then put the cord over the picquet E of the line A, Petite 1
and trace the arch F. The point where the arches inter- G116'’1'6, j
fe£l each other, is the point to end the lines EH and ^ v ' q
CG. Thefe four lines mark the interior fide of the pa¬
rapet.
1'hen trace four other lines at the diftance of two or
three feet parallel to the firft, as I, L, M, N, to mark the
fize of the banquette, which fhould be greater or lefs ac¬
cording to the number of foldiers you would place in a file.
Then trace a third parallel fquare on the outfide of the firft,
as O, P, Q, R, to mark the exterior lide of the parapet,
and to determine its thicknefs, which is ufually eight or nine
feet, or 18 if it is to refill cannon, which you fhould always
be prepared to do.
Then trace a fourth and laft fquare STVX, to deter¬
mine the width of the ditch, which is the fame or two feet
more than the thicknefs of the parapet ; leaving a picquet
planted at all the angles, as like wife at the lines already tra¬
ced, fo as not to lofe the points from whence the lines were
drawn.
While you are employed with two or three men in tra¬
cing, five or fix men {hould be ordered to cut down the trees
that are in the neighbourhood of the poft, not only to open
the approaches, but to ferve for conftrudling the intrench-
ments. The fmalleft branches ferve to make f’afeines, which
are a fort of faggots about fix feet long, two feet thick, and
of the fame fize all over, tied in the middle and at the two
ends, to ferve for fupporting the earth, which would tumble
down without that fupport. The middling branches ferve
to make picquets proper for mixing with the rafeines, and fix¬
ing them in the ground, or one above another to raife the
parapet. The trunks to which the large branches are left,
ferve to increafe the ftrength of a poll, as fliall be mention¬
ed afterwards.
Having traced all in the manner direfled, fix a row of
fafeines upon the fmall fquare ILMN, to fupport the earth
of the banquette ; then fix a fecond row upon the fquare
ABGH, to fupport the interior fide of the parapet ; then
a third row on the third fquare OPQ_R, to fupport the ex¬
terior fide of the parapet. You fhould obferve in the be¬
ginning to picquet the fafeines, to leave a paflage of three
feet PB, on the lide leaft expofed to the enemy, to ferve
for an entry to the redoubt; but if this paftage can be ta¬
ken in a ftrarght line, it fhould be made like a mortoife, as
you fee at Y, fig. 2.
After having picqueted the three rows of fafeines as df-
refted, you nr.'.ft dig the ditch AB, as in the profile, fig. 3.
a foot diftant from the exterior fide of the parapet. This
diftance or breadth is called lerme, and ferves to fupport the
earth, or receive what falls from the parapet by the enemy’s
cannon. 'This berme is more or lefs accorcfing to the folidi-
ty of the earth ; the earth to be thrown into the intervals
C, D, E, marked for the parapet and banquette, taking care
to make the men tread it well down, and obferving to leave
a talus or Hope on the tv/o lides of the ditch EG, more or
lefs according to the confiftence of the earth, fo that it may
not tumble down. The Hope F, which is on the fide of the-
redoubt, is called the /carp ; and the oppofite Hope, which
is next the country, is called the counterfcarp. Care muft
be taken in picqueting the fafeines with which the parapet is
raifed, to bring them nearer one another by degrees in rai¬
ling it as at H, fo as to leave the fame Hope or, each fide.
The diftance DE marks the banquette; the diftance DC
the thicknefs of the parapet at the bottom ; the diftance
IL the thicknefs of the parapet at the top; MN the
width of the ditch at bottom ; AB the width of the ditch
at top.
If the ground is level, the banquette of this work muft
w
Part HI-
be railed two feet; but in low places two banquettes are
neceff'ary, the one above the other like fteps: but if this
banquette is raifed on account of fome neighbouring heights
from whence you may be taken in the rear, the parapet
mult be raifed to fuch a height, that the enemy’s Ihot can
no longer plunge down upon you. A dope mud be left
on the top of the parapet, as IL, fo that the foldiers may
fee round the pod, and fire eafily towards the country
at O. , .
Though the fquare form of a redoubt, which we have gi¬
ven the method of conftrufting, is almod the only one tiled
in the field, yet it has its faults, which ought to make it be
reje&ed, at lead tor thofe pods which ought to defend the
environs equally. Experience {hows us, that we ought ne¬
ver to depend on the oblique firing of mufquetry, as the
foldiers almod always fire right forwards, as at A, fig. 4*
and often even without taking aim. 'I his being the cafe,
there are large fpaces oppofite to the angles of the redoubt
at B that are not defended, and where we may fay that the
enemy remains in fafety. The chevalier Clairac propofes
an excellent method to prevent this inconvenience, by con-
drufting the interior edge of the parapet like the edge of a
faw, in form of fmall redans, to hold a man or two in each
fide, fig. 6. which by the crofs fire takes the enemy on the
two flanks, fo that there are no approaches but what are de¬
fended ; but the condnuftion of this redoubt is too tedious
and complex to be executed by (mall detachments.
The lame author prefers condrudf ing circular redoubts as
at C,'fig. 5. becaufe all the points of the circumference be¬
ing equally difpofed, the foldier pods himfelf indifferently
over all; and the exterior fpaces D which are defended, va¬
rying every moment, the enemy is rfowhere in fafety.
The circular redoubt, then, is the mod perfedt that can
be condrudfed : but where a road or the edge of a river, is
to be defended, the fquare, or long, or triangular redoubt, is
preferable, becaufe they ought to oppofe the faces of the in-
trenchment as parallel as poflible to the places they are to
fire at, obferving always to round the angles.
To trace a circular redoubt, after fixing the central point
of the pod, let a picquet be fixed in that point, and draw
from it as centre the circle EE, with a length of cord in
proportion to the number of the party, to mark the interior
fide of the parapet; then trace another within the fird, at
the didance already given, to mark the banquette ;_then
trace a third FF, to mark the exterior edge of the para¬
pet ; then trace a fourth GG, to mark the width of the
ditch ; which being done, picquet the fafeines, and make
them take the bend of the circle, finifhing as in a fquare re¬
doubt.
If an officer is poded with a detachment on a paffage or
before a bridge, in a defile, or oppofite to a ford, he may
make a parapet either bending or draight, with a banquette
or ditch which fhould fhut up the whole entry ; or he may
make a redan, which is a work with two faces, and in fuch
a fituation fhould be made with a re-entrant angle (that is,
the angle pointing from the enemy) ; taking care when he
is to guard a ford, to conltrudt it fo near the river that the
enemy cannot have room to form after they have paffed. A
deep ditch may be dug oppofite to the ford, into which they
fhould let the water of the river pafs; they may likewife
make the banks deep; throw trees acrofs, and fcatter chauffe-
traps, which are indruments of iron with four fpikes, made
fo as to have always one point erect.
The drength of a redoubt or any other work may be
augmented by blocking up the paffage that leads to it, fur-
roundmg the pod with felled trees, and finking their trunks
three or four feet deep in the earth, which mult be dug on
purpofe, leaving a number of large branches on them, which
A R.
mud be ffiarpened at the ends, and the leaves taken away,
and placed as near to one another as poffible, fo that the
branches may mix, and taking care that they incline towards
the enemy. Two or three rows may be made in this man¬
ner ; but they fhould be at lead two toifes didant from each
other, that the enemy may not burn them all at once to
approach the entrenchments. M. Saxe in his Reverie fays,
that redoubts are proportionably advantageous as they take
lefs time in condrufting, and are proper tor numberlefs cir-
cumdances, where one often may ferve to ftop an army in a
clofe country, hinder them from troubling you on a critical
march, or to occupy a large fpace of country when you
have but few troops.
There is no need to mention large works which require en¬
gineers to conftru<!d,and great bodies to defend them, as thefe
have been deferibed under the article hortification ; but
a redoubt, fuch as A, fig. 7. may be drengthened by filling
the ditch with water, by turning a rivulet, or cutting a ri¬
ver or pond. If the ground is uneven, fo that the water
cannot be put equally in all parts of the ditch, darns fhould
be left in digging at C ; or little traverfes of earth to form
banks proper for keeping the water in the upper part of the
ditch D, from whence it may be let run into the lower
E. Thefe banks fhould have but half a foot in thicknefs
at the height D, which fhould be raifed (harp ; but a good
deal mote mud be left below at E, by doping the two fides
pretty much. Dams hkevvile are made ot planks or boards,
as at F ; but they mud be drong, and fupported by large
dakes, fo that the body of water above may not overturn
them ; and then they are reckoned preferable to thofe that
are of earth : but a more particular explanation of this fi¬
gure may be of ufe.—A therefore is the ground within the
redoubt. B, The bottom of the ditch. C, D, E, Dam
of earth. F, Dam of planks, boards, or fafeines. G, Up¬
per part of the redoubt conftruided of fafeines, and the
earth dug out of the ditch. H, The lower part of the re¬
doubt dug in the earth. I, The berme or {pace left at the
bottom of the parapet to fupport the earth. L, The entry
of the redoubt. M, The ir.fide of the parapet. N, The
upper part of the parapet. O, The banquette. P, I he
glacis. Rivulet from whence water may be let into the
ditch of the redoubt.
But it is not with the works alone which have been al¬
ready mentioned that an officer may fortiry a pod ; there are
an infinity of ways to ftop an enemy, to tire him, and
even to repulfe him, with which it is neceffary that every
commander fhould be acquainted.
All the fchemes for oppofing the enemy, of which we
have given a detail, ferve only to add to the exterior
ftrength of pods ; there are others which have fome natural
fortifications, fuch as churches, church-yards, mills, or farm-
houfes, See. An officer who is fent to a pod of this kind,
which is detached from other buildings, onghf, before he
begins to work, to make the inhabitants go out, and the
magidrates of the neared place receive and lodge them.
He Ihould then entrench the houfe with a turning parapet,
if he have people enough to defend it; but if he have only
a few, he fhould make a bread-work of felled trees round
the houfe, efpecially oppofite the angles, to prevent the
enemy from undermining it. He mud likewife take off the
tiles and dates, led the enemy diould get up by ladders, and
crufh his people that are within. If the houfe is covered with
thatch, it fhould be pulled off and burnt, as well as every
thing combudible that can be found in the neighbourhood,
led the enemy make ufe of it againd the houfe.
Though the houfe is furrounded with a parapet of felled
trees, yet the walls fhould yet be pierced with loop-holes,
e B 2 about
748
Petita
Guerre,
W A
about a foot from the grout'd, fo as to difcover the enemy's
_ legs, that they may not get footing on the outfide. Thefe
" loop-holes fiiould be four inches wide, and three feet diftant
from one another ; and a little ditch fhould be made a foot
and a half from the wall within the houfe, to place the fol-
diers in who are to defend it. Other loop holes fhould like-
wife be pierced feven or eight feet from the ground, oppo-
fite to the _ interftices of the lower ones, and of the fame
width, placing the foldiers that are to defend them noon
tables, planks, or ladders ; and taking care to pierce a great¬
er number oppoiite to the avenues, before, and at the fides
of the gate, and the angles of the houfe, becaufe thefe are
the places where the enemy ufually makes his greateft ef¬
forts. If the houfe has an inner court, the walls ihould be
pierced which inclofe it, fo as to hre upon the enemy after
he has made himfelf mailer of it. If there are feveral gates,
they fhould all be blocked up except one, to be left for an
entrance to the poll, which fhould be made fo as to admit
but one man at a time.
If there is a broad flaircafe for going up to the flrfl
floor, it fhomd be broke down, or blocked up with Hones
or calks filled with earth. If it is a winding flair, the wall
fhould be pierced in different places with loop-holes, to Hre
upon the enemy that are already entered, keeping ladders
lor the troops defending the houfe to get up to the flrfl
floor, which fhould have the boards pierced with a number
of holes about four inches diameter, to tire down upon the
enemy, obferving to pierce them only where there are no
trees below, but to have a greater number over the door and
other weak places which the enemy can force. A poll en¬
trenched in this manner may refill a great while, and even
tire out the beflegers if defended by refolute men.
Captain d’Enlernay of a French regiment, with a com¬
pany of volunteers, in the campaign of 1748, took poll in
the church of Bevera, two miles from Ventimiglia. It is
detached from other buildings, and he fortified it with a
parapet and ditch full of water ; but his entrenchment was
commanded by fome houfes in the village, fo that the ene¬
my could fire down upon his party. He remedied this de¬
left by covering the commanded part with a kind of blind
made with rafters, leaning with one end on the wall of the
church, and the other upon polls railed a foot higher than
the top of the parapet, which left room to fire throu gh.
This blind, covered with fafcines and earth, prevented the
enemy’s fire from piercing, and did not prevent his firing
upon them, fo that they durll not atack him.
This example is mentioned to (how. how to feenre a poll
that is commanded by a height. When there is no redoubt
or entrenchments of earth, the interior fide of the parapet
which is commanded fhould be railed, or a fort of penthoufe
fhould be made with rafters, placed perpendicularly againfi
the inner fide of the parapet, upon which planks or fafemes
are nailed, taking care to leave room between the bottom of
the penthoufe and the top of the parapet for the men to fire
through.
If an officer has not time tooppofe all the fchemes which
have been mentioned to the enemy, when the general wants
to make a forage, and throws inlantry into the houfe to form
a line, he fhould immediately place a couple ol trees acrofs
before the door, pierce the boards, {hut the windows, and
prepare for his defence, which gives time to the foragers to
retire, and the fupporting parties to advance.
The fortification of villages, if they confift of fcattered
houfes, differs nothing from the fortification of a few conti¬
guous polls, between which a communication is to be pre¬
served. If they confift of hsufes colleded, the commander
mml proceed upon the principles laid down in another ar¬
ticle. See FoRTiflCATION.
R.
Sect. III.
Part 1IL
0/ in Detachment* and Secret
Marches.
Pedte
Gaerre.
Detachments are particular bodies of folchcrs detach¬
ed from a greater body, to guard a poll, or to go on an ex¬
pedition.
When an officer is ordered on a detachment, he fhould
provide himielf'with a cord regularly divided, in cafe he has
occafion to entrench ; and be at the pan.de by times, to get
information from the brigade-major, whether he is de-
ftined to relieve a detachment, or to occupy a poll for
the firft time. If to relieve a party, he is only to know
where the guide is who is to conduT him ; the guide is a
foldier, lent by the officer who is to be relieved, as orderly-
man to the major-general, who by having been at the poll
before can lead a new detachment to it.
J1 it is a poll that is to be occupied for the firft time,
the officer is to afk the brigade-major for inflru&ions re¬
lating to its defence ; which being got, he muft infpedl his
party, and take care that every foldier is properly equip¬
ped ; his firelock loaded, frefh primed, and a good flint well
fixed ; his cai touch-box filled with cartridges ; and that he
carries provffion for 24 hours, which is the time that de¬
tachments commonly continue, and are not allowed to go
away to eat. Care muft be taken to have fpades, pick-
axes, hatchets, and wood-bills, one or two of each kind ;
and if any thing is wanting, to apply to the brigade-major
for it, that they may have every thing neceflary for en¬
trenching.
When an officer has infpedled his party, he ought to get
information from his guide whether the way is broad or
narrow, open or inclofed; if the enemy’s polls arc near ; if
they go on patroles, or fee7 their parties in the day j and,
laftly, if he is to pafs mills, farms, manors, &c. and from
thele informations take the neceffary precautions for his
march.
When the whole are ready to march, the advanced guard
A (fig. 8.), which fhould can fill of cavalry only, fhould fet Plafe
out. It is furprifing that all the authors who.have written
pn this part of the art of war, have negle&ed to ihow fuf-
ficient attention to fo effential a point : the greateft part are
filent, and the reft paffing {lightly over the different duties
of this corps, are content that it fhould be compofcd of in¬
fantry ; though, on the leafl reflection, in the molt ordinary
cales or a iecret march, reafon mult determine that none but
cavalry ought to be placed there, whether it be to Hop paf-
lengers who may difcover your route, or fuddcnly to attack
an advanced guard ©f the enemy whom they meet face to
face, or to harafs their corps, in order to gain time for
your own to form : it is inconteflable, that for all theie pur-
poies, cavalry has greatly the advantage of infantry ; who
are by no means capable of running here and there to lei&e
paffengers, or of pouring fuddenly on an advanced guard of
the enemy ; or ot refilling their cavalry a moment in cafe of
a fudden rencounter, when they muft expeCt to be thrown
down and trod under the horfes feet, and the corps attacked
before the commanding officer has had a moment to prepare
for his deTnce.
As examples ferve beft to illuftrate opinions that have
been feldoin declared, the fpirited behaviour ot Cornet
Nangle of the 15th regiment of light dragoons merits our
particular notice, and will ferve as a proof of the great ad-
vantage of having the advanced guard of cavalry. In the
campaign of 1761, when the breach army under the com¬
mand of Marfhal Broglio and the prince of Soubife were re¬
tiring towards Hoxter, where they paffed the Weiffer,
Prince Ferdinand followed dole alter them for feveral days,
and
’art III* W A R. 749
!‘etite and on the evening before they gained the pafs over the ri*
Guene. verj one of Prince Ferdinand’s German aid-de-campa defired
the grenadiers and Highlanders who were in front, to pufh
on and take iome of the enemy’s baggage, which was a
little way before them and but weakly guarded. They were
immediately formed, and marched in a hurry over a plain
with a thick wood in front, w'hich they were told was clear,
and had got within 400 paces of the enemy’s baggage,
when feveral fquadrons of French dragoons rufhed fudden-
ly out upon them from the flcirts of the wood upon both
flanks, and wrere hewing them down without mercy, when
Cornet Nangle with an advanced guard of 20 men coming
up the hill, got fight of the attack, and inftantly rufhing
on, charged the French cavalry, who, flartled at the brifk-
nefs of an attack which they were not expecting, immedi¬
ately reined back ; when the rell of the regiment getting in
view, came on ; and attacking the French, drove them off,
having killed and wounded a few, and taken fome prifoners.
The determined bravery of this young officer with his 20
men faved a great number of the grenadiers and High¬
landers from being cut to pieces, and (hows what may be
effedted by the fudden attack of an advanced guard of ca¬
valry.
An advanced guard by night fhould be of double the
force of one by day. In an open country, it is a matter of
indifference at what diftance they advance, provided they
keep in view of the commanding officer, who fhould conti¬
nually obferve them : but in covered places, and in the
darknefs of the night, they fhould not be more than 50
paces diftant.
This advanced guard fhould have an advanced corporal
B, with fix horfemen divided into three pairs ; one in the
centre B, the two others out of the road on the right and
left at CC, to examine as wide as poffible, filently and at¬
tentively fearching all hollow and covered places, taking
care that there is nobody lying on the ground, or hid in
dry ditches, behind trees or bullies. At the fame diflance
of 50 paces upon the flanks of the corps, fhould march two
wings DD, conlifting of eight or twelve horfemen, each ac¬
cording to the flrcngth of the corps, led by a non-commif-,
fioned officer. They can barafs an enemy who may hap¬
pen to rufh fuddenly out of ambufeade, and give time to
the corps to form. Fach wing to detach two men EE,
keeping 50 paces wide from the others, and preferving the
fame route as exactly as the face of the country will per¬
mit. At the entrance of the wrood NN, the horfemen
fhould fpread, and clofe again at coming out, and do
the fame at meeting any little hills, to examine them on
both fides. When they perceive any traces of a party, they
fhould immediately communicate it from one to another, till
it comes to the commanding officer.
The advanced guard ought to march (lowly, and the
commanding officer at the head of the corps fhould follow
at the fame rate, io that the rear of the detachment may
not be obli ?ed to gallop. As the rear-guard H is only
effablifhed for form, there is no need of its being numerous.
The officers and quarter-rr.afters fhould be careful to keep
the men from fkeping, as a horfe is eafrly hurt under the
irregular motions of a fleeping rider, which retards the march.
The whole corps fhould be forbid to fmoke or fpeak ; and
if any one is obliged to cough or fpit, let him cover his
rnouth fo as to make no noife.
When the corps is r.nmerous, the cavalry fhould march
by fquadrons, the infantry by platoons, to follow alternate¬
ly, fo that each platoon of infantry FEE may march at the
head of a fquadron of cavalry GGG ; which difpofition will
preferve the whole at an equal pace, and keep them readier
to form in cafe of meeting the enemy, or being fuddenly at-
tacked, as we are about to mention. , 1
When the advanced guard perceives an enemy at a di¬
flance, whether it is day or night, they fhould not purfue
them, for fear of falling ftupidly into fome ambufeade, if it
is not in a country that has been well examined ; but if they
meet them fuddenly face to face, as may happen at the en¬
trance of a hollow way I, opening obliquely upon them,
then the advanced guard, without deliberating about their
ftrength, fhould inifantly rufh upon them. This manoeuvre
cannot fail againfl infantry, and gives a great advantage
in a rencounter with the cavalry ; but if the advanced guard
falls back, they expofe the whole body to be defeated with
them.
When the commanding officer fees the aftion of his ad¬
vanced guard, he will inftantly turn the infantry on the fide
of the road mofl proper to protect them from the enemy’s
cavalry, and will form them quickly at the fide LLL, or ou
fome neighbouring height MM. If it is day, they ought
to face the cavalry, {looping down till the inllant of the at¬
tack, while the firfl fquadron advances to fudain the advan¬
ced guard. If the enemy appears defirous to renew the
charge, and obflinate in difputing the paflage, he may make
ufe of a feint, and by falling back bring them oppofite to his
infantry, who will have them in the flank, and by a well pla¬
ced fire put them inilantly in diforder. His cavalry pro¬
fiting by this, mufl immediately face about, and fall upon
them with all poffible violence ; which cannot farl to complete
their defeat.
All villages, hamlets, and houfes, fhowld be avoided, ef-
pecially by night (which is the mofl common time for the
partifan), to avoid being difeovered by the barking of dogs,
or being feen by peafants who can inform the enemy. Yon
will fee equally how dangerous it is to keep the great roads
by day, or to crofs places that are too open in an enemy’s
country.
If you cannot avoid paffing through a village, it fhould
be done in a hurry, marching confufedly, very clofe, and fill¬
ing up the whole breadth, ;by which you will conceal your
ftrength from the peafants ; fome officers fhould remain at
coming in, and in the rear, till the whole are pa fled, taking
care that no one flops or withdraws. The fame care
fhould be taken at every road that opens upon your route.
At the approach of every place that is covered or hollow,
filch as houfe, wrood, gully, See. they fhould halt till it is well
examined, and continue attentive in paffing it.
At the paftage of defiles, bridges, or fords, the advanced
guard fhould flop at roo paces, and form till the whole
corps is DafTed and in order. The ancients employed dogs
to difeover the enemy in ambufeade ; but it will be well to
diftruft fuch fpies, and to fuffer none with the corps, as there
is nothing more dangerous ; their difpofition leading them
to bark at meeting the leaft'animal, they will furnifh the ene¬
my with a thoufand opportunities of obferving yon, before
you can know where they are.
You fhould always detain the guides that were taken at
fetting out ; but if neceffity requires another, the quarter-
mailer fhould go and take one without making a noile, and
lead him a round-about way, that none of the peafants may
difeover either your party or route. If any of the party
difeover paflengers in fight of the march, they fhould be
Hopped and brought to the corps, and care taken to pre¬
vent their cfcape.
The party fhould never refrefh.in a village, but in a wood
by day, and open country by niofit, caufing every neceflary
to be brought to them from places in the neighbourhood,
which ought to be received from the peafants at a diftance,.
fo
75°
W
Petite
Ouetrt'3
fo that they can neither dlfcover the number nor quality of
j your corps. During the whole time of hopping, you Ihould
not be fp tring of lentrics, and have always fix horfemen
ready to fecure any perfon by whom youi magine you
are perceived; when their number becomes confiderable,
they fhotdd be tied together, and great care taken that none
efcape till the ftroke is flruck. The officers fhould be equal¬
ly attentive that no foldier gets out o^ fight; and if they
meet a deferter from the enemy, he fhould be conducted im¬
mediately to the corps, and then to the army, under the care
of a non commiffioned officer.
When neceffity obliges you to hop in the nei.jhbour-
ruerre,
hood of fome farm or hamlet, you muft take poffeffion of
it, and carry off the farmer or chief of the place at going
away, threatening to kill him and fet his houfe on fire-if any
one ftir from the place before he is releafed. Every horfe-
man fhould take care to have a fpare fore fhoe, and a peck
of oats.
If an officer of the infantry marches a detachment to re¬
lieve a poll at a diftance, he fhould not mount his horle till
out of fight of the camp, and fhould difmount on coming in
fight of the poft ; but if it is only about a league diifant
from the army, and near the enemy, it is better to go on
foot, fo as to be lefs encumbered in cafe of engaging with
any parties of the enemy. The men fhould not be preffed
too much for fear of lagging in the rear, but fhould march
clofe without flopping, and in as many files as the roads will
permit, keeping profound filence, that they may hear any or¬
ders that are given.
An officer who marches at the head of a party, ought to
keep exa£l order and profound filence, that they may be in
a ftate to execute whatever he may order for their defence;
but in giving his orders, he fhould take care to do it with
a firm and determined countenance, fo as to make the fol-
diers think that he is fure of what he is about, and that no¬
thing better can be done. When the men fee their officer
kefitating, or varying in his orders, they imagine he does
not know what to do ; and feeing him difordered, they be¬
come fo. It is upon fuch occafions that an officer fhould
be fteady to reftrain his party, and make them inflantly
obey. The danger is greater on a march than in an attack.
Here the foldiers have their arms in their hands ; and, fee¬
ing the enemy before them, are ready to engage. It is o-
therwife on a march ; they are lefs upon their cruard, and
have not their arms in readinefs : then, fays Vigetius, an at¬
tack confounds them, an ambufeade diforders them. An of¬
ficer ought therefore to take every precaution in examining,
by his advanced guard, all places that may conceal any of
the enemy.
But as the greateft precaution cannot prevent an officer
on a march from being attacked, it is neceffary, as foon as
he perceives the enemy, to obferve if the party is fuperior
to his detachment; whether it confiils of cavalry or infan¬
try, or both together. If it is cavalry, and fuperior, there
is wo neceffity of being difeouraged; but, on the contrary,
he fhould profit by every advantage that offers, by gliding
into land that is furrowed, uneven, cut, and difficult or in-
acceffible to cavalry ; or if the country is inclofed, he fhould
line the hedges, and cheer up his foldiers by lome encoura¬
ging language, while he difpatches a trufty fellow with ad¬
vice of his iituation to the general. If the enemy march up
to him in this fituation, he muft do all that he can to fuftain
the attack, by ordering his party not to prefs upon one ano-
A R, * Part 1]](
ther, to keep up their fire, and not to difeharge their pieces Petite
till they are at the muzzles.
When you have the advantage of rocks or other obftacles
to the afting of cavalry, continue the route as near as pof-
fible, keeping the party clofe, and always ready to receive
the enemy. If the number of the enemy’s cavalry do not
exceed your party, you may continue your route ; and keep¬
ing your men dole together and prepared, they will not ven¬
ture to attack you. If an officer fees no means of poffef-
fing an advantageous poll,, or of getting to the poft he was
detached to, he can do nothing better than retreat to the
camp, along fome river or wood, to prevent being broken :
but if he is fo clofely purfued that he cannot avoid being
beat or taken, there is no better manoeuvre to imitate than
that of the Barbets (a); who fcatter themfelves, and re¬
tire from tree to tree, from rock to rock, and deftroy a par¬
ty, who can neither beat them, nor take one of them.
The moment of taking poffeffion of a poft is the moft
critical that a detachment can have ; officers have been fre¬
quently attacked at the very time they thought they had
nothing to do but quietly take the neceffary meafures for
remaining in fafety.
If the party which arrives at a poft is to relieve another,
the officer that is to be relieved gets under arms as foon as
his fentries give notice of the approach of the relief. The
detachment being known, they are permitted to enter and
occupy the poft in the room of thofe that aie to depart; at
the fame time, the corporals go to relieve the fentries, and
the officers and ferjeants give the counter-fign, with the de¬
tail of all that is to be done at the poft by day or night.
He ought likewife to get information from the officer he re¬
lieves, if the enemy make incurfions in the neighbourhood ;
if their guards are diftant, whether cavalry or infantry, and
whereabouts placed. After thefe precautions let him guard
againft his poft being furprifed.
The fentries being relieved, the officer that is to go out
muft foim his detachment, and return to camp with the fame
precautions as in coming. The new detachment remain un¬
der arms till the other is gone 50 paces : then the officer is
to make them lay down their arms againft the parapet, put¬
ting their havre-facks againft the gun-locks, to prevent dull
from fpoiling them, or the dew of the night from wetting
the powder. In an Open country without fortification, the
men muft not go to any diftance from their arms when they
lay them down in the day, and keep them between their
knees when they fit round their fires in the night, with the
locks inward, to prevent accidents.
Sect. IV. Of Reconnoitring.
Parties ordered to reconnoitre, are to obferve the coun¬
try or the enemy ; to remark the routes, conveniences and
inconveniences of the firft ; the pofition, march, or forces
of the lecond. In either cafe, they fhould have an expert
geographer, capable of taking plans readily : he ihould be
the beft mounted of the whole, in cafe the enemy happen to
fcatter the efcort, that he may fave himfelf more eafily with
his works and ideas.
All parties that go for reconnoitring only, ought to be
but few in number. They fhould never confift of more
than 12 or 20 men. An officer, be his rank what it will,
cannot decline going with fo few people under his orders ;
the honour is amply made up by the importance of the ex¬
pedition.
(a) They are peafants fubjeft to the king of Sardinia, who abandom their dwellings when the enemy take poffeffion,
and are formed into bodies to defend the Alps which are in his dominions.
Part nr. w
pedition, frequently of the moft interefting confequence, and
the propereft to recommend the prudence, bravery, and ad-
drefs of any officer that has the fortune to fucceed.
It muft be evident that the fuccefs of fuch a commiffion
deoends upon fecrecy, and that it is impoffiblc to fulfil the
intention without keeping out of fight of the enemy. It is
inconteftable, that a numerous party cannot glide along fo
imperceptibly as a fmall handful ot men. As thefe detach*
ments muft finilh their courfe quickly, it is necefiary that
they fhould confift of cavalry only ; but i? they are to go
far, they may increafe each with 30 foot, to remain in am-
buih about half-way in a wood or covered place, with whom
the cavalry can leave their provifion they brought with
them.
An officer charged to reconnoitre in front, ffiould take
his inftru&ions in writing, and fet out at fbch time as to ar¬
rive at the place proper for beginning his obfervations at
day break. Every time that he has occafion to ftop, the
party ffiould face toward the enemy, and fend a non-com-
miffioned officer with two horfemen to run over the neigh¬
bouring heights, and clofely examine the environs. When
near the enemy, avoid flopping in a village.
The officer, and geographer who is fuppofed to be pre¬
fen t, ffiould remark every interefting particular: i he heights,
woods, ponds, moraffes, rivulets, rivers, fords, bridges, roads,
croffings, difficult and dangerous paftages, by-ways, mea¬
dows, fields, heaths, gullies, hills, and mountains ; the di-
itance and ftrength of villages, hamlets, houies, farms, and
mills ; what lovereign the country belongs to, and what are
its produ&ions.
If the enemy comes in fight, the officer fhould quickly
affemble his party, though his reconnoitring be not finiffied,
and let him retire to his infantry, if he placed any ; but it
not, let him gain fome other place that he has chofen for a
retreat. After being refreffied, let him go back with the
cavalry to finiffi the reconnoitring ; but if he was obliged to
return quite to the poll, he ffiould not go back till next
day. Mid-day is the time of being leaft incommoded, as
detachments are lefs frequent at that hour. ri he command¬
ing officer ought always to avoid coming to blows, even
though he thinks himfelf fecure of fuccefs, unlefs he happen
to be on his return, and near to his poll, fo that he forelees
the grand guard, hearing the firing, cannot fail to run to
his affiftance. If obliged to engage v/ith a party who are
cutting off your retreat, and that no other means is left of
turning the:::, you muft rifle all without hefltating, by ruffl¬
ing on, and try to fave the geographer with the fruits of
his commiffion, efpecially if the reconnoitring was of impor¬
tance to the general of the army, and merits the facrilr-
cing a dozen men, which they can eafily retrieve on another
occafion.
When a party goes out to obtain news of the enemy, it
ourffit to approach as near as poffible, but cautioufly : day¬
break is not the time proper for fuch a purpofe, becaufe at
that time the enemy fend their different parties and patroles
to make difeoveries ; you ffiould therefore pi event them by
approaching in the night. You may eafily reconnoitre their
pofition and extent by their fires, which they never extin-
guiffi at the head of the guards and picquets ; and you may
eafily remark if they are about to change their pofition, by
heating a more than ordinary noife ; befides, as it is ealy to
approach by night, you may difeover a number of tilings by'
the light of the fires.
A partifan ought not to negleft to reconnoitre every
place round his poft for two or three leagues, or farther, if
it is poffible on the fide of the enemy; and for that purpofe
he ffiould employ the method of Mr Jeney ; who, during
the campaigns that he made, often examined the enemy's
A R.
polls without approaching, in the following manner, which
he recommends as infallible.
I fuppofe myfelf, fays he, with my party at Soeft in Weft- p!ate
phalia A (fig. 2.), and the enemy pofted at Bervick B, two DXXV.
leagues from me. To know the Situation of this place with¬
out ftirring from Soeft, I take the map of the country; and
from Soeft as centre, I draw a circle whofe circumference
paffes half a league beyond Bervick.. I draw a circle of
the fame fize upon a leaf of paper, to make my plan as in
fig. 2. and then place Soeft in the centre A ; and I mark
all the villages which I find in the map near the circunre-
rence, upon my plan, with the diftances and bearings as they
are reprefented in the map, making ufe of a pencil to mark
the places DDD, fo as to coned the errors more eafily
which the map may have led me to make.
Having thus formed my plan, with a fcale of two leagues
(which is the diftance I fuppofe Bervick), I go to the bur-
gomafter of the town of Soeft, where I caufe fome of the
rnoft intelligent inhabitants to come, fpeaking to them freely,
and openly induce them to communicate all the information
I have occafion for.
The better to conceal my defigns, I begin trvy reconnoi¬
tring by Brokhufen, a village diftant from the enemy. I
afk the diftance from Soeft to Brokhufen ; if they fay it is
feven quarters of a league, 1 corred the diftance of my plan
which made it two leagues : then I inform myfelf of all that
is to be found on the road from Soeft to Brokhufen ; cha¬
pels, houfes, woods, fields, orchards, rivers, rivulets, bridges,
mills, &c. If they fay that at half a league from Soeft they
pafs the village of Hinderking, I mark that place upon my
plan. I afk if the road from Soeft to Hinderking is crofted
by any other road; if there is any morafs or heath ; if the
road is inclofed, paved, or ftraight; if there is any bridge
to pafs, and at what diftance. I take care to mark every
tiling in my plan, forgetting nothing, even to mills, buffies,
gibbets, gullies, fords, and every thing that can be got
from their informations; which will probably be perfed,,
becaufe one always knows more than another. I continue
my queftions from Hinderking to Brokhufen ; and advan¬
cing by little and little, obferve the fame method on the roads-
of the other villages round, marked DDD. In this manner
I cannot fail to acquire an entire knowledge of all the places;
befides, I find myfelf imperceptibly inftruded in the pofitiou
of the enemy, by feeing the different routes by which I can.
appioach moll fecretly.
It is plain that luch a plan muft be very ufeful to regu¬
late fecret expeditions. It is chiefly ufeful, not to fay ne-
ceffary, for a commander of a party, who can give more
ample and precife inftrudions to his officers, by accompa¬
nying them with a copy of the routes marked out, which
they can confult even in the night, if it happens to be clear
by which they will be guarded againft being deceived by ig¬
norant or treacherous guides, which occafion the miftakes of.
lo many who go unprovided with fuch helps.
There is ftill another means to fecure a reconnoitring
party ; which is, to compofe them of people who fpeak
the language of the enemy, and give them furtouts of the
colour of a regiment of the enemy, and cockades the fame,.
This fcheme may be carried fo far as to line the furtouts-
with the colour of another regiment of the enemy, provided
that by turning the furtouts, they appear to be a different,
corps, and deceive guards, fpies, and peafants, and confound
their reports.
Sect. V. OJ the Defence of Pofls.
When a partifan has taken every precaution that pru¬
dence fuggefts in reconnoitring a place where he would fix
7.5*
1®late
BXXV.
a poft, he is to take pofTeffion in the following manner.
The infantry remain under arms in the middle of the place,
the cavalry to patrole without, while the commanding offi-
..cer, elcorted by a dozen horfemen, goes to examine the
environs to make his arrangements; having fent (everal
fmall^ detachments before, to cover him in time of recon*
Hoi t ring.
Having remarked the places proper for his guard, de¬
fence, and retreat, as well as the dangerous ones by which
the enemy can make approaches fecretly to furprife him, he
fhould‘choofe the moll convenient in the front of his poll
to fix his grand guard D (tig. r.), which mud face the
enemy. He muft mark the heights for this guard to place
their vedettes EEEE, and regulate the number according
to the'exigencies of the fituation. In a covered country
you mult not be fparing of them, and muft reinforce every
guard. At jo paces before the front ol the grand guard, a
lubaltern or non-commiflioned officer with eight horfemen
fhould be always ready to fet out at K, to go and reconnoi¬
tre, when the vedettes have obferved any party.
i he grand guard being fixed, you fhould form another
in the middle of the village, called the ordinary guard, com-
pofed of cavalry and infantry, placing fentries at the entries
and vedettes all round; the laft at fueh diftanceas to fee one
another. A picquet fhould likewife be fixed before the
quarters or the commanding officer, which fhould be near
the ordinary guard and the whole corps. In the day, half
the cavalry of the picquet muft keep their horfes bridled and
ready to mount ; but if the enemy is near, they muft remain
-on horfeback, the other half to unbridle till the hour of re¬
lief.
According to the arrangement we have given for com-
pofrng the corps of a partifan, the grand guard may confift
of a captain, a firft and fecond lieutenant,"a quarter-mafter,
two ferjeants, four corporals, a trumpeter, farrier, and 52
private horfemen. The ordinary guard to have cavalry
equal to the grand guard, with a captain, a firft and fecond
lieutenant o! infantry, two ferjeants, and 60 men, including
four corporals, two lance-corporals, and a drummer : the
picquet to conlift of the fame number of cavalry and infantry
as the ordinary guard.
If there is any dangerous place capable of covering the
approaches of the enemy in the environs of the poft, and
out of the circuit of the patroles, there fhould be a guard
placed there, more or lefs ftrong according to the import¬
ance of the place, and care fhould be taken to preferve the
communication. The guards and plcquets being placed, the
detachment that was fent out on the roads muft be called
in, and then go to work to lodge the party in the gardens
that open upon the country, and the commanding officer’s
quarters ; beating down hedges, filling up ditches, and le¬
velling a piece of ground large enough to draw up the whole
corps. -The horfes to be put under cover in barns conti¬
guous to the gardens ; but in cafe there are no barns, they
may fubditute fheds open on one fide, that the horfes may
go out altogether in cafe of an alarm.
L he officers fhould occupy the houfes in the neighbour¬
hood of the fheds, and one of each company remain day and
night with the company, to prevent any of the men from
entering the village without leave, upon any pretence. The
commanding officer muft acquaint the officers of his having
cholen the place M for the rendezvous in cafe of a retreat;
which ought to be at fome diftance from the village, and
on the fide he judges moft convenient for retiring to the
army. At funiet the grand guard are to return to the poft;
and join the picquet. the one half of each to mount alter¬
nately till day-break, and.the;: the grand guard to return to
the place they pofMed the day before. The ieniries and
W A R. Part in
vedettes fhould be doubled, and all the pafTages fhut up with Petite '
waggons placed in two rows, except one for fallying out at, Gll«re,
in cafe of a retreat, made wide enough for the paffage of the v'""'
patroles or the whole cavalry.
The corporals of the ordinary guard fhould lead the re¬
lief of the vedettes every hour, fetting off together ; but
when they come to the paffage of the poft A, they’ muft
feparate into two parties, the one to the right to relieve
the vedettes BBB, the other to the left for the vedettes
CCC ; then each of them with the parties they have re¬
lieved fhould go on at their head a quarter of a league, by
the two routes pointed out in the plan, to examine the en¬
virons, fuppofing an hour to each. Befides this reconnoi¬
tring, the captain of the grand guard fhould fend two pa¬
troles in the night. To fill up the intervals, they fhould
fet one about half an hour after the corporals, and make
the fame round. At returning to the poft, the corporals
to make their report to the officer of the ordinary guard ;
the conductors of the patroles to the captain of the grand
guard.
A little before funrife or funfet, a grand patrole detach¬
ed Jrom the corps fhould be fent under the conduft of an
officer to fearch the whole environs of the poft minutely,
elpecially the dangerous places, beeaufe at thefe times the
enemy are moft likely to attempt a furprife. It the patroles
difeover them, they will be in a ftate to repulfe them, or at
leaft to harafs them till the commanding officer, upon the
firft notice, draws up the whole corps. 1 he officers fhould
take great care to inftrud the fentries in their duty, ex¬
plaining it to them every time of their mounting, and forbid
them to fmoke, as the leaft fire can be eaftly perceived in '
the dark, and ferve to direCb the approaches of the enemy.
No fentry to move more than 50 paces to the tight, and as
many to the left of his poft: and let the weather be ever fo
bad, he muft not get under cover. No one to be allowed to
go out of the poft without leave of the Commanding officer;
and to prevent defertion or maurauding, the fentries and
vedettes muft be charged to let no foldier pafs.
The vedettes muft ftop all paflengers, and take them to
the next fentry, who muft call a cotporal to conduft them
to the commanding officer. If there are a great number
palling at once, the vedette at the challenge muft haften to
flop them at 100 paces, till the officer has fent to reconnoi¬
tre them ; but if he finds them to be a party of the enemy,
he muft fire upon them and retire. At the firft alarm, the
grand guard and picquet ought to mount, and each of them
to detach a fubaltern officer immediately at the head of the
bdl mounted horfemen, to go quickly to encounter the
enemy. The reft of the grand guard and cavalry of the
picquet to follow immediately, led by their captains to fuftain
the firft detachments, to repulfe or keep back the enemy as
long as it is polfible, and give time to the commanding of¬
ficer to form the whole corps.
If the commanding officer obferves that the enemy are of
no very extraordinary force, he muft without hefitating put
himfelt at the head of his cavalry, and inftantly charge them,
pouring upon them with his whole force, which is the beft
way to fucceed ; and in the mean time, the infantry fhould
form to fuftain the cavalry. One effential circumftance
fhould not be forgot here, which is, that at the going
of the detachments of the grand guard and picquet, all the
infantry of the picquet fhould march immediately to the
place appointed for the rendezvous in cafe of a retreat, and
a ftrorg detachment o cavalry flrould follow to occupy the
place. If it is at the entrance of a wood or fome covered
place which the enemy may occupy, and thereby cut off
your retreat, you mull prevent it by fixing the infantry of
the picquet in the poft, to remain day and night, with a
1 lieutenant
'(memuhl
NeuAstdlJ
‘w//u/'icn
JLanc/rfcroi
Odttnqt'n-
haudctl
WAR •
Fig; .1.
JMcrfe DXX.T.
part Iir.
w
lieutenant at the head of 20 horfemen to clear round it. If
the enemy is too fuperior, and appears to form an attack o«
that fide, the commandingr officer fliould get there before
with all his force to oppofe them, till all his detachments
join, and then regulate his retteat, as will be {ten in the
iedfion of the Retreat.
To be better fecured in a poll; which you expeft to re¬
main in for fome time, and where you find that the enemy
will not fail to diilurb you, it will be proper immediately to
employ fome of your people with the peafants, to form fome
intrenchmeuts in a hurry in the moft dangerous places, to
have breaft-works of felled trees in the woods ; herles placed
in the fords (fee Herse) ; pits dug at the entries and plains
without defence; fo that the cavalry coming full fpeed to
charge you, may tumble in. If there happen to be a
bridge either in the front or on the flanks of the poft,
as at N, by which the enamy can facilitate their approach
or retreat, it mull be inftantly deftroyed, unlefs you find it
may be of ure, and neceffary to fix a good guard on it.
To regulate the attack and defence moft advantageoufly,
you fhould take care to obferve the places by which the
enemy can approach, and form a plan of operations for
cutting off, or taking in flank, the different routes which he
can attempt. You fhould inform your officers, and not fail
to hearken to the advice of thofe whofe talents, genius,
and experience, render them competent judges of your de-
flgns. Thefe arrangements will be of great ufe in furpri-
fing the enemy’s parties, who will come from time to time
to reconnoitre the poft. If the enemy approaches in the
night, take care how you attack him ; you cannot recon¬
noitre his force, and you ought to fuppofe that he is in¬
formed of yours.
Do not fuffer any fufpefted woman to approach the
foldiers; their vifits are dangerous in debauching your
people, and the enemy frequently employ them to difcover
your ftrength. Let no deferter flop in your poft ; and if
he comes in the night, keep him till day-break is near, and
then fend him to the army. Every party that approaches
your poft will profefs belonging to you; but if they are not
provided with a proper paffport from the general, or if you
do not know any of the officers, truft neither to their word
nor uniform.
Thefe inftru&ions may ferve for the corps of a partifan
according to the propofed arrangements; but partifans of
lefs force muft regulate their precautions according to their
ftrength; and detachments of 30, 50, or 100 men, will feek
to poft themfelves in redoubts proportioned to their number,
or in mills, farms, hamlets, detached houfes, churches, church¬
yards, &c. dbferving that the more a poft is extended, the
•more care and fatigue it requires.
The principal objedl for an officer that is detached, fays
Monfieur Vauban, is to forefee every troublefome event.
The want of exaftnefs, and the fmalkft relaxation in the
fervice of out-pofts, may have the moft fata! confequences ;
and hillory furniftes a thoufand examples of camps being
furprifed, and armies cut in pieces, by the negligence of
detachments that ought to have vratched for their preferva-
tion.
The manner of relieving detached polls has been men¬
tioned ; but if an officer is detached to a mill or houfe, let
him draw up his party about 15 or 20 paces from the poll,
and fend a ferjeant or corporal with five dr fix men to
fearch the chambers, cellars, and barns: which being done,
the {entries muft be placed, the poft taken poffelfion of,
the arms ranged fo that every one can find his own with¬
out contulion, and the inhabitants lodged in fome other
honle; and then intrench himlelf according to the rules
given.
Voir. XVIIL Part II.
\ R.
If an officer is to fix in a village where it is difficult to
examine every place where the enemy may lie in ambuflr,
he Ihould fend for the magiftrates to come and fpeak with
him, while his party remain drawn up at the end of the vil¬
lage, that they may declare if they know whether there are
any of the enemy’s parties, fufpetted perfons, or concealed
arms in the place ; which being done, the {entries are to be
placed, and the party to take poffeffion ; putting fmall de¬
tachments of five or fix men, more or lefs according to the
ftrength of the party, at the avenues ; and examining the
church, or any detached houfe, to make the principal poft
in cafe the advanced pods are forced. The men beft ac¬
quainted with the duty Ihould be planted on the moft ex-
pofed and diilant places, fo as to fee all the approaches; and
fometimea in trees, that they may fee at a diftance, and re¬
main concealed from the enemy.
If he finds any place near him where the enemy can lie
concealed, he fhould place a corporal with fix or feven men
there, with orders to fall back upon his poft if attacked, or
remain till they find themfelves difengaged. The foldiets
of this leffer poft fhould take care to make no fires, becaufe
it would ferve for a guide to the enemy to avoid them when
they want to fall upon the principal poft; but fires may be
lighted in the places where they have no guards, to make
the enemy think they have them every where, at the fame
time placing foldiers in ambufh where there are none light¬
ed. This fcheme may ferve for all polls in a level country,
where two or three foldiers fhould be kept going all night
to ftir up the fires.
The exterior arrangements being made, and fentriea
placed on the avenues, bridges, and fteeples, the works for
fortifying the poft fhould be marked out, and executed by
the workmen, and the magiftrates ordered to fend ftraw to
the neareft houfes for lodging the foldiers, who muft never
abfent themfelves. The officer muft always be in readinefs
to go where his prefence may be wanted, and make his fer-
jeants and corporals frequently go the rounds. Monfieur
Vauban fays, that if an officer is to remain but four hours
in a poft, he ought to intrench. If he is to pafs only fome
hours in a poft, it is a good way to make a parapet of
felled trees; or if it is in a village, to intrench a detached
houfe.
The way to guard againft being furprifed, betrayed, or
made prifoner, is to take precautions againft all that the
enemy can undertake; and whatever diftance he may be at,
we ought not to found our fecurity on probabilities, but
extend them even to poffibilities. Neither ftranger nor fol-
dier of any other party fhould be admitted into the poft;
and the roll fhould be called three or four times a-day, that the
men may not abfent themfelves: the commander fhould like-
wife examine the fentries, to fee whether they are acquainted
with the detail of their duty, and fhould fhow them how to de¬
fend themfelves in cafe of being attacked; obferving to them,
that if the enemy make fuch a manoeuvre, they fhould oppofe
fuch another; if they try this fcheme, to refift with that, and
deceive them at every ftep. He may make feme of them try
to fcale the intrenchment, to fhow the difficulty of mounting
it ; and by exercifing them in this manner, he will prepare
them to refill the enemy ; it will flatter their vanity, and
give them a confidence in him.
An hour or tw'o before day, the men fhould be kept alert,
fitting on the banquette near their arms; and the patroles
fent at that time, rather than in the night, to march flowly,
to liften attentively, and examine every place round the poft
where a man can conceal himfelf.
It frequently happens that two armies are encamped op-
poiite to one another, and have feveral polls on the fame
line, and two patroles meet in the night. As k is impoffi-
5 C ble
753
Petite
Guerre.
w
Isle to dillin'rul’li uhetlier they are friends or enemies, they
who firft difcover the others, fiiould conceal themfelves cn
the hdes of the road, behind bufhes, or in a ditch, to exa¬
mine it they arc ftronger ; and in that cafe to let them pafs
i-n filence, and return another way to the poft to tell what
they have feen : but if they find them weaker, he who
commands the patrole thould make the fignal which is or¬
dered for the patroles of the night, which is commonly a
dioke or two on the cartouch-box or butt-end of the fire¬
lock, which is anfwered by an appointed number; but a
word is the fafeft. If the patrole does not anfwer, they
fhould advance upon them with fixed bayonets, fire upon
them if they fee then?, retiring, and make them furrender.
If detached' oppofite to the enemy, it is to be prefumed
that you may be attacked: therefore fmall detaxhments
/hould be advanced between the fentries in the night, about
30 or 40 paces from the poft, with their bellies on the
ground, in thofe places where they imagine the enemy may
come ; with orders to thofe who command them, to make
a foldier-reconnoitre any parties that are feen, fo as not to
confound their own patroles with the enemy’s parties, and
to retire to the poft on the firft firing.
In villages there fhouid be great care taken of fufpe&ed
perfons, or of the peafants revolting ; and for this purpofe,
you fnould make the magiftrates order two peafants, the
bell known in the place, to be put on duty with the fentries
of the party, at the paffages left in intrenching. Thefe
peafants, whom the magiftrates muft caufe to be relieved
every two hours, fhould be charged to recolledt all who
pafs out or in of the villasje; and both one and the other
rr.ufl be told, that they fnall he anfwerable for all the acci¬
dents that may happen from the treachery or negligence of
thofe fentries who have let enemies in difguile enter the
village.
They muft likewife order the foldiers who guard the in-
trenchments, to let no peafant approach, and to fhut up the
paffage, with two trees acrofs in the night, and not to open
them till day, except for the paffing of the patroles. They
muft examine with iron fpits, or their fwords, all carts that
pats loaded with hay, ftraw, or caiks, or any thing that can
conceal men, arms, or ammunition.
An officer cannot watch too carefully to prevent fchemes
that may be contrived againft him ; and the attempt on
Brifac, in the month of November 1704, is fo much to the
purpofe, that it ought not to be pafied in filence. The go¬
vernor of Fribourg having formed the defign of furprifing
jBrifac, fet out in the night of the 9th or 10th of November,
with 2000 men, and a great number of waggons loaded with
arms, grenades, pitch, &c. and fome chofen foldiers: all
thefe waggons were driven by officers difguifed like wag¬
goners, and were covered with perches, which had hay
placed over them, fo that they appeared like waggons load¬
ed with hay coming in contribution. They arrived at the
new gate by eight o’clock in the morning, under the favour
of a thick fog: three waggons entered the town, two full
of men, and one with arms, when an Irifhman, an overfeer
of workmen, obferving 30 men near the gate, who, though
they had the drefs, had not the manner of peafants; alked
them wdrat they were, and why they did not go to work
like other people ? Upon their not anfwering, and appear¬
ing confounded, he ttruck iome of them with his cane ;
upon which the difguifed officers run to the arms which
were in the waggon next them, and fired it or 20 fhot at
him within half a dozen paces, without wounding him. 'The
Irifhman leaped into the ditch, where they likewife fired fe-
veral ulelefs fhot at him, while he called To arms, to arms,
with all his might.
At this uoife, the guards of the half-moon and the gate
5
A R. , Part III.
run to arms, and would have pulled up the draw bridge, Petite
but were prevented by the waggons which the enemy had ^,uerfe»
placed upon it. The officers and foldiers who were in the v ^
waggons, rufhed out with their arms, and having joined the
reft, attacked the guard commanded by a captain of grena¬
diers ; but being repulfed, and five of them killed, the reft
were difmayed, and fled either into the town, or out into
the country. The captain of che guard made the fn ft gate,,
which was a grate, to be fhut, aerofs which the enemy, who-
were upon the bridge, fired at all who appeared ; and ha¬
ving left the half of his guard, he mounted the rampart
with the other half, and continued firing upon the enemy.
A lieutenant who commanded 12 men of the advanced guard,
was attacked at the fame time by an officer who prefented
a piftol to his brtaft ; but fnatching it from him, he fired it
at him, and killed him : this lieutenant defended himfelf to
the end of the adlion; but having received feveral wounds,
he died that day.
Upon hearing the noife of the furprife, the of mmanding
officer of the place diftributed his garrifon to their proper
prffis : and having made every difpofition neceftary for his
defence, the enemy faw that their defign had failed, and re*
tired in diforder, leaving a number of v/aggons behind them,
and more than 40 foldiers who were killed or wounded.
Such was the enterpriie on Brifac, which failed by a trifling
accident.
This example, and many others which might be cited,
fhow that an officer who commands in a poll cannot be too
much on his guard to prevent his falling into the fnares
which the enemy prepare for him, as the feizing of a poft,
of however little importance it may feem, may be attended
with the moft troublefome coniequences.
In an enemy’s country, the inhabitants are always ready
to revolt and betray; therefore the commanding officer ought
to take one or two of the magiftrates children,, or three or
four of the molt confiderable families- of tire village, and
keep them in the principal poll as a pledge of the fidelity
of the inhabitants. The children (to whom they ffiould
take care to do no manner of hurt) fhould only be kept half
a day each, and changed for fome others. The command¬
ing officer fhould forbid the inhabitants to affemble in ta¬
verns or public walks, or any place whatever, and caufe
thefe orders to be fixed up at the door of the church. If
they are feen to flop and converfe at coming out of churclfi,
or in the market-place, let the patroles oblige them to
retire. The tavern-keepers and all the inhabitants muft
be forbid to receive any ftranger without acquainting the
commanding officer. None to be permitted to ftir abroad
after retreat beating, on pain of being killed by the fentries
who fee them, or flopped and conducted to dungeons by
the patroles ; who ought to march fiowly, flop from time
to time to hearken if they hear any noife, go over all the
quarters that are marked out to them, and give an account
of every thing that they have difeovered that can caufe any
alarm in the poft.
If fire breaks out anywhere, or the inhabitants quarrel
among thcroftlves, an officer fhould take care how he fends
a parly to their affiftance, becaufe thefe are frequently fnares
of the enemy to divide the ftrength of a detachment on
purpofe to attack them; he fhould therefore ring the alarm
bell, make all the dift’erent pofts get under aims, and order
thofe who command them, to make the foldiers remain arm¬
ed againft the parapet, fo as to obferve what paftes without
tire village. The foidiers of the principal poft fhould like¬
wife get under arms, and the officer detach four or five men
with a ferjeant or corporal to part the fray, or fet the inha¬
bitants to work in extinguifhing the fire.
As ail the neceffary precautions for the fafety of a poft
are
\
Pan nr. w A
Petite are too many to Isave them executed by giving them ver-
Guerre. bally, the commanding officer fhonld give his orders in wri-
and have them fixed up in all the leller polls. One
thing to which officers who are detached to a village ffiould
give particular attention, is, not to vex the inhabitants by
making them furnifh too rriuch whatever they are allowed
-by the general to exact, fuch as firing, forage, candle, &c.
'for the guards, ffiould be demanded in proportion to the
•’abilities of the inhabitants; and an officer cannot be too
delicate in preferving the charafter of a gentleman in order¬
ing contributions, and preferving the inhabitants from being
'robbed or treated ill by the foldiers.
It is not fufficient for the prefervation of a poll, to raife
"rntrenchments, nor to take every precaution againft being
furprifed. As the enemy mull attack with a fuperior force,
•your difpofitions muft be made in fuch a manner as not to
confufe one another, and every one being properly placed,
contributes to the common fafety. If it is a redoubt, or
■other intrenchment of earth that is to be defended, feven
or eight trees with their branches fhould be kept in referve,
to throw into the breaches the enemy may make, and the
parapet kept well lingd with men, who ought not to fire
till the enemy are on the glacis. They fhould be provided
with grenades to throw in the midft of the enemy who have
jumped into the ditch, nay even allies or quicklime, whofe
burning dull cannot fail to blind the enemy, fhould be had
if poffible. If the ftrength of your detachment will admit
of it, eight or ten foldiers Ihould be placed in the ditch (on
the oppofite fide from the enemy), fo divided as to take the
enemy on the flanks, who have jumped into the ditch. This
kind of fally, by running round upon the right and left at
the fame time, muft aftonilh an enemy who could not dream
of being attacked.
If there are heights from whence the enemy can crulh
your people with ftones, they muft be occupied with eight
or ten men covered with a breaft*work, to prevent the ene¬
my from pofftffing them, or guard againft them, as has been
formerly direfted.
In the defence of houfes, mills, &c. as well as regular
fortifications, the men Ihould be made acquainted with the
different manoeuvres they may emnloy for their defence ;
without which they do not forefee the intentions of their
officer, and may counteraOl one another by their being in
diforder.
The obftinate defence of a poll is the aftion where an
officer detached lingly can acquire the greateft glory ; the
refiftance not proceeding from the number of foldiers def-
tined to defend it, but from the talents of the officer who
commands. It is in him that the ftrength of the intrench¬
ment lies ; and if he joins to determined bravery the abili¬
ties neceffary on thefe occaiions, and can perfuade his fol-
* diers that the lot the enemy prepares for them is a thou-
fand times werfe than death, he may be faid in fome fort to
have rendered his poll impregnable.
In the defence of detached buildings, there are fo many
different retreats, that it becomes an arduous talk to fuc-
ceed in an attack, when brave people are to defend them.
They have the loop-holes on the ground-floor to defend,
when beat from the intrenchments without, and may refill
great numbers, by retiring gradually to the different floors
©f the houfe, where they fhould have large buckets of wa¬
ter provided to throw upon the enemy, which, though it
tuay appear trifling, is one of the molt difagreeable that can
be oppofed to the afl’aihnts; for at the fame time that it
wets their powder, arms, and clothes, it hinders them from
feeing what is doing above, prevents every fcheme for fel¬
ting fire to the houfe, and may oblige them to defift from
the attack.
R.
Having obferved that the defence of a poft does not de¬
pend upon the foldiers who are deftined for that fervice,
but upon the officer who commands, the following example
may ferve to confirm the obfervation, and will at the fame
time fhow the utility of having ftones colletfted to throw
over upon the enemy, as formerly recommended.
In the month of September 1761, captain-lieutenant A-
lexander Campbell of the 88th regiment, with 100 men
under his command, was pitched on to defend the remark¬
able poft near Cafl'el in Heffe, called the Hercules. Mon-
fieur Roziere, the celebrated partifan and engineer of mar-
ffial Broglio’s army, with 600 infantry and four fquadrons
©£ cavalry, arrived in the neighbourhood of the poft the
morning of the 2 2d ; and having beat a parley, furrounded
and carried off the two men who v/ere fent out to receive
the meffage. After having examined them feparately, he
caufed a detachment, under cover of his mufquetry from a
hill that was oppofite to the principal paffage, to advance
and mount the flair, three men abreaft ; which they did fo
flov/ly and without any interruption, that the whole ftair
of about too fteps was full of men, when Captain Camp¬
bell (who had made an excellent diipolition for the defence
of all the parts of his poft), having fome ehofen men at
each fide of him, waited to receive thofe who advanced firft
upon their bayonets, and firing at the fame time, gave the
fignal for the reft to throw over large ftones which he had
collefted and difpofed for that purpofe ; which made fuch
havock, that Monfieur Roziere, ftartled at the unexpected
reception, and defpairing of fuccefs, wifhed to get his party
off. Captain Campbell feeing the deftruCtion of the enemy
without a man of his being hurt, and that he could renew
the reception as often as they chofe to repeat the attempt,
was elated with his fuccefs, and encouraging his men, when
he happened to move from the wall that covered him, and
received a mufket fhot from the oppofite hill, which entered
a little below the left temple and came out at the fame dif-
tance below the right ; upon which he fell, and the party-
beat the chamade and furrendered. After two hours pof-
feffion the French retired, carrying off the prifoners, and
leaving Captain Campbell, whom they thought dead, to be
faved by our troops, who foon took poffcftion again, and
fent him to be recovered, and to difplay new merits in his
profeflion.
If the enemy take cannon to force the poft, it does not
appear how it can be refilled, unlefs the houie is low, and
they' cannot range round the intrenchments, as every fhot
can make a large opening in bad built houfes, and may
crufh the befieged. The only means then to fhun being
maffacred is to capitulate, or to rufh out briikly upon the
enemy when they leaft expeCl it. The firft is not refolved
upon but when the honours of war can be obtained, which,
is to march out with drums beating to return to the army
with a proper efcort. But if this capitulation cannot be
obtained, the befieged have nothing left confiftent with true
bravery, but to rufh out fword in hand, and cut their
way through the enemy. The necellity of conquering
changes the brave man into the determined loldier, which
gives him the means of retiring to the army or fome neigh¬
bouring poft.
If a poll is to be abandoned when it can be no longer
held, and yrou ate going to make the lally, you ftiould con¬
tinue to fire with fpirit, taking away barricadoes from the.
door through which you are to pafs with as little noife as
poffible. When they ate affembled, the whole party fhould
go out dole together, rufhing with their bayonets to the
place the officer thinks the leaft guarded. You ought never
(fays Mr Folard) to wait for day to execute thele fallies,
which cannot fucceed but jn a dark night, by which you
3 C 2 eafily
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Petite
Guerre,
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W
R.
Petite
Guerre.
eafily conceal from the eneftiy the road yoa have taken ; for
_ which reafon you fhould not fire, but open to yourfelves a
paflage fword in hand, left the enemy come where they hear
the noife.
Officers ffiould be attentive to diftinguifh between tire
true and talie attacks, and not defpair when beat from their
firfl intrenchments. The defence of polls is fo eaf'y, that
it is furpriiing they do not hold out longer than they com¬
monly do. Ihere wants only refolution and vigilance, ta¬
king every advantage of the ground, and perfuading the
ioldiers that nothing but the moll manifelt bale nets can let
the enemy penetrate. The example of Cremona, furprifed
by prince Eugene in 1702, will remain a proof to pollerity
of what determined bravery can do ; and fhow, that though
an enemy is mailer of half the ramparts, and part of the
town, he is not mailer of the whole.
Prince Eugene having formed the defign of furpriiing
this town, which was defended by a garrifon of French
and Irifh, got fome thoufand Au(Irian foldiers admitted at
a fecret pallage by a prieft. Thefe troops feized the two
gates, and a great part of the town ; the garrifon buried in
fleep were awaked by the aflault, and obliged to fi^ht in
their fhirts ; but by the excellent manoeuvres of the officers,
and relolute bravery of the men, they repulfed the Imperi-
alilts from fquare to fquare, from flreet to llreet, and obli¬
ged Prince Eugene to abandon the part of the town and
ramparts of which he had been in pofleffion.
Polls have often refilled the firfl and greatefl efforts of
the affailants, and have yielded or been abandoned to fub-
iequent attacks, though much lefs fpirited. How comes
this ? It is owing to an officer’s not daring to abandon his
poll at the firfl attack: he repulfes the enemy, becaufe if
forced they will be put to the Iword with their whole party;
but when the enemy comes back, he thinks he has nothing
to reproach himfelf with, having defended it for fome time,
fo retires, or furrenders. Since he could repulfe the ene¬
my when in good order and quite frefh, how much more
eafy and leis to be dreaded when they return haraffed with
fatigue ?
Is not the great caufe of mifconduil among military
men tJm want of encouragement to excite emulation ? An
officer who is not prote£led, who is never fure of the lead
favour, negledls himfelf, and takes leis trouble to acquire
glory, rarely heard of, though merited by the braved a&ions,
than to enjoy the tranquillity of an ordinary reputation.
It is not expedled that an officer who is placed in a pod
ffiould feek to engage; but that he ffiould lleadily refid
when he is preffed, and die rather than abandon his in-
trenchment.
Hidorians have been very filent about pods being well
defended; though the lelfons to be drawn from them may
be more generally inllrudlive, and as agreeable to read, as
thofe left us of the bed fortified places of a date. We are
adonifhed at the account of 100,000 men perifhing before
Odend in 1604, and their general, the archduke Albert,
with the ruins of his army, not making himfelf mailer of
it, till after a three years fiege : nor is our wonder lefs, to
iee Charles the Xli. of Sweden, in the year 1713, with
feven or eight officers and fome domeilics,” defend himfelf
xn a houfe of wood near Bender againd 20,000 Turks and
Tartars.
Several hidorians mention the defence of this houfe he-
caufe it was done by a crowned head j but brave actions,
whoever are the authors, ffiould never be buried in oblivion,
as they excite emulation, and are full of indru<aioa.
Sect. VI. Of the Attack of Pojls.
Although the taking of a pod is always difficult when
you have to do with people who know how to defend it,
neverthelefs you may iucceed in attacking them by furprile
and dratagem. Vv e ought never to form a fcheme for an
attack upon fimple fpeculation, becaufe from reafowing we
orten think that things are feafible, which-we find impof-
fible in the execution. When you intend to undertake
an action of this kind, you ought to form a jud idea of
it, by examining all the branches leparately, and the dif¬
ferent means you can ufe, fo that, by comparing them
together, you may .fee if they concur, and anfwer to the
general purpofe ; and ladly, you are to take fuch meafurcs
as may in a manner render you certain of fuccefs before
you begin.
As it is not the pra&ice of the army to choofe a parti¬
cular officer for the attack of an intrenched pod if he does
not offer himfel;, io an officer fhould not embark in fuch an
encerprife, without having examined the means of fucceed-
ing, and being capable of fhowing the general a plan of
what he has projected, to fee if he will conient to the exe¬
cution of it. If the general approves the plan, he mud beg-
leave to go to reconnoitre the pod with a man or two, that
he may take his meafures more juftly.
When he has been to reconnoitre, as is directed in 2,
former feftion, aad has got every necellary information,
he fhould go to give the general an account of his difeo-
ven'es, and receive his lad orders for the attack, for the
foldiers of his party, and for thole who are to march to
fuitain him.
The choice of men that are to go upon the attack ©f a
pod, is fo much the more effential, as the fuccefs of the en-
terprite depends on it. None but volunteers of determined
bravery ought to be taken, men who are not dupid, and
have no colds upon them ; becaufe he who does not attend
to the orders of his officers, runs on with blind zeal; and
he who coughs or fpits, may dilcover the party to the ene¬
my’s fentries, and caufe the bell concerted fcheme to fail.
As to thofe who are to fupport them, they may be taken
according to their rank in the guard or detachment, as the
general judges proper.
The difpofition for an attack mud depend on the difeo-
veries that are made, fo as not to be obliged to return in
the midlt of the execution. The men being chofen, they
mud be infpedled, to fee that nothing is wanted which can
contribute to their fuccefs; becaufe, if the poll is fortified
with an intrenchment of earth or fafeines, the two fird.
ranks ffiould be provided with fpades and pickaxes befide
their arms ; if bailed or pallifadoed, they mull likewife have
hatchets j and if covered with mafonry, they mud have
ladders.
The men ffiould be in their waidcoats, to be lefs con-
ftrained. If they propofe to make one or two true, and
as many falfe attacks, lo many platoons mud be formed of
the chofen party, as they are to make true ones, and the
fudaining party to make the falfe attacks, fo as to divide
the enemy and fhare their fire. A man mud be placed at
the head of each, platoon, who is capable of commanding
them, and, if pollible, the fame who had been employed
before to make difeoveries, as he may more eafily guide the
divifion. The orders which ffiould be given to thofe leaders,
are to march together to the place where they are to fepa-
rate, and then each to go to- the ipot which is appointed
for him, in the neighbourhood of the poll, and wait there,
with their helixes on the ground, for the iignal to jump into
the ditch and fcale the poll.
If you are to be conduced by fpies or guides, they
ffiould be examined about every thing that can be of ufe9
before they are employed, efpecially about the road by
which they propofe to conduct you. The realon of this
is.
Part Ilf.
is, becaufe we often fee fimple people, animated with the
hope of gain, imagine they can eafily lead a party, when
they have only a great deal of good-will; but if you find
in thofe who offer all the neceffary qualities, you muff im¬
mediately fecure them to you as much as polfible, by ma¬
lting them dread the deftru&ion of their houfes, and pil¬
laging their goods, if they lead the party into a fnare; you
may likewife alk their wives and children as pledges of their
fidelity, and, the moment of fetting out, place them be¬
tween the corporals of the firll rank, tied with a imall chain;
which precaution is the more effential, as traitors have often
been known, on pretence of conducing a party to feize a
poft, to have led them where they have had their throats
cut in the middle of the night, and have difappcared at the
very moment of its execution. If you make your guides
hope for a recompenfe proportioned to their fervices on one
fide, on the other you mull make them fear the cruelleit
punifhment if they betray you.
The night being the rnott proper time to march to the
attack of a poft, you ftiould fet out foon enough to be ready
to make the attack an hour or two before day. Care muft
be taken that it is not moon-light when you propofe making
the attack ; the foldiers ought to march two and two, with
the leaft noife pofiible, efpecially when palling between the
enemy’s fentries: you muft likewife recommend to them,
neither to fpeak, fpit, nor fmoke. The detachments muft
get as oppofite as pofiible to the falient angles of the in-
trenchment, as it is probable that they will be the leaft de¬
fended by the enemy’s mulketry. If a patrole of the ene¬
my comes while you arc on your march, or ambuftied in
the environs, you need not be alarmed, nor make the leaft
motion which may make the enterprife fail, but remain
concealed in the profoundeft filence, that the patroles may
pafs without perceiving any thing, and afterwards purfue
your defign.
If the poft which you want to carry is a redoubt with a
dry ditch and parapet of earth, your two firft ranks muft
have fpades and pickaxes, wuth their arms flung, and, on
the lignal being given, jump into the ditch tosrether; be-
caule it ought to be a general maxim in attacking a poft,
to ftrike all at once. When the firft rank have jumped
down, the lecond muft flop a moment, that they may not
fall upon the ftioulders or bayonets of the firft. The two
firft ranks having got into the ditch, they ftiould immedi¬
ately run to fap the angles of the icarp and the parapet of
the redoubt, to facilitate the mounting of the reft ©f the
party ; the leaders of each divifion fhould obferve at the
fame time, that the foldiers who remain armed with their
firelocks, and who have likewile leaped into the ditch, do
not interrupt thole who are demoliftring the fcarp of the re¬
doubt, but proteft them by prefenting their bayonets to the
right and left, and be ready to repulfe any of the enemy
that happen to be placed in the ditch.
If the parapet is fraifed, they flrould break as many
of the fraifes with hatchets as is neceffary to let the men
.pafs. When the breach is made, the workers ftiould drop
their working tools ; and taking their arms from the flings,
mount up with fixed bayonets, and rufh upon the enemy
huzzaing.
When you march to attack a redoubt or fuch poll, where
the enemy have a connexion with more confiderabk polls,
the commanding officer fhould charge on that fide, to as to
cut off tfie communication. People who fee themfelves
briikly attacked without hope of fuccour or retreat, will
very loon beg for quarter.
When the icarps and parapets are of ftone, they can only
be carried by foaling ; but you may fucceed by being brilk
»n furrounding and fuftaining the attack. An officer who
is to attack a poll of this kind, fhould t?.ke cate that His
ladders are rather too long than too fhort, and to give them
in charge only to the ftouteft of the detachment. The fol¬
diers fhould carry thefe ladders with the left arm paffed
through the fecond flop, taking care to hold them upright,
at their fide?, and very fhort below, that they may not dif-
locate their ihoulders in leaping into the ditch.
The firft ranks of each divifion provided with ladders,
fliould fet out with the reft at the lignal, marching refo-
lutely with their firelocks flung at their backs to jump into
the ditch. When they are arrived, they Ihould apply their
ladders againft the parapet, obforving to place them to¬
wards the falient angles rather than the middle of the cur¬
tain, becaufe the enemy have lefs force there. They muft
take care to place their ladders within a foot of each other,
and not to give them too much nor too little Hope, that
they may not be overturned or broken with the weight of
foldiers mounting upon them.
The ladders being applied, they who have carried them,
and they who come after, fhould mount up and rufh upon
the enemy iword in hand. If he who goes firft happens to
be oveiturned, the next fhould take care not to be drawn
down by his comrade ; but on the contrary, help him to
pafs between two ladders, and immediately mount himfeif,
io as not to give the enemy time to load his piece.
As the foldiers who mount the firft may be eafily tum¬
bled over, and their fail may caufe the attack to fail, it
would perhaps be right to protect their breafts with the
fore-parts of light cuiraffes ; becaufe if they can penetrate,
the reft may eafily follow.
The fuccefs of an attack by foaling is infallible, if they
mount the four fides at once, and take care to fhower a
number of grenades among the enemy, efpecially when fuo-
ported by fome grenadiers and picquets, who fhare the atten¬
tion and fire of the enemy.
During the liege of Caffel, under the Count de la Lippe,
in the campaign of I 762, a young engineer undertook to
carry one of the outworks with a much fmaller detachment
than one which had been rcpulfed ; and fucceeded witlv
eale, from the ufe of grenades -t which is a proof that gre¬
nades ought not to be neglebled, either in the attack or
defence of polls.
If the ditch of a poft is filled with water, and but mid¬
dle-deep, that fliould not hinder you from jumping into the
ditch to attack, in tile manner that has been mentioned ;
but if there is a greater quantity, and you cannot pafs, the
foldiers of each platoon Ihould carry fafeines, or faggots of
fmall branches well bound, and made as large as pofftble, to-
fill up the ditch, and make a kind ot ford, lo as to get at
the parapet, either to demolilh or fcale it.
Many ways of filling up the ditch, recommended by dif¬
ferent authors, might be mentioned; but the fafeines are
preferable to them all, as the foldiers can eafily carry them-
before them, and march quicker, and make ule ot them as
a. defence againft muficetry, and, reaching them from hand-
to hand, foon make a ford.
If the approaches of the poft are defended by chevaux
de frife, the firft and fecond rank of each platoon muft.
break them down with hatchets; or with iron grapiings
tied to ropes, they may pull them to them, and leparate
them. I f it is a brealfi work of felled trees, you mull have
fafeines thrown againft the plints, or upon the branches,
upon which the fokhers can eafily pafs. If there are two
or three rows, you may burn them writh dry fafeines lighted
at one end, and thrown in the middle row. In cale or try¬
ing this laft fcheme, the foldiers muft retire to a little dif-
tance after throwing the fafoines, that the enemy may not
fee to fire at them by the light of the fire, but place them-
fdvea-.
7-5 S W
Vetirc ftK'cs fo that tlieycan fire upon any may attempt to
v<’'ut!lf' extinguifli it. If there are chauife-traps, they muft be fwept
away, by dragging a tree or two over the ground where
they are Scattered.
In the attack of detached buildings, vou muft feize the
.approaches, and ftrive. to feale them ; to get on the top,
and crufn the people who are below, with the tiles or dates ;
.fcnt it the enemy has uncovered the houfe, you muft throw
as many grenades as -ymi can in at the windows and doors ;
or dry fafcines, with lighted faggots dipped in rofm ; or
•fire-balls, to endeavour to fet fire to them, and imoke them
out. If the weather is windy, you fhould profit by it to
fet fire to the houfe, and try to fhut up the loop-holes
which the enemy have pierced near the ground, with bags
of earth, lo as to fap the corners. If you have fomc can¬
non, you may fhorten the ceremony, hy planting them a-
.gainft the angles of the poft. If you have none, you may
iuccefsfully fufpend a large beam by a rope, to three bars
placed in a triange, in imitation cf the Roman battering
ram : this beam pufhed violently again ft the walls, will foon
. make a breach ; but you muft oblerve, in fufpending it, to
do it in a dark night, fo that the enemy cannot prevent
it by firing at the foldiers who are employed in the work.
„Xf it is glorious to get out with honour on fuch an attack,
it is no lefs fo to make it So as to coft but few people.
'I he blood of the foldiers is precious, and cannot be too
much prized, and an able chief will neglesft no means that
can contribute to their prefervation. The comparing of
two examples will fhow the importance of what is advanced.
During the two lieges of Barcelona, by Monfieur de
-Vendome in *£97, and Monfieur de Berwick in 1713,
the firft of thefe generals caufed the convent of Capuchins,
fituated out of the place, to be attacked fword in hand by
.feveral detachments of infantry, and carried it in three
hours, with the lots of ijoo men. Marfhal Berwick can-
fed the fame convent to be attacked in the year 1713.
They were equally intrenched, and reckoning to make him
pay as dear as Monfieur de Vendome had done; but this
general having opened a fort of trench before the convent,
they not expedling to be attacked in form, furrendered at
difcretion, after having held it 24 hours. The reader is left
to judge which example to follow.
You fhould prepare for the attack of a village, or fuch
like poft of large extent, as has been diredfed in the fedtion
for detached polls: but as thefe fort of attacks are always
more difficult than others, on account of the multiplicity of
fchemes they have to encounter at every ftep, an officer
fhould not march there till he is acquainted with the ftrength
of the intrenchments; the fituation of the fmaller poles ;
the obftacles to be met with in every ftreet or fquare ; and
even what terms the inhabitants are on with the foldiers of
-the garrifon.
"While the affailants have penetrated into the village, the
,commanders of each diviiion ought to take care to leave
fmall detachments at all the churches and fquares they find.;
to ftand firm and fuftain the main body in cafe they are re-
-pulfed. You muft watch very carefully that the foldlers do
not withdraw to pillage the houles of the inhabitants, as
whole detachments have been driven from towns and vil¬
lages where they had penetrated, from having negledfed
this precaution.
Three days after the furprife of Cremona in 1702, fome
Germans were found in the cellats, where they had got
drunk, and were aftoniffied when they were told that they
muft quit thefe agreeable retreats. An officer who would
Ihun a diforder fo fatal, fhould forbid his foldiers to ftir
from their party on pain of death ; and by placing a fer-
\ R. Part III,
jeant in the rear of each divifion, take care that no one falls Petite
behind. Guerre!
^ y°u fcavalry drawn up in the fquares or open places,
the aitaftants fhould remain firm at the entrance of the ftreets
that meet there, while fome go up to the houfes that are
at the corners, and fire upon them from the windows ; if
this caufes any diforder among them, they fhsuld be char¬
ged with fixed bayonets to make them furrendeC. If the
interior part of the village is defended with cannon, you
-fhould march quickly to the place where they are, and take
-them, or nail them aip, ®r turn them againft the enemy or
principal poft of the village.
■ Polybius, in his feventh book, gives an account of an
attack full of inftrudlion for military men. The blockade
of Sardis by Antiochus the Great, had lafted two years,
when Dagoras of Crete, a man of exteniive knowledge in
war, put an end to it in the following manner. He con-
fidered that the ftrongeft places are often taken with the
■greateft eafe, from the negligence of the befieged, who,
trufting to the natural or artificial fortifications of their
town, are at no pains to guard it. He knew likewife that
towns are often taken at the ftrongeft places, from their be¬
ing perfuaded that the enemy will not attempt to attack
them there. Upon thefe confiderations, though he knew
that Sardis was looked on as a place that could not be taken
by afiault, and that hunger only could make them open
their gates, yet he hoped to fucceed. The greatnefs of the
difficulties only increafed his zeal to contrive a means of
carrying the town.
Having perceived that a part of the wall which joined
the citadel to the town was not guarded, he formed the de-
fignof furprifing it at that place : he obferved that this
wall was built on the top of a rock which was extremely
high and fteep, at the foot of which, as into an abyfs, the
people of the town threw down the carcafles of their dead
horfes and other beafts of burden ; at wliich place great
numbersof vultures and other carnivorous birds ailembled daily
to feed ; and after having filled themfelves, they never fail¬
ed to reft upon the top of the rock or wall, wliich made
our Cretan imagine that this place was negledlcd, and with¬
out any guard upon it.
On this thought, he went to the place at night, and ex¬
amined with care how he could approach it, and where he
ought to place his ladders. Having found a proper place
for his purpoie, he acquainted the king with his difeovery
and defign ; and the king, delighted with the projeft, advi-
fed Lagoras to purfue it, and granted him two other officers
whom he afked for, and who appeared to him to have all the
neceflary qualities for affifting him in his fcheme.
The three having confulted together, they only waited
one night, at the end of which there was no moon ; which
being come, they chofe 15 of the Ifouteft and braveft men
of the army to carry the ladders, to feale . tire walls, and
run the fame rifit that they did. They likewife took 30
others to place in ambuffi in the ditch, and to affift thole
who foaled the wall to break down a gate into which they
were to enter. The -king was to make 2000 men follow
them, and favour the. enterpnfe by marching the reft of the
army to the oppofite fide of the town. Every thing being
prepared for the .execution, Lagoras and his people ap¬
proached foftly with their ladders; and having foaled the
rock, they came to the gate which was near them, and ha¬
ving broke it, let in the 2000 men, who cut the throats of
all they met, and fet fire to the houfes, fo that the town
was pillaged and ruined in an inftant. %■
Young officers who read this account, ought to refieff on
this attack. The attention of Dagoras, who went himfelf
to
Part IIL
w
to examine the places proper for fixing the ladders ; -his
difcernment in the choice of the officers and foldiers who
■were to inpport him ; and the harmony of the whole means
that were employed on the occahon, afford very excellent
lefions for any officer who may attempt Inch an attack.
Sect. VII. Of Surprifes and Stratagems for feizing
Pojls.
All the environs that have any relation to the place the
enemy occupies mult be known ; on what fide lie the
avenues, moraffes, rivers, bridges, heights, woods, and all
coveted places that are in the neighbourhood, without which
it is fcarce poffible to regulate approaches prudently. It
is equally neceffary to know nearly the number and kind of
troops with which he poflcffes the poll, that you may not
attack him with infufficient force. It is like wife necefiary
to know if the enemy is carehil or remifs in carrying on his
duty. The knowledge of thefe circumftances • contributes
infinitely to form a projedf of furpvife well, and to condudb
the whole expertly.
As to the manner of furprifing a poft, it is impoffible to
ellablifh certain rules on the fubjedt ; becaufe, among a
thoufand means which chance offers, there are rarely two
alike. It muft, however, be obferved, that there are ftra-
tagems with which it is impofllble to fucceed without a pro¬
per force to fuflain them. A town or village, for example,
where we are introduced by a fecret correfpondence, can¬
not be carried unlefs we be well feconded. The only means
of managing the furprife of polls well, is to divide your
force initantly, to feize the caille, church, church-yard, or
public fquares. It has been faid, that troops fo divided can
but weakly, and run a ride of being defeated feparately.
But by making as many detachments as the enemy has
pofts, in the difmay caufed by furprife, it is eafy to carry
thefe pofls before they who defend them have time to dif-
pute them or even look round them. The enemy being
iikewife obliged to divide, and not knowing what fide to
prefer, there is almoft a moral certainty, that, flupified with
the noife which they hear all round, they are ready to let
their arms drop out of their hands: befide, the horrors of
a dark night, and the dread that cannot fail to fdze a party
who are furprifed, reprefent objects much greater than what
they are, fo that they imagine they have to do with a whole
army.
The bad fuccefs of the affair at Cremona mentioned in
Seft V. makes nothing againfl this opinion. If inflead of
floppimr to make prifoners, a detachment had gone diredily
to the citadel, which fhould be the way in all inch actions,
it would have been impofiible for thete brave officers who
drove out the Imperialifts to have made fo glorious a de¬
fence.
M. de Schower did otherwife when he furprifed Benevar
in Spain in 1708, and did not fail. He learnt that the
Spaniards neglefted the guard of an old caitle which was at
the entrance of the place ; and marching in the night he
took it, and detached feveral parties to attack the town.
Surprised with fuch a vifit, they fought for fafety in flight,
and ran to take Shelter in the citadel, but were i'careeiy en¬
tered when they were made prifoners. The enemy did not
think of the attack being begun where they were ftrongefl;
hut it is the befl way, as it is to be prefumed they have
divided their forces to be able to defend every where.
M. Menard, in his hiflory of Nifmes, gives an account of
the futpriie of that |o\vn, which merits our attention. Ni¬
cholas Calviere, called Captain St Cofine, having rcfolved to
make himfelf mailer of this place, engaged a miller whole
mill was filuated within the walls, at the fide of the gate.
A R.
to file the bars of a grate which {hut up the entry or an
aqueduct through which the water paffed into the town,
and to receive ico men armed into his mill, while a cou-
fiderable body of cavalry and infantry Should arrive from dif¬
ferent places to fnflain the enterprise.
The day for the execution of his project being fixed for
the 16th of November 1569) and proper orders given for
the rendezvous of the troops, St Coime came out of the mill
with his party at three o’clock in the morning, and aavan-
cing to the guard at the gate, put them to the fword, and
opening the gate let in 200 horfernen, with each a foot
foldier behind him. Thefe troops having entered the town,
formed Several detachments immediately : one of which went
to block up the citadel; whilt the reft, Mattering over the
fquares of the place, and founding their trumpets, inftantly
made themfelves mafters of the town.
There are a number of circumftances mentioned in this
furprife, which convey a great deal of uleful inftrudlion.
Captain St Cofme knew how to profit by the negligence of
the governor, who omitted to guard the entrance of the
aquedudt: to make a proper choice of cavalry for advancing
fo readily with the infantry from different quarters ; the
juftnefs of the orders given the troops, which brought them
15 leagues from NiSmes at the hour and place appoiuted for
the rendezvous ; the precaution with which he iuvefted tne
citadel, to prevent his having to do with the garrifon in
the ftreets ; his attention in dividing his troops into the
different quarters of the town, and making them found their
trumpets, that the inhabitants might imagine they were very
numerous.
But the adlive corps of the partifan, without trufting to
the ftratagems that others have fucceeded by, mufl find
other refources than thofe againft which people are io pre¬
pared r.ow-a-days ; and as tile furpriiing of the enemy i^
the great bufinefs of the partifan in carrying on the Petite
Guerre, he mufti fee what can be effedled by his hardinefs
and activity.
The expedient which appears to be the moft proper for'
an officer who has 400 infantry under his command, and is
certain that the garrifon is only 200 (ferfurprifes fhould be
always attempted with a double force), is to choofe very
bad weather ; the ftrong winds, for example, and fogs m
winter; or the ftorms and tempefts in fummer, when, after ex.-
ceffive heats, violent winds life fuddenly, and agitate the air.
When you have meditated fuch a fcheme, then is the time
to put a part of your infantry in covered waggons, which
fhould be kept ready for the purpofe. The whole party
ought to be provided with dog fit in covers for their gun-
locks and cat touch-boxes, to take off readily when there is
occafion ; and the reft ot the infantry to be mounted behind
part of the cavalry. Both parties to affcmble at fome place
a league diftant from that which you would furprife, and
there to flop ; when, if you fee the bad weather diffipating,.
you muft retiie till another occafion. If you renew it ten
times, you need not defpair; a ftrong place deferves thin-
trouble, and fuccefs will overpay every fatigue.
But on the contrary, if the ftorm forms, and the wind-
increafes, diredl your approaches in fuch a maimer, that you
may always have the wind on your back; becaufe if you-
have it in your face, the enemy’s fentries can look forward
and difeover you ; and likevvife if it is in your face, your
horfes cannot be made to advance without a great deal of
trouble. Thefe precautions being taken, you advance more,
quickly as the ftorm increafes, the horfes and waggons go-
ing w ith great fpeed before the v/ind. You need be in no
uneallnefs about the enemy’s fentries feeing you, or hearing-
the noife of your march ; becaufe the feventy of the weather
obliges them to enter their boxesj and turn their backs to-
the
Petife
Guerre.
W A
the wind, to fave their eyes from the dull and fharpnefs of
the air.
At 300 paces from the place, the foot and part of the
cavalry fhonld difrrount and fix their bayonets, the reft of
the cavalry to remain with the waggons near fome trees or
hoides, the waggons turned for a retreat. Divide your
infantry into five detachments, and inftantly run at a
great rate, keeping your men as clofe as poffible, and
palling the barrier and gates, feize all the fentries and
the. guard without firing or making the leaft noife,
which may be executed with an extreme quicknefs, to be
acquired by praftice. Vi/bile the firft detachment feizes the
gate and all the fentries of its environs, the reft muit run
rapidly into the town. One muft go quickly to feize the
main guard ; another to feize the governor or commanding
officer; the fourth, which fhould be the ftrongeft, fhould fly to
the caferns or mens barracks, to feize their arms; the fifth to
remain in the ftreet near the gate for a corps de reierve.
Every detachment muft be conduced by prifoners made
at entering ; and orders fent with all fpeed, to caufe half
the cavalry t© advance and patrole the ft reels, as the infan-
try get forward.
As this kind of furprife can fucceed only under favour
of a ftorm, which rarely continues any time, it is evident
that the march and execution muft be conducted with in-
expreffible fwiftnefs, and the orders be perfectly underitood.
It is true, that rain is inconvenient for the infantry, whofe
feet flip on clay-ground ; but they muft do their beft, and
frequently it is found that the roads which are moft ufed are
not therefore the moft flippery.
If it happens that you are perceived in taking pofleflion
of the gate, and they take the alarm, you muft quickly
divide your party into two wings, mounting them on the
rampart, the one to the right, the other to the left; and
ieizing the loaded cannon, turn them upon the town ; and
at the fame time fummon the garrifon to furrender. If
you happen to fail, and are obliged to retire, you do not rifle
much, as they will not care to moleft your retreat.
There may be areludlance in attempting fuch a furprife ;
it may appear to be hazardous and rafh, and a conduft too
nice not to defpair of fuccefs ; but Mr Jeney fays that ex¬
perience convinces him of the validity of the means propo.
red, and relates what happened to him upon two occafions,
to prove that the cold eaft winds or ftorms are the moft pro¬
per times for attempting furprifes.
Being at the head of 3c huflars, fays he, and willing to
fhun a ftorm which was gathering behind us, I pufhed to
get to a place which was well fortified and occupied by a
numerous garrifon : the wind was ttrong, and I paffed the
barriere and all the gates with my horles, which made a
great noife, without any fentry either feeing or hearing ;
and though I called to the firft guard to declare myfelf, no
one perceived me. I crofled the whole town without feeing
a foul in the ftreet; and harrying to an inn in the other
fuburbs, I went out at the gallop, and faw only the fentry
at the laft barriere, to whom I anfwered without our com.
prehending one another ; neverthelefs the rain had not be¬
gun to fall, but the wind was violent. I experienced the
fame during the winter, when the eaft wind was very proper
to facilitate the furprife of a fortified town or poll. On
Chriftmas night 1757, I pafl'ed through the country of Ha¬
nover with 80 horfe between two guards of the enemy with¬
out being perceived. I marched over the middle of a plain
when the night was clear, with a violent eaft wind, which
prevented any fentry from turning his head to look at me,
and I went quietly to carry off horfes in the rear of their
army. The following night at my return, I paffed two
different polls of our army; the one guarded by a party
6
Partllf
of hufiars, the other by a regiment of dragoons, without be- Petite
mg feen but by one ientry in the middle of the dragoon poft, ®uer,e,
who duift not challenge, beeaufe it was no longer time, ha-
ving palled the firft guards.
You may likewife take the advantage of bad weather to
fcale all forts ot polls furrounded with walls, as towns, ab¬
beys, caftles,. &c. to do which, you muft approach in the
dark, and feize the moment of a great fquall, or when a
cold eaft wind obliges the garrifon to take flicker from the
rigour of the feafon : then there is no one upon the ramoarts,
and the fentries turn their back to the wind, or remain in
their boxes, while your people are warm with marching, and
animated with the hopes of fuccefs. You need not be ap-
prehenflve of the enemy feeing you if you advance on the
fide next the wind to place your ladders, becaufe the fen-
tnes will cover their faces, and bend down their heads to
fave them £rom cold.
The time of a thick fog is not lefs favourable for approach¬
ing and forcing an intrenched poft. When the fog is low,
the infantry fhould creep on all fours, the better to conceal
them from the enemy’s fentries. Thefe fort of furprifes are
the leaft dangerous, you run fcarcely any rifle ; but if you
caufc iome falfe attacks, the garrifon will not fail to run to
arms, and fometimes make you pay dear for failing.
When you would furprife the enemy in a village, farm,
monaftery, or fome place detached from the army, you fhould
divide your party in two bodies, each compofed of cavalry and
infantry ; the one to take the enemy in the rear, the other
in front, taking care to caufe fome waggons to follow,
which may carry off the wounded in cafe of need. You muft
calculate exadtly the time it will take the firft detachment to
go round the enemy. The two commanders fhould agree
on a word for rallying, and the time of making the attack,
which fhould be in the night, efpecially if the poft is fo
diftant from the army that they can receive no affiftance ;
for in that cafe the time is favourable till day-break. They
muft regulate their departure according to the diftance
they have to go ; and the detachment which goes round
the enemy, ought to take no more infantry than can be car¬
ried behind the horfemen. This detachment having got
round, fhould form about a quarter of a league from the
poft, and 1 co paces out of the road.
When the other detachment has arrived within a quarter
of a league of the poft, your cavalry fhould form out of the
road with the waggons and drums near them, who are not
to advance till ten minutes after the departure of the in¬
fantry, who muft advance towards the fires of the enemy,
Hooping as much as poffible. They muft take care to con¬
ceal themfelves from patrolcs, as has been direded ; and
when they fee them paffed or entered the poft, the infantry
muft hurry on to gain the village, and clear the entry by
which the cavalry muft pafs, in cafe it has been barricadoed
with waggons. You muft run rapidly to the place where
you fee the fires lighted, and make as many detachments as
you fee fires, in order to furprife the whole at once.
The cavalry who followed flowly, muft inftantly join to
the noife of your arms and cries their trumpets and drums,
advancing with all fpeed, and leaving only a non-commif-
fioned officer with fome horfemen near the waggons. The
detachment, which is advanced on the other fide of the vil¬
lage to turn the enemy, on healing the alarm, muft imme¬
diately advance, founding trumpets, beating drums, and at¬
tacking all who would lave themfelves on that fide. You
may rely on it as certain, that the enemy, feeing all his
guards furrounded by your infantry fcattered in the village,
and hearing the march of different bodies of foot and horfe
who arrive on all fides, will not delay to furrender, or leek
to fave himfelf by a diforderly flight; it will be eafy then
for
Part III* ^ ^
Petite for your cavalry to fall upon the flying, and flop them.
Guerre, party fhould be forbid to purfue the enemy more than
c ' a quarter of a league in the night; but no purfuit at all
fhould be attempted, if it is in an inclofed country. The
poll being taken, the booty and prifoners fhould be fent off
immediately under the care of the infantry, putting the
wounded in waggons, or on the horfee that are taken, the
cavalry making both the front and rear-guard, and taking
care to have the laft: the flrongeft.
There is no time more precious for a parttfan, or that
merits fo much attention, as that of a battle, when every
one is attentive to the great firing which they hear on all
fides ; to the manoeuvres of the armies that are engaging ;
to the decifion ot an affair of the greatefl importance, upon
which the fate of each depends. It is then that he can
employ his fkill to the greateft. advantage ; ftrike the feve-
refl blow that is poflible ; caufe the ruin of the enemy ; pil¬
lage the quarters of their generals ; carry off their equipages;
defeat their guards ; let fire to their camp, and ipread an
alarm over all, vvliich may contribute to the defeat of an
army.
But meafures muff be taken to execute fo great, fo bril¬
liant a project with fuccefs ; and it fhould not be engaged
in, till after having prudently regulated the deiign on three
principal circuarflances, viz. the fituation of the enemy’s
camp ; the means of approaching it; and the hour of en-
gaging. W hen the enemy’s camp is in the middle of a
great plain, or on a height with an extenfive view on all
fides, it is certain that one cannot approach without being
feen at a diftance : and in that cafe, prudence will put a
flop to zeal, and prevent raflrnels from attempting impof-
fibilities ; but when their pofition extends over a country
covered with mountains, woods, or villages, the occafion is
more favourable, and may almofl enfure fuccefs.
It is then very advantageous for a partifan to be perfect¬
ly acquainted with the frtuation of places that are in front
of his army ; efpecially when he forelees that the enemy
will fooner or later come to encamp there. What afliftance
would it not give for the direction of his project, if he
knew how to take a plan of that part of the country which
he propofes to invade beforehand ? Then, without the
weak and dangerous affiftance of fpies and deferters, he can
by his own proper knowledge think of every means for
executing a defign, which ought to be regulated and con¬
ducted with impenetrabl® fecrecy.
When he perceives by the motions of the armies that they
are on the eve of an action, he muff not delay to acquaint
the general with his project. If he confents, he will re¬
gulate the reft, and the time of departure, according to the
advices which he receives.
As thefe fort of expeditions cannot be made but by long
circuits, they muft take the time hecefiary for the march.
In the campaign of 1757, the duke of Richelieu cauted his
army to advance near Zell to attack our army ; and lent a
partifan with too horfe to the rear of the camp the day be¬
fore, who, having made a march ot 22 leagues, arrived with¬
out any accident; but the prudence of the prince of Brunf-
wick defeated his defign, and left him to admire his retreat;
neverthelels, they picked up iome ftragglers, horfes, and
waggons.
Among the meafures that ought to be taken to fecure
the blow, and ftrike it more effectually, it fhould not be
forgot to diltribute cockades like the enemy’s to all the caval¬
ry ; and to give a flick of fix feet long to 20 of each de¬
tachment, with a bit of torch fixed on the end, and covered
with a little dry ftraw or hemp, to kindle inftantly.
^ he whole party to fet out from the camp A (fig. 1.),
x • marching under the conduct of a good guide by covered
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
R. "?6l
ways, at a difiance from the enemy. Being come to the petite
place C, which ought to be in the environs, and as high as , ~‘’'rie' f
the field of battle, the infantry fhould be concealed out of
the road far from the fight of paffengers. This muft be
the centre of correfpondence with the army ; the rendezvous
of the booty; and fupport the retreat of all the cavalry,
of which there fhould be as many detachments formed as
you purpofe to make attacks. We fhall fuppofe fix of a
hundred men each, and they muft go fecretly by particular
routes to their refpeftive poll E, D, F, G, IT, I. Neither
trouble nor expence fhould be fpared to procure good guides.
Each detachment fhould lie in ambufh half a league, if ne-
cefiary, from the objett of the attack, BKKKK.
The noife of.the njufketry of the armies to be the fignal
for their irruption ; and then bravery, intrepidity, and
courage, will give wings to your people. The fecond de,-
tachment I) will glance imperceptibly between the villages,
and fall like thunder upon the camo B ; and while 80 at¬
tack all whom they meet, the other 20 fhould li^ht their
torches at tlie fires that are to be found everywhere, and
fpread the flames rapidly to the ftraw of the tents. A*
they cannot fail to have the picquet of the camp foon at their
heels, they muft ftrike their blow' with all poffible quicknefa
without flopping to plunder ; being content with the glory
of having excited a general alarm, capable of confounding
the whole army, and contributing to the gaining of a battle.
At the fame time that the detachment D attacks the
camp B, the others E, F, G, H, muft with equal violence
attack the villages K, K, K, K, which they have in front,
doing the fame the firft did in camp, except that they may
plunder every thing which they can eafily carry off of the
generals equipages, with which thefe villages are common¬
ly filled ; feizing the heft horfes, hamttringing others with
the flroke of a Ivvord, and fetting fire to all the places which
contain the enemy’s baggage. Each detachment fhould
caufe feme horfemen to advance beyond the village, to ob-
ferve the motion of the troops that will not fail to run to
their afliftance. As foon as they perceive them, they muft
make their retreat as fall as poflible by the routes which the
commanding officer has premeditated, and which are pro-
pofed to be reprefented by the coarfer hatched lines. The
fixth detachment I, in ambufh on the fide of the road lead*
ing from the camp, fhould remain there, to feize all the
enemy who think of faving themfelves by flight.
There is no danger to be apprehended in thefe expedi¬
tions, during the critical inftant while the armies are en¬
gaged, and all the troops a great way in the front of the
camp : you meet none but fullers, fervants, lame people,
and iome picquet guards fcattered here and there, whom you
may eafily defeat as they advance. The commanding of¬
ficer ought to have an eye over all; and as foon as he per¬
ceives fome bodies of troops advancing upon him, he ought
to retreat quickly, and at leaft gain the entrance of the
wood in the neighbourhood of the enemy’s camp ; for with¬
out fome fuch ffielter enter priles like this can hardly be at¬
tempted.
Each detachment having rejoined the infantry, muft
there wait the fate of the battle ; fo that if it is decided
in favour of their army, they may fpeedily regain the pro-
pereft places for haraffing the enemy on his retreat. Thefe
moments are the more favourable, as diforder, dread, and
noife, render all deience impradlicable. But all thefe fort
of furprifes require places proper to cover approaches and
retreats.
The great importance of fkill in the language of the
enemy is apparent from the following exploit of the prince
(now reigning duke) ofBrunfwick in the campaign of 1760.
That exellent partifan was fituated at fome diflancc from
5 D Zcrenberg,
762
Pttite
Guerre,
W A K. Part III
Zercnberg, at that time in the pofieiT'on of the French ;
and being"informed by two Hanoverian officers, who had been
in the town difguifed like peafants, that the garrifon were
very remifs in their duty, trufting to the vicinity of their
army, and the diftance of ours, the prince was refolyed to
fnrprile them ; and after appointing a corps to fuftain him,
he advanced in the night with Major Maclean of the 88th
regiment; and 200 Highlanders, ynth bayonets fixed and
their aims not loaded, followed at a little diilance. Upon
the firll fentry’s challenging, the prince anfwered in French,
and the fentry freing but two perfons advancing (whom he
believed to be French), he had no diftrufl ; fo that the
major getting up to him, dabbed him, and prevented his
giving the alarm. The Highlanders immediately ruffling
in, attacked the guard with their bayonets, and carried the
town, having killed or taken the whole garrifon of 800 men'.
The French officer who commanded at that time in Ze-
renberg concerted a fcheme for being amply revenged,
which failed only by a moft trivial accident. When ahnoil
every houfe in Bremen was filled with corn, being the grand
magazine and grand hofpital of our army, this officer held a
fecret correfpondence in the town, which informed him of
t he flate of the garrifon, and that there was a general order
to let couriers going to the army pafs out at all hours. He
difpatched about 20 huffars to fcamper over the country,
who were all that were heard of his party, while he march'
ed 1 $,000 infantry from Dufleldorpto Bremen (about 200
miles), concealing them in woods by day, and marching in
the night. He arrived at the gate at the appointed hour;
when a perfon on horfeback blowing a horn came along the
itrcct, and defired to pafs out to the army. The officer of
the guard had the keys, and happened to be out of the way';
and while a meffenger went for him, the people without
growing impatient, began to break down the outer barrier,
which made the fentry fire at the place where he heard the
noife ; and the guard taking the alarm, got upon the ram¬
part, and likewife fired at the fame place : upon which the
pretended courier galloped back ; and the French, belie-
ving that they were dilcovered, relinquifhed their fcheme,
and retired.
This example proves that no diftance is a fecurity from
furprifes, and that very confiderable parties may pafs over
a great extent ot country without being difeovered. The
following inftance of that prefence of mind fo much the
happinets of all who pcffels it, and more particularly of
a military man fo expofed to furprifes, deferves to be re¬
corded.
In the month of February 1761, when Prince Ferdi¬
nand beat up the quarters of the French, they tvere obliged
to retire a great way without being able to refill: How¬
ever, when they came to colleft their force, and to recoil
upon our army, Sir William Erlkine with the 15th regi¬
ment of light dragoons was in a village in our front. In a
very foggy mornin'T, foon afier the patroles reported that
all was well, Sir William was alarmed by his vedettes having
feen a great body of cavalry coming to furprife him. He
inftantly mounted his horfe, and fallied out at the head of
the picquet of 50 men, leaving orders for the regiment to
follow as fall as they could mount, without beating a drum
or making any noife. He attacked their advance-guard in
the curfory manner of the light cavalry, and continued to
do fe, while his men were joining him by tens and twenties,
and the French cavalry forming to relift an attack, till he
collefted the whole, and then retired, the furgeon of the
regiment (Mr Elliot) having in- the mean time carried off
the baggage.
Strokes of this kind difplay a fuperiority of genius, and
to that alone was the prefervatien of the regiment owing.
Had a drum beat to arms, the enemy mull have known Petite
that they were unprepared, and probably would have ruth- Guerr«-
cd in and deilroyed them ; but the attack convinced them —'V—'
that they were difeovered, and made them think only of
their ov/n prefervation.
Among many inftances in the courfe of the war, the fuc-
cefs of this officer on another occalion, where he difplay ed
the moft fingular addrefs, likewife merits our attention.’
After a repulie, and a march of 72 miles in one day, when
the men were fatigued and fcarcely a horfe able to trot, he
faw a regiment of French infantry drawn up with a rnorafs
in their rear. He left his own corps, and advancing to the
French, defired to fpeak with the commanding officer, whom
he entreated to furrender to prevent their being cut to pieces
by a large body of cavalry that were advancing. The
French officer defired leave to confult with his officers,
which having done, they refilled to fubmit ; but upon Sir
William telling them that their blood muft be on their own
heads, and turning to move off to his own corps, they called
to him, and laying down their arms furrendered to his ha*
raffed troops.
Such llratagems overleap the bounds of inftru&ion, and
no author will preiume to propofe them for imitation Here
was the reaching out the hand to fortune which Vigetius
recommends: but there are few who have the requifite
talents from nature ; and we may as properly fay of the
foldier as of the poet, nafeitur nonfu.
Sect. VIII. Of Ambufcades from the Part fan.
An ambufeade may be formed in any place covered by
art or nature in which a party may be concealed to furprile
the enemy in palling ; and the proper ufe of them is, of all
the llratagems in war, the heft calculated to difplay the
genius, Ikill, fpirit, and addrefs of a partifan. They are
eafily carried into execution in woods, buildings, and hol¬
low places ; but require a more fertile imagination, and
greater trouble, in a level country. Both ought to be re¬
gulated by the knowledge of the enemy’s march, and the
extraordinaty means that may be employed to furprife them.
When a partifan has information that can be depended
on of the march of fome part of the enemy; whether a
convoy of artillery, baggage, or provifions; a body of re¬
cruits, or horfes to remount the cavaly ; an efcort of a ge¬
neral officer going to rejoin, or reconnoitre fome country ;
he ought to apply direftly to procure a fufficient knowledge
of the route that the enemy is to take, the iituation of the
places he is to pafs, and of the poll he goes to. The better
to cover his defign, he muft. get information of the roads
that lead to oppofite places, which he muft pretend to ba
attentive about, as has been mentioned in the feftion of
Reconnoitring.
Having perfeftly concerted his plan, he fhould fet out at
the head of his detachment if poffible, and leaving his poll
on the fide oppofite to his true route, the better to conceal
his defign. If the place where he intends to plant his am-
bufeade is not diftant, he fhould come into his true route
about half way, and there place half his infantry in ambufti
to favour his retreat. But when the country where he pro-
pofes going is dillant, and the march requires at leaft two
nights, he muft conduct his party by meandring from wcod
to wood, if there are any. He muft not forget to provide
neceffary refrelhments for the day, which muft be paffed in
fome concealed place where he may not be perceived, and
muft caufe three rations of oats to be carried lor each horfe.
The firll night you muft make to fome'wood or other
place proper for palling the day near fomc rivulet, and, if
poffible, on the road of your retreat to leave a part of your
infantry
.
w
v
WAR.
I'Lat «* 1) \ KY\
fart nr,
\v
infantry in ambuih, in cafe there is no other v/ater to pafs
till you come to the place of your principal ambulcade ;
for when there is (till a river or canal to pafs, you mull con-
du£l the infantry to the paffage, and choofe the moll con¬
venient place to fix them in ambufcade.
If there is no bridge or ford, the cavalry mud fwim over,
in which we fuppofe the horfes are pradlife4. When there
is a ford, half the infantry fhould pais behind the cavalry,
to go alon< with them. In cale there is a bridge to pals
near the village, the officer who is left in this pod with fome
infantry, Ihould be enjoined to allow no one peafant
an intelligent
to get upon a
march ot the
circumdances.
foldier to leave the place ; and for greater fecurity, a fmail
detachment of cavalry Ihould remain with him., to dop any
who may attempt to run away before the return ot the
whole corps, who ought not to delay long. It the enemy
come in‘the interval to attack the bridge, it mud be de¬
fended till the return of the party, that their retreat may
not be cut off.
Every precaution being thus taken to guard the bridge,
tne commanding officer (hould be diligent to arrive at the
place of ambufcade two hours before the enemy is to pals,
and place the ambnfcade on the fide he would retire to ;
never on the other fide, if poffible, led the advanced guaul
happen to difcover you, and oblige you to repafs in fight ot
the corps, who, feeing your itrength, may rufh upon you
and drive you back.
The infantry A (fig. 2.) ought to be ambuffied at lead
DXXVI. 6co paces behind the cavalry B, fo that if they are purfu-
ed, they can fall back to A, and both afterwards to the
guard at the bridge, or to the infantry that are in ambuffi
at half way.
If the ambufcade is placed in a wood,
non-commiffioned officer fhould be chofen
high tree C, from whence he can fee the
enemy, and give notice of the mod effential
There are three : the firft is, the feeing the advanced guard;
the fecund is, the approach of the corps ; and the third is,
the time when their front is advanced as far as the ambu¬
fcade B : for which the commanding officer fhould indrudl
the obferver what fignals he is to make from the top of the
.tree, to communicate the neceffary information without
fpeaking, which jnay be done by the means of a fmall cord
D, of a brown or green colour, fo as to be lead percei¬
vable. Let this cord be placed as in the plan, fo that no
branch interrupt it, with one end in the hand of the ob¬
ferver, and the other in the commanding officer’s in the
ambufcade B.
As foon as the advanced guard appears, the obferver
mud pull the cord, and the commanding officer caufe the
party to mount and remain in deep filence. If by a dra-
tagem, which is frequently pra&ifed for particular reafons,
the advanced guard is immediately followed by the corps,
wkich may eafily be known by their being more numerous
than ordinary, and not followed by any ether corps, that
you may not be deceived by the enemy, the cord fhould be
drawn a fecond time, and a third time when their front is ad¬
vanced as high as the ambufcade ; upon which you muftruffi
out, and pour furioufly upon the flank of their centre in
the following manner.
If the advanced guard E is formed only of an ordinary
number, they fhould be let pafs ; and at the approach ot
the princioal party or convoy F, the chief to be informed
by the fecond pulling of the cord. At the moment the
head of the convoy fhall be advanced as high as B, the cord
muff be pulled the third and lafl time ; at which iignal the
whole party muff rufh out without being perceived, and
fuddenly attack the centre upon the flank, engaging only
with their fwords, and making fuch a noifc as to prevent
L R.
the enemy from hearing the orders of their officers. They
muff difarm all whom their bravery or chance throws in
their way, taking care not to fcatter or purfue too far, un-
lefs you are fure that they are fo far from their army or
other parties that they cannot be affifted ; for in either ot
theie cafes, they will not fail to run at the noife, and difturb
your retreat.
In all fecret expeditions you ought to be extremely cir*
cumfpeA that you may not be-'feen or betrayed. If the
advanced guard difeovers you before the blow is ftruck,
abandon the enterprife immediately, and retire. When
your guide, or fome one of your party deferts, and you can¬
not catch him, think immediately of retreating, or placing
your ambufcade fomewhere elfe ; therefore, to prevent fuch
a misfortune, the officers fhould be charged to examine fre¬
quently if they have ail their people.
You fhould never form an ambufcade for cutting off the
enenry’s retreat, as this manoeuvre will give him an idea oi
rallying, and attacking you in defpalr ; but the cafe is dif¬
ferent when you are well informed that you run no rifle in
flopping his whole force, either from the nature of the de¬
file where they cannot for m, or irom the imallnefs of the
number which cannot reft it.
It is equally difficult and dangerous to form feveral am-
bufeades at once : the greater number that are formed, the
more they are expoled to be difeovered, and lels in a ilate
to unite for a retreat. To this rule, however, there is one
exceotion. When ambufeades are formed to feize foragers,
it is very proper to have feveral, and to difpofe them in fucli
a manner that the fentries can fee from one to another.
Thefe difpofitions being made, they who chance to be next
the foragers mull ftrike the blow, while the others march
to fecure the retreat of their companions, as loon as they
perceive it.
In all ambufeades, no fentries fhould be placed but offi¬
cers, or non-commiffioned officers. On downs, behind
mountains, or in gullies, the fentries ffiould lie with their
bellies on the ground, and their feet towards the ambu¬
fcade, the body covered with a grey or green cloak, accord
mg to the colour of the ground, with their heads a little
raifed, and wrapped in a handkerchief of a flraw-green co¬
lour, or white in time or fnow, fo as not to be perceived.
The number of fentries cannot be determined ; but fhould
be difpofed fo as to watch on all fides of the ambulcade, and
flop every one who from ignorance approaches too near.
The fentries Ihould give notice of what they difcover by
geflures, to which all the officers fhould be very attentive.
In countries where there are no woods, vineyards, or
hedges, you may place an ambulcade in a field of hemp or
corn, or fome fort of grain, provided it be high enough to
cover you, at leall with the help of art. When the flalk of
the corn, &c. is not high enough, you muff get fotr^e of the
infantry to work with fpades and pick-axes, which they
muff have brought along with them.
The commanding officer muff mark out the^ ground A pj,te
(fig. i.) which they are to prepare for an ambufcade, enter- DXXVd.
ing at the fide B, and raffing in the front and at the two
flanks a kind of patapet C, made with an infenfible Hope
outwards, covered with corn raifed from the furface of
the ambulcade in form ol fquare turfs of a foot thick ID.
They ffiould be ranged and placed one againfl the other
till they have gained fix feet and a half. It the grain is
not more than three feet high, it is plain, that forming the
(lope imperceptibly to a foot and a hair high, with the
earth dug of the fame depth, the grain which borders the
ambufcade will be fix feet and a half from the bottom, rec¬
koning the thicknefs of the turf, which ievves to fhow that
fuch a work ought not to be declined in arable ground
5 D 2 h
764 w
1‘etite jf0 eafily worked. When the foldiershave finiHied the work,
, (T,i^rie- , a fubaltern officer muil lead them back to the place defi¬
ned for the infantry.
The ambufcade being thus made at too paces from the
road where the enemy- are to pafs, they ffiould lead the
horfes into it one after another by the bridle, io as not to
enlarge the entry : the horfemen to range themfelves {land¬
ing, and holding the bridles in their hands, with the reins
flackened on the horfes necks. The officers ffiould be con¬
tinually employed in viiiting the party, and waking thofe
who deep ; and be equally careful to deface all traces of
the entry, that none may appear near the ambufcade.
Ambufcades may be placed advantageouily in hollow
roads when they open obliquely behind that of the enemy,
Plate as the read K (fig. 2.) which enters by an acute angle upon
DXXVI. the route F of the enemy ; nor is there greater difficulty
in concealing themfelves in the gullies of fome rivulet G,
when the borders are of a fufficient height, or have ffirubs
that run paiallel with the road of the enemy. It is extreme¬
ly dangerous to fix there when the road of the enemy ap¬
proaches towards, or crofies too near, the ambufcade, as
they cannot fail todifeover it.
As thefe gullies are not very large, it is neceffary to have
a number of ways to ruffi out quickly on the enemy : We
fuppofe four, FI, H, H, H, by which the cavalry can dart
out fuddenly upon the enemy at F.
It will be proper, before tke placing the party, to caufe
the rivulet to be cut fomewhat higher, to give it a new
courle I, fo that the horfes feet may be dry in the gullies,
and make lefs noife ; and the fhorter way they have to go,
they will more certainly fucceed. The commanding officer
will not fail to difpofe them in fuch manner, that the whole
can rufh out at once by the four paffages, and pour in great
numbers upon the flank of the enemy.
In fuch fort oi ambufcades, the commanding officer fhould
himfelf be the fentry, leaning upon the edge, and covering
himfelf, lo that he may fee every thing without being per¬
ceived.
In deferted villages they may fix an ambufcade in the gar-
Plate dens (fig- !•)> or in the barns H. The doors fronting
PXXVII, the enemy muft be {hut up, and the prdfages which are
marked by fmall dots made ufe of; for it is a general rule
in all ambufcades, to fal!y forth in fuch manner as to take
the enemy obliquely behind their front.
You ought never to employ infantry in the ambufcades
we have been deferibiag, where the cavalry aft, unlefs to fa-
vour their retreat : but when you go at hazard, feeking to
draw the enemy into an ambufcade, then the'infantry ffiould
have their turn. Neither woods, villages, nor any places
which are much covered, are proper for them ; however un-
Ikilled an enemy may be, he will not follow a party on the
fkirts of a forefl, or in the neighbourhood of fome covered
place : for which reafon, there are no places fitter for fuc-
ceeding with ambufeades of infantry, than heaths, hilly
countries, hollow roads, corn-fields, ditches at the fid.e of
great caufe ways ; provided always that you do not plant
them on roads that lead to your army, for then the enemy
will take care how he purfues you too far.
When you would place an ambufeade on a heath, or in
a country full of little lulls, your infantry mult lie down
with their bellies on the ground. If there is fome water
near them, it may fuggeft to them to wet their clothes and
cover them with duft, to give them the colour of the
ground : but that this party fo laid on the ground may not
be cruffied or trod upon by the enemy’s horle when hur-
tied along with violence, they muft preferve the flank of
the ambufcade I, next the enemy, with a bar K, which
may be made in a hurry with lor.ie flakes drove in the
A R. . Part 11;
ground, at ten feet from one another, and above five or fix Petite
feet high, held together by crofs pieces tied above five feet Guerre
from the ground, which can be ealily done in the neigh-
bourhood of a wood- The time for the infantry to fire is,
when the enemy’s cavalry L, paffing before the front,
ftretch their flank the whole length of the ambufcade ; then
your cavalry .M mufl quickly face about and attack the
enemy. Theit defeat will be fo much the more certain, as
the fire of your infantry happens to have driven their fqua-
drons into confufion.
To ambufh in the ditch of a great caufe way, you muft
choofe the deepeft place, and at the edge of a corn-field
which is pretty high, and there place your people fitting or
kneeling. You ffiould colka as many fmall round buffies
as poffible, which are to be found in plenty in the country,
which ffiould be planted, as if naturally, along the fide of
the road in front of your party, and beyond the ambufcade
on the fide you expedl the enemy, and here and there fo
open, that the enemy being accuftomed to them may pafs
without diftruft. You ffiould then make the corn lean over
to coyer the ambufcade ; but if there is none near enough
the ditch, you muft have as many fquares cut in the manner
directed above as will cover the edge of the ditch. Some of
the corn fo tranfpknted fhould be beat down, but to appear
as if done by hail or wind.
Mr Jeney ambuffied in this manner with 50 men, when
under the command of Captain Palafti, who advanced with
his cavalry upon the caufeway leading to Strafbourg ; and
as foon as he was perceived, 400 Bavarian dragoons advan¬
ced to attack him : he wheeled about, and the dragoons be¬
lieving themfelves mafters of the booty, did not fail to pur-
fue, and arrived before the ambufcade without fufpedting.
Mr Jeney let their front pafs, and fired fuch a deadly fire
upon their centre, that he brought to the ground 1 7 killed
or wounded : at the fame time, the cavalry who pretended
to fly, faced about and attacked the enemy, and would
have completed their defeat, if it had not been for the great
fupport of cavalry and infantry hurrying out of Strafbourg
to fuftain the dragoons ; neverthelefs, he carried off more
than 50 horfes.
An officer having placed his infantry in ambufcade,
ought to fend on the cavalry at day-break, a non-commif-
fioned officer with fix of the heft mounted horfemen ma¬
king the advanced guard : they fhould advance as far lie-
fore the party as the commanding officer can fee. At fight
of the enemy, they Ihould begin to retire flowly without
flying, at leail till the enemy comes to purfue with keen-
ntfs : in that cafe, the advanced guard makes the rear¬
guard, and may drop a few ffiot at the enemy, to harafs
them and draw them on, or make pretended delays to ex¬
cite them to purfue, till they fall by degrees into the am¬
bufcade.
When you cans-iot place your infantry in amhufh without
having a village between them and the enemy, the cavalry
fhould not be feut beyond the village, becaufe the enemy
will never expofe themfelves to crois it in following your
party, for fear of falling into fome inare : but inftead of go¬
ing beyond it, your cavalry fhould enter the village, and de¬
mand refrefliment for 50 men, if the party are rco ; then
make three or tour peafants carry orders to the magiftrates
of the villages that are towards the enemy, to come to you,
and regulate the .delivery of waggons and forage, or fome
other pretence. As the peafants will not fail to acquaint
the enemy, and to deferibe your ftrength and fituation ac¬
cording to what they have heard, the enemy will certainly
come witn luperlor force ; and that they may come more
fpeedily, they will bring no infantry.
As foon as the peafants are gone, you mufl be careful to
let
WAR.
Part , , nf the inhabitants leave the place, and fend con- to difplay the prudence, genius, courage, and addrefs o. an
Petite jet none of the - ft,* nn thp mad of vour oflicer who commands. . .
timiallv fomeftrong patroles to the rear on the load or your
j ' i r * ' 11 __ i.4.Vv/> -rxnrr^ e ir*ll tllPV C3.T1 Cllt
Guerre.
oiHicer who commands.
The fuccefs of the retreat depends upon the knowledge
765
Petite
Guerre.
  J
ZU rfp-;a«y «!?«vfm "[ *h tZZZ of ^ 5e ^6^
off your communication with the ambufeade. Tvery horie- or rnc euime y . . . ^ ,v .
man holding his horfeby the bridle mull be ready to mount
fo that upon the enemy’s appearing you may retire quick y
from the village, and fall back one after another upon your
ambufeade.
Wien a partifan has no infantry, he may form an am¬
bufeade with cavalry, which fhould be as near as polfible to
the enemy. In the night, he Ihould fend out two or t.iree
■waseons coveted with white linen, that they may be feen at
a diftance : care mull be taken that the harnefs be in good
order, fo that no troublefome accident happen by the want
of attention to it. Each carriage to have four horfes mount¬
ed by two dragoons difguifed like waggoners, with their
arms in the hands of two or four comrades concealed m each
waggon, fo that they may vepulfe any patrole they chance
to fall in with.
The waggons fhould go flowly on fome roac parallel to
the front of the enemy, and palling at fome diltance fiom
their poll (for it is not neceffary that they pafs through
them)*, and regulate their march fo, that they may be with¬
in half a league of the ambufeade at day-break, and readily
perceived by the enemy ; then let them Hop while ^one
mounts a tree or fome height to fee round them. When
they perceive the patrole of the enemy, they mull move off,
for the others will not fail to follow ; but if the enemy ap¬
pears not to be inclined to follow, which the non-commit-
ffoned officer mull attend to, and make one of the drivers
Hop, as if fomething were the matter with his waggon,
which will draw them on till they fall into the ambufeade.
Among the thoufand opportunities that the different
marches of the enemy offer for ambufeades, there is none
more proper than the retreat of an army which decamps to
fall back. When a partifan happens to get information of
it on the eve by good fpies, he ought to fet out immedi¬
ately with his whole party, making fuch a round as nas
Plate been drawn in fig. 1. leaving his infantry in ambufeade at
DXXVlI. haU-way.
The cavalry muff be diligent to arrive at the place of am¬
bufeade by day-break, which ought to be placed on the route
that the enemy is to take, and two or three leagues in the
rear of his camp.
To be more ftctire of his retreat, he ffiould leave two or
three detachments of cavalry between him and his infantry,
at a good diilance from one another ; the remainder to line
the road in feveral ranks parallel to it, and 300 or 400
paces behind one another, concealed from the view of paf-
iengers by the favour of hollows, woods, or hills.
The firft line being near the road, muff take care of ful¬
lers, equipages, &c. which are the forerunners of an army,
and the firft to decamp when they are retiring. When they
fecure fome waggons or mules, the firft detachment fhoald
pafs them to the fecond, and fo on till they come to the in¬
fantry.
You muff haften to carry off what you can for a full
quarter of an hour ; after which you muff prefsyour retreat,
expediting that the alarm will foon pafs to the army, and the
light troops be inftantly at your heels.
Sect. X. Of the Retreat.
Every march in withdrawing from the enemy is called a
retreat. That which is- done in fight of the enemy, who
purfues with a fuperior force, makes the prefent fubjeft ;
and is, with reafon, looked upon as the glory of the profei-
fion. It is a manoeuvre the moft delicate, and the propereft
the difpofition that is made for the troops to defend them-
felves. The firft offers advantages, and contributes greatly
to the feizing them ; the fecond reftrains the ardour of the
enemy, and keeps up the force of a party to its higheff
pitch. Both deferve to be ftudied.
1 ft, Every officer who commands a detachment ought to
apply himfelf carefully to reconnoitre every ftep he takes,
and examine perfectly every route that can conduft hun
from one place to another ; he fhould obferve attentively all
the Itratagems that can be employed for ambufhing infan¬
try, or pofting cavalry ; the courfe of rivers, their bridges
and fords ; the roads molt covered with woods, hills, gullies,
and villages ; and, in a word, he fhould know all the advan¬
tages, as well as the dangers, that lie in his way. . It wid
be eafy for him to acquire a knowledge of all this, if he
will ufe the method recommended in a former . fedtion.
With the affiftance of fuch a plan as is there deferibed, he
may regulate his retreat with eafe, and put it in practice to
advantage, profiting by every means proper for his defence,
or furprifing the enemy.
2dly, The difpofitions that ought to be made for a par¬
ty, to fuftain their retreat in the face of the enemy, depend
upon the number and kind of troops in both corps ; for they
muft be varied according as they happen to be of cavalry or
infantry united, or of either fingly.
Every forced retreat in confequence of an unfortunate ac¬
tion, would be almoft impradticable, if it were not premedi¬
tated before you come in prefence of the enemy, or when
you are obliged to fly by unknown routes. That which
can be made in a fog, or in the night, is eaiicfl, v/lien your
rear is lecured, as you can flip out of fight or the^ enemy
without any difficulty, and they will be arraid of following
you for fear of being furprifed in the dark : we fliall only
therefore fpeak of that which is to be made in open day, and.
under the fire of the enemy.
To conduct it properly, you muft abfolutely know the
ftrength of the enemy; for it is fhameful to be the dupe of
a falfe alarm, and to retreat precipitately from an ill founded
fear at the approach of an inferior enemy. You mult there¬
fore be convinced of his great fuperiority, and know what
his party confills of.
If they come with a ftrong cavalry, united to a more nu¬
merous infantry than yours, you muft immediately render
their acting ufelefs, by hurrying your in'antry as quick as •
poffible to retreat to the firit place where they can lie in am-
bufli, and ferve the cavalry advantageoufly, if they can draw
on thofe of the enemy, as has been faid in fpeaking of am¬
bufeades.
To conceal from the enemy, and favour the departure of
your infantry, you fhould caufe your cavalry to advance,
and pretend as if they were going to attack the enemy A
(fig. 2.), your party forming into two diviiions B and C,
each drawn up in two lines, the fecond double the firft, and
difpofed as in the plan.
The divifion C is to retire firft 100 or 200 paces, and
then fronting the enemy divide into two wings, leaving an
interval for the paffage of the divifion B, who, in retiring,
muft leave a rear-guard at 50 paces, which muft be divided
into feveral parties D, to fcamper about the enemy’s front j
and in cafe they appear defirous to attack you, your fmrdl
parties muft keep a conitant fire, particularly on the lides
that advance the moft ; and continue this manoeuvre till they
have joined the diviiion C, which Ihould immediately detach
force fmall parties of the bell mounted to ferve far a rear.
guard,
w
guard, and to liarafs the enemy, till the divihon B Is drawn
up ioo paces In the rear, and divided into wings, leaving
an Interval for the divifion C to pafs through in its turn ;
and continue to manoeuvre it in this manner, till you draw
the enemy’s cavalry under the tire of your infantry.
When the force of the enemy confifts of cavalry alone,
your infantry (marked in the plan by dotted right angles)
fhould retire jointly with the cavalry, at lead if the country
does not expofe you to be furrounded by fome covered
place; becaufe in that cafe your infantry fhouid go and oc¬
cupy that place, and form an ambufeade.
The reft of the infantry thould place themfelves in the
fecond line of each divihon. If the enemy approaches the
firft line too near, they fhould fall lightly back upon the
two wings of the fecond, opening the centre quickly for the
infantry to fire upon the enemy in platoons, at the fame
time that your cavalry detach feveral fmall parties to ad¬
vance bilfkly to prevent the enemy’s forming, who were
thrown into confufion by the fire of the infantry. The di¬
vifion which retires will force its march, and go to a greater
or lefs diflance according to the purfuit of the enemy. The
fuflaining divifion muft fall back afterwards till it has paffed
between the wings of the fecond divifion, who mufl then
make the manoeuvre of the firft, continuing it alternately till
the enemy defifts from the purfuit.
To facilitate the retreat of the infantry, (and gain fome
way on the enemy, many have been of opinion that they
ought to tranfport them in waggons. But when the enemy
is at our heels, the time is very ill employed in collecting
carriages and harnafling them : thofe moments are too pre¬
cious ; and fhould be employed in caufmg the infantry to
move off quickly, by which they will not be expofed to a
train of waggons taken in hafte, which may foon break, or
be put out of order, and may flop the whole line ; which not
only retards the infantry, but likewife the cavalry, when
they find the route they were to have taken blocked up with
broken carriages.
When there happens to be a wood in your rear, you need
not enter it if the enemy follows you clofe, and is prevented
by your ftrength : it is better to coafl along it by the route
marked G, for fear of his coming round you ; but if you
cannot avoid crofting it, the divilion C fhould pafs quickly,
and at getting out face to the two flanks of the wood.
The divifion B is to remain at the entrance of it, till they
judge that the divifion C is fufftciently advanced, and then
fall back, leaving the infantry for a rear-guard during the
■whole paffage through the wood : at which time the whole
fhould refume their firft difpofition.
In all defiles, and paffages of bridges, the fame manoeuvre
fhould be ufed as for woods: but the firft divifion having
palled, they fhould form facing the enemy; and the infan-
A _ R* Part ly
try likewife draw up on the other fide, upon the edge of the Petite
liver. ‘ " Guerre.
W hen the country through which you are to retire hap-
pens to be mountainous, the divifion which falls back fhould
guard the heights by fmall detached parties, or, if poffible,
guard them themtelves.
A body of cavalry retreating without infantry, omdit to
form in three lines at 200 paces behind one another; theTwo
laft extending their front, that they may apoear mor ? nu¬
merous, and draw up on the two fides out of the road. The
firft line being attacked, the fecondisto fuftain it, the third
to wait the retreat of the firft, and to fuftain the fecond, and
continue to do fo alternately.
If the enemy feem to quit the purfuit, the whole .corns
muft refume the order of an ordinary march ; with this pre¬
caution, that the rear-guard be reinforced, and the advanced
guard weakened.
As to the retreat of a fmall detachment of cavalry, fuch
as go to reconnoitre the enemy, to difeover their march, to
carry off fome officer, or for fome ot her commiflion, as they
are not numerous enough to fkirmifh and retreat by rule,
they have but two ways to choofe ; either to fly, or break
through the enemy. They ought to determine for the laft,
when their retreat is cut off on all fides, fo that they have
no other way to efcape but by cutting their way through
the enemy (word in hand : but flight is always lefs hazar¬
dous when it is pradficable.
If the officer is certain of the fidelity of his men, and
their attachment to him ; and fees that they cannot get out
of fight of the enemy, but are ready to fall into their hands;
he ought to try one means ftill, which has been known fre¬
quently to fucceed. He fhould difperie his party by two ' j
and two, by the favour of the firft covered place, where they
may be at liberty to take fo many different routes. It is
evident that two men may wind from right to left, and
efcape more eafily than a party of 12 or 2c, who cannot
move fo freely.
Mr Jeney made ufe of fuch an expedient fuccefsfuJly in
Italy, when the Spaniards having advice of his detachment
having flipped to the rear of their army, they cut off his re- f
treat on all fides. The whole party being difperfed, he
took two huffars with him, and was followed fo clofe, that
every inftant he thought he muft be taken ; however, he fa-
ved himfelf by croffing a marfhy pond. The enemy ran to
turn him, but he got fo far before them, that they could
not take him. He got fafe to his poft, and in three days
the whole detachment met without the lofs of a man ; which
will prove, that in fuch a fituation we need not defpair, and
that in extreme necefiity the paffage of a river or moral's
ought not to be declined.
Part IV. Of S I E G E S.
Sect. I. Of Attack.
§ I. Maxims or Principles to be olferved in the Attach of
Places.
I. r TTIE approaches ought to be made, without being
feen from the town, either diredlly, obliquely, or
in flank.
2. No more works fhould be made than are neceffary
for approaching the place without being feen ; that is, the
befiegers ought to carry on their approaches the fhortell
way poflible, cor.fiftent with being covered againft the ene¬
my’s fire.
3. All the paits of the trenches fhould mutually fupport
each other, and thofe which are fartheft advanced ought not
to be diflant from thofe which are to defend them above
120 or 130 fathoms, that is, above mufket-fhot.
4. fhe parallels or places of arms the moft diftant from
the town, ought to have a greater extent than thofe which
are neareft, that the befiegers may be able to take the ene¬
my in flank, fhould they refolve to attack the neareft paral¬
lels.
5. The trench fhould he opened or begun as near as
pofiible to the place, without expofing the troops too much,
in order to accelerate and diminifh the operations of the
fiege.
There
There is no ftich thing as giving any exaft rule in re-
rrard to the diftance which ought to be obferved upon open-
ine; the trenches. On level ground this diftance may be
Sno or <jco fathoms; but if there foould be a hollow way
in the neighbourhood c f the place, the befiegers are to take
advantage of it, and open the trencher nearer. In general,
they are to regulate themfelves upon this head according to
the nature of the ground, more or lefs favourable to the
< pening of the trenches.—We fhall luppofe, m the piefeni.
work, that the opening ought to be made within 8 30 fa¬
thoms of the covert way ; the firfl parallel within 300 fa¬
thoms, the fecond within 150, and the third at the foot of
the glacis.
6. Care fhould be taken to join the attacks ; that is, they
ought to have communications, to the end that they may be
able to fupport each other.
7. Never to advance a work, unlefs it be well fupported ;
and for this reafon, in the interval between the fecond and
third place of arms, the befiegers fhould make, on both fxdes
of the trenches, fmaller places of arms, extending 4© or 50
fathoms in length, parallel to the others, and conftru&ed in
the fame manner, which will ferve to lodge the foldiers in
v ho are to protcdf the works defigned to reach the third
place of arms.
8. Obferve to place the batteries of cannon in the con¬
tinuations of the faces of the pieces attacked, in order to
filence their fire ; and to the end that the approaches be¬
ing protected, may advance with greater fafety and expe¬
dition.
y. For, this reafon the befiegers fhould always embrace
the whole front attacked, in order to have as much fpace as
is requiiite to plant the batteries on the produced faces of
the works attacked.
to. Do not begin the attack with works that lie clofe to
one another, or with rentrant angles, which would expofe
the attack to the crofs-fire of the enemy.
§ 2. Of Invejling,
The firfl: operation of a fiege is inveftmg. The body of
troops invefting a town ought at leaft to be as ftrong again
as the garrifon ; they are to divide themfelves into feveral
parties, in order to take poffeffion of all the avenues leading
to the place. By day they fhould keep themlelves out of
the reach of cannon-fhot; butasfoon as it is dufk they muft
approach much nearer, the better to be able to fuppoit each
other.
The invefling is generally made by cavalry ; but when
the country is cut with ravins or hollow ways, or when there
are woods in the neighbourhood of the place, then there
muft be likewife a body of infantry to guard all the avenues,
and even to flop up, by a kind of retrenchments, fuch as
might be the eafiefl to penetrate.
A few days after the invefting, the army arrives, and is
difpofed round the town, according to the ground taken up
by the line of eircumvallaticn, and afiigned by the engineer
who has the direftion of the fiege. As foon as the place is
invefled, they begin to trace the line of circumvallation, and
afterwards they fet about its conftrudfion.
$ 3. To trace out the line of Circumvallation.
Before a general begins the attack of a place, he muft
endeavour to have as exadl a plan of it as pofiible, by which
he forms a defign of the circumvallation and the attacks.
The plan is rectified after the in veiling as much as the vi¬
cinity of the enemy will permit ; and thereby he may correct
the defign traced at firft, as far as there may be occafion
for correftion. It is upon fuch a plan, fo re&ified, that
we fuppofe a general to proceed. We fhall therefore begin
with explaining or tracing the operations of the fiege.. We . aiege..^
fhall exhibit the progrels ofthefe operations from the inveft¬
ing to the taking of the place, in the order they are really
executed. The line of circumvallation being a fortification
intended againft the enemy from without, who fhould at¬
tempt to fuccour the town, its defences ought to be direft-
ed againft that enemy ; that is, they ought to be oppofite
to the town ; and the befieging army fhould, as we have al¬
ready obferved, be encamped behind that line, that is, be¬
tween it and the town. The camp fhould be, as much as
poftible, without the reach of cannon-fhot: therefore, as the
line of circumvallation fhould be at a greater diftance from
the place than the camp, the reafon is ftill ftronger for its
being alfo out of the reach of the cannon-fhot; which, wne-
ther fired horizontally, or at an angle of 10 or 12 degrees,
may be reckoned about 1200 fathoms. As the rear.of the
camp fhould not be incommoded by the cannon, this pait
ought to be above 1200 fathom's diftanc from the place;
and we {hall fuppofe that the diftance ought to be fixed at
1400 fathoms from the covert way. I he depth of the
camp may be eftimated at about 30,fathoms, brom the
front of the line of circumvallation there fhould be a fpace
of 120 fathoms, to draw7 up the army in battalia behind the-
cireumvallation ; which fpace added to 30 fathoms, fuppo-
fed for the depth of the camp, gives 150 fathoms ; and-
this added to the diftance from the covert-way to the
rear of the camo, gives fathoms for the diftance fiom
the circumvallation to the covert-way.
This being laid down, if the place be a regular odlagon,
fottitled according to M. Vauban’s firft: method*, the
dius thereof will be 234 fathoms. This diftance being add- ^
ed to the 1550 fathoms, then we.fhall have 1784- Or we
may make it a round number by adding 16 fathoms, which
are here of no manner of confequence, and we ftiall have
1800 fathoms for the diftance from the centre of the place
to the line of circumvallation.
The radius of the circumvallation being thus fettled,
from the centre of the place, with the diftance of 1800 fa¬
thoms, you are to deferibe the circum trence of a circle
round the place. The diameter being fathoms, the
circumference will then take 1 1,314 ; then take the diftance
of 120 fathom?, which you are to carry to the circumfe¬
rence above deferibed. This diftance will be in this example
93 times, and fomething over, which differs very little front
1 20 fathoms; fo that you may look upon the polygon ol
this circumvallation as a polygon of94fides, of 120 fathoms
each.
The polygon of the circumvallation being traced, take Plafe
on each of the extremities of its fides the lines BD and BE, DXXVllf,1
each of 15 fathoms; and from the points D and E, taken **0- x*
for the centre and diftance of 25 fathoms, deferibe two arcs
which cut one another at the point F ; from whence draw
the lines FD, FE, for the faces of the redans of the line of
circumvallation : thus it is we form the faliant parts EFD
of this line, which ferve to flank it. Perform the fame ope¬
ration on every fide of the circumvallatior., and then you will
have its principal line traced.
The parapet within muft be fix or eight feet deep; and
without make a ditch parallel to all its parts, three or four
fathoms in breadth. The parapet of the circumvallation
will be ieven feet and a half high, and the depth of the ditch
equal to the height of the parapet.
To make the profile of the circumvallation, let AB fig.
2. be the line level with the country, and CD the fcale of
the profile. Let A be the fide of the town, and B that of
the country ; take AE, of fix feet; from the point E, raife
the perpendicular EF, of three feet, and draw the line AF,
■which will be the talus of the banquette.
Draw
78?
Sieges.
W A
r'ra'tt' FG parallel to AB, three feet from F to G, and
J the line FG will be the breadth of the banquette. On the
point G raife the perpendicular GH, upon the line 1'G,
four feet and a half. Draw from the point H, HK, paral¬
lel to AB. Make HK feven feet and a half, HI a foot and
a haF, draw GI, which will be the inlide of the parapet of
circumvallation.
From the point K, let fall on the line AB the perpen¬
dicular KM ; take KL a foot and a half, and draw IL,
which will be the upper part of the parapet of the line of
circumvallation. 'l ake MN five feet, and from the point
N draw the perpendicular NO, and fet off feven feet and a
half from N to O. Draw OR parallel to AB, making the
difta e three fathoms or 18 feet from O to R; draw the
line LN and produce it to P, and LP will be the fcarp, or
the outfide or the parapet of the line of circumvallatron.
From the point R raife RS, oerpendicular to OR, or paral¬
lel to ON. Make QR equal to OP, and draw QS, which
produce beyond S three feet to V ; then take SX fix feet,
and draw VX, and the profile of the circumvallation will be
■completed.
This kind of glacis, VX, will ferve to raife the enemy,
and to expofe them more to the fire of the line, fhould
they attempt to make themfelves -mailers of it, and to cover
the parapet of the circumvallation, in the fame manner almoft
as the glacis of a place covers the top of the rampart.
The dimenfions above given may vary a little without in¬
convenience ; but it would be to no manner of ufe to make
the lines ftronger ; only you may reduce the ditch to ten or
twelve feet in breadth at the top, and five or fix feet in
depth. A dkch of lefs breadth and depth, befides its not
allowing ground enough to form a good parapet, would
have the inconvenience of being too eafy to pafs over by the
enemy. The lines may be fraifed (fee Fraise) ; which
is done when they are to lad for fome time, a ’d the neigh¬
bouring country furnifhes wood enough for the purpofe.
Sometimes a fore-ditch is dug before the lines, 12 or 15
feet in breadth at the top, and fix or feven feet deep ; it is
made about 12 or 15 fathoms from the ditch of the line.
The defign of it is to Hop the enemy when they attempt to
attack the lines, and to make them lole both time and men
in pafling over it. As it is expofed to the fire of the lines,
the time the enemy mud necelfarxly fpend in eroding will of
courfe occafion their lofing a great many men ; and befides,
the pafiage itfelf may throw them into fuch diforder, as fhall
prevent their attacking fo advantageoufly as they would o-
therwife do, were it not for this obitruftion. Between this
fore ditch and the ditch of circumvallation, at the fiege of
Philipfburg, in order to drengthen the defence of the cir¬
cumvallation, there were likewife dug wells, which were ran¬
ged chequerwife, of about nine feet diaideter at the mouth,
and fix or feven feet deep. They were fituated near to
each other, to prevent the enemy from pafiing eafily through
the intervening fpaces. The Spaniards pradliled fomething
of this kind at the fiege of Arras in 1654. Betore the cir¬
cumvallation, they dug a number of holes two feet diame¬
ter, and a foot and a half deep ; in which they fadened dakes
that were capable of greatly obdrucling the naflage of the
cavalry. See Plate DXXIX.
A line of circumvallation requires a drong army to de¬
fend it. We have found the circumference of the line
which we have been now tracing, namely, of 94 fides, each
of 120 fathoms, to be 11,280 fathoms ; out of this number
the gorges of the redans are to be dedlifted, but then their
faces are to be added. The gorges have 30 fathoms ; and
the two faces which have 50, give an overplus of 20 fa¬
thoms or, each redan ; that is, to the number above men¬
tioned ei ,; 280 fathoms, add as many times 20 as there are
R Part I\i
redans, in order to have the entire circumference of the cir- Ofsic^
cumvallation. This circumference has 95 redans 5 there-
fore we mud add 94 times 20, or 1880, which will make
13,160 fathoms for the whole circumference. This num¬
ber being divided by 2282 (which is the number of fathoms
contained in a French league) gives about five leagues and a
half. Now it is clear, that fo great an extent of ground
requires a very numerous army to guard it. We may
make a calculation pretty near, by fuppofing that every fol-
dier drawn up in a line occupies a fpace of three feet, that
is, half a fathom; that the foldiers are four deep ; and that
the army is drawn up in two lines, which will give eight
ranks of foldiers. Each rank containing 26,320 foldiers,
the circumference of the circumvallation being 13,160 fa¬
thoms, the eight ranks will therefore make 210,560 men.
To thefe we fhould likewife add about 12,000 or 15,000
men for the works of the attack, which would form an army
of about 225,000 men. And as it is not cudomary, at lead
in Europe, to fend fuch drong armies into the field, from
thence it follows, that the circumvallations, and the lines in
general, when they are of a very great extent, are extreme¬
ly difficult to guard. And indeed the mod celebrated ge¬
nerals have been divided in their opinions upon this fubjeft.
They all agree that there are certain cafes in which they
may be of fome advantage, efpecially when they are of a
narrower compafs, and the defign of them is to dop up the
entrance of a country of a fmall extent; but if they are very
large, it is extremely difficult to defend them when attacked’
by a fkilful enemy.
It was heretofore the cudom to add great outworks to
the lines, fuch as horn and crown works, tenailles, &c. All
the circumvallations of the towns that were befieged during
the wars between Spain and Holland, under the princes of
Orange, were remarkable for this fort of works. Thefe
have been fince laid alide, becaufe we find that even a line,
with its fimple redans, is very difficult to guard ; and fuch a
number of outworks. does but increafe its circumference.
The modern lines have only a few fmall half-moons A, be- p]att
fore the gates of the circumvallation, placed, like thofe ofoxxVl
the towns, againd the middle of the curtains ; the entrance fig-1'
is {hut up by wooden barriers, and fometimes by chevaux-
de-frize, and other contrivances, which will hinder the paf-
fage from being eafily forced.
The lines having very little elevation, dand in no need of
badions to be flanked in all their parts, like thofe in the cir¬
cuit of a town. Redans, which are of more fimple and ex¬
peditious condruftion, are fufficient. The angle they make
with the curtain is always very obtufe, to the end that the
foldier being placed on the face of the redan, may be the
better able to defend its approach. It is cudomary indeed
to make badioiis in thofe parts where the lines form fuch
angles as could not be fufficiently defended by redans. Yet, /
whenever it may be judged necefiary, the line of circumval¬
lation may be fortified with badions. The greated part of
the lines at the fiege of Philipfburg was flanked in this man¬
ner, as may be feen in Plate DXXIX. The badions increafe
the circumference of the circumvallation ; and probably the
reafon why they were uied at the fiege of Philfpfburg, was
becaufe the circumvallation was of a very fmall extent.
At the point of the redans, batteries are erefted to fire
the cannon a barbette over the parapet; and the fame is
praftifed wherever the cannon are placed on the line of cir¬
cumvallation,
Hitherto we have fuppofed that the circumvallation was
regular ; but even were it irregular, the condruftion of it
would differ very little from that which we have jud now
given.
A general ought to poffefs himfelf of all places from
I -which
WAR.
Attack of Tbr bfied Places .
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01 diegea, wh'ch the Hnes may be commanded, when it it pofiiblc to
«»—it without carrying the circumvallation to too great a
diftance. He fhould likewile take ail aclvanta^es ariling
trom the nature of the ground, as precipices, eminences, ri¬
vers, brooks, morairea, and, generally (peaking, whatever is
capable of rendering the camp of difficult accefs. If there
are any woods or buihes within its inclofure, it will be right
to cover it in thofe parts by felling the trees, and therewith
making a proper fence.
'The tracing of the lines is a matter of no difficulty, if
you have a good map of the adjacent country ; fmce you
have only to bring the feveral parts of the line nearly within
1800 fathoms of the centre of the place, and to take care
that there (hall be about 120 fathoms from the point of one
redan to another.
Nor is there any difficulty in transferring this line to
the ground ; the operation is too eafy to thofe who know
a little of pra&ical geometry, to lofe any time in explaining
it here.
When the garrifon is numerous enough to difturb the
befieging army, another line is traced in the rear of the
camp, called the line of countervallation. As it is intended
to oppofe a far lefs confiderable body of troops, it is never
made fo ftrong as the line of circumvallation ; but it is con-
"Plate ftrudded on the very fame principles, as the figure will luffi-
1DXXX. ciently fhow.
§ 4. Of the Park of Artillery.
The park of artillery is the place which contains the
cannon, bombs, powder, and in general all military imple¬
ments and machines that have any relation to the artillery.
This park fhould be placed where there is lead danger of
being infulted by the enemy. It ought to be without the
reach of cannon-fhot, and inclofed within a particular fpot,
which fhould be fortified alfo by a line, confiding ef a ditch
and a parapet, flanked with redans in the fame manner as
' the circumvallation. Nothing (hould be negle&ed that is
capable of fecuring it either from the attacks of the enemy,
«r from any other poffiblc damage.
$ S' Of the Trenches and Parallels.
While the line of circumvallation is fin idling, all the
materials necedary for the confiru&ion of the trenches are
got ready, and the engineer, who has the dire&ion of the
fiege, examines on the fpot the moil properj)lace for the
attacks, and the figure they ought to have ; and of thefe he
makes a particular plan.
We have fuppofed that the place is regularly fortified,
and on level ground; fo that here it is indifferent on which
fide the attack is begun. It is Efficient to explain the rules
that arc to ue there obferved ; and afterwards to apply
them to irregular towns, and to uneven grounds. Let C
P’ate (fig. 2.) be the place befieged, and A and B the baltions
DXXX. attacked. Begin with indefinitely producing towards the
fiei.: the capitals or thtfe two bailions j in like manner pro¬
duce the capital of the half-moon oppolite the curtain be¬
tween thefe two baffions ; fet off 800 fathoms from the fa-
liant angles D and E of the covert-way to F and G. This
done, take OH, and El of 300 tathoms ; and from the
centreC, with the radius CHor Cl, deferibe an arc, which
produce beyond the points H and 1 ; and on this arc HI
ccmftiua the fir It parallel. Then on the fame lines, DF,
take the points M and N 140 fathoms dillant from
t e points H and T; and through thefe points deferibe
from centre C another arc, on which the fecond parallel
is conilrufted. This fecond arc will cut the produced ca¬
pital of the half-moan in the point L, which is to be ob-
terved, m order to begin from hence a trench, which (hall
VOL. XVIII. Part II.
extend to the faliant angle of the covert-way before tb*« Of Sieges,
halt-moon. Laffly, through the points O and P, the di-
ftance of 20 or 25 fathoms from the ancgles D and E, de¬
feribe from the centre C a third arc, on which the third pa¬
rallel is condrucied.
Terminate the firft parallel by producing the faces a b,
a b of the half-moons 1 and 2, collateral to the baftions A
and B ; but extend the parallel 15 or 20 fathoms beyond
the interfeition of this prolongation. The fecond parallel
will be lefs extended than the firff, by about 30 fathoms on
each fide ; and the third alfo lefs extended than the fecond,
by about 30 fathoms on each fide.
This being done, you have a fltetch of the trenches and
the, places of arms. The butinefs now is to trace the
trenches, or approaches, without being feen or enfiladed.
Take a long ruler, and lay it on the point G, fo that it
(hall make, with the produced capital EG of the ballion B,
an angle EGS, whofe fide GS being produced, (hall meet
no part of the covert- way, and (hall be diftant about 10 or
] 2 fathoms from the angles to which it approaches neareft.
Take GS of an arbitrary extent, as of 200 or 220 fathoms,
and put the ruler on the point S, fo that it (hall make with
GS Inch an angle GST, as that the fide ST produced
(hall not fall on any part of the covert-way, but be 10 or
12 fathoms diftant from the mod faliant parts. Terminate
this fide in T, and there make alfo a new angle STI,
whofe fide TI (hould terminate at the point T, where it
meets the firlt parallel. Perform the like operation on FIT,
and it will give you the outline of the trenches as far as the
firft parallel.
At this part of the trenches you may make a greater
number of turnings ; you may likewife carry it in a diredh
line to the firft parallel. The moft important article is, to
take care not to let it be enfiladed from any part of the co¬
vert-way ; and the fewer angles and turnings it makes, the
quicker it is conftru&ed, which in transferring it to the
ground is worthy of great attention- Take care alfo, that
its extremity, I, do not fall far from the point where the pro¬
duced capital of the baftion meets the firft parallel.
By the fame method trace the trenches between the firff
and fecond parallel, as may be feen in the figure ; but as
this part is nearer the place than the former, in order
to avoid being raked, it mull have a greater number of
angles. All its fides ought to cut the prolongment of the
capital of the., baftion B, as appears by the figure. In like
manner trace-khe trenches betwixt the fecond and third
place of arms, by making as frequent turnings on the pro¬
duced capital of the baftion B, as (hall be neceffary, in order
to its defiling from the covert-way. By the fame method
trace the trenches on the capital of the baftion A ; trace al¬
fo a trench on the produced capital of the half-moon, be¬
tween the fecond and third parallel, to reach the flanked
angle of its covert-way.
When the garrifon happens to be ftrong and enterprifing,
it will be proper, between the fecond and third parallel, to
make parts of trenches V, V, &c. parallel to the places of
arms ; they are to be 30 or 40 fathoms long, and to com¬
municate with the trench, as may be feen in the figure.
I hefe parts of the parallels are what we have diftinguifhed
by the name of half parallels or places of arms. At every
anole of the trenches obferve to produce the part of the
ti enches in thofe places, lo that this prolongation (hall cover
tluit part ot the trenches which it terminates.
1 his will be illuftrated by an example.
Let ABCUFGMQ^be a part of the trenches, and let p]ate
AB be one of the fides oppofite to the enemy; produce DXXXI,
AB, fo that BE (hall be five or fix fathoms ; and in FG %■ *•
take alfo five or fix fathoms from I to L, which will give
5 E the
tlie end of the trench BFLI, the ufe of which is to cover
the loyau or branch IOMG, whereby the enemy will not
know the place where it falls into the trench AB, and to
.make room tor withdrawing thofe who are in this part o' the
trenches, and that the pafiage may be free, at all tire angles.
In like manner produce the fide GM from M to N, and
the fide 1C from O to P, and you will have the end of
the trench MNOP, which will cover the branch DCOQ^
Do the fame at all the angles of the trench.
The parapet of the trench bcin:< made to cover it, ought
to change ikies alternately. If, for inftance, AE, in the
preceding figure, is towards the place, it is evident that the
iide GN will be towards it alfo, and likewife the fide CD ;
and therefore the parapet of the trench is fuccefiively con-
ftru&ed from the right fide to the left, and< fiom the left
to the right. In the plans of attacks, the fide of the
paiapet of the trench, as alfo that of the parallels, are di-
llinguiihed by a ftronger line than any ot the reft ; but the
latter admits of no difficulty, becaufe we may eafily con¬
ceive that, being parallel to the place, its parapet mnft ne-
ceffimly be on the fide that faces it. Care has been like-
wife taken to exprefs, as we have already mentioned in the
figure, the parapet of the branches, by a ftrouger line than
the other lines of the attacks. The fide of the trench op-
pofite to the parapet is called the reverfe of the trench.
The trenches are generally no more than three feet deep;
and their parapet, beginning from the bottom of the trench,
is fix feet and a half high, or thereabouts. The parallels
have a parapet like the trench, and of the fame height ; but
as they are intended for firing over, they are made with a
kind of banquette, as may be feen Plate DXXXI. fig. 3.
to raife the foldier, to the end that he may fire over the pa¬
rapet. On the parapet of the places of arms are put baf-
kets, fafeines, or fand-bags, ranged in fuch a manner tligt
the troops may be able to fire without being too much feen
by the enemy. The third parallel, or place of arms, is ge¬
nerally wider than the reft. Sometimes the infide of its
parapet is likewife made with fteps or banquettes, to the
end that the ioldiers may conveniently pafs over it in cafe of
an attack. See fig. 4*
There will never be any great difficulty in tracing the
attacks, from an exadt plan, by obferving the method we
have made ufe of to make its parts defile properly. But
the difficulty is to transfer the works, from the plati to the
field; for doing which the following plan has- been recom¬
mended.
In the firft place, the engineer muft from all the angles
of the branches of the trench, upon the plan, draw perpen¬
diculars to the produced capitals ; obferving the diftatice of
each of thefe perpendiculars and their length. He is then
to walk about the place in the day-time, at a fufficient di-
ftance to be without the reach of mufket fftot. it is not
lifual to fire cannon againft a fingle man, becaufe the fhot
is very uncertain, elpecially againft a perfon who does not
ftand itill for any time ; therefore, without any great dan¬
ger, he may only keep himfelf out of mufket-ihot. It is
eaiy to difeover the flanked angle, of the baftions againft;
which he wants to dirtdl the attacks, and the laliant angle
of the covert way oppofite to them ; which gives two
points, and thefe the diredtion or the prolongation of the
capitals of thofe baftions. Confequently he has only to
plant fomepicquets on the direction of thefe points, in order
to have the prolongation of the capitals of the baftions.
Thefe picquets can only be put out of the reach of mufket-
ihot; but by day-light he may obferve fomething of the
ground lying in the diredtion of thefe picquets, and he may
afterwards reconnoitre it in the evening, in order to place
picquets there alfo. In tins manner he may have the pro. Of ^leges,
longatton o' the capitals pretty exadh •-—v—w
In order to condudl the trench by thefe capitals, the fob
lowing method has been pointed out by marffial Vauban.
Examine upon the plan of the attacks what diftance there
is from the beginning of the trench to the firft perpendicu¬
lar ; meafure this perpendicular and the fide or part of the
branch correfponding to it; take cords of equal length with
thefe lines, and fatten the extremities of the two cords, one
reprefenting the length of the line of diredfion, and the
other that of the branch which makes an an fte with it, to
a picquet at the point of the produced capital where the
trench begins, and make two men walk, each of them hold¬
ing one end of thefe cords, viz. one in a direct line towards
the place, the other alfo advancing towards the place and
walking alon’fide of the former. When the firft comes to
the fartheft diilance betwixt the opening of the trench and
the firft perpendicular, he muft plant a picquet on this point,
to which he is to fatten the cord which expreffies the per-,
pendicular. He muft take the other end of this perpendi¬
cular, and afterwards turn off to the right or to the left,
according to the fide where the perpendicular ought to be,
till the part of the cord expreffing the perpendicular is well
ftretched, and joined to that end of the cord of the trench
carried by the other man : at their meeting they are to
plant a picquet, by means of which the triangle, thus tranf-
ferred to the ground, will be like that which was taken
upon the plan ; and this part will be traced on the ground
in the fame manner as on the plan. In like manner may
every part be traced in the beginning, when the trench is
yet at a diftance from the place.
Let the trenches be traced upon the plan (fig. 2.), and Plate
let C be the place againft which you are to direft the at- DXXX.
tacks, transferring the plan to the ground : let BG be like¬
wife equal to the line of direftion of the plan ; you are to
plant along this line a fufficient number of picquets, with
burning matches tied to them, in order to diicover them
the more eafily.
To begin the tracing of the trenches, tie to the picquet
G a cord of the length GS, and to the fame picquet another
cord ot the length GX : let there be two men, and each
take an end o‘ thefe two cords, and let them walk, the one
at a venture towards S, and the other direftly to X towards
the place along the line of diredtion BG; and having reach¬
ed the end of his cord, let him fatten it with a picquet, after
leaving drawn it very ftraight; and to this picquet let him tie
one of the ends ol the cord, which is to mark the perpen¬
dicular XS. Let him take the other end, and walk to¬
wards S till his cord XS is ftretched very tight, and then
let him join the man who holds the end of the cord GS,.
and let them fatten a picquet in S, where both the cords join.
Let them afterwards take away the cord XS, the perpendi¬
cular which is of no ufe, and the cord GS which remains
will mark the real tracing ot the trenches. In order to have
the line ST, you come to the picquet X ; to which you tie
a cord of the length ©f XY, and another to the picquet S of
the length of ST. Let two men, as before, take each an
end of thefe two cords, and let them walk, the firft who
holds the end of the cord XY dire&ly towards B, and the
other who holds the end of the cord ST obliquely towards
T : he who holds the cord XY, having reached Y at the
end of his cord, {hall place a picquet there; to which let him
tie the end of the cord of the perpendicular YT, and let
him walk towards T, holding the end of this cord, till he
meets or joins the man who holds the end of the cord ST ;
and at the point T of their meeting let them place a pic¬
quet, to which let them tie the end T of the cord ST.
4 After
Part IV. W ;
Of Sieges. After tin's take away the cord of the perpendicular, and
v——y—— tilU3 continue the fame operation as lonH' as you pleafe, or
are able, in order to trace all the other turnings or windings
of the trenches.
v This whole operation fuppofeth that you know exaftly
the diftance of the point G, the extremity of the line of
direction to the top E of the faliant angle of the covert¬
way. This diftance may be found by the common rules of
Plate trigonometry, or by the following fmiple method pointed.
DXXXI. out by marfhal Vauban : Let A (fig. 5.) be the vertex of
the faliant angle of the covert-way, and AB the line of di-
reftion of the trench whofe length you want to take. At
the point B, draw BC perpendicular to AB, to which give
what meafure you pleafe, as 80 or 100 fathoms, and at the
point C draw CD perpendicular to BC : In CD take any
point E, and in the line of direftion between it and the
angle A place a picquet G in the line BC. Meafure GC
and CE, and fay, as GC : BG : : CE : AB.
When once you have found out by this, or fuch other
methods as you may make ufe of, the length of the line of
direction EG (Plate DXXX. fig. 2.), you will be always
able to know the diftance that remains to the laliant angle
of the covert-way, and to the points I, N, P, through
which the parallels or places of arms are to pafs. Thefe
points being determined, it would be an ealy matter from
geometry to find out a method of defcribing the parallels
that are to pafs through them, if their fituation admitted
the engineers to perform the operation quietly by day-light;
but they are to be traced in tire dark, and under the fire of
the place ; fo that there is no other way to trace them than
by approximation, that is, to move as nearly parallel to the
circuit of the place as you cart by your judgment; and to
plant picquets, with cords tied to them at proper intervals,
the whole length of the line. But you can trace with
cords only the firft parallel; tor the others are too near
the place to permit you to perform this operation : you
are therefore to proceed in tracing them almoft in the fame
manner, as we flrallobferve when (peaking of the fap, to which
they belong, and which is carried on by that method.
rj 6. Obfer vat ions on the proper ejl Part for making the Attacks.
While the lines are perfe&ing, the neceffary materials
are to be got ready for the conftrtnftion and operations of
the attacks. The materials confift of fafcines, picquets
three feet long and about an inch or two in diameter, ga¬
bions, and picquets for gabions. There muft hkewife be a
provifion ot the feveral inftruments or tools neceffary for
thefe operations.
The engineer, who has the direftion of the fiege, will
likewife make ufe of this tune to examine into the parts
moft convenient for carrying on tire attacks, and where
they will be moft limple and expeditious. There are fe w
fortreffes in Europe of which plans are not to be had ; but
as it is prefumed that the enemy hath increafed the fortifi¬
cations of a town which is threatened with a fiege, care
fhould be taken to get intelligence thereof from fome fkilful
perfon that has been in the place, and made all the obfer-
vations pofiible in regard to the woiks lately railed, with¬
out giving any fufpicion of his intentions. The danger
of fuch an undertaking is very well known, fo that the
perlon employed cannot be too cautious in keeping himfelf
concealed.
While the circumvallation is making, the engineers may
at a drflance, or, as we have already obferved, out of mufket-
fhot, examine fome part of the out-works ; and afterwards,
from the report of the perfon fent into the place, and from
what they know themfelves, they may fettle with the gene*
ral the propereft and fitteft place for carrying on the attacks.
A R. 771
On this occafion there are many things to be obferved, as Of Sieges^
well with regard to the ground as to the fortifications ; but
in a work of this nature, it is fufficient to confider the points
of moft importance.
Fiift of all, the nature of the ground about the place
muft be well obferved, Whether there are any ditches or
hollow ways, that may ferve as a cover to guards of horfe
and foot againft the canmm of the place ; whether there are
any parts that command the town, and may ferve for the
electing of batteries; and whether the ground is fit for the
works. The moft favourable circumftance is to find a foil
eafy to dig; then the works advance with eafe and lefs lofs,
becaufe the foldier is foon under cover, and the cannon does
not do half the mifchief as in ilony places. If the ground
about the place is a pure rock, or a morals, the operations
are extremely difficult; and there will be occafion for a vaffc
ouantity of fafcines, fand bags, wool-packs, &c. becaule the
workmen are in much greater danger.
The rivers which run through the town, or in the neigh¬
bourhood, likewife deferve confideration ; for they feparate
the attacks, and it may happen by feme ftoppage of the
water, or other accident, that the bridges of communica¬
tion being broke down, the feparation of the attacks will
expofe the army of the beiiegers to be defeated, by which
means the place may be relieved. It is proper alfo to in¬
quire, ^whether thofe rivers are not fubjeCt to inundations,
which, if they were to happen during the fiege, and to
break in upon the attacks, would oblige the befiegers to
abandon the trenches, and to raile the fiege. in a word,
whether the town can command any quantity of water fo
as to make an inundation round the place, and to lay the
ground appointed for the att?.cks under water. All thefe
points, and a great many others which we do not mention,
deferve the moll ferious attention.
After drooling the propereft ground for the attacks, a
general is to confider the front which is leaft fortified and
leaft covered with outworks. All other things being the
lame, it is evident, that the fewer outworks there are, the
eafier will be the attack. But if the place be fituated in a
morafs, or upon an eminence, then he muft neceffarily make
his attack on the aceeffible fide, be its outworks what they
will. In a word, the whole choice of the attacks confifts
in finding out the propereft ground, and the weakeft fide ;
but as it is to be preiumtd that the enemy are acquainted
with the nature of the ground about the place, and there¬
fore have taken care to fortify more exaftly thofe parts
which are moft favourable to an attack, the befiegers
fhould not helitate to make their approaches on that fide ;
where, by the fituation of the ground, they may gain,
what the increafe of the fortifications might otherwife make
them lofe.
§ 7' Of opening the Trenches.
Every thing being ready for opening the trenches, the
ground pitched upon, the attacks iettled and drawn upon a
plan, and ftores or magazines of all the materials neceffary
on the occafion being within reach of the place where the
pioneers propofe to work; the general having alfo fettled
the round of duty for the guard of the trenches, both of
horfe and foot, as likewife the number of horfe for bringing
the falcines, with the number of pioneers and troops to lup-
port them; and the chief direttor of the engineers having ac¬
quainted the reft of the corps with his plan of attack, and'
the manner they are to act; in a word, every thing being
ready for execution, the troops defigned for the fervice of
the firft night being prepared and drawn up in battalia at
the place of rendezvous, and the pioneers provided with faf¬
cines, picquets, fhovels, and pick-axes 5—in the duflc of the
5^2 evening
77 2
W A
of Sieges evening they all begin to advance, every foldier being obli-
ged to carry a fafcine, together with his arms, in order to
reach the place deiigned for opening the trenches. The
guard of horle march at the tame time to their affigned polls,
to the right and lett ot the attacks, ready to fuppbrt the
troops tor the guard of the trenches in cafe of any tally from
the enemy. All this is to be done with the greateti iilence
potlible, and nothing thould be negledted to conceal the de-
hgn from the enemy.
The pioneers are, according to inarfhal Vauban, divided
into brigades of f;o men each, commanded by a captain, a
lieutenant, and two ferjeents. They advance four or fix
abreaft, near the place where the trenches are to be open¬
ed ; after which the reft ot the troops that are to fnpport
them, being come up, the engineers charged with the tra-
R. Part IV.
my is not apprifed of thefe works; efpeciaUy when all the Of ftfges.
neceffary precautions have been taken to conceal them, and
in that cafe the bufinefs is done in ?. manner without lofs or
danger. It is of importance to advance them with fitch ex¬
pedition, that they may be fit to receive the troops, who
are to fupport the pioneers, in order to cover them againft
the fire of the place ; and as the firft parallel is defigned for
this purpole, therefore it cannot be perfected too foon.
According to marftial Vauban, the firft place of arms,
though begun the firft night, has need of a iecond and a.
third, before it can be completely finifhed and in condition
to hold the troops that are to guard the trenches; but the
works for perfeAing this line will not hinder the betiegers
from advancing to the iecond parallel, which ought not to
be begun till the fourth night. It is to be obferved, that
the guard who mount the trenches are changed every day ;
cing of the trenches, and who are to pl?.ce the pioneers,
make them come forward where the opening is to com¬
mence, while the battalions that fupport them are drawn up
to the right and left in the places afiigned them, where they
unload their fafeines, and tiler.tly wait for further orders.
In the meanwhile the engineers trace the branches of the
trenches, and the firft parallel in the manner already deferi-
bed, and the work is advanced as fall as poflible.
As much work is undertaken as the pioneers can be ex-
peded to perforin this full night: and in proportion as the
tracing goes on, the engineers place the pioneers, making
them file off one by one, each carrying his fatcine under the
right arm i. the place is on the tight, or under the left if it
is on the left, to the end that by the pofition of their faf¬
eines, which they lay on the ground along the tracing, and
on the fame fide as they carry them, they may be enabled
to diftmguifh the fide of the place, that is, the fide towards
which they ought to throw up the ground in order to cover
the trench from the fire of the town. As fall as they are
placed, they are ordered filence, and made to lie down with
their face on the falcines, and not to begin to work till
commanded. The whole operation begins at the fame
time, that they may advance equally. When every thing
is ready, and the pioneers are all placed along the tracing
which is purpofed to be made this firft night, orders are
again given for them to work ; and then they all fet about
k with all the diligence poffible till day light, that they may
be covered againft the fire of the place, which is ftill very
dangerous in the morning, confidering that the trench has
not had time as yet to be rendered fo perfedl as it ought.
The troops that are to fupport the pioneers 'are put under
cover on the back of that part of the trench which is finifh¬
ed ; that is, on the border of the trench oppofite to that on
which its parapet is raifed ; they are made to lie on their
faces ; after which the pioneers, who have been upon duty
in the night, begin to file off, and others fill uo their places.
It is very difficult this firft day to render the trench as com¬
plete as it flrould be; but no pains are fpared to make it as
complete as poffible.
As the defign cannot be now concealed from the enemy,
the guard mounts the next day with drums beating about
noon; and care is taken to continue the work of the trenches
the fecond night, in the tame manner as the firit, that is,
by placing the pioneers uncovered, becaufe they are at fuch
a diltance from the town, that the fire is not yet dangerous
enough to require their being placed otherwife : the work
goes on quicker in this manner ; but it muft neceffarily be
altered as foon as the workmen come within mulket-fhot of
the place.
The firft night is the beft adapted for advancing the
works of the trenches, becaufe of the diflance from the
place, which is too great to apprehend any danger from
the enemy’s fire. Sometimes it happens fo, that the ene-
they mount about noon, and they' are to be as ilrong a:, (hair
be requilite foropuofing the tallies which the garriton of the
place may make againft the workmen. i hey are generally
tonal to two-thirds of the ganifon, becaufe the enemy may
fall upon the trenches with that number, relerving the other
third to guard the town. But as it is poffible that the be-
fieged may think proper to lally ioith with their whole
foice, and fall upon the workmen, together with the troops
that fupport them; therefore, in order to guard againft every
accident of that fort, the troops ;n the trenches ought to be
nearly equal to thole of the place, efpecially in fmall towns,
where a tew are fufiicient to guard the polls, or where the
burghers are fo well attached to the prince, that the com¬
mandant may depend upon their fidelity in guarding the
town; becaufe in that caie he may make a general effort with
his whole garrilon againft the troops in the trenches.
We have obferved, that the fecond night the pioneers
may ftill be placed uncovered ; but the third it would be
very dangerous to do it, becaufe of the enemy’s fire being
too near. When the engineers are of this opinion, they
take cate not to expofe the men any longer uncovered, and
then the works are carried on by lap.
§ 8. Of the Sap.
Let ABC be the part of the trenches advanced to A, pjate
fo near the town as to render it impoffible, without evident DXXXl.
danger, to work any longer at the approaches, unlels the %•
men have fome cover againft the fire of the place : and let
the branch AD be traced by the engineer, not with a cord,
as at the opening of the trenches, but with lome picquets,
which he has taken care to place m the direction this branch
ought to have, to ierve as a guide to the workmen. A cut
is made in the parapet BA of the trenches ; and then the
men defigned to work by fap, who are therefore called fap-
pers, will move lorward through the opening A, lueceflively
eight in number. The firft is to roll before him a mantlet
to cover him againft mulket fhot. He advances as far as i»
neceffary to place a gabion on the line AD ; and this ga¬
bion being fet on its bafe, in the proper fit nation, with the
picquets uppermoft, the fapper makes a little trench behind,
about fix inches diftant from the gabion, of a foot and a
half in depth, and as many in breadth, and he empties the
earth of this ditch into the gabion. This done, he places
a fecond gabion near the firft, in the fame manner, and al¬
ways under the cover of his mantlet; in like manner he
makes a ditch behind, the earth of which ferves to fill his
gabion. i hus he places a certain number, till he grows
tired of the operation.
The iecond tapper, who immediately follows him, widens,
the ditch made by the former by fix inches, on the oppohte
fide to where the gabions are placed, and makes it half a
foot deeper. The earth he digs up ferves to fill the gabions^
: u
i>
Part IV.
of ..eges of the firJt fapper,
w
R.
The third Tapper widens the ditch of
the two firft likewife half a foot, and he deepens it in the
fame proportion.
At length the fourth enlarges it alfo in the fame propor¬
tion, in breadth and depth ; and then the trench is three
feet wide, and the fame in depth, which is as much as it
ought to be. The earth dug up on this occafion is fuffi-
cient, not only to fill the gabions placed by the lappers,
but likewife to. make a parapet of the reft, which is thrown
up, and is ftrong enough to relift mufleet fact. The third
and fourth Tapper lay the fafeines over the gabions, with
their hooks, or otherwife; then they prefs them down, fo
that the Hakes of the gabions (hall keep them firm. As
the fappers are ranged by brigades ot eight each, while the
firft four are working at the lap, in the manner above de-
feribed, the other lour furniih them with gabions, tafeines,
and whatever other things they want. But when the Aft
four are tired, the four laft take their places, and work in
the fame manner ; after which they are relieved by the firft,
and fo alternately, till each has performed his part at the
head, of tire lap.
When the firft gabions are placed, and the fap is not as
yet perfected, the oart in which the gabions touch one ano¬
ther being Ids ioiid than the reft, their joints are filled up
by faud-bags, which are taken away when the work is com¬
pleted, or thofe iuterftices are filled up with final 1 fafeines
called [up-faggots.
This is the nature of the fap ; a work fo much the more
confiderable, as it is performed by day as well as night.
Several laps are carried on at the fame time ; and there is
one to both Tides of each of the attacks for the iecond and
third parallel. There are likcwife laps to each of the ad¬
vanced parts, and to the half-places of arms or parallels.
We liave fuppofed that the firft Tapper covered himfelf
with a mantlet; this was the cuitcrn formerly, and an excel¬
lent cuftom ; but now it is more ufual to have a ftuft’ed ga¬
bion. He rolls this gabron before him, and ufes it in the
fame manner as he would the mantlet. Though care be
taken to give a Huffed gabion to the directors of the laps,
yet it happens foinetimes that the fappers will not make ufe
of them : tor as the weight of this gabion renders it fome-
times troublefome to roll, they choofe to do without it; and
are latisfied with rolling leveral gabions before them, near
one another, and with working behind them. Thefe ga¬
bions are indeed of little defence, but are fiifficient to con¬
ceal them from the enemy, who cannot tell the gabion be¬
hind which the firft Tapper is. But as the prelervation of
theie men is ot great importance, they ought to be obliged
to work behind the Huffed gabion : tor the fame reafon, the
firft Tappers Ihonld have a cuirafs, and even a head-piece,
muiket-proef.
There are three forts of fap; the fimple, viz. that
which we have been deferibing, the double, and the flying
fap.
x. The firnple fap, or the fap without any other appella¬
tion, is made on one fide, or, which is the lame thing, has
«mly one parapet. 2. The double fap has a parapet on each
fide, and is carried on wherever its two fides are feen from
the place. 3. The flying fap is that in which they do not
give themfelves the trouble of filling the gabions with earth;
u is made where the workmen are not much expoled, and
ju order to accelerate the approaches.
As toon as the men have brought the fnp to its proper
perte&ion, the pioneers are ordered forward, and thefe make
it of die fame width as the other parts ot the trenches; upon
which it changes its name of fap to that of trench. It. is
called it ferves as a way to the town; and a place
*if aims, ii it be parallel to it, aud defigned to lodge troops.
775
gee Of Siege*.
See Plate DXXXL fig. 7, 8. DXXXTI. fig. r. 2.
alfo the upper compartment of Plate DXXVIII. for figures
of the different inftruments ufed in this and other operations
of a fiege.
§ 9' Of Batteries.
Cannon is made ufe of at a fiege for two different pur-
pofes; the firft to drive away the enemy from their defences,
and the fecond to difmount their guns.
To produce thefe two effedts, the batteries fliould not be
above the mean reach of cannon fhot from the place; that
is, above 300 fathoms. Therefore there is no poffibility of
conftrudting them till the firft parallel is formed; and as the
diftance of this firft parallel from the place is generally 300
fathoms, the batteries mult be on this line, or beyond it,
nearer the town. They muft always be placed, when the
ground will permit, on the produced faces ot the works at¬
tacked, as we have mentioned in the maxims of attack.
Let Z be the centre of the place attacked, and the^^Pk^
trenches, as well as the parallels, completed. To rind a ^r[-f
proper poiition for eredring batteries, produce the faces b
AU, AC, BE, BF of the two baftions attacked, till their
prolongation cuts the firft parallel. Produce alfo the two
faces OM and OL ot the hah moon MOL ot the front at¬
tacked, and the faces HG and IK of the two collateral
half-moons 1 and 2, to the firft parallel, and eredd batteries
on thele produced races, as you fee in P, CL T, U,
X, and Y.
1 They are advanced beyond the firfl parallel 40 or fa¬
thoms ; and are parted from the trenches, to the end that
they may be ufed with greater eaie and convenience, and lefk
trouble to the workmen.
§ 10. Of Sallies. .
That we might not interrupt the making of the trench- '
es, we condudfed them to the foot of the glacis, without
taking notice of ‘allies; that is, attacks which the garrifon
may make againft the trenches, with a vieiv of ruining or
retarding the works. As it is not to be prefumed that the-
enemy will fuffer themftlves to be ftraitened in the town
without uling Tome endeavours to prolong the liege, and as
failies feem to be one of the principal means they can em¬
ploy, it is pn per to point out the condudt to be oblerved,
not only rpr preventing their effedls, but likewife for render¬
ing them difadvantageous to the enemy,
Sallies can be attended with no fuccefs, unlefs they are
made at a time when unexpedled. When the workmen are
fuddenly fallen upon, they are icattered, and obliged to fly;
which muft occafion confufron and dilorder among the troops
that are to fupport them; and it-requires fome time before
they can be brought again tuorder, arid made to charge the
enemy. In the meanwhile the latter avail themielves of the
opportunity to fill up the trenches, and to do all the mif-
chief ooflible : but when the troops are upon their guard
againft every delign of the enemy, if the latter llir out of
the place, they are iuffered to advance; aud care is taken to
cut off their retreat, by means ot the cavalry and the pic-
quet, in cafe they fhould advance too far into the field :
otherwife they are fired at from the places of arms, and
other works within reach ; and then they are brifkly at¬
tacked by the grenadiers and the troops upon duty in the
trenches. Care, however, muft be taken not to purfue
them too far, for fear of the fire of the place, which never
fails to he extremely fharp when the enemy have got back
to the ccvert-way.
In proportion as the works advance towards the town,
failies become more dangerous to the beliegers, becaufc the
enemy may fall upon the trenches more readily ; for which
reaion.,
774-
W
A
Of Siege?, reafon, double care fhould be taken to ftralten them more
^ clofely, and to prevent their Tallying out with impunity.
As the works carried on beyond the fecond parallel are
more expoled than the reft, bccaufe of their proximity to
the covert-way, no part fhould be advanced without being
well fupported. Hence, as we have already taken notice,
hall-places of arms are formed, in order to fupport the he id
of the trerches, till they reach the third place of arms ;
which muft be fet about with the greateft care and ex-
pedition pofiible. When this is done in the manner it
ought, there will hardly be any farther danger from the
fallies.
Sallies are feldom made in the day-time but by a pre-
fumptuous enemy, who imagine they may fafely attack and
defy the troops on duty in the trenches: but they are eafily
repulfed, unleis the befiegers are fo weak as not to be able to
furnifn a fufficient guard for the trenches; in which cafe they
ought not to continue the liege, left they rim a rilk of being
at length entirely defeated.
At the opening of the trenches, and when the befiegers
are at a good diftance from the place, there is little occa-
fion to be afraid of any fallies in the day ; for there would
be full time enough to prepare to receive them before they
reached the works. If the enemyxire difpofed then to if-
fue forth, they will do it by night; but it will be an eafy
matter to get intelligence of any attempt they may make,
by ordering parties of 10 or 12 men, headed by a ferjeant,
to range in the night between the trenches and the town.
Thefe men may lie on their faces as near the place as
poffible ; remaining in profound ftlence till they hear or per¬
ceive fome motion in the covert-way ; then they fhould fend
one of their own body immediately to acquaint the lieute¬
nant-general who that day commands the trenche's, and the
reft fhould continue there as long as they can be concealed,
to fee which way the enemy direft their courfe. This
caution is not only fimple and eafy, but fufficient to guard
the befiegers againft furprife, and to enable them to give a
warm reception to the enemy.
When the works are advanced pretty near to the place,
for inllance, to the third parallel, if the enemy fhould then
fally out and fall upon the workmen, the latter muft be or¬
dered to retire quickly to the back of the third place of
arms, and let the guard fire brifkly upon them, without
minding the overturning of a dozen or two of gabions; for
the galling fire of the fmall arms, to which the enemy are
expofed during this expedition, will make them pay dearly
for what little diforder they occafion.
§ 11. Of the Lodgments on the Glacis, and the taking of the
Covert-nvay.
We left the works at the foot of the glacis, and at the
third parallel; our bufinefs is now to make a lodgment there,
and to go on with them till we have driven the enemy from
the covert-way.
Our being then fo near the covert-way, renders it impof-
fible to defile from it ; but in order to prevent the effect
of enfilading, it Is neceffary to make the trenches much
deeper in the glacis ; the fire of the covert-way being very
near, cannot plunge into thofe deep trenches, which renders
it lefs dangerous to abide there than it would otherwife be
were it not for this precaution ; or they are made with tra-
verfes much in the fame manner as in the covert-way, by
which means the enfilading will be prevented in part, though
not entirely.
In regard to the figure of the lodgment on the glacis,
It varies according to the different circumftances or pofition
of the works by which it is defended. The common way
is to make feveral firort turnings or zig-zags upon the ridge
R* Part IV,
of the glacis, in the direftion of the faliant angle of the Of sieges,
covert-way, and continued to this angle ; or you begin with '—w—
making two or three fhort turnings towards the foot the
glacis, from whence you afeend afterwards by a direft trench,
or lap, in the following manner.
Two Tappers roll each a mantlet, or fluffed gabion, before
them on the ridge of the glacis; each making a fap, one
on one fide of the ridge, and the other on the other.* The
ditch is dug deeper than ufual, in order to cover them the
better againft the fire of the place. This work, which ad¬
vances on both fides at the fame time, and both fides co¬
vered, each with a parapet, is what we called a double fap.
In the middle they make traverfes three fathoms thick, and
of the fame breadth as the trench. On each fide fmall paf-
fages are made like thofe overagainft the traverfe of the
covert-way, to the end that the communication thereof be
not interrupted.
Thefe traverfes are conflrutted fo near to each other, as
to be a fufficient cover, by their elevation and diftance,
againft the fire of the place. In order to guard a^ainfl;
the effetl of the grenades, upon coming within their reach,
that is, within 14 or 15 fathoms of the covert-way, care
is then taken to cover this trench with blinds, or, which is
the fame thing, to cover the upper part of it. The firft
and fecond figures of Plate DXXXIIL will fhow this diretft
trench. The firft exhibits the plan, and the fecond the
profile, which paffes over one of the traverfes.
All this being done, and the third parallel finifhed in the
manner we fuppofed, they advance from this parallel upon
the glacis to each of the faliant angles of the covert-way of
the front attacked, and they begin with making two or
three fhort turnings, as marked on Plate DXXXLII. fig. 6.
along the ridge of the glacis, fo as to occupy about one-third
thereof. Thefe are to be male as deep as is neceftary, to
be a flicker againft the fire of the covert-way ; afterwards
they may proceed diredlly along the ridge of the glacis, by
a deep ditch, to the faliant angle of the covert-way. M.
Vauban oblerves, that if we follow diredtly the ridge of the
glacis, this trench is made without much danger : for the
palifade which i? placed at the faliant angle of the covert-
way, and the other two next it, do not prefent diredfly to
the ridge, but only oppofite to the faces ; where at the in oft
there is only room for one or two fnfileers to fee the head
of the trenches, and who are ealily liienced by the fire of
the third parallel, which ought to be well ferved, and hke-
wife by that of the ricochet.
Upon coming to the middle, or two-thirds of the glacis,
two new faps are made, l b, ibid, which embrace both fides
of the covert-way, to which they are almoft parallel. Their
length is 18 or 20 fathoms, and about five in breadth. They
are covered at the end with crochets and winding traverfes,
which prevent the fire of the covert way from enfilading
them eaf.ly.
The parapet of thefe faps is raifed about eight or nine
feet above the glacis ; and by means of gabions, three ban¬
quettes are made, as may be leen Plate DXXXIV. fig. 5.
The foldier placed on the upper banquette is thereby raifed
high enough to plunge into the covert-way, as appears from
the fame figure. When this w’ork, which Marfhal Vauban
calls the cavalier of the trench, is once finifhed, it is very
difficult for the tnemy to remain anywhere in the covert-
way for they would be too much expofed to the fire
of the foldiers placed on thefe cavaliers. But thefe places
of arms or cavaliers cannot be made without being pro¬
tected by the ricochet batteries, which enfilade the covert¬
way.
Thefe cavaliers being once finifhed, it is eafy to carry on
the diredt trench, as far as the ialiant angle of the covert-
way,
Part IV. - vv
Of wav, and to cAablifh at the point of this at^le and on the
u-—^ofthe glacis a iinall lodgment bounded by a circular
arc • whence the enemy may be entirely driven from the ia-
]iant place of arms of the covert-way. Afterwards this
lodgment may be widened on branches of the covert-way,
by dinging into the upper part of the glacis, at the dihance
of three fathoms from the inner fide of the covert way ; to
the end that this thicknefs may ferve as a parapet to the
lodgment, and fcreen it from the cannon.
The operation we have been defcnbing, to reach from
the third parallel to the faliant angle of the coveit-way, is
formed at the fame time againil all the faliant angles of the
front attacked : hence the enemy is obliged to abandon
them almoft all at the fame time ; and the lodgment on
the glacis is afterwards advanced on both lides of thefe an¬
gles, towards the re-entering places ot arms of the covert¬
way.
As it is impofiible to make this lodgment defile .iom the
works of the place, there is no other way to guard againfl
the enemy’s lire than by many traverfes. I he ytk figure
of Plate DXXXIII. fhows the plan of part of thi% lodgment
with its traverfes ; which are made with chandeliers and ga¬
bions. If the enemy, notwithftanding the cannon and bomb-
batteries a ricochet, and the fire of the cavaliers of the trenches,
fhould obflinately continue in the re-entering places of arms
of the covert-way; in order to compel them to remove, bat¬
teries for throwing of Hones are railed overagaiult thoie places
of arms : and with this view, as foon as the lodgment o;
the glacis is brought within one hal or two thirds of the
branches of the covert-way, on both ftdes o‘ the re-entering
anrde, a fap is carried on oopofite to the place of arms; and
on this fao batteries for throwing Hones are erected, as may
be feen in c r, Plate DXXXI II. fig. 6. P hefe batteries being
hnifhed and ready to play, they difeharge a fhower of Hones
into the place of arms (tig. 6.), which will not iulfer the
enemy to maintain themfelves there any longer. P he lodg¬
ment continues to advance ; and as loon as the enemy is
driven from the place of arms, it is continued all round the
faces thereof. PTis lodgment being properly finifhed, will
hinder the enemy from venturing to return to the covert-
way ; and of courfe will fecure the poffelhon of it to the
befiegers. Thefe lodgments are made with gabions and iaf-
cines; the gabions are filled with earth, fsfeines are put over
them, and the whole is covered with earth ; they fink into
the glacis as deep as is requifite to be covered againH the
lire of the place.
In the whole of this account we have not made life
of mines ; becaufe we were willing that the defeription of
the works, which are carried on'from the third parallel,
in order to become mafters of the covert-way, fhould be
as plain as poffible. P'his omiffion we fhall now fupply,
by making mention of the principal difficulties occahoned
by mines, in endeavouring to drive the enemy from the
covert-way.
Without mines the enemy would find it very difficult
to retard the works we have been defcribmg; becaufe the
ricochet batteries muH gall them exceffively, and break up
their defences, fo as to deprive them of all (belter : but they
may have fome refource left in works under ground, where
their miners can proceed with more fafety ; while thofe of
the befiegers, not having the fame knowledge of the ground,
can only grope in the dark ; fo that it is altogether a mere
chance if they find out the enemy’s galleries, and fucceed
fo as to deHroy them. If information is received that the
glacis is countermined, there can be na manner of doubt
but the enemy will avail themfelves of their countermines,
to carry branches forward into the field ; and then to avoid,
as much as poffible, the mifehief that may be done by thofe
A R. ..775
fubterraneous fires, In the third parallel (hafts or plt^ • - c 0. a.tge.
funk i 8 or 20 feet deep, if the ground will permit, in order ' v""'
to get below the galleries of the befieged : and from thence
galleries are carried on towards the covert-way, to meet with
thofe of the enemy, by boring the earth with a lorn iron
needle or augre, to find them out. if they ate found un¬
derneath, an°openmg is made down int» them, and ffiehs .
are thrown in,'to drive away the enemy and to min their
gallery. If, on the contrary, they are found above them,
a frmll mine mi A be forung to break them : but if none
of the enemy’s galleries' can be found, in that cafe branches
mull be carried to the right and left; at the end ot whicn
are ma ie fmall chambers, to (hake the neighbouring ground,
which can hardly mifs defirovirg the galleries and chambeis
of the befieged.
NotwithHanding all the care that can be taken m this
cafe, it is not to be prefumed that the mines of the beheged
under the glacis ffiouli be rendered abfoluttly ineffeftual;
but as foon as any of them are fprung, workmen are imme¬
diately fent to make a lodgment in the pits. In fome
grounds, the mines of the befieged may be fpoiled, by let-
tiarr in a brook or rivulet into the galleries; for which pur-
pofc you have onlv to dig pits in the neighbourho'd, and
let the water run in. The expedient was made me of at
the fieqe of Turin in 1706, whereby a great many mines
of the befieged were rendered ufelefs.
The enemy fhould have mines placed, to hinder the lodg¬
ment on the head o; the glacis, within four or five fathoms ofc
the palifades of the covert-way ; to the end that in ipringingr
them the palifades may not be hurt, but that they may be
under the lodgment which the befiegers make there. When
they have fprung the mines, they make lodgments in them ^
and the befiegers like wife on their part fpring mines, with
a view to deHroy the palifades ; but nothing that is not.
very general can be laid on this fort of conteHs. I hey d.e-
pend on the fituation of the ground, and upon the capacity,
and underHandmg of thefe who attack, and thofe who ue-
fend the place.
Before we made mention of mines, we fuppofed, v/hen
treating of the lodgment on the top of the glacis, that the.
fire of the cavaliers of the trenches, together with the can¬
non and ricochet bomb-batteries, had obliged the enemy to-
quit the covert-way; but if, notwithfianding thefe fires, they
Ihould obHinately continue in the places of arms and behind,
the travelfes, the way to drive them entirely from thence,,
and to make the lodgment we have been fpeaking of upon:
the glacis, is as follows.
Whether the enemy has fprnng a mine near the faliant
angle of the covert-way, or the belie ;ed have blown up iomc
of the palifades near it, as foon as the mine is fprung, work¬
men muH be fent to the excavation ; where they are to co¬
ver themfelves with all poffible expedition, and afterwards-
to extend their lodgment in the covert-way on both fides of
its faliant angle.
The double treneh, or the double fap on tire ridge of the.
glacis, muH be made to communicate with thi- lodgment,
in order to be able to fufiain it if there fhould be occafion,
and to communicate with it more fafely. Particular care
mufi be taken to cover the extremities, of it, that is, to make
traverfes everywhere, in order to be fheltered from the fire
of the other parts of the covert-way, where the encmyr Hill
maintain themfelves.
When this lodgment is extended to the firH traverfes of
the covert-way, if the enemy keep their ground behind it,
as there can be but few under cover there, confidering the
fpace they have to occupy, a company of grenadiers mult
make a brifk attack to drive them away : this done, fome
of thofe grenadiers Ihould endeavour to find out in the part
abandoned.
770 ' W A
Ol Sieges, abandonees Tsy tbe enemy the entrance into the mine, and
Saucisson ; and upon finding it, as there is great pro¬
bability that they will, they are to cut it olF, and thereby
render the mine ufelefs. Workmen may be likewife lent
into the pafiage round the traverfe, and there make a frnall
lodgment, which will be the lafeft that can be contrived
when the enemy is fo very near. After this an entrance is to
be dug m the covert-way oppofite thofe traverfes, and conti¬
nued towards the bank of the ditch, under cover of the tra¬
verfe ; then a fap is to be made from each of the extremi¬
ties of this paflage, that is, near the border of the counter-
fcarp ; which are to be carried along the rounding of the
counterfcarp towards the middle, where they are to meet.
This lodgment mull be made very deep, that it may be no
hinderance to that on the head of the glacis; and it is to be
managed fo as to leave between it and the border of the
<litch a breadth of earth fufficient to reflift the cannon of
the flanks and the curtain. This lodgment mull be alfo
covered with blinds, to prevent the effedt of the grenades }
and it is of great ule towards an opening into the ditch.
During the whole time that the befiegers are working
upon this lodgment in the interior part of the covert-way,
they are to continue the lodgment on the top of the glacis,
as far as the re-entering places of arms ; from whence the
enemy may be driven by ordering a few companies of gre¬
nadiers to attack them, fuppoflng they fliould be fo obftinate
as to continue there, notwithftaxding the fire of the ricochet
batteries, and of the fhells and ftones. As foon as the enemy
have entirely withdrawn themfclves, a lodgment mull be
made there, as we have already mentioned.
$ 12. Attack of the Covert-way /word in hand.
There is another method of driving the enemy out of
the covert-way, more expeditious indeed, but at the fame
time more bloody, more precarious, and infinitely lefs fkil-
ful. This confiils in making a fudden attack on the whole
front of the covert-way, in driving the enemy from thence
by main force, and afterwards making good a lodgment.
There may be circumilances that lhall abfolutely require
this method of attacking the covert way ; as when there is
no pofiibility of erefting ricochet batteries to fire at its
„ branches, nor at the faces of the works in the front of the
attack; or when it is prefumed that the enemy are not in
a condition to vvithftand an attack of this fort ; or, in fine,
■when it is thought expedient to run any hazard in order to
be mailers of the covert-way a few days fooner : on fuch
occafrons it is ufual to take this method of attacking it,
which is condu&ed thus :
When the refolution is taken to attack the covert-way
fword in hand, the third parallel Ihould be made to advance
as near as pofiible to the glacis ; and the more forward it is
brought, the fafer the attack. All along this parallel ban¬
quettes are to be made, ftep-falhion, to the top of its para-
TMate pet, that the troops deftgned for the attack may pafs over
DXXXf. it with eafe. At the back of this line, and in the very
‘tg- 4* fine itfell, a great quantity of materials, as tools, gabions,
fafeines, fand-bags, &c. mull be got ready, that nothing
may be wanting to make the lodgment with all expedition,
after driving the enemy out of the covert-way. A ftrong
party of grenadiers is ordered, and placed along the third
parallel, four or fix deep, and the workmen behind them on
the back of this parallel with their tools, gabions, fafeines,
See. Care, moreover, is taken, that all the other parts of
the trenches be veil furnifhed with troops to fupport the
grenadiers, if there ihould be occafion ; and to fire at the
enemy’s defences wherever they appear: the grenadiers mult
alfo be provided with hatchets, to cut down the palifades of
the covert-way.
Part IV,
I he guns and mortars mufl be ordered to be ready to
fupport the attack with their whole fire. ' "-—v-w
. 1 lignal is to be agreed on for all the troops that are to
commence the attack, to move at the fame time, and to fall
noon the enemy. f his fignal is to confift in firing a cer¬
tain number of cannon, or a certain number of bombs, and
at the lall cannon-iliot, or at the lall bomb, the troops arc
to move.
The fignal being given, all the troops of the third parallel
are to move at the fame time, and to pafs quickly over the
parapet of the parallel, and to march direftly to the covert-
way ; which they enter either through the fally-ports or
palfages made by the guns, er elle the grenadiers cut down
the palifades with their hatchets. As foon as they have
entered, they charge the enemy vigoroully ; and when they
have obliged them to abandon fome of the angles, the en¬
gineers let the workmen about making a lodgment on the
ridge of the glacis, oppofite to that part of the covert-way
which the enemy have abandoned, and within three fathoms
of the inlide of it. This lodgment, as we have obferved,
is made with gabions, which workmen lay on the glacis on
the fide of one another. The joints are covered with fand-
bags, or with fap-faggots. Thefe gabions are filled with
earth and covered with fafeines; and a-top of all you are to
throw earth taken out of the glacis, by digging and widen¬
ing the lodgment ; and of this a parapet is raifed to fereen
the troops as quick as pofiible from the direft fire of the
place, and traverfes are to be made everywhere to prevent the
enfilades, as may be feen in Plate DXXXIIT. fig. 5. While
this is doing, the batteries of the trenches are to fire incef-
fantly upon the defences of the place, in order to difturb
the enemy, and to abate as much as poflible the brilknefs of
their fire upon the workmen and the lodgment.
When the troops employed in the attack have driven the
enemy from the covert-way, or from their places of arms,
they retire behind the lodgment, where they kneel down till
it is in a condition to cover them. Sometimes it lhall hap.
pen that the enemy, who was fuppofed to have been driven
from the covert-way, will return to the charge, and oblige
the befiegers to renew the attack, by overthrowing the lodg¬
ment and falling upon the troops unawares. This attack
may be renewed feveral times, and vigoroufly difputed, when
there happens to be a llrong ganifon. In this cafe the be¬
fiegers mull exert their bravery, and refolutely encounter
every obflacle raifed by the enemy.
It muft be allowed that this manner of attacking is very
bloody: for the befiegers piuft move almoil the whole breadth
the glacis uncovered and expofed to the whole fire of the
place. It is indeed in every refpedl lo inferior to the ror-
mer, that, according to M. Vauban, it never Ihould be at¬
tempted but for the moll elfential reafons. Night is the
bell time for it, becaufe the befiegers are lefs feen from the
place, and of courle the fire of the befieged is lels danger¬
ous : yet there are generals who undertake it by day.
There is nothing fettled in regard to this article ; they are
at liberty to adl as they judge moll proper, according to the
circumllances of time and place.
$13* Of ^}e Aatteriei on the Covert-way.
When the enemy are entirely driven out of the covert¬
way, the next thing to be done is the erecting of bat¬
teries, in order to ruin the defences of the olace, and to
make a breach. ■■ v * \ 1
As it is neceflary for the befiegers to make themfelves ma¬
ilers of the half-moon C (Plate DXXXIIL fig. 6.) before
they can come to the body of the place, which is flanked or
defended by part of the f aces of the ball ions A and B op¬
pofite to its ditch; they mull begin with ere&ing batteries
3 on
Part IV.
W
■£\
of sieges, on the covert way opponte thofe parts. They are marked
on the plan e, e. Batteries muft be aifo erected to make a
breach in the half-moon. But before they are erefttd, it
will be proper to conhder what part of the face of the half¬
moon is to be attacked ; or, which is the fame thing, what
part the half-moon is to be entered. It mull not be at its
Hanked angle, becaufe an opening towards the point would
not afford a fufficient fpace to make a lodgment able to
withlland the enemy, and moreover the troops would be
feen in their palfage by the two faces of the baftions by
wliicn its flanked angle is defended. The moll favourable
pafiage is towards the third part of its face, reckoning from
its flanked angle; becaufe by battering at the fame time
the two faces near this part, the whole point of the half¬
moon may be deftroyed, and a large opening made there
eafier than anywhere elfe. Thus the batteries for making
a breach in the half-moon C will be placed in r/and d, and
will occupy almoft the third part of each of the faces of the
half-moon from its flanked angle. Thefe batteries are each
to confill of four or five pieces of cannon.
When the faces of the baftions A and B are well enfi¬
laded by the ricochet batteries, there will be no occafion
for the batteries e and e; for thofe which are to batter the
half-moon in breach will be fufficient ; and after it is taken,
•if there is any necefiity for ruining* the faces of the baftions
A and B, you may make ufe of the batteries d and d, by
placing them in e, e. Batteries mull alfo be ere&ed to ruin
the flanks of the demi-baflions in the front of the attack.
It is evident that they cannot be placed but in /, /, on the
covert-way oppofite to them. They ought alfo to contain
as grtiat a number of guns as the fpaee of ground will
permit.
I‘or the fame reafon that batteries have been erefted to
make a breach in the half moon, oppofite the third part of
the face joining to its flanked angle, thofe alio are to be
ere&ed which are to make a breach in the baflions ; they
are marked b, h, and are each of feven or eight pieces of
cannon. Batteries are likewife eredted to ruin the flanks
of the demi-baftions bordering upon thofe of the front at¬
tacked, in order to favour the psjlage over the ditch which
is made on the fide, upon a fuppofiuon that the baflion is
entered at both faces, as we fuopofe in this example. The
attacking both faces of the baftion tenders the taking of it
more certain and eafy ; but, generally fpeaking, it is looked
upon as fufficient to make only a breach in the face of the
earth of the demi-baflions towards the front attacked.
Beiides all thele batteries, others are eredled in the re¬
entering places of arms of the covert-way, as in b, and in i;
they lerve to batter the tenaille when there is one, the cur¬
tain, and the uices of the baflions, &c. Sometimes they a:e
of mortars for throwing of ftones.
All thefe batteries fliould have 24 pounders ; fometimes
larger pieces are ufed, efpecially when there is any work of
extraordinary ftrength and folidity to be demolifhed.
I hey are all to be placed on the parapet of the covert¬
way ; and the outfide of their epaulement is to graze the
inhde of the covert way. It is in order to have room e
nough for this epaulement, that the lodgment is made on
■the ridge of the glacis at the diftance of three fathoms from
the inlide of the covert-way.
. The orily efiential thing to be obferved in thefe batteries,
is to open their embrafures, fo that they /hall perfe&ly dif-
cover every part of the place they are to batter, and have
a lutticient Hoping from the back to the fore part, to fire
Vol. XViH. Part II.
as low as the bottom of the revetements (c), which they Of
are intended to deflroy. It is alfo proper to prevent the
enemy s blowing them up with mines : for this end it will
be requifite to dig wells deep enough round the batteries,
fo as to be fme of being lower than the enemy, and to
make fmall galleries round the batteries, in order to dif-
cover the branches the enemy have underneath to blow
them up.
As the conflru&ion of this fort of batteries is very dan¬
gerous, being abfolutely to be made under the fire of the
rampart of the place, they are fometimes mafked ; that is,
before the part where they are erefled, land-bags or fome
other materials are placed, with a view to fhelter the work¬
men from the enemy.
In order to batter in breach, all the guns fbould fire to¬
gether, and towards the fame part. They fhould fire as
low as they can, and continue to batter the fame part, till
the earth ot the mmpart behind the revetement begins
to fall, which is a fign that the revetement is entirely de-
flroyed. This united firing, repeated in this manner a-
gainfl the fame place, is productive of a much better ef-
fe6l than if the guns were to be fired one after the other;
for not only a greater quantity of the wall is fhaken at
the fame time, but, moreover, the fhaking is far more coit-
fiderable.
§ 14* 0/1 be defcenty and pa(fAge over the Ditch of the Half¬
moon.
While the batteries on the covert-way arc erefting, pre¬
parations are made for the defcent and paffage over the ditch
of the half moon.
x he ditches are either dry, or filled with water, which may
be either flagnated, or running; and even into dry ditches
the enemy may let in water, only opening the fluices by
which it is withheld. Each of thefe forts of ditches requires
a different manner of palling.
Irirfl of all, if the ditch be dry, and very deep, as from
25 to 30 feet, the defcent may be made by one or feveral
fubterraneous galleries, paffing under the covert-way, and
terminating at the bottom of the ditch : the entrance is to
begin about the middle of the glacis. Thefe galleries are
made^ like thofe of miners, and the earth is fupported by
boards and timber frames. They are direfted in fuch a man¬
ner, that the opening in the ditch fhall be oppofite to that
part of the breach where the paffage is intended.
As this gallery is made floping, the bufinefs is to have
fome rule ior direfiling the Hope, fo ns to prevent its being
too fmad or too great: too fmall, if it terminated above
the bottom of the ditch ; and too great, if it terminated
below it.
'I he following is a molt Pimple way to find it out : Fir ft
of all, it is requifite to take the depth of the ditch ; which
is done by letting fail a plummet, with ?. firing tied to it,
bom the border of the covert-way to the bottom of the
uitch. It is requihte alfo to know the diflauce from the
entrance of the gallery to the border of the covert-way;
which may be eafily me?hired thus : Supoofe the depth of
the ditch is 30 feet, and that the diflance'from the entrance
of the gallery to the border .of the ditch is 90 feet, then by
advancing fix leet towards the counterfearu, the Hope mult
fink two; that is, there mufl be always the fame prouor-
tion between the length of the pafiage made to approach
the counteifcarp anil the depth of the Hope, a«f't>et\veeii the
difiance from the entrance of the gallefiy r . hire border of
5 ^ . the
vent it .from lollinT'huVthe ditdf ^ ^ ^ °f th£ and 10 fuPPort ^ eartfc, and pre-
Of Sieges, the counterfcarp and the depth of the ditch : fo that if the
v,.- y diftance from the entrance of the gallery to the border of
the counterfcarp is four times as much as the deptli of the
ditch; then for every four feet advanced horizontally towards
the ditch, there muff be one funk perpendicularly, &c. When
the ditch is not deep, as of 12 or 15 feet deep, inftead of a
gallery under ground, the defcent is made by a Ihp only,
which cuts the parapet of the covert-way, and finks therein
as deep as is neceffary for the defcent to terminate at the
bottom of the ditch. This fap muff begin at the lodgment
on the ridge of the glacis ; it is ft cured on both frdes with
blinds, to fupoort the earth, and it muff have a good eoaule-
ment on the fide expofed to the place. Above it is covered
with fafcines and with earth, to avoid the jhell-Uones and
grenades that may be thrown in by the enemy. Upon ad¬
vancing to the foot of the counterfcarp, an entrance is made
into the ditch. There are generally two or three defcents
made for the fame paffage of the ditch, near enough to fun-
port each other for greater fafety.
It is in the paffage of the dry ditch that the enemy Ins
the advantage in making, ufe of vat ions artifices to retard it.
In thefe they are chiefly afiifted by their miners,, who blow
up the faps by means of fmall mines, and fally out at the
fame time, neglecting nothing that can delay the progrefs
of the work. They may likewife order 12 foldiers to fall
at once upon the head of the fap : this number is fuflicient
to drive away the fappers, and to do lone damage to that
work. A few companies of grenadiers fhould be placed
near at hand, to attack thefe men as foon as they appear ;
and the cannon mufl be .kept continually firing againfl every
part, from whence the enemy may poffibly fally out. As
the batteries of the covert-way command all their communi¬
cations, they may deflroy them, or at leaft render them very
dangerous.
In order to proteft the fap at the bottom of the ditch,
the befiegers may likewife make ufe of a kind of fmall gal¬
leries behind the counterfcarp, near the place where the en¬
trance is effefted ; and they may pierce fome loop-holes,
from whence the enemy may be fired at, and a check put
to their fallies, at leafl by day : and in regard to night, the
befieged ought to be more circumfpeCt than by day, fince
they can neither fee the difpolitions nor the troops that are
ordered into the ditch to fupport the fappers; fo that they
can only raife a falfe alarm, without doing any great mif-
chief. Yet we muft obferve, that this paflage can be made
only fo far as it Is protected by the battery placed on the
ridge of the parapet of the covert-way oppofite the ditch :
for as the cannon of this battery keeps, continually playing
againft the defences of this ditch, they muft ruin them of
courfe, and deltroy their parapet, fo that the enemy fhall
no longer be able to keep any Cannon there ; the confe-
quence of which will be, that the beliegers have only to
fereen themfelves from mufket-fhot, which is an eafy matter.
The paffage of the ditch is made on each fide of the
faces of the half-moon, as raay be feen in m> m> fig. 6.
Plate DXXXIII.
If the ditch is full of ftanding water, and the furface of
it be raifed to three, four, or five feet, below the upper bor¬
der of the counterfcarp, the defcent will be enfier ; becaufe
as the fteps are to have but a very fmall ffope, they may
begin nearer the border of the ditch, as in the lodgment on
the ridge of the glacis, and be direCted in fuch a manner as
to terminate at the furface of the water. They are to be
covered on the fide expofed to the place, and ftrongly fecu-
red with blinds, placed within five or fix feet of each other.
Blinds are likewife to be laid over the defcent, which is to
be covered with ialcines, and thefe with earth, to prevent
the enem-y from felting them on fire.
In order to pafs this ditch, a bridge muft be made with Of Bieges,
fafcines ; for which end, after breaking the counterfcarp, a
number of men, fufficient to occupy the whole length of
the defcent, are ranged at the diftance of two feet from each
other: thefe men muft be covered by the parapet, and
to forward the fafeines from hand to hand, from the head
of the paffage to the opening into the ditch. The fapper in
this part (for all thefe works relate to the tappers) will
throw them into the ditch, in order to make an epaulernent
or covering on that fide of the town which looks towards
the paflage. 1
A? foon as he has flung in a fufficient number of fafcines
to fhelter himfelf, and to advance a tew paces into the
ditch, he muft throw a great number of them into the paf¬
fage, in order to fill the ditch up entirely in that part.—
They are laid different ways, and ranged in different beds ;
which are covered with earth, in order to make them fink
to the bottom. All thefe different beds of fafcines muft be
fixed with long flakes, that they may keep cloler together :
and as the work advances, the parapet mu ft be puflied for¬
ward, otherwife it would be impoffible to effect the paffage
without the utmoft danger.
When the pafiage is commanded, or fired into from the
oppofite parapet of the place, or from any other part, the
foremoft men inuft be covered with a great heap of fafcines,
or by fome other contrivance; but whatever cover it be, in
that cafe the paflhge of the ditch is extremely difficult and
dangerous.
After what has been faid concerning the pafiage of dry
ditches, and thofe which are full of ftanding water, it re¬
mains to take notice of thofe which are full of running wa- _ |
ter, and thofe that are dry but may be filled at any time
with water. Thefe forts of ditches are extremely difficult
to pafs, unlefs the current can be turned and made to take
a different courfe from that which carries it to the town
ditches, or unlefs the befiegers can contrive to break down
the fluices which keep up the water referved by the enemy
for filling the ditch.
A great deal might be faid, were we to enter into the
whole detail of the works necelfary for palling thefe forts of
ditches ; we fhall only touch upon the fubjeift.
Suppofing the ditches to be filled with running water,
or with a river, the channel of which can be diverted no
other way, which is called draining the ditch, it will be re-
quifite then, generally [peaking, to throw into the ditch a
large quantity of fafcines, loaded -with earth and ftones, fa¬
ttened together with long flake?: thus the paffage is to be
pufhed on, till the ditch is contra&ed to the breadth of 20
or 30 feet; and then fmall beams may be laid acrofs, to join
the bridge of fafcines to the rubbifh of tire breach. The
filling up, and confequently the paffage of the ditch, may
be alio forwarded, by ordering the miners to advance to the
rubbifh, and to fpring a mine, in order to blow up part of
the revetemsnt of the work into the ditch.
Should the enemy happen to have refervoirs of water
which they may open, and thereby deftroy the lodgments
in the ditch when they are no longer to make a ftand there,
the befiegers muft endeavour during the fiege to deftroy the
fluices, that is, the flone-work or timber that ferves to keep
up the water. This may be done by throwing a great
number of bombs towards that part where the fluices ar«e
known to be1 ficoated ; if they fhould be broke down byr that
means, then the water will have a tree current; and after it
has run off, the paffage of the ditch mufl be attempted in
the fame manner as if it was ftanding water; if there remains
only a very fmall current, a paffage muft be left to drain it,
as was mentioned before.
This whole operation is very tedious, difficult, and dan¬
gerous i
Attn«>Jc of Poj-ftfLetl 1*J ao o *.
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Plate DXXXY.
Atto-ct of Tortifiecl Places*
jpJFh/fif
Pig. 5.
/ /i // /<„ IU> ,
w
5art » ,
)f Sieges, serous; nay, it la impoffiBle to be done stall without being
^-v ■ protefted by a very brific firing, not only from all the can¬
non ol the covert-way and the ricochet batteries, but more¬
over from the lodgments on the glacis and thofe on the co¬
vert-way.
Plates DXXXIV. and DXXXV. will illuftrate all that we
have been faying upon this head, concerning the defcent and
paffage over the ditch.
Plate DXXXIV. fig. t. exhibits the plan of the deicent
under ground, and that of its opening into the dry ditch.
Pig. 2. reprefents the profile of that deicent ; the opening
of which is made at the lower part of the ditch, big. 3.
is a perfpeftive view of the opening of this defcent, feen
from the bottom of the glacis: and fig. 4. Ihows in perfpec-
A R. 779
cers dial command thofe hatteries and lodgments, to give 5"
them notice to fire, and to leave off whenever it is thought ^
proper. This fignal is generally a flag railed in the former
cafe, and lowered iu the latter. All this being fettled,
and the breach, as we obferved, made pra&icable, two or
three fappers are fent to the extremity of the breach next
to the place, there being generally a kind of fmall cover or
cavity in this part; there they begin a lodgment for them-
felves, and for fome more, who are lent after them ; when
there is room to receive them, they make them mount, and
infeniibly extend the lodgment upon the top of the breach;
and thus they proceed till they make a lodgment towards
the point, which is generally called a magpye s nejl. \vline
thefe fappers are at work, the fire of the batteries and the
from the bottom of the glacis r and ig- 4- ow * P - lodgments ccafes i but when the enemy attempts to attack
the opening of the fame defcent, feen f.om the top of ^^^0 dedroy their laments, they mufl
thpiarteaDXXXV fig . is the plan of the paffage over a retire as quick as poflible ; and then the colours bang nu-
i late i16v P ^ 11^ the hatteries fire upon them with the utmoft vivacity,
.etdrtelrin the it Yo' fee n o oSfge them to upper part of the breach -
whrch IS an open fap. A ,s the opening it. lou fhis the colou;s are lowered, the fire ceafes, the fap-
pers return to repair the mifchief that was done to their
lodgment, and try to enlarge and ftrengthen it..
This way of proceeding mull be continued till the lodge¬
ment is in a ftate of defence ; that is, till it can hold.a num¬
ber of troops fufficient to awe the enemy, and to withftand
any attack that may happen to be made againll it. The
bdieged, before they entirely quit the half-moon, will fpring
what ro Jo they have ready there. As foon as this is done, the
bofiegers Ihouid directly lodge themfelves in the excavations
made by tlibfe mines, or at leaft: fome defence fhould be made
there, to hold a few fappers, and to forward the lodgments
of the infide of the work.
The lodgment of the point is made in the foi m of a fmall
arc, the concavity of which is turned towards the place.
From each of its extremities a lodgment iscanied along the
faces of tire half-moon, on the platform of its rampait, at
the foot of its parapet. rl his lodgment is funk, deep in the
earth of the rampart, to the end that the foldiers may be
the better covered againfl the fire of the place; there mult
be alfo traverfes to fecure it from the enfilades, as was dpne
in regard to the lodgment on the glacis. Withinlide the
half-moon lodgments are alfo made, which traverle the
whole breadth thereof, as may be feen in the half-moon 6',
Plate DXXXIII. fig. 6. They ferve to command the com¬
munication between the tenaille and the place ; of courie to
render that communication more difficult, and to hold a
fufficient number of troops to refill the enemy,' fhould they
have any defign to return and repoffefs themldves of the
half-moon.
What we have been obferving, in regard to the attack
of the half-moon, is only when the befiegers intend to take
it by the fap, or with pick-axe and fpade: But fometimes
they go about it in a more expeditious manner : for when
the breach is made fo as the troops may mount to enter the
half moon, they advance boldly to the affault, juft as in the
attack of the covert-way, fword in hand, and endeavour to
B, towards its opening, the blinds that are laid on its up¬
per part, to fhpport the fafeines with which it is covered.
On thefe blinds, at firft, is laid a bed of fafeines, ranged ac¬
cording to the length of the gallery : over this firft bed is
laid a fecond, wherein the fafeines are ranged according to
the breadth of the gallery, as-you fee in B and C. D is the
epaulement of faicines, which covers the pailage agamft the
fire of the place, by which it is flanked. E is part ox the
bridge of fafeines ; and F> an elevation alfo of fafeines, in¬
tended to cover the head of the work, and to feeme it iiom
the immediate fire of the place. Fig. z. reprefents the pro¬
file of this defcent into the ditch. Fig. 3. gives its opening
feen in perfpe&ive from the country ; and fig. 4. its opening
into the ditch, alfo in perfpedtive, as it appears from the top
of the breach.
§ 15. Of the attack of the Ravelin, or Haf-moon.
The paffage over the ditch before the half-moon being
effefted on both fides, and a breach made 14 or 15 fathoms
wide, preparations are made for the affault. l‘or this pur-
pofe a large quantity of materials is collefled from all the
neighbouring lodgments. Endeavours are ufed to render
the breach practicable, by making the Hope ealy. fhe can¬
non continue playing, in order to throw down the parts of
the revetement that may be yet ftanding. Very good ule
may be alfo made of jhells fired point blank ; for they are
eafily buried in the breach, the earth of which has been al¬
ready broke up and Ihaken by the cannon ; and as they
burft upon that earth, they produce the effed, as it were, of
fmall mines. Howitzers may likewife be ufed with fucce-ls
on thefe occafions.
In order to render the breach more practicable, feme mi¬
ners, or a ferjeant with a few grenadiers, are fent to level it
with hooks. The fire from tb ■ lodgments and batteries will
hinder the enemy frnm appearing ©n their defences ; or it
they' fhould, they mult do it with great circumfpedtion, which
renders their fire lefs dangerous.
mers tneir nre leis dangerous.    J
If the enemy have made any galleries along the face of come up with the enemy, and to drive them entirely out of
. . J ‘ 1 1 . •   tivo rriiio la Osncrftrnna. and mav colt a
the half-moon, and oppolite the breaches, the miners may
go and diicover them, in order to ftop them up, or to cut
off the match, or to drive away the enemy : if they cannot
find them, they fpring feveral mines ; which being often re¬
peated, mull needs occafion forne diforders in the galleries
and mines belonging to the befieged. Every thing being ready
for making a lodgment in the half-moon, that is, for taking
poffeffion of the breach ; the materials being at hand, in or¬
der to be removed hither with cafe and expedition ; the bat¬
teries and lodgments of the covert-way being in a condition
*e fire away brifkly;—a fignal is agreed upon with the offi-
tbe work. This attack is very dangerous, and may coft a
great many men, when there happens to be a brave gatri-
fon, who will not eafily yield their ground. But there are
frequent cafes in which it may be thought prudent to adopt
this mealure, in order to accelerate a few days the taking
the half-moon. As foon as the beliegers are mailers of the up¬
per part of the breach, they make a lodgment there in a hurry
with gabions and faicines; and while it is making, as alfo
while they charge the enemy, and oblige them to abandon the
upper part of the breach, fome foldiers are fent to difeover
the mines, which the befieged are fuppofed to have made
5 F 2 within
'■ tvhliin the ratnpsrt of the half-moon, and to cut off the fau-
ciffon. If they cannot find them, they muft advance with
^reat circumipedfu .•and take care not to keep all together,
that the mine may have Ida tiTeft. Oftentimes the enemy
will fuffer the behegers to carry on their lodgment without
making any great oppohtion, becaufe it cannot be efFetled
without a confderable lois of men ; but when the lodge¬
ment is advanced, the enemy fpring their mines, and return
afterwards to the half-moon, in order to take it a mid if the
confufion which ihofe fubterraneous fires rmift unavoidably
occafion among the troops in the lodgment; in that cafe,
it will be requifite to renew the charge mod vigoroufly
with frefh troops, which fhould be at hand to fupport thole
of the half moon, to place themfelves in the excavations
made by the mines, to render the lodgment fufficiently
Itrong, and to fecure it with a proper number of ioldiers,
io as to be able to withftand any further attempt of the
enemy.
I his work can hardly be difputed in this manner, ex¬
cept when the half-moon has a reduit (d), as it affords a
fbelter or retreat to the garrifon, and enables them more
eaiily to fall upon the half-moon. For if there fhould be
no reduit, and the enemy are driven out of the half-moon,
they can fcarce attempt to return, efpecially if the commu¬
nication between the place and the hair-moon is difeovered
by the batteries and lodgments of the covert way : becaufe,
if the ditch is filled with water, this communication can
hardly be made but with boats, which may be eadily feen
from the lodgments of the covert way, and may be overlet
by the cannon of the batteries; and if the ditch be dry, and
there happens to be a caponnier, the communication, though
more fafe, is not without danger, by reaion of the fire that
may plunge into it from the lodgments of the covert-way ;
io that it will be extremely difficult for the enemy to ad¬
vance quick enough to repofTefs themfdves of the half-moon;
befides, they want room to affemble in a large body, and fall
all at once upon the lodgments of that work.
There is only one- cafe- in which they may do it ; that is,
when in the angle of the gorge of the half-moon they have
made a fpace, nearly as large as the places of arms in the co¬
vert way. This fpace cannot be feen from the covert way,
nor from its lodgments ; and as there are generally fteps to
alcend from the bottom of the ditch to the half-moon, the
enemy might take advantage thereof to try to enter it; but
if the befiegers are upon their guard, they will find it eafy
to repulfe them, even with lofs.
'ihe bed time for attacking the half-moon fword in
hand, is by night, for the enemy’s fire is not fo fure then
as by day.
Iy covered towards the oppofite Sank. If tire ditch be full Of
of water, it is pafled over on a bridge of fafeines, conftruc- -
ted in the fame manner as in the paffage over the ditch of
tne halt-moon.
The batteries maed on the ridge of the glacis for ma.
h,ng a breach in the face of the baftions,. rnnft fire ae-ainft
that pert of the faces where the breach is to be '.-hveted'' and
hre all together, as was mentioned in tite article of the at-
tack 01 the half-moon ; and when they have made a breach
fuffiaent to attempt the attack in front, feme of th2 guns
muft be kept to batter the upper part of the breach, and
iome muft be removed to the back of the platform, and dit-
P, ed m fuch a manner as to be able to annoy the enemy
whenever they prefent t hemfelves towards the upper part of
the breach. All this is done during the defeent and paflage
over the ditch. Mines are alfo made ufe of to widen, and
iometimes even to make the breach.
To fix the miner to the wall when the ditch is dry a
lodgment is made near the opening of the defeent, to pro-
tedl him from thence againfl the fallies of the bdiecred.
t hen the wall is broke with cannon, as near as poffible to
the bottom of the ditch, in order to get under the galleries
winch the befieged may have built withinfide the Ibaftion.
An opening of -five or fix feet may be made with the can¬
non, to lodge the miner that removes the rubbifh, and makes
room for one or two of his comrades, who are to affifi him
to get rid of the earth in the gallery. When the ditch is
dry, and the ground will admit of it, the miner fometimes
gets under it by a fubterraneous gallery, which leads him
to the foot of the wall;. but if the ditch be filled with wa¬
ter, it is not always the cuftom to wait for the completing
of the paffage over the ditch, before the miner is fixed to
the face of the baflion. The wall is pierced* with cannon,
in the manner before mentioned, but a little above the fur-
face of the water, to the end that the miner may not be in¬
commoded in this gallery ; and he is lent over in a little
boat, to place himfelt in the hole. The miners relieve one
another every two hours, to carry on their work with more
Ipeed ; that is,, to complete ana imifh their mine. At the
fame time, the enemy will uie various artifices to obftrudt
them.
. When the m,‘ner has pierced the wall, he makes behind
it, on both fides of him, two fmall galleries, from i 2 to in
feet, at the end of which he places, on both fides the galle-
ries, two mines, namely, one within the breadth of the'wall,
and the other funk 15 feet under the rampart. A common
tram is given to thefe four chambers, which taking fire at
one and the fame time, will produce a very large and fpaci-
ous breach.
§ 16. 7 he attack of the Bajlions.
Whilst the befiegers endeavour to pofTefs themfelves of
the half-moon, they work the lame time at the defeents into
the ditch, which are made nearly towards the third part of
the faces, reckoning from the flanked angle.of the baftion.
A defeent may be effe&ed at each face of the two baftions
in the front of the attack, as in n, «, Plate DXXXIII.
fig. 6. or, according to the more general cuflom, only op-
pofitc the faces in the front attacked. The manner of pro¬
ceeding is much the fame as in the defeent and paifage over
the ditch of the half-moon, whether it be dry or w?et ; that
in, if it be dry, a fap is carried into the ditch, from the
opening of the defeent to the foot of the breach, and ilrong-
When there are countermines under the rampart, and
along us revetement, care muft be taken to icize them, and
to drive the miners from thence. For this purpofe M. Gou-
lon propofes to fpr ing four fougafles * near them, in order to * s*e
burft them ; when this is done, he is for entering it with^*.
10 or 12 grenadiers, and as many foldiers, commanded by
two ferjeants ; part of thefe grenadiers ihould have each four
grenades, and the reft fhould carry four or five bombs, of
which three only fhould be charged, the other two with fu,
fees only. I he two ferjeants ihould begin with attacking
the countermine fword and piftol in hand, and the grena¬
diers fhould follow them. If the befieged do not appear to
defend their countermine, a lodgment is quickly made with
land-bags. This lodgment confifts of no more than a poo I
traverfe.
(n) The reduit is a fmall half-moon conftruaed within the other. It ufually confifts of a Angle wall with loop-holes;
n f hftf ni ^ and fome other places, the reduit is ccnftrutted with a rampart and parapet like the e.vt<r*
Part IV. ^ W
;0f Sieges, traverfe, which entirely ftops up the gallery'of the counter-
t—~y—-^mine, towards the fide fiom whence the enemy may come.
If they attempt to oppofe this operation, the gfenadiers
/hotdd throw their three loaded {hells, and retire quickly
with their comrades, to prevent being hurt by the effect of
thofe (hells ; tor the hnoke they make-in hurtling, rtpgether
with the fplintersi mu!i unavoidably oblige the enemy to
quit the gallery for fome time : but as foon as they have
produced their-effeft, the ferjeants and the grenadiers, with
iheir comrades, muft immediately return, and work as hard
as poffible upon the traverfe, in order to ftop up the g?.llfn\
If the betieged Hill perfift in interrupting this woik, the
grenadiers muft throw the two (hells with fulees only, which »
will oblige the enemy to retire quickly ; and as no harm is
to be apprehended from them, which is more than the be-
lieged can tell, the beliegers continue to finifh the traverfe.
Even openings or loop-holes are made, in order to fire upon
the enemy, in cafe they (hould appear again in the part of
the gallery oopolite the traverfe.
When there is no gallery or countermine behind the
walls, or when there is one which cannot eafily be come at,
the miner (hould leave no means untried to dilcover it ; and
at the fame time he ought to ufe the utmoft precaution to
prevent being furprifed himfelf by the enemy’s miners, who
will attempt to fmother him in the gallery, and to dellroy
liis works : therefore the bufinefs of a miner requires great
ait and cunning to avoid the fnares of the enemy. “ A mi¬
ner (fays M.-de Vauban in his Memoirs) ought to liilcn
frequently to difeover whether there are- any at work under
him. He ought to found with his augre towards the place
lie hears the node come from ; but the enemy often make a
noife on one fide, while they are at work on the other.” If
their miner draws too near, a fmall mine muft be made to
ftifle him in the gallery ; which may be effected thus : A
hole of five or fix inches diameter, and fix ©r feven deep, is
made on that fide of the gallery where che enemy is heard ; a
cartridge of. the fame fixe, and containing about to or i 2
v pounds of powder, is put into it : the hole or opening to¬
wards the gallery is (topped dole with a ftrong tampion,
which is Immediately applied to the cartridge, and fupport-
ed by ftrong planks well butt re (Fed : this pov/der is let on
fire by a fufee, which pa Acs through a hole made in the tam¬
pion, and communicates with the- powder in the caitridge.
If the gallery of the enemy’s miner is within four or five
feet of this powder, it will undoubtedly burft, and the miner
will be either killed, or obliged by the fmoke to retire.
Another way of burfting the gallery of the befieged,
when it is at no p reat diftance, is- to put several (hells on the
fide where the enemy’s miner is at work, and to range
them in fuch a manner that they (hall have their effect.—
When the miners-are at work in fearch of one another, they
have great iron borers, with which they pierce, the interval
betwixt them, to find, as near as they can, their diftanee
from one another. The miner muft be very vigilant, and
as foon as the borer is withdrawn, he fhould clap a piftol
into the hole, which, when well directed, and fired by a
man of refolutian, (eldom fails, as M. Vauban affirms, to
kill the miner. The (irft (hot ought to he followed by
three or four more ; then the hole (hould be cleaned with
the borer, to prevent the enemy from (lopping it up on
their fide : and this is a matter of importance, for it will
hinder their miner from continuing-his work in that fpot,
and oblige him entirely to abandon it. Thefe and many
other ftratagems, which may be feen in the .Memoirs of M.
Vauban, plainly ffiovv that the bufinefs or a miner requires
not only addrefs and cunning, Tut like wife great courage
and refolution, to guard againit and remove the fevcral 00-
ftacles that may be thrown in his way, with a view to rue-
A S'. 78!
vent the projrefs of the works committed to his dire£t!on : Of Siege«.
he may eafily guard againit them when he is undermoft ; "
but if it be othervvife, his fituation is extremely bad. la
order to know for certain whether they are at work un¬
der the gallery, the miner generally makes ufe of a drum
with fomething upon it, and then tire (baking of the earth,
muft occafton a kind of trembling, which will difeover that
they are at work underneath. Sometimes he liftens with his
ear to the ground ; hut the fluttering of the drum is the fa¬
re ft way.
While the miner is working upon the conftru&ion of his
gallery, the befiegers muft be employed in demolilhing all
the works of the enemy, and dilabling them from defending
or repairing the breach. With this view a continual fire is
made againil the breaches, which will hinder the befieged
from (bowing themftlv^s in that part, and from advancing
to fee the works which may be made in the ditch or at the
foot of the breaches. If there is a tenaille before the cur¬
tain, batteries are placed in the re-entering places oi arms
of the covert way of the half-moon, which plunge into the
tenaille, and hinder the en£my from making ufe of it to dif-
turb the paffage over the ditch. And in order to filence
them farther, another battery of mortars may be erected,
in the rpoll advanced lodgment of the gorge of the halt-
moon ; which battery being well ierved, will render it too
dangerous and inconvenient for the beheged to abide there,
fo as to have the attention requifite for obiftructing the paf¬
fage over the ditch
But fometirnes the enemy will make oblique embrafures
in the curtain j and from thence they lire on the lodgments
of the covert way, lo as greatly to incommode both tlvoie
lodgments and the opening of the delctnt into the ditch.
The way to prevent the eifeCt ot thole batteries, is to en¬
deavour to deftroy them with fhells : and, when the ground
will permit, to enfilade the curtain with ricochet firing.
Four or live pieces may be alio placed on the upper part
ox the flanked angle of the half-moon; in which pofition
they can fire directly upon the curtain, and plunge into the
tenaille and the poilern, by which the enemy keep a commu¬
nication with the ditch when it is .dry?
Let us iuppofe that the- paftages over the ditch are fi-
r.ilhed, fo as to be fit to walk over; that the cannon or the
mines have made the breaches fufficientiy wide for the al-
fault ; that the aicent is made fmooth, and that the befie¬
gers can eafily mount to the top of the breach; then they
may lodge themfclves there, by following either of the two
methods mentioned in the article of the half-moon.
If the enemy have made no retrenchments in the infide of
the bailion, they will hardly venture" to (land an aftault, as
this would only, expoie the place to be carried (word in
hand, themfelves to be taken prifoners of war, and the town
to be plundered. Therefore every thing being ready for
the affault, they v/ill beat the chamade, that is, they will de¬
fire to furrender on certain terms.
When a refolution is taken to attack the baftions while
the mines are making and charging, a conliderable heap of
materials is laid up in the lodgments neareft the breaches,
that they may be handed readily for the canftrudiion ol the
lodgment, as foon as the enemy is driven away. Every
thing being prepared to fet fire to the mines, all the grena¬
diers of the army are ordered to march to the aifault j and
they are to be iupported by a fufficient number ol detach¬
ments, that the enemy may not be able to make a (land.
Thefe troops being ready, the mines are fprung ; and as
foon as the duit is a, little laid, the grenadiers, com¬
manded to march and to mount foremolt, move on to the
foot of the breach ; and when they get there, they mount
immediately with their bayonets fixed, and are followed bjr
the
7$ 2 W A R. Part IV
Of Sieges, the reft of the troops that are to fupport them. The ene-
v—wjjj not pajj tw fna^e uje of their mines, if they have any
left ; and will likewife throw all kinds of cornbnltibles, to
make the believers pay as dear as poffible for the ground
which the befieged will be obliged to yield in the upper
part of the breach ; for yield at length they mull, and the
fuperior numbers of the beliegers mult furrnount every ob-
ftacle.
As foon as they are beaten away, and have abandoned
the upper part of the breach, the befiegers muft fet about
making a lodgment ; which will conliit at lirft of a kind of
arc of a circle, the convexity whereot is turned towards the
enemy, if there is a breach in the faces of the two baftions,
otherwife it will only be made on the upper part of the
breach. The breaches are to be all ftormed at the fame time,
by which means the refiftance of the enemy will be divided.
This whole time the batteries and lodgments are to fire
with all the vivacity poffible againft the feverSl defences of
the enemy, and againft every place they are in and that can
be fired againft, without annoying the troops that are ftorm«
ing the breaches.
The lodgment on the breach being made, the faps are
carried on to the right and left towards the centre of the
baftion, and difpoied in the manner as in Plate DXXXV.
fig. 5. baftion A. Cannon are brought upon the breach to
batter the inner retrenchment, the ditch is paffied over here
alfo, and a lodgment is made upon the breach in the manner
mentioned in regard to the baftions.
If 'behind this firft retrenchment there be a fecond, the
enemy, after being forced to quit the former, retires to the
latter to capitulate. There they are to be attacked as in the
former retrenchment, and at length they will be forced to fur-
render. It is very rare to fee a defence carried fo far as we
have here fuppofed ; but it was incumbent upon us to make
this fuppolition, in order to give an idea of what is proper
to be done, fhould the enemy refolve to defend the place
to the laft extremity.
p 17. Attach of a place covered tvith Fore-ditches, Lunettes, and
other Outworks, &c.
In order to give a more fimple idea of the operations
of a fiege, we have explained and applied them to a place
that had no other outworks than half-moons and a covert
way : but a greater number of works will make no altera¬
tion in the principles here eftablifhed: to take and keep
poffeffion of thofe works, the befiegers have only to follow
the Tame rules ; which we fhall fhow in a few words.
Let us fuppofe a place furrounded by a fore-ditch, and a
fecond covert way, ftrengthened with lunettes, and fiiDoofe
the front by which it may be attacked is covered with a
horn or crown work, &c.
Fii ft of all the trenches are to be opened as ufual, in order
to come to the foot of the glacis of the fecond covert way;
the ricochet batteries are to be placed on the produced faces
of the works attacked, and of their defences ; the faces of
the lunettes of the front attacked ought to be enfiladed by
the ricochet batteries.
The fecond covert way is taken in the fame manner as
the common covert way ; and then, if the fore ditch is full
of water, a good lodgment is to be fecured along this ditch,
and batteries are to be ere died to make a breach in the lu¬
nettes, if the enemy do not think proper to quit them. It
is very difficult for them to maintain themfelves in thofe
works, when their communication is feen ; and they can
hardly avoid being feen, when a lodgment is made all along
■the fore-ditch. Be that as it may, fuppofing that they are
lined with ftone-work, or only with turf, that they are frai-
j.f-d and pallifaded, and that the enemy are obftinate in their
HI
defence, a breach may be made in them, by tdacisg fome Of Sieges,
cannon oppofite the middle of the faces, and the ditch may ■—
be palled over by filling it -wyth fafeines or fome other ma¬
terials. As it is a great deal fmallcr than that before the
body of the place, it is much eafier to pats.
When the befiegers have made themfelves mafters of the
lunettes which cover the front attacked, they begin to think
of palling the fore-ditch. This is a very difficult talk, be-
caufe it is performed under the grazing fire of the covert
way ; but this fire ought to be checked by the ricochet bat¬
teries, which Ihould plunge into the covert way on every
fide. This ditch is crofted near the ialiant angles of the
glacis. It is always to be underftood, however, that there
is no poffibility of croffing any ditch without a good epaule-
ment of fatcines, to cover the paftage on the fide which is
leen by the place, or by the works that defend it.
When the lodgment is entirely finifhed on the covert way,
then the other attacks are carried on in the manner before
exulained.
There are places which, without any fore-ditch, have lu¬
nettes oppoftte to the fah’ant and re-entering angles of the
glacis, which are alio enveloped by a fecond covert way :
fometimes they are vaulted and bomb-proof, as at Luxem¬
burg; and fometimes they have only a ditch, a parapet, and
a covert way.
Thofe which are vaulted and bomb-proof are very diffi¬
cult to take ; becaufe the ricochet firing and the bombs can
do them no mifehief. In that cafe they muft either be
turned, or be taken by mines.
- - A work is faid to be turned, when the befiegers get be¬
tween that work and the place, and fo cut off their commu¬
nication. Sometimes the lunettes have communications un¬
der ground, and then there is hardly any other way of dri¬
ving out the enemy but by mines. This is tedious work ;
but there is no remedy for it.
The lunettes and the ditch are always defended by
branches oi the covert way, with which they have alfo a
communication, like thofe of the lunettes, A, A, Plate
DXXXVI. fig. 1.
This plate, which reprefents part of Landau and its at¬
tacks in 1713, may ferve to give an idea of the manner in
which a work is turned. The advanced lunette B, as well
as the work C, called a tenaille, are turned ; that is, the
trenches cut off the communication betwixt them and the
place.
When this communication cannot be cut off, there will
be often a neceffity for attacking the lunette and covert
way at the fame time ; and the reafon is, becaufe though
the enemy fhould be obliged to abandon the lunette, yet fo
long as they are mafters of the covert way, they have it in
their power to return and retake it. Therefore, the fure
way of keeping pofleffion of it is to drive the befieged out
of the covert way, at the fame time that they are forced to
quit th'e lunette.
The garrifon may avail themfelves greatly of mines for
the defence of thefe fmall outworks, fo as to oblige the be-
liegers to pay very dear for their acquifition, and be a long
while in making it. But they muft purfue the fame me¬
thods as the befieged; they muft dig deep into the earth,
they muft endeavour to deftroy the enemy’s mines, to blow I
up their galleries, and to make themfelves mafters of the
lower ground. , This is an efiential point, without which
the enemy may blow up and deftroy the lodgments feveral
times. The celebrated M. de Valiere, in a Differtation on
Mines, at the end of the third volume of M. Folard’s Com¬
mentary on Polybius, fhows, that in a ground 25 or 30 feet
deep, the enemy may be blown up twenty times. There¬
fore it is impoffible to be too cautious in endeavouring to
get
\
/
IMate TXXXX VI
Wab .
Atfact of ]?oTtifled Flaces.
* «
wm
,'hv,v.;w
Evf.S?SgKr:
:'•! !}!••
imitiii
t nnfcr the gallery of the befreged, in order to prevent
the mifchief they may do by their gre*t number of mines.
7n the neighbourhood of fome places there are a fort ot
fmall half-moons, called redoubts. When they are diftant
from the place, the enemy cannot maintain themfelves there
without expofing their troops to be taken prifoners of war^
but when they aie covered and defended as they ought to
be, and judicioufly lituated, they are an object worth at¬
tention. Endeavours ought to be ufed to cut oft the com¬
munication between them and the place, and to oblige the
enemy to abandon them by throwing in (hells ; it may even
be proper to affault them and drive them out fvvord in hand,
provided they are not fo near the place as to receive power¬
ful fuccours, and be able to withttand the attack. It is a
matter of confequence to get rid of thefe finall outworks
foon as pofilble, becaufe they may be of great hinderance to
the progrefs of the attacks, by having a view of the trenches
from the flanks, and enfilading them, See.
In fome fieges, when the garriion are obllinate in their
defence, fmall outworks are made at the foot of the faliant
and re-entering angles of the glacis ; thefe confifl only of a
parapet raifed at the foot of the glacis upon thefe angles,
each fide of which has about 10 ot 12 fathoms. Thele
fmall works are called arrows. They may be feen in
A, A, A, Plate DXXXVI. fig..2., They communicate
with the covert way by a paffage pierced on the ridge Oi the
glacis, and pallifaded on both fides. At the entrance of
this paffage is conftrudted a tiaverie B, generally called the
tambour, which hinders the befiegers from being mailers of
the arrow, or difeovering the infide of the place of arms be-
loncing to the covert way. ,
To prevent the efteft of thefe arrow's, the beft methoa
is to ply them well with ricochet batteries, and with ihells
thrown in alfo a ricochet. Stone mortars may liK.ewife be
made ufe of, to annoy the enemy in their arrows; for as
thele works are but imall, the ftone mortars produce a very
good effedt. We have already taken notice of almoft all
the works the befiegeis may meet with beyond the covert
way ; there remains, therefore, only to fee the manner of con-
dufting the attacks of the other outworks moll commonly
ufed in fortified towns.
$ IS. Attach of a Horn-worb
A HORN-work is nothing more than the front of a forti¬
fication, which projects into the field, and is joined to the
place by twTo long lides. It is placed oppofite to the cur¬
tains, and fometimes alfo to the baftions. 1 he befiegers
fhould endeavour, as much as poflible, to avoid attacking
the fide covered by thefc works, becaule they are very dif¬
ficult to take, and of courfe will greatly lengthen out the
fiege. But iuppofing there is an abfolute neceflity for at¬
tacking the place on the fide covered by a horn-work oppo¬
fite the baftion, and that this horn work has an halt-moon
oopolite to its curtain : The trenches and parallels are to be
made in the ulual manner ; the lame method is to be ufed
in regard to the ricochet batteries, which will alio enfilade
the branches of the horn-wotk. The taking of the covert¬
way of the half-moon, and of the half ballions of the horn,
wmrk, is carried on in the fame manner as the attack ot the
half-moon, and the two baftions of the body of the place.
There remains, therefore, only to fhow how the lodgments
are to be made in this wrork. We wall fuppole that tnere
are two retrenchments withinfide, as m Plate I0XXXV.
fig. 5.
When the lodgments towards the point of the half ba¬
ftions are finifhed, fome guns are to be planted there, in or¬
der to batter the face of the oppofite baiiion ; and they are
to be placed over-againft the lodgments ot the flanked angles
6
of the half baftions. Tliefe lodgments are to be extended on Of
both fides towards the curtain, along which Taps are carried
on ; as alfo towards the oriilon of the half baftions, if they are
made with orillons: this will form a kind of fmall parallel, the
fire of Which will help to cover the lodgments in front, in
cafe the enemy fhould make any fallies to deftroy them. In
large fortifications, fuch as horn and crown works, the lodge¬
ments ought to be carried on with the greateft circumfpec-
tion, in order to be able to fupport them again!! every attack
of the enemy.
As all thefe lodgments are commanded by the baftion, it
will be requiilte to dig the faps fufficiently deep, fo as to be
fecure againlt their five ; and likewile to make traveries near
enough to each other for the fame effeft.
If the baftion can be battered in breach from the rampart
of the half baftions of the horn-work, the.befiegers will for
this pmpofe make ute of batteries eredled on thefe half-ba-
ftions ; and for the fame end they will alio plant a battery of
fix or eight guns towards the middle of the curtain.—
Should it be iaipoffible to fink fufficiently into thefe, fo as
to batter the lower part of the revetement of the baftion,
ftill they might be ufefully employed in playing againlt the
enemy’s defences, and driving them out of their retrench¬
ments. When the lodgments are well fecuied withinfide,
it will be extremely difficult for die enemy to continue iq
the retrenchments, without running the rifle of being made
prifoners of war ; becaufe the communication between them
and the place will become too difficult. They might, in¬
deed, by means of a bridge level with the water, retire into
the collateral half-moons : but at the lame time that the be¬
fiegers endeavour to make themfelves mailers of the horn-
work, they will alfo ftrive to get poffeffion of thele half¬
moons ; the taking of which mull inevitably follow that ot
this work.
As foon as the enemy are entirely driven out of the
horn-work, the befiegers mull poffefs themfelves of it by
carrying on lodgments which (hall occupy its whole ex¬
tent ; and if there be any occafron to ere<ft batteries within,
in order to batter the baftion in breach, they are to be erec¬
ted along its counterfcarp, as may be feen in z (ibid).
Sometimes it ihall happen, that the ground of the mllde
of the horn-work will not permit lodgments to be extended
there, as they are ranged in this figure, becaufe it may be
too wet and marfliy, or elfe of too narrow a circumference.
In that cafe there is no carrying on the lodgments but along
the parapet of the front of this work, and along its branches,
if the breadth of the platform of the rampart of thele
branches will permit. It muft be made to defile by ire-
quent sig-zags or turnings ; but it it be too narrow, the
only way for the befiegers is to link very deep, in order to*
defile from the fire of the place, and to cover theinfelves byr
traverfes made very near one another.
Explanation of Plate DXXXV. fig. 5.
a, Cavaliers of the trenches, b, Batteries of ftone mor-
■ tare, c, Batteries to breach the half-moon before the horn-
work. d, Batteries againll the defence of this halt moon.-
e, Paffages ever the ditch before tins half-moon. /, Lodge¬
ments in it, g. Batteries againft the flanks of the horn-
work- h. Batteries to breach the half baftions of the horn-
work. /, Batteries agaiuft its curtain. /, Lodgments in
the half baftions and in the horn-work. 777, Paffages over
the ditch before the retrenchments in the horn work. nr
Lodgments in thefe retrenchments. 0, Batteries againlt.
the defences of the collateral half-moons. />, Batteries to
breach thefe half-moons, q, Pnflages over the ditch befoie
thele works, r, Lodgments in the fame, s, Batteries to
breach the reduits of the half-moons. ty Paffages over the
ditchu
‘e^e?' ditch before the red aits. «, Lodgments in the reduits. .v,
r~'~; Bridge of faicines, or a road to carry the cannon to the
horn-work, y, Batteries againft the defences of the ba-
fuon A. z, Batteries to breach this baftion. B, Paffages
over its ditch. C, I.ddgments in the bailion A. D,
Lodginents on the border ot the ditch before the retrench-
■nient of the baftion A. E, Pafiages over the ditch before
this retrenchment.
Plate DXXXVII. reprefents the plan of the lodgments
made in the horn and crown work of Philipfhurg in 1734.
A great deal more might be faid in regard to all thefe
articles ; but for the particulars, we refer the reader to the
Memoirs of M. de Vaubstr, which difplay the whole extent
ol genius of that great man, and fhow how capable he was
tjf finding out expedients for furmounrting all obftacles ari.
fing either from foil, fituation, or different manners of forti-
fying.
$ I9* To prevent fuccours from being thrown into a town be-
Jieged.
Not to interrupt the thread of the ufual operations of
a fiege, we have fuppofed that the general had taken every
Tiecefiary meafure to guard againft all the attempts of the
enemy, and to fecure fuccefs by the great fuperiority ©f
his forces. Sometimes, however, it may happen, that an
enemy who was looked upon as too weak to relieve the
place, fhall prepare to attack the army of the befiegers,
either in confequence of drawing out moft of the troops
from the neighbouring garrifons,' which are leaft expofed,
or of having been reinforced fromfome other part. In fucb
caie, there are two ways to follow. The firft is, to wait
for the enemy in the lines, and to hinder them from break-
ing through : the fecond, to leave part of the army in the
lines, in order to carry on the ftege, and to oppofe any
lailies of the garrifon ; with the other to go and meet the
enemy, and fight them out of the lines.
Both thefe ways are fupported by the opinion of differ-
er.t generals ; but the latter feems to have" the moft general
approbation.
The inconvenience of waiting for the enemy in the lines,
is the uncertainty on which fide he intends to direft the
attack; for which reafon the befiegers are .obliged to be
equally ftrong in all their polls; and when the line is very
extenfive, the troops are at too great a diftance from one
another, to make any confiderable refiftance on the fide
where the enemy forms his attack. Moft lines of circum-
vallatron, that were ever attacked, have been forced ; fo
that both reafon and experience feem to eftablifh it as a
•maxim, that it is preferable to go and meet the enemy, and
not to let him come within reach of the lines.
Without pretending, however, to determine fo impor-
tunt a matter, it ieems, that when a line is not very exten¬
five, it may be defended to an advantage. And, firft,
it is beyond all doubt, that if the troops behind the line
•know how to avail therr.felves of the feveral circumftances in
their favour, their fitualion is in many refptcfts preferable
to that of the affailants. The latter are expofed to the lire
of the hue for a very confiderable time before they can
come up to the border of the ditch. This ditch muil be fill-
, ed up : and all the while they are expofed to the fame fire,
wmcn muft kill a great many of their men, and throw their
troops into fume confnfion. ArM when they break into
* jC i!ne> 'uey can mane but a very narrow front ; for which
reafon, they may be charged both in front and flank by the
troops withm ; who, it they do their duty, muft drive them
auto the ditch. For, fuppofe the firft line of the defendant’s
♦infantry next the ditch fhould be obliged to give way, the
iCu.e that a.-e behind them may and ought to fall upon..the
enemy s foot that have pierced through the ifne ; and as Of
tne latter cannot force their way but in feme confufion, the
former may eafily drive them out again. We may there-
ore conclude, that if the troops are fenfible of the many
acvan.geo o a good line, and are determined to defend
IV/ the/Veral ?artS. £re 1,kew;re well fupported, and
all the neceffary precautions have been taken to prevent be-
mg-furpnfed; it will be extremely difficult for the enemy
to force it. }
lhuS, at the fiege of Philipffiurg, in 1734, prince Eu¬
gene reconnoitred the lines of circumvallation, and found
them fo well difpofed, that he never once attacked them,
i hey formed a kind of irregular femicircle round the place,
oFvvhich the Rhine might be confidered as the diameter
they were defended by a kind of fore-ditch, and by wells
n?vnrv13 /e1ltCh and the lines’ as may be feen ^ Plate
m. i j , r 1 ,, pr,nce hrd attempted to pafs over this
ditch and thefe wells, he would have loft a great number of ,
men by the fire of the lines. The wells were io near to one
another, that there was no poffibility of paffing between
them : they muft have been filled up, as well as the fore-
ditch, with fafemes; which would have been too tedious
and dangerous an enterprife.
In fuch a fituation, therefore, the befiegers may wait
quietly in their lines ; but if they fhould be of fo ureat an
exteht, as not to admit of being equally guarded, then it
ieems to he the fafeft way to draw out the troops, and meet
the enemy as marffial Tailard did at Landau, in 1703.
5 be bad defeated the army which was marching to the
rehef of the place, he returned and finifhed the fiege. The
duke of Yen dome afted juft in the fame manner at the fiege
of Barcelona, in 1697. Having had intelligence that the
marquis of \ aleico, viceroy of Catalonia, was preparing to
attack him, he went out to meet that general, gained a com¬
plete vi&ory, and returned afterwards before the place,
which was obliged to caoitulate.
At the fame time, we muft allow that the fafeft way to
conduct a fiege, is to have a good army of obfervation ad-
vantageoufly polled fo as to cover the fiege, and be rear
enough to receive fuccours from the troops employed be¬
fore the town, fhould the enemy come to a refolution of
giving battle.
. tbe cne^y do not think ©roper to attack the befie-
ging army they may probably try to throw in fome fmall
tuccours of troops and ammunition into the town. Th«
to prevent them is to make the circumvallation very
whatfneve-n0t ^ ^ °pening in ^ under an7 pretext
1 lie enemy may likewife attempt the raifing of the
hege, by making themfelves mafters of the fpot, or place,
from whence the befiegers draw their provifions and am¬
munition. But before a general lay fiege to a town, he
iaou.d. take all the neceffary precautions for fecuring his
magazines, covering his convoys, and guarding the feveral
polis through which the enemy might march to attack him.
Another expedient the enemy may think of for raifing
the fiege, is to attack feme place of importance, which the
have an intereft in preferving ; in order to engage
them to march to its affiftance, and to abandon the liege
they have in hand. But this expedient ought to have1 been
lotefeen, and every precaution taken to prevent it. How-
fcV?^’ * °.u d flie fuemyr find means to engage in an er.ter-
pn e of importance, and W'hich requires an immediate relie*’
if a general thinks there is not time efficient to take the place
-he has Lid fiege to, and at the fame time to opnofe the ene¬
my sdehg ns, in that cafe he may raife the fiege ; but for
fo c omg, there fhould be very cogent reafons. When king
-William laid.hege to Namur, in 1695, marffial Yilleroy, in
01 der
Part IV. W A
Of Sieges order to divert him from hispurpofe, fat down before Bruf-
fe]s, thinking he fhould oblige that prince to march to its
relief, and abandon his enterprife againft Nartrar; but king
William chofe rather to ifuffer that city to be bombarded,
than to relintjuilh a very important conqueft, in which he
was in a manner fure of fucceeding.
R.
Sect. II. Of Defence.
§ I. Of the Troops and Ammunition with which a fortified
Town ought to be provided.
As the goodnefs of the works, when a place is well pro¬
vided with troops, ammunition, and provifions, is what en¬
ables it to hold out againft the attack of an enemy ; fo the
want of any one of thefe three articles will not permit all
the advantage to be reaped that was propofed in fortifying
a town. Men are properly the foul of a defence ; and with¬
out them the beft fortifications in the world are not able to
make any great refiftance againft the enemy.
Therefore we muft firft of all lay down as a maxim, that
a governor cannot make a good defence, unlefs he hath the
number of troops neceflary for defending the feveral polls,
and obliging the enemy to pay dear for them. Immenfe
fums are expended in fortifying a place, in order to ftop a
itrong army with a fmall force : but what refiftance can the
place make without exerting a brilk fire; and what will
thole heaps of walls avail, if they are not defended ? The
garrifon of a town befieged ought to have a reafonable
flock of provitions, in order to fupport themfelves under
the fatigue of military duty ; they ought alfo to have
powder, arms, and generally every thing that is requifite
to annoy the enemy, and to ftop the prsgrefs of their ope¬
rations.
It is not very eafy to fettle the number of troops necef-
fary to defend a town ; the nature of the ground on which
the place is fituated, and the number of outworks, ought to
determine the ftrength of the garrifon. M. Vauban in his Me¬
moirs reckons, that in a place regularly fortified with good
ballions, half moons, and covert-ways, we Ihould allow 500
or 600 men to each baftion : That if the town has horn-
works, 600 men may be lik,ew:fe afligned to each of thefe;
and in proportion for the other outworks, according to the
relation which their defence may require to that of the
horn-work ; and the horfe Ihould be the tenth part of the
number of the infantry.
This being premiied, fuppofe a place has fix baftions,
there muft be a garrifon of fix times fix hundred foot,
which makes 3600, and the tenth part of that number in
horfe, which makes 360. Hence a fufheient garrifon for
fuch a place will be 3960 men.
In order to compute, as near as pofiible, the quantity of
ammunition and provilions that may be required for fuch a
garrifon, we muft calculate how many days they will be able
to maintain a fiege. The foilqwing are M. Vauban’s re¬
marks on this lubjeft.
For the invefting the place and the tracing the
lines
For the opening of the trenches to the attack of
the covert-way
For the attack and taking of the covert-way, and
making lodgments in it
For the defeent and paffage over the ditch before
the half moon
For fixing the miners, or for the batteries till the
making of a reafonable breach
Days.
4
4
Brought over
For taking and fecuring the interior part of the
half-moon
For the paflage over the great ditch before the
two baftions, fuppofed to be begun before the
taking of the half-moon
For fixing the miners, or ere&ing batteries on
the covert-way, to lay the place open and make a
reafonable breach
For the defence and fupport of the breach after
the place is laid open
For the miftakes which the enemy may happen
to commit, and their negledt in their works
24
785
Of Sieges.
41
Carry over
Vox,. XVIII. Part II.
24
Total of the defence
In this defence it is plain we ftippofe a town to be forti¬
fied only with half moons and a covert-way ; but if the
half-moon had a reduit with a revetement and rampart, it
might hold out four days longer. If there were retrench¬
ments in the baftions, they might retai'd the taking of the
place five or fix days. If the ditch was ftrengthened with
tenailles and caponiers, the paffage over it might be pro¬
tracted two or three days. If there was a good horn-
work, or fome other like fortification properly ftrengthened
with a half-moon, a covert-way, and retrenchments within
the work, the taking of it would coft about 12 or 14 days.
If this work had tenailles, the paffage over its ditch would
be later by two or three days. If there was a fore-ditch
and a fecond coverty-way, the progrefs of the attacks
would ftill be lets rapid, and we might reckon 10 or 1 z
days for the taking of this fecond covert-way and the paf¬
fage over its ditch. If there were redoubts near the place,
they would ftill protract the taking ot it for fotne days.
From this eftimate, though not very exadt, an idea may
be formed of the duration of a fiege : a point abfolutely
neceflary for fecuring, at leaft, a fuftlcient quantity of am¬
munition during the timeg we fay at leaft, becaufe it is
always prudent, if poffiblr, to have a greater quantity of
ammunition than is iuppofed to be wanted. When once
the number of the garrifon, together with the duration of
the fiege, is fixed, it is then very eafy to calculate the quan¬
tity of powder and ammunition with which the place is to
be provided.
It is judged, that to be well provided with cannon, eight
pieces fhould be allowed to each baftion. Therefore in a
place of fix baftions there ought to be 48 pieces. .
Asa town is never attacked on all fides, and there are
feldom above two or three attacks at the moft, the cannon
belonging to thole baftions that are not attacked, ferve to
ftrengthen the baftions attacked, and they are placed alfo in
the outworks of the fronts attacked.
Among the cannon for the defence of the town there
fhould be fome of 24, of • 6, of 1 2, of 8, and of 4 pounders,
and even of 2 and 1. The latter are ot very great fervice,
becaule of their being fo convenient to remove with eafe,
and with few men, from one place to another; for this
ditturbs the enemy, who find it difficult to deftroy thefe
fmall pieces. The largeft ferve to fire againft their batteries
and their works. The fmall ones are carried to the out¬
works, and to the covert-way, from whence they are fired en.
barbette. It is cuftomary to make uie of fea carriages for
thefe fmall pieces.
Belides cannon, the town ought to be provided with a
great number of wall guns, carabines, mulkets, &c. We
are to fuppofe that moll of the ordinary arms will be broke
in the lervice, and therefore care muft be taken to provide,
new ones when wanted.
The number of mortars neceftary may be eftimated at
5 G two*
w
Of Siep;es. ^w0 every baftion. They mud be of different bores, of
'vr~~^ i 2 and 8 inches diameter. There ought alfo to be feveral
ftone-mortars.
The garrifon of a place of fix baftions, confiding, as we
have already obferved, of 3600 foot, are to be employed or
diftributed in the following manner.
We fhould, fird of ?.ll, reckon about 600 foldiers wound¬
ed and fick, in the fird 12 or 15 days of the liege, and for
the fervice of the batteries, the removing of ammunition,
&c. And then there will remain 30CO for the defence of
the place.
Thefe are to be divided into three equal bodies ; one
for the guard, the other for the biovac under arms, ready
to march on the fird notice where wanted, and the third to
red.
The horfe are alfo divided into three bodies like the foot;
that for the guard is chiefly placed on the right and left of
the attack ; that for the biovac is generally quartered by
brigades, in different parts of the town, where they may be
of lervice, either to keep the inhabitants in awe, or to be
ready to aft in fallies. In regard to the third corps, who
are to red, their horfes mud be faddled in the day ; and the
horfe or dragoons mud be ready to mount indantly, fhould
there be any occalion for their fervice.
The guard of infantry and the biovac ought to be under
arms, at the feveral pods afligned them in the works of the
place ; and for the corps at red, they mud be ready to fup-
port the troops on guard, in cafe thefe fhould have need of
their aflidance.
The guard of foot of toco men may be fubdivided
nearly into three equal bodies ; two of which to defend
the pods attacked, and the third the other pods not at¬
tacked. And in regard to the two fird, they may be fub¬
divided alfo into three equal bodies ; two of which are to
fire the fird two hours of the night, the other is to relieve
one of them at the end of that time, the next is relieved
two hours after ; and to on alternately, that there may be
always two thirds of this guard in action, and the other-
third at red.
There is no occafion for fo brifk a firing by day as by
night; becaufe the befieged are more capable of feeing
what the enemy are about, and of oppofing their attempts ;
but in the night nothing but a drong cannonading can
guard againd their enterprife?. By day the troops fire from
between bafkets, fand-bags, or gabions, placed on the upper
part of the parapet, to the end that being under cover they
may take better aim at the enemy.
As the mod perfeft fortifications cannot hold out long
■without the neceffary ammunitions, too much care cannot
be taken in regard to this article.
“ The ancients, fays Mr Folard, were accudomed to lay
in a great dore of provifions, when a place was threatened
with a liege ; a dore fufficient not only for three or four
months, but for three or four years at lead. This they
were induced to do for two reafons; the fear of being
blockaded ; and the inviolable law of defending themfelves
to the lad extremity. The moderns take lefs precaution in
refpeft to provifions, as well as to every thing elle ; they
think it fufficient to lay in a dock for three or four
months in towns of the greated ftrength and importance ;
which is very wrong. I grant, indeed (continues Mr Fo¬
lard), that the law of holding out to the very lad extremity
is looked upon as chimerical at prefent, and entirely left to
the ancients: but it Ihould be confidered, that an enemy
well acquainted with the date of things will meafure the
ftrength of the place by the quantity of provifions contained
therein ; and making a calculation of the lofs of men in the
attack, together with the expence of a long fiege, they will
A _ R. Part IV.
choofe, if they are w.fe (and eeutainly they will gam by it in Of Sie^n,
the end), to take it rather by blockade than by a lie e in ——
form : at lead they will be fare of becoming maders of it in
three or four mouths through want of provifions ; whereas
a liege may lad that time, if the garriion are obdinate.
Such a town as Lide in Flanders, and as Bergues, both of
which are out of the line of communication of our frontier,
cannot be too well docked with provifions. A wife and
experienced minider will viftual them at lead for eighteen .
months, becaufe they may be blockaded. It is much the
fame in regard to Stiafourg and to Lan5.au. The latter
was never viftualled for more than three or four months :
how imprudent, therefore, mud it be to lay fiege to it,
when it may be taken by a blockade altnod as foon as by a
fiege, which is attended moreover with an infinite lots of
brave men, and a mondrous expence ?”
'I hefe refleftions of M. Folard are very folid ; but clr-
cumltances will not always permit a place to fie io well pro¬
vided as one could wild.
When a governor finds that the enemy threatens to lay
fiege to a town under his care, and that the place is in want
of the chief things neceffary for a vigorous defence, he is
to exert all his abilities, in order to remedy this inconvenience
as much as poffible. The greated want of all is that of pro¬
vifions ; he mud therefore endeavour, to get a fupply, both
from the country and from the people of the town ; which
is to be didributed among the garrifon with the greated
economy. The ufelefs mouths diould be all fent out, and
an inquiry ought to be made after thofe who are fufpefted
of having hoarded any corn ; and upon paying them for
it, or upon giving them fecurity of payment, they fhould
be obliged to deliver it up for the fubfidence of the garri¬
fon.
Hitherto we have made no mention of the inhabitants; yet
they may be rendered ferviceable in contributing to cafe the
garrifon. The governor fhould make ufe of fuch workmen
who exercife handicraft trades for every thing relating to their
relpeftive branches ; and thole who are not artificers, diould
watch the fire that may be kindled by the {hells and fed-hot
bullets ; they ought likewife to tranfport the materials to
the places affigned them ; and even to work at the different
retrenchments which the governor fhould think fit to order
in the town, provided however that they be not too much
expofed to the fire of the befiegers. An article of the
greated importance, in regard to the inhabitants, is to oblige
them to lay in a dock of provifions for fix months, and thoie
that are able fhould be obliged to make dill a greater pro-
vifion, which will be a refource to the garrifon when their
own dock is exhauded.
§ 2. Neccjfary Preparations for maintaining a Siege,
When a town is threatened with a fiege, the governor
ought not only to take care to have a plentiful dock of am¬
munition and proviiions, but moreover he ihould ufe all
the precautions requifite for retarding the enemy’s ap¬
proaches, and rendering them more difficult and dangerous.
He ought therefore to leave nothing in the neighbour¬
hood that may ferve to cover the enemy ; he diould clear
the adjacent country of all houfes that are within reach of
cannon-{hot, and fill up, if poffible, the caverns or hollow
ways that may be concealed, or build fome redoubts and
other works under the proteftion of the place, by v/hich
they may be enfiladed. He ought to cut down all the
trees; in a word, he fhould prevent the enemy’s having
any cover within reach of the cannon of the place ; he
fhould fee that the fortifications be all in a good condition,
and that the covert-way be well palifaded; in fine, he
fhould caufe arrows to be built on the faliant angles of the
glacis.
Fart IV. ... W
(Of Siege?, rrlaci's. Retrenchments may alio be made in the re-entering
v-"-~ places of arms of the covert-way, by railing a parapet with¬
in them, and parallel to their faces, with a fmall ditch be¬
fore it. Nor fliould the galleries for the mines be forgot¬
ten: on the contrary, they ought to be begun betimes, and
carried out into the country as far as the ground will per¬
mit : and chambers fhould be made under all the angles of
the glacis. If there arc any houfes within the rampart
which may obftruft the defence, the governor ought to fee
them demolifhed ; and nothing fhould be left,, either within
or without, which can any way be of fervice to the befiegers.
If there are new railed troops, care fhould be taken to dif-
cipline them well.
The governor fhould alfo fee that the hofpitals be in a
good condition, that the fick and wounded be taken care
of, nor think it beneath his charafter to vifit them hknfelf,
and to let the loldiers fee how greatly he has their prefer-
vation at heart. This is the fureft way to gain their con¬
fidence and affefh'on, and to engage them to do their ut-
moft towards defending the place.
As it is now the cuftom to throw a great number of {hells
into a town befieged, it is necelfary to have vaulted places
under ground bomb-proof, where part of the garrifon not
on duty may reft in lafety. They are not fo much wanted
in large cities, where there are always different quarters fe-
curc from the enemy’s (hells : but a fmall town is in every
part expofed to the bombs; fo that fome places under
ground are abfolutely neceffary for the garrifon to take their
reft, and to prevent the troops from being continually in¬
commoded. Thefe fubterraneous caverns are generally
made in the gorges of the baftions, and fometimes under
the rampart behind the curtains.
Where there are none of thofe fubterraneous places, it
will be neceffary, as foon as the town is invefted, to ere£t
defences to fhelter the men from the bombs ; thefe are
made of ftrong pieces of timber, laid floping againft the
parts the leaft expofed, and they may be cover.! with thick
planks laid in the fame manner. The large houfes fhould
alfo be (bored, that is, all the floors, from top to bottom,
fhould be fupported with ftrong upright timbers, and the
upper floor covered with large beams laid acrofs one another,
and thefe again with earth, fafeines, dung, &c. When
they are thus fitted up, they may ferve either for the ac¬
commodation of the troops or for hofpiials, &c. But what
deferves a more {pedal care, is the powder-magazines.
They ought to be bomb-proof ; but as there are very few
that can reillt the (hock of a great number of (hells, they
fhould therefore be covered with feven or eight feet thick
of earth, and a layer of fafeines, dung, and ftrong planks
laid over them, fo as to form a kind of roof. But if it
fhould happen, either from their fituation or height, that
this cannot be done, then a range of large trees, well faften-
e.l together, muft be laid over them, fo as to diminifh the
fliock of the (hells. The windows of the powder-maga¬
zines fhould have no profpett towards the befiegers ; and
to prevent all accidents, nobody fhould be permitted to go
in or out of the doors, but when the fire of the enemy is
fiackened.
Wh en there are no powder-magazines in a town, it is
very difficult to preferve the powder during a fiege ; all
that can be done, is to diftribute it in different places, as in
cella'-s an.d caves made under the ramparts, ©r in gardens,
&c. and to cover thefe places well with thick planks, earth,
fafeines, See.
The mifehief done by (hells confifts not only in demolifh-
mg the buildings on which they fall, but likewife in fetting
fire to moft places they fall upon ; and when they are fol¬
lowed by red-he t balls, itis very difficult tv hinder the town
A R.
787
from being burnt. In order to remedy this evil, timely Of Sieges,
precautions fhould be taken, and the inhabitants employed
in extinguifhing the fire.
Firft of all, a great number of cafks, filled with water,
fhould be placed in the ftreets ; and the foldiers and inha¬
bitants ought to be divided into companies, to prevent the
fpreading of the flames. It will be proper to divide thefe
into fmall bodies, and to allot different quarters to each of
them, for extinguifhing any fire that may happen to parti¬
cular houfes. By thefe means each corps, or company,
will become anfwerable, in fome meafure,- for the houfes en-
trufted to their care, and ufe the utmoft endeavours to pre¬
ferve them. The pavements muft alfo be taken up, and
dung laid in the ftreets, to prevents further mifehief from
the burfting of the fhells.
§ 3. Of the Defence from the invfling to the Attach of the
Covert-way.
When the place is invefted, and the befiegers begin to
work upon the line of circumvallation, the governor ought
not at firft to fire upon the enemy’s troops with the largeft
cannon, but with his fmall pieces only. For as the enemy
ought to pitch their camp as near as poffible to the place,
provided they are out of reach of cannon-fhot, they wull
think themfelves at a fufficieht diftance when out of the
reach of thofe fmall pieces ; but as foon as they are encamp¬
ed, the garrifon are to give them a full volley with their
great gun?, which will oblige them to decamp once more,
and make them lofe time.
While the befiegers are conftrudUng the lines, their en¬
gineers fpare no pains to get an exaft knowledge of the ad¬
jacent ground, and to reconnoitre the fortification?, that
they may form the plan of attack, which they will be fure
to make on the wcakeft fide. To prevent this, M. Goulan
propofes the following fcheme.
As foon as the town is invefted, the governor fhould fend
200 or 300 men every night to that fide which he knows
to be the weakeft, with orders to lie upon their faces, in
the form of a femicirle, of which the palifades of the co¬
vert-way may be confidered as the diameter. Thefe men
fhould be divided into fmall parties, of three or four men
each, at the diftance of 20 or 30 paces from one another,
fo as to occupy a large tradl of ground. All thefi? different
parties ought to agree upon a fignal, to give notice when
any body paffes by them, and they fhould remain there in
filence till day, without ftirring, unlefs fomebody happens
to pafs by ; in which cafe, the firft that fees them ftiould
rife, and give the fignal to the reft, who are to do the fame;
then all drawing clofe together, and advancing to the pali¬
fades, they will take thofe w ho paffed, as it were in a net,
without any poffibility of relief from their efcort, w ho can¬
not be numerous enough to refeue them from the hands of
200 or 300 men, protetled by the fire of the covert-way.
If the men wdio advance to reconnoitre the place, inftead of
paffing through the intervals, fhould fall in with fome of
thefe parties, and endeavour to get off, they muft be fired
upon : thus the enemy may be eafily hindered from reccn-
noitering, and thereby acquiring a knowledge of the ground,
or the fide moft proper to be attacked.
From the time the place is invefted, the befieged ftiould
fend every night fmall parties of eight or ten men, com¬
manded by a ferjeant, with orders to lie upon their laces
all round the border of the glacis, and to liften carefully to
every thing that paffes. Whatever care the befiegers may
take to open the trenches in filence, ftill it will be very
difficult for this operation to be made, without fuch a mo¬
tion as muft be heard or perceived from the neighbourhood
of the glacis, Thefe froall parties may even advance a little
5 G 2 further^
7S8 W
^or^ieges. further, obferving filence, and taking care not to be ftnpri-
^ feci by the parties which the enemy alfo may fend out on
that fide, to watch whether there are any troops of the garri-
fon ready to fall upon the workmen.
When the fide on which the enemy open their trenches
is known, the great pieces of ordnance are mounted on the
rampart of the town en barbette, and the fmall ones on the
covert-way, from whence they are to fire brifldy upon the
trenches. And to point more exaftly, fire-balls are thrown
from the mortars, which will give light enough to dilcover
the workmen. Juft at this time, the befieged fhould make
the greateft fire againft the enemy, becaufe it is then they
are moft uncovered, and confequently moft expofed. As
the befieged cannot have their batteries ready till the fecond
or third day after the opening of the trenches, during that
time the guns may continue to fire en barbette} but it will
hardly be poffible to fire in that manner when the enemy’s
batteries are once erefted. Mortars fhould likewife be ufed
for throwing (hells on the workmen and thofe employed on
the batteries ; in fhort, the heft ufe ftiould be made ©f the
artillery, before the enemy are in a condition to filence it.
It is cuftomary to make two or three attacks in order to
divide the attention of the garrifon ; and of thefe, general¬
ly Ipeaking, there is only one real: they mufi therefore
endeavour to find out this real attack, and to ufe the utmoft
diligence in making good retrenchments, as well in the out¬
works, which the enemy mufttake before they can come to
the body of the place, as in the gorge of the ballion of the
front attacked. But to render thefe retrenchments ftrong
and firm, they fhould have been begun and even finifhed be¬
fore the opening of the trenches. A governor, who has a
proper knowledge of fortification, ought to judge on which
fide a town is moft acceflible, and to prefume that here the
enemy will commence their attack; confequently he ought
to think of every method of defence, the beft adapted to re¬
tard the approaches, and difpute every inch of ground.
The befieged fhould fo dilpofe their artillery at the be¬
ginning of a fiege, as to enfilade the branches, and to di-
re£t their fire agaiwft the head of the trenches or the faps.
This muft be their principal effort; for it is by continually
firing upon them that they may reafonably hope to retard
the works.
When the enemy have ere&ed their batteries, it is very
difficult for the befieged to maintain theirs, efpecially if they
are placed on the produced faces of the pieces attacked.
For as the cannon are continually filing a ricochet againft
thefe faces, and it being difficult to guard againft this firing,
it will be very dangerous for the foldiers to remain there :
all that can be done is to make fome traverfes, in order to
diminifh their effeft ; which is difficult indeed to compafs,
becaufe the (hot falling upon the traverfes will bound be¬
tween them. It is advifable not to perlift in firing always
from the fame place againft the enemy’s batteries. By cea-
fing to fire from that part where the befiegers know there
was a battery, they may be induced to think they have de-
ftroyed it, which will prevent their continuing to fire againft;
it, and be a means of prelerving the battery for future fer-
vice. But in order to give them trouble, fmaller guns may
be placed in the outworks, on the faces ©f the baftions,
from whence the trenches and batteries of the befiegers can
be difeovered ; and they muft often change place to perplex
the enemy, who will find it very difficult to difmount thofe
moving pieces. The befieged however mult endeavour to
repair the parapets deftroyed by the enemy, and to take
proper meafures for firing again from thence, as foon as the
befiegers have drifted their guns.
It is alfo advifable that the batteries of the befieged
^ Part IV'
fhould not fire in falyos, or all at a time: for it is well Of Sieges'
known, that the befiegers place foldiers in the trenches ’“v—^
to obferve, through fmall loop-holes made with fand-bags in
the parapet of the trench, when the batteries of the town are
fired, and to give notice to thofe who are at work in the
trenches, which way the guns are pointed, that they may-
put themfelves under cover. If the befieged have only fix
pieces on a battery, and they fire them all at a time, the ene¬
my have fome moments of lecurity to look over the parapet
and to examine the ground where they intend to work and
to conduft the trenches: but when the garrifon vary their
manner of firing, they give more uneafinefs to thofe who
are at work in the trenches, who will not be fo ready to
look over the parapet; which, though it be neceffary, in
order to view the fituaticn of the ground towards which the
works are to be dire&ed, is ever dangerous, but efpecially
when the trenches are brought within mulket-fhot of the
place. i
$ 4. Of Sallies*
A garrison that keeps within a place, without making
fallies, is, as the chevalier de Ville fays, like thofe who are
not concerned when their neighbour’s houfe is on fire, and
will not ftir to extinguifti it till it has reached their own.
And indeed, as the beliegers continually carry on their ap¬
proaches towards the town, it is of the utmoft importance
to endeavour, in time, to flop their progrefs ; to which end,
the making of fallies is extremely conducive, efpecially when
they are well conduced, otherwife they would rather acce¬
lerate than retard the taking of the place. '
How great foever the advantage of fallies may be, they
are proper only when a garrifon is numerous. A fmall
garrifon, although well flocked with all the kinds of necef¬
fary ammunitions for making a defence, and for holding out,
ought to be very careful how they venture to make a fally.
But a numerous garrifon, not fo well provided, ought to
fatigue the enemy as much as poffible by frequent fallies.
The fame meafure ought to be followed when a town i»
but ill fortified ; the garrifon fhould not (hut themfelves up
fo as to be obliged to furrender, as it were, without making
much refiftance. It is beft in thofe cafes to harafs the ene¬
my continually, to keep them at a diftance as long as poffible,
and to ufe every ftratagem and endeavour that may retard
their approaching the glacis, and the taking of the covert¬
way. Thus it was that the marquis of Uxelles, afterwards
marfhal of France, behaved at the fiege of Mentz in 1689.
He defended that large and ill fortified town upwards of
two months, with the help of a very brave garrifon ; but
was obliged to capitulate for want of powder and ammuni¬
tion, though he was ftill mailer of the covert-way, and even
in fome meafure of the glacis.
When the befiegers are at a diftance from the place, fallies
are very dangerous, becaufe the enemy may cut them off
from the town with their horfe : but when they have made
their fecond parallel, and advanced the branches of the
trenches towards the third parallel at the foot of the glacis,
then is the time for the garrifon to fally. They may even
venture, though with great caution, when the befiegers are
at work upon the fecond parallel, and before it is entirely
finifhed ; but the moft favourable opportunity of Tallying,
is when the befiegers are come to the third parallel, and want
to make a lodgment on the glacis. Then there is no danger
ot being cut off; and the enemy may be furprifed the more
eafily, as the garrifon have it in their power to fall upon
them all at once, and to throw them into confufion, without
giving them time to recover themfelves.
Sallies may be either great or fmall; the former ought
to
4,
Fart IV. VT A
Of sieges, to be with COO or 6®o 'men at leaR, or proportioned to the
v—~ guard in the trenches; the latter are only with 10, 15, or
20 men.
The intent of great failles (hould be to deflroy a con-
fiderable part of the works of the befiegers, in order to oblige
them to begin again ; to nail up their guns ; te retake fome
poll which had been abandoned; andlatlly» to obftriiA the
enemy’s works as much as poflible, and thereby retard the
taking of the place.
In regard to fmall failles, they ferve for no other end than
to interrupt the workmen at the head of the trenches, fo
as to frighten them, and oblige them to run away. As it
requires fome time to bring them back, and to make them
return to their work, this will occafion delay, and retard the
approaches.
The bell time for great failles, is two hours before day¬
light, the troops being then fatigued and fleepy ; therefore
more eafily furprifed, and lefs capable of making a vigorous
refiftance. And when it has rained very hard in the night,
fo that the guard in the trenches may be unable to make ufe
of their fire arms, this is alfo a favourable circumftance : in
fhort, no opportunity {hould be negledted to furprife the
enemy ; for (allies feldom piove advantageous any other
way. The following is the order which M. Vauban pro-
pofes to be obferved.
There {hould be a detachment of 90 men drawn up, 30
in. front, and three deep ; to which mud be added a fourth
rank of 30 grenadiers. The three firft ranks of this detach¬
ment (hould be armed with cuirafles; each foldier {hould
have a (word and piftol at his belt, and a partizan, or long
iron fork with a hook, in his hand. This detachment is to
be followed by another of 180 men, 30 in front, and fix
deep ; the firft rank of thefe is to be armed as the former,
with cuiraffes and long weapons, the reft as ufual.. The
firft 1 ank in this detachment is to make up the rear in the
retreat. After this fecond detachment 200 workmen are
to follow with proper tools to deftroy the enemy’s works,
and feveral of thefe with combuftibles to burn what they
cannot otherwife deftroy. Some of them are to be provided
with long nails of fteel, and of different magnitude, to fpike
the cannon ; there muft be fome of a very large fize, becaufe
the touch-holes happen frequently to be fo very wide, that
-common nails will not fill them up exaflly.
Befides the two detachments and workmen above men¬
tioned, another body of 300 or 400 men {hould be ordered
to fupport them, and to follow them (lowly as far as the head
of the trenches; where, if they find that thofe who went
before them have no need of affiftance, they fhould halt to
be ready to aft if occafion requires it. If the guard of the
trenches fhould make a vigorous attack upon the {ally,
this detachment will fupport them, and jointly encounter
the befiegers. If the latter are repulfed, which muft be the
cafe if the fally is not forefeen and expefted, the workmen
muft fet about demolifhing the works, and filling up the
trenches as faft as poflible. Thefe troops {hould alfo endea¬
vour to penetrate as far as the batteries, in order to nail up
the cannon, and to maintain themfelves in the trenches long
enough for the workmen to deftroy great part of them.
When they have done what they propofed, they retreat to
the covert-way in good order ; and if the enemy fhould be
fo imprudent as to purfue them as far as the glacis, they
mull be received with a brifk fire as well from the cannon
of the ramparts as froqri the troops in the covert-way.
In (allies, and generally in all aftions performed by night,
the foldiers {hould put fomething in their hats, as a white
paper or handkerchief, to know one another in the dark.
The troops defigned for this purpofe are drawn up in the
place of arms within the town, or in the ditch if it be dry,
R. 7S9
or elfe in the covert-way. When they are to march out OfSiege^
by different gates, fome fignal {hould be agreed upon, that' ‘*
they may all hnove at the fame time. If there are more
attacks than one againft the town, as generally is the cale,
then feveral fallies may be made at the fame time upon thefe
attacks. It might be proper to make a great noife on one
fide, in order to draw all the attention of the enemy that
way ; and while they are bufy in the repulfe, to aft vi-
goreufly on the other fide ; for then they will meet with
lefs reliftance, and will be more capable of hurting the be¬
fiegers. However, as a fally w'hich has not all the fuc-
cefs that might be expefted, ought not to difeourage the
garrifon from repeating the attempt; fo one that has been
crowned with fuccefs ought not to render them too confi¬
dent, or infpire them with too great a contempt for the
enemy. The miftakes the latter may have committed, will
roufe their attention, and put them upon»their guard. We
ought ever to fuppofe, that they will do all that we fhould
do, w-ere we in their place, and that they wull take propeiT
meafures to remove every obffacle that may oppole them.
Hitherto we have taken no notice of the ufe of cavalry-
in fallies ; and yet on fome occafions they may be of iervice,
which is when the befiegers are at a diftance from the place.
In this cafe, two detachments of horfe are ordered to the
right and left to fupport the fallies, and to hinder the ene¬
my’s horfe from falling upon them. Thefe detachments
feive alfo to proteft their retreat, and to prevent their being
cut off; but when the befiegers have finifhed their third
parallel, the fallies are then made with foot only, and {hould,
as we have above obferved, be often repeated, provided the
garrifon is numerous enough to difpute every inch of ground
with the enemy.
As foon as the troops are returned from the fally, fire¬
balls {hould be thrown into the trenches, to difeover the
workmen who are employee^ in repairing the mifehief that
has been done, and are at that time in iome meafure un¬
covered. The fire of the place well ferved at this junfture,
muft kill a great many of the enemy, bo iar relates t3
great fallies.
The fmall fallies, which are intended merely to difturb
the befiegers without being able to do them much hurt, are
condufted in the manner following. The governor order*
out parties of 10, 15, or 20 ftout men only, as hath been
already obferved, who are to advance foftly to the head of
the trenches, and to jump into them quickly, making a
great noile, and throwing grenades ; after which they are
to retire with all expedition : the alarm which they will
occafion is fufficient to make the workmen take to their
heels, who defire nothing better than to have a fpecious
pretence, as M. Goulon obferves, to run away upon the
leaft alarm ; and it is impofiible to prevent it, or to bring
them back the fame night; fo that the befiegers muft lofe
all this time. If, fays the fame author, the befiegevs be¬
come accuftemed to thefe little fallies, fo as to grow fecure
and take no notice of them, the befieged obferving this
muft make one in good earned, which coming unexpefted,
will eafily overturn the workmen and the troops that cover
them : after which they may retire without fighting, left
they fhould draw the whole guard of the trenches upon their
backs.
§ 5. Of the Defence of the Glacis and the Covert-way.
Besides the fallies which retard the lodgment of the
befiegers on the glacis, mines may increafe the difficulty of
approaching. We have already taken notice of thefe in the
feftion of Attack ; we have only to obferve here in general,
that the befieged muft make the befl ufe of them poflible,
in order to blow up the enemy as often as the ground will
i permit 5
79°
Of Siej-fij.
W A
permit; this is the furefl way to keep the befiegers in awe
R.
and to oblige them to advance with the greateft circumfpec-
tion.
jBefides the galleries and mines which ought to be under
the glacis, the befie Ted may alio lay oppolite to its angles
large planks, ftuck full of very long nails, with the points
upwards, to incommode the enemy in palling over the gla-
ch. Thefe planks ought to be Itrongly fixed, to prevent
their being eafny taken away. i he burying of cadfons in
the glacis is alfo produflive of a good jeffeft ; but they
ought never to be placed nearer than fix or eight feet to
the mlide of the covert-way, left they Ihould do any damao-e
to the troops that defend this poll.
When the enemy endeavour to make a lodgment on the
glacis, the garrifon muft repeat their failles with greater vi¬
gour ; which may be done without any inconvenience, be-
caufe of the facility of retreating. \Vhen the troops are
jeturned from the Tally, fire is fet to the chambers and caif-
fons, which will greatly difconcert the befregers. If the
chambers are well difpofed, they muft hurt their lodgments
prodigioully ; and as foon as they are fprung, the befreged
may fall upon the enemy, this being a favourable opportu¬
nity for furprifing them in diforder, and confequently of
deftroying part of their works. This manner of proceeding
firould be often repeated, in order to fatigue the befiegers,
and to retard the taking of the covert-way.
When the enemy are ready to florm it, the garrifon muft
prepare to give them a warm reception. The difficulty of
making a lodgment in the covert-way may be increafed by
a double row of palifades : the fecond ffiould be lower than
the firtt, to the end that the enemy may not perceive them.
Thefe two rows ought to be at the diftance of four or five
feet from one another, to prevent the befiegers from jump¬
ing over them into the covert way. Between them may
be made a frnall ditch ; into which moft of the enemy’s
grenades^ will fall, and caufe lefs mifchief to the troops.
Care muft be taken to make ftrong retrenchments in the
places of arms, either by railing a parapet withinfide, and
parallel to their faces, with a fmall ditch at the foot of it,
or by fimple rows of palifades, which will hinder the ene¬
my from forcing their way fo eaiily as they would other-
wile be capable of doing. In each place of arms there
Ihould be one or two barrels of powder, with balls and
fmall arms neceffary for the defence of the covert-way.
All the batteries muft be got ready to fire with the ut-
moft brifknefs upon the enemy, when they are at work
upon their lodgment. Every part of the place that looks
into the covert-way ought to be lined with troops, who are
to fire upon the befiegers ; but there ought to be no troops
in the parts oppofite to the places of arms, that the troops
polled there may net be hurt by the fire from the body of
the place.
The garrilon fhould endeavour to be informed by de-
ferters at what time the enemy intend to make their attack ;
the motions of the latter may be alfo oblerved by perfons
polled on fteeples ; and as foon as the troops are perceived
to make an extraordinary motion, and the trenches to be
filled more than ulual, this is a fign that they are going to
attack. 1 he vicinity of the enemy’s works may alio en¬
able the befieged to judg e of their forwardnefs ; and all this
together dire£! them to take fuch meafures as are proper
forgiving a warm reception to the befiegers.
As foon as tne garrilon perceive that the enemy are
marching out of their trenches, they fhould keep firing
upon them continually with great and fmall arms from all
the works facing the attack. This will deftroy a great
many of their men before they can reach the palifades : the
two rows of which in the covert-way will prevent their
1 > ’ Part IV
jumpmg into it direftly. They will be under a neceffity Of 5i '
of breaking them fucceffively with hatchets ; and while this
is doing, a general difcharge is to be made from the bat¬
teries of the town, which will do great execution. When
after a vigorous refiftance, the garrifon find themfelves ha-d
prefted by the enemy, they may abandon the covert-way
and retire into the places of arms ; and while the befiegers
are working upon their lodgment, they will be exDofed to
the fire of the place, which takes them in front f and to
that of the places of arms, by which they are taken ’in flank •
fo that their lofs muft increafe confiderably. If thev have
mines ready, as we fnppofe they have, they muft fpring-
them, after having fuffered the enemy to work for fonS
time upon their lodgments; and after having kept firing-
agarnft them continually with great and fmall arms, then
immediately they Ihould make a ftrong Tally from the places
of arms, and taking advantage of the diforder into which
the befregers muft inevitably be thrown, they will oblige
them to abandon the covert-way. 6
If there is no poffibility of hindering the enemy from
making lodgments on the creft of the covert-way, or, which
is the fame thing, on the ridge of the glacis, the befieged
muft endeavour to retard them, and to difpute as long as
poffible their taking poffeffion of the places of arms. ^On
this occafion fougafles are employed with fuccefs, and ffiould
be repeated feveral times if the ground will permit. When
the befiegers have once completed their lodgment* and fun-
ported it in a proper manner, they want nothin^ further
than a little time to extend themfelves, and to° become
matters of the covert-way. The obftimjcy of the befieged
can only retard, butjiot abfolutely hinder, the taking 0f this
outwork. 43
Let us fuppofe that the enemy refolve to approach the
covert-way by fap, and that they have railed cavaliers in the
trenches to plunge into this outwork, the befie-ed muft
flnve to retard this operation by every ftrata rem imagi¬
nable ; for when the cavaliers are once conftrufted, it will
be very dangerous to abide any longer in the covert way.
1 hey muft flop the befiegers at every ftep with mines ;
they mull harafs them with a conftant difcharge of fire-arms
and difpute every inch of ground, defending themfelves be!
hind every traverfe, and in the places of arms, as well as
they can, without running too great a rifle of having their
retreat cut off. " °
§ 6. Of tbs Defence of the Pajfage over the Ditch before the
Halj -muon.
The enemy having made themfelves mailers of the covert¬
way, and perfefted all their lodgments, will ereft their bat¬
teries for making a breach, and^prepare for the defeent into
the ditch. All this while the befieged muft keep firing
both with their great and fmall arms, in order to incom¬
mode the enemy in the conltruftion of their batteries. If
the ditch is dry, the foldiers may mognt with ladders along
the counterfcarp, and from thence throw grenades into the
enemy’s works; and when they cover themfelves in the
covert way with fand-bags, gabions, &c. againft the nre of
the piace, thefe very foidiers fliould, with great fap-hooks,
puli down part of them, and afterwards jump nimbly into the
ditch, leaving the enemy expofed to the fire of the town
while they are putting their materials again into order.
Mines may be likewife uied here with great advantage ;
they rurnifli various means to harafs the enemy, to obltruft
their works, and to make them lofe time and men.
I he batteries of the befiegers being deftroyed by mines
made under them, mull oblige them to lole a great deal of
time in repaiiing them, and in endeavouring to make them-
lelves matters of the mines, otherwife they can never be
fecure.
I
Part IV. W A R.
lofsiega-*. fecure. When the befieged have blown up the batteries to fill the ditch with
—r——'that were to open the breach, they mud make good life of
the time which the enemy will fpend in repairing them, and
ftrive to perfect the retrenchments, which fhould have been
jet about at the commencement of the fiege, in the gorge
of the half-moon, and in thofe of the baftions ol the front
attacked.
The mines for blowing up the batteries of the covert¬
way may be difpofed in fuch a manner as to tumble the guns
into the ditch, as may be feen in the courfe of mathematics
by M. Belidor, who performed it w7ith fuccefs at the aca¬
demy of La Fere.
It is certainly a great advantage thus to be able to be¬
come mailers of the cannon of the befiegers, and to oblige
them to ere£l new batteries, which mull take them up a
confiderable time. A doubt here may arife, whether if thele
batteries are oppofite to that part where the enemy intend to
pafs the ditch, this would not be helping to fill it up, fiiould
the befieged blow up the guns: but this inconvenience is of no
great confequence, efpecially as it may eafily be remedied, by
clearing away the rubbilli of the mine which tumbles into the
ditch along with the battery.
As the befiegers wmrk at the defcent into the ditch at
the fame time that they are preparing their batteries, the
befieged muft think of retarding both thefe operations alfo
at the fame time. If the defcent into the ditch is made
under ground, miners Ihould be employed to interrupt the
work"; and if the ditch is dry, fmall detachments, as M.
Goulon obferves, of five or fix men, may be placed near the
counterfcarp, to watch the moment that the enemy break
through it, and immediately to fire into the gallery: this
difeharge will either kill or frighten the miners; and at lead:
will retard the works. Thofe who have fired, fhould retire
on each fide the opening to load their arms again, which may
be repeated feveral times. Fire-balls and grenades may be
like*wife thrown into this opening, which will oblige the Tap¬
pers to retreat.
If the ditch is filled with water, the fame operations may
likewife be performed with fmall boats made on purpofe ;
and to cover thefe boats a kind of parapet fhould alfo be
raifed by means of flrong boards, with holes to fire through
upon the foldiers, wlio upon opening the gallery will throw
fafeines into the ditch. At the fiege of Lifle, marlhal
Boufflers contrived fome boats of this kind to retard the
paflage over the ditch, before the grand lunettes or tenail-
lons in the front attacked, and that before the half moon;
When the enemy make their opening into the dry ditch,
they mail be oppofed with a ftrong fire, as well from the
face of the baftion which flanks the ditch before the half¬
moon, as from the place cf arms or traverfe, which ought
to be conftrucled the whole breadth of the ditch, in order
to ftrengthen the defence. By night fmall failles (hould be
made from this place of arms, with a view to interrupt the
paflage over the ditch, and to retard, as much as poffible,
the fixing of the miner.
There are two ways of palling the dry ditch, and of
bringing the miner to the foot of the revetement which he
is to enter. The firll confifts in making a gallery fix feet
wide, with a double row of barrels. Thefe mult be filled
with fand bags, and fo muft the fpaces between them, in
order to render the paflage of the gallery more fafe; and
that there may be a Ihelter from fice-works, ftrong planks
are laid over it, and thefe again are covered with raw hides,
or with earth and dung. This gallery is continued within
three or four feet of the revetement; and in this fpace a good
epaulement is raifed with fand-bags to cover the miner on
the fide expofed to the place. In regard to the other fide,
h is of no ufe to Hop it up ; nay, it ferves for an opening
791
the earth dug out of the galleries, OfS:eges.
which the miners are making in the rampart of the work
attacked. It is eafy to oppoie the progrels of this gallery
with a continual fire, and with feveral lelfer works conftru£l-
ed within the ditch.
The other way, which, as we have already feen in treat¬
ing of the attack, confifts only in getting to the foot of the
breach by f?.p, with an epaulement on the fide expofed to
the place, may be covered, in order to protedl the paflage
from the. fire-works and grenades of the befieged. But
this fan may be retarded by failles ; the befieged may like¬
wife fteal away the earth by night from the epaulements,
and endeavour with hooks, &c. to difpiace the gabions and
fafeines.
If the ditch is filled with water, the befieged muft inter¬
rupt the enemy’s bridge with a continual fire from their
great and fmall guns, as well-as with grenades and (hells, if
they are in a condition to fire upon the bridge and its
epaulement. If the water has a ftrong current, they muft
open fluices in order to break down the bridge, or at leaft
to carry away the fafeines. ft hey fhould alfo attempt to
fet fire to it with artificial works prepared for this purpofe.
ft’hey may likewife approach the epaulement in the night,
and draw away the fafeines with hooks, ft hey may even
throw anchors upon it; and by means of capftans placed in
thofe parts which flank the ditch, they may draw thefc
anchors with cords {aliened to them, and tumble part ot
the epaulement into the ditch. In (hort, every expedient
muft be tried that may poflibly retard the enemy’s ap¬
proaches: for when once they have per.edled their bridge,
they will foon be matters of the outwork to which that
bridge leads, whatever precaution the garrifon may take to
defend the breach ; becaufe, as the befiegers can always pour
in frefh men to fupply the room of thofe that are loft in the
attack, they muft at length furmount all oppofition.
§ 7. Of the Defence of the .Hdf-rriOon.
While the enemy are effefting the paflage over the
ditch, befides the difficulties that are raifed to retard the
work, all proper precautions fhould be ufed to defend the
breach, and prevent the taking of the half-moon. For this
purpofe guns are placed in all the works from which the
breach may be feen; and they fhauld be placed on carriages
or on pieces of wood, as the garrifon find mod commodious,
of leaft hinderance to the defence, and productive of the belt
effeft.
If the half-moon has no reduit, as here we fuppofe it has
none, the retrenchments, which ought to have been made
there, muft be put into good condition ; a row of palifadcs
muft be placed before it, in order to flop the firft fury of the
enemy after they have made themfelves matters of the breach;
in a word, the befieged muft prepare to difpute every inch
of ground, and to retire from the half-moon into the town,
when they find themfelves hard prefled and no longer able to
maintain that poll.
When the enemy prefent themfelves at the foot of the
breach, a great number of grenades, and facks filled with
powder, are thrown among them, with a view to fling them
into diforder. Glafs or earthen bottles filled with powder,
and burning matches twilled round them, are capable of
doing them a deal of mifehief. A great quantity of loofe
powder may be fcattered about the breach when the enemy
are ready to mount to the aflault; and when they are mount¬
ed, lighted matches or burning coals may be thrown among
the powder to fet it on fire ; which will burn and diiable a
number of thofe who are in the breach. It will be proper
alfo to throw into the breach a quantity of harrows, ftuck
full of large nails with the points upwards: and to prevent
the
792 War. Part w
bom removing them, they muft be faftened with confequently the garrifon mull find it much eafier to repel Of SkJ
■ v chains, or with great cords. It is advifable to be provided them. r ^ ^
with crows-feet, and to fpread them about; as alfo with , R .
chevaux de-frize, and witli heriffons, that ihall extend the ^ * v the Defence of the Paffage over the Ditch before the
whole width of the breach (fee Herisson). Shells alfo Bajl'wn.
faftened to the ends of chains, in order to confine them to At the fame time that the enemy are carrvinp- on the
that part where they may do moft damage to the enemy, attacks of the half-moon, they work at the paftaee over the
are an excellent contrivance. Their fufees are made {hotter ditch before the baftion. What has been laid in re gard to
than ufual, to the end that they may produce their effed, the defence of the ditch before the half-moon, may'be ao-
more readily. Fafcines fmeared over with tar, and, in (hort, plied on this occafion; we have only to add, that when this
J       — 5  ~ * -7
every ftratagem ought to be tried to hinder the enemy from
lodging themfelves in the breach.
When the beliegers have furmounted all thefe obftacles,
and at laft have got pofteffion of the breach, the mines are
f'prung in order to blow them up, and chevaux-de-frize are
placed along the whole breadth of the breach. The troops
poft themfelves behind, and continue to make a vigorous
firempon the befiegers while they are ufing their utmoft en¬
deavours to penetrate into the half-moon ; and when they
begin to force their way, the firft rank of men that defend
it, being armed with partilans or halberts, and fupported
by the other troops, ought to fall upon the enmy, and cut
them in pieces. But if the befiegers at length by dint of
numbers fhould drive the garrifon from the breach, the latter
ought to retire into the retrenchment, and from thence make
a very brif!< firing; and when they find that this is alfo upon
the point of being forced, then they are to withdraw their
cannon, and whatever ammunition they may have, into the
place; and laft of all, it they have any mines under that
fpot, they mud iprir.g them as they retire, in order to do
all the mifehief and to create all the confufion they can to
the befieuers.
Sometimes it fhall happen that the enemy, after having
made themfelves matters of the half-moon, omit to leave a
lufficient number of troops to guard the lodgment, upon a
prefumgtion that the belieged will not attempt to retake
it. Whenever they (how a confidence of this kind, a ftrong
body of the garrifon fhould return in the night and ftorm
this work, either by the gorge, or by feme other part.
There are great odds, but fuch a vigorous and fudden fur-
prife will be productive of a very good effect; at leaft there
is no great rifle in trying, if the ftrength of the garrifon will
permit; and fhould they fucceed, the taking of the town
will be retarded feveral days.
Here we have fuppofed that the enemy are refolved to
ftorm the half-moon; but if they fhould attempt to get pof-
feffion of it by means of faps, in that cafe the workmen
mutt be continually haraffed by blowing up mines, and kept
as lorn; as poftible from the breach by means of fiie-works
of all kinds. When they begin to make a lodgment in the
breach, then the befieged fhould fall upon them brifkly, and
deftroy the lodgment; in fhort, every artifice imaginable
fhould be ufed to retard their progrefs.
This laft method is lei's bloody than the pther; but on
the other hand, it may be very tedious, when the beflegei
fpare no pains to ditturb the enemy’s fappers and miners.
One thing that greatly deferves attention, and may render
it very difficult for the befiegers to mount to the affault, or
to lodge themfelves in the breach by means of faps, is to
clear away the rubbifh in the breach. In a dry ditch this
may be earily done ; but in a wet one, the thing is more
difficult: on the other hand, in the latter cafe the breach is
more eafy to defend than in the former; becauie as the
enemy cannot come to the foot of it but by the bridge of
fafeines, which is made in the ditch, and is feidom above 10
or i 2 feet wide, they cannot of courfe prefent themfelves
with fo large a front before the breach as in a dry ditch ;
ditch is dry, the caponier wall be of great ufe to fire upon
the enemy in their paffage over the ditch, and to fully from
thence in order to deftroy their works. If the ditch be wet,
it muft be defended in the fame manner as that before the
half-moon: here only we fhall add, that if there is a tenailie
oppofite to the curtain of the front attacked, the fire from
thence will greatly annoy thofe who are employed in filling
up the ditch.. Befides, the boats by which we obferved that
the enemy might be incommoded in the paffage over the
ditch, the befieged may likewife have recoutfe to a kind of
floats, made with double joifts, at the end of which are
faftened empty barrels, to prevent their finking too deep io
the water ; and thefe floats fhould be loaded with fhells,
barrels of gunpowder, fafcines, pitch and tar; and in fhort,
with all forts of combuftibles proper for .fetting fire to the
biic.ge, and to the enemy’s epaulement: thefe are brought
forward and faftened to the epaulement, and afterwards
they are let on fire with a match, or with tow laid amidii
the combuftibles.
. When there are dikes or fluices, fey means of which the
ditch may be filled with water at any time, every art muft
be tried to defend it while it is dry ; and when all the de¬
fences are exhaufted, then the water is let in, and the enemy
will be obliged to begin their work again.
§ 9- °ftfje Defence of the Baftiont in the Front attacle l.
Here the reader muft recoiled what ha<r been far'd in
regard to the defence of the breach in the half-moon. The
defence of the baftions is more eafy, becaufe it is not fa
difficult to retreat from thence, by means of the retrench¬
ment; and this retrenchment fhould be larger and more
fpacious than that of the half-moon, and more difficult t©'
force.
Lefides all the precautions we have been mentioning, as
mines under the breaches, within the baftians, &c. the be¬
fieged fhould alio mount feveral pieces of cannon on the
breach, charged with cartridge-fhot, and p.inted down¬
wards, fo as to be able to fweep the whole furface of the
ground on which the enemy muff form in order to march
to the affault. Care muff alfo be taken, left the enemy,
difeouraged with the difficulty-of ftorming the breach, at¬
tempt to fcale the baftion, as hath been pradtifed feveral
times, and particularly by the duke de Noailles, marfhal of
France, at the fiege of Gironne, in 1712. The way to
guard again ft this attempt, is to place along the parapet of
the works that may be infulted, large pieces of timber,
which are to be tumbled upon the ladders as foon as tlue
enemy offer to mount hey fhould alfo have loaded fhells
all along the rampart, faftened to chains, and to let down
towaros the middle of the ladders, where they will burft
and kill thofe who are mounted. t hey fhould likewife be
piovided with combuftibles of different kinds, to throw
upon the beliegers, and to keep them off from the foot
of the revetement. When the garrifon are well prepared
againft this attempt, it will be very difficult for the enemy
to fucceed.
I he entrance of the feaftion may likewife be defended,
fcy
Part IV. W ,
Of siege*, by making a ditch in the upper part of the breach, and
filing it with all forts of combuftible matter. This will
form an impenetrable barrier againft the enemy, at leaft for
fome days; which time is to be employed in Itrengthening
the retrenchments, and throwing up others, one behind
. another, if the ground will permit, and it be relolved to de¬
fend the place to the lalt extremity. Though it is ufual
for the enemy to force their way into the town by the
baft ion, and therefore the principal retrenchments lor de¬
fending the entrance of the place ftiould be raifed in this
part ; yet it is proper not to negledl the curtain. T he
enemy may be apprifed of thefe retrenchments, and as it is
not the pra&ice to make any behind the curtain, they may
take it into their heads to batter it in breach, and to con-
Itruft a bridge in the ditch before it, in order to penetrate
into the town. Thus did prince Eugene aft at Lille; as
the back part of the curtain was open, the place was obli¬
ged to capitulate. The breaches may likewile be defended
by repairing them with large trees laid acrofs one another,
the branches pointed towards the enemy. Cannon wall
make no great impreilkm on this kind of wall; which
was the principal defence of the ancients when a breach
was made.
When the befiegers have triumphed over all thefe obfta-
cks, fo as to be mafters of the breach, and to extend theif
lodgments on the baftion ; then it is no longer poffible to
defer capitulating, unlefs there are feveral retrenchments one
behind the other. In that cafe, indeed, the befieged, if they
think proper, may defend themfelves to the very laft ; but
this defperate defence is very rare, becaufe eveiy wife go¬
vernor choofes to preferve the garrifon, and to fave the town
from being plundered, which would be the cafe, according
to the laws of war, if it was taken by ftorm.
§ lO. Of Precautions to be ufed againji the furprifng of Towns,
Scalades,fudden Attacks+lfdc.
The right way to prevent furprifes, is to think that the
enemy have a defign upon the town, and to ufe all the pre¬
cautions poliible in order to frultrate their defigns. With
this view a governor fhould put the fortifications into a good
flat? of defence, ihould fee that the feveral polls, whether
acceflible or inaccefiible, be well guarded, that parties be
fent to range in all the principal avenues of the place ; in a
word, he fhould moft exaftly obferve whatever is prefcribed
in the military ordinances concerning the guard of towns,
the opening and {hutting of gates, &c. We fhall make no
mention of any of thefe particulars, becaufe a very fhort
ilay in a garrifon is fufficient for learning every thing that
may relate to the daily and cuftomary duty, as w’dl for the
fafety of the town, as for the preferving peace and good
order among the inhabitants, and for preventing any ftrangers
or fufpefted perfons from entering the place, &c.
We {hall only obferve, that when a fortrefs is fituated
upon a river, care fhould be taken to have boats in the night,
filled with foldiers, both above and below the town, to hinder
any body from getting in that way undifcovered. If the
ditches are filled with water, in frofty weather the ice fhould
be broke every day ; in fhort, nothing fhould be negleft-
ed that tends to fecure the place againfl: any enterprise ei¬
ther from within or without.
But chiefly on fair or market days this vigilance fhould
be exerted; the guards ought to be doubled at all the gates,
and the garrifon fhould be difpofed in fuch a manner as to
be ready to fly to their arms upon the firfl beat of drum :
care fhould be alfo taken to make the cavalry mount on
Vol. XVIII. Part II. .
A R. 793
horfeback, ready to aft in all events. By ufmg thefe prc- Of Meges.^
cautions, it will be very difficult for the enemy to furprife
the town; nay, the confequence may be, that hearing of the
exaft dilcipline obferved by the garrifon, they will relinquifh
their defign ; for furprifes feldom fucceed, except through
negleft of military duty, and too great fecurity in the go¬
vernor.
With regard to precautions againft fcalades, they confift
in having fmall parties continually about the avenues of the
place, in order to be better informed of the enemy’s motions,
and to keep a patrol all night, to fee that nobody fhall enter
the ditch unperceived. A cuvett (f) may be likewife dug >
within the ditch, and palifades planted within fome diftance
of the wall, to hinder the enemy from fixing their ladders to
it; the flanks of the baftions fhould be furnifhed with cannon,
charged with cartridge-firot, with balls of a quarter of a
pound weight, or with pieces of old iron, to fire upon thofe
who fhould attempt to leak the place oppofite the curtains;
in the corps de gardes, within reach of the rampart, a pro-
vifion fhould be made of halberts, with all other offenfive
weapons fit for repelling the enemy when they appear on
the lop of the ladder, and for driving them into the ditch ;
the ramparts flrould be flocked with a great quantity of cy¬
lindrical timber, to roll down upon the bidders, and thofe
that are upon them ; and if the garrifon are not fo nume¬
rous as to be able to cover the whole ramparts, they fhould
fix chevaux de frize, or fomething elfe, to the upper part of
the parapet, which will hinder the enemy from getting over,
in order to jump upon the rampart. There ought alfo to
be a flock of fhells and grenades all loaden upon the walls,
in order to roll them down into the ditch upon the enemy.
There fhould likewife be fire-works ready to throw upon
them, as fafeines done over with pitch and tar, powder-
barrels, fire-pots, &c. ; a great number of fire-balls fhould t
be alfo flung into the ditch in order to give light, and that
the cannon of the place may do good execution upon thofe
who are got into it; the ditch fhould likewife be filled with,
crows feet, or little holes dug and covered witn hurdles and
earth, fo that the enemy fhall not perceive them, but tumble
into them : in the middle of thefe little ditches there fhould
be a palifade, or fome long iron-fpikes, ranged in fuch a
manner as to run thofe through that fhall fall upon them.
Neither are the gates to be neglefted; the enemy will not
fail to try to fix a petard to them, while the troops are en¬
deavouring to make themfelves mafters of the rampart. Sol¬
diers muft be placed in a convenient fituation for firing on
the perfon that fixes the petard: in all events the gates muft:
be {Lengthened withinfide, and large trees muft be got ready
to debar the enemy from entering the town, fhould they be
able to break open the gate.
At the firfl alarm of an attack, all the troops ought to
run to the place affigned them, in order to be led from
thence to the ramparts. With regard to the cavalry, they
ought alfo to mount on horfeback, and to divide themfelves
into feveral fmall bodjes, which are to be at the foot of the
rampart, ready at all events to charge the enemy, fhould
they find means to penetrate by fome way or other into the
town.
If the enemy make feveral attacks at the fame time, it
will not be proper to quit thofe parts where they do not
fhow themfelves ; this perhaps is a feint only to draw the
troops from the fide which they really intend to attack ;
therefore the garrifon ihould be equally on their guard
on all fides; and leave no pofts naked, unlefs the enemy
have forced their way into the town: then indeed the bu-
5 H fmefs
(f) A cuvett is a fmall ditch dug in the middle of the large one.
794 W A
Of Siege?, fmefs Is to charge them viporoufly, in order to oblige them
y ' to retire.
Upon the whole, it is eafy to vvithftand a fcalade when
there is no furpiife ; and therefore it rarely happens that a
governor, who takes the neceffary precautions againft any
fuch accidents, will loie a town by this kind of attack.
A fcahde may be attempted in the day as well as by
,night ; the latter indeed is more favourable to the afiailants,
yet they will not fucceed a whit the better, if they find that
the garrifon are prepared to receive them, agreeable to what
we have already mentioned.-
There remains only to mention a word or two in regard
to accelerated fitges ; which is, that a governor will not be
expofed to this fort of fiege, if he takes the proper precau¬
tions to be informed of the fteps and-approaches of the be-
fiegers.
If the enemy pretend to carry on a fiege in form, and at
the fame time accelerate their approaches on one fide of the
place, the garrifon moft fall vigoroufly upon them, and
fpare no pains to drive them out of what works they have
feized upon. One may fufpedt their defign, if it appears
that they do not make their attack on the fide of the town
where naturally they ought to make it, that they want to
become mailers or the place with greater eafe ; and then the
befieged fhould double their guard on that fide. In general,
there firould be a conftant attention to all the fronts of the
place, and they fhould be all equally guarded, till it appears
clearly by the enemy's works on which fide they form their
attack, and which way they diredt their works ; neither are
the other fides to be even then negledled, left the enemy
fhould lay hold of this opportunity to attack them. It is
always to be iuppofed that they are informed of every thing
that pafles within the town, either by their fpies, or by de-
ferters ; tor which reafon the poll that feems leaft acceffible
ought not to be negle&ed.
§ l ). Of Capitulations.
The capitulation being the laft tranfaftion, both in the
attack and defence of a town, this feems to be the moft na¬
tural place for fpeaking of it, as it feems to be the moft
proper fubjeft for terminating this article.
When the governor, who defends a town, finds himfelf
reduced to the laft extremity, or is ordered by his court to
furrender, with a view of obtaining better conditions of the
enemy, both for the town and garrifon, he orders the cha-
made to be beat. For this purpofe one or more drummers
are dire&ed to beat their drums on the rampart, on the fide
next to the attack, to give notice to the befiegers that the
governor has fomething to propofe to them; one or more
white colours are likewift hung out for the fame purpofe,
and one of them remains either on the rampart or on the
breach during the time of negociation. The fame is
praftiled in demanding a fufpenfion of arms, after a very
violent attack, to bury the dead, carry off the wounded,
&c.
As foon as the chamade is beat, the firing ceafes on both
fides, and the governor fends fome officers of diftindlion to
the general who commands the fiege, with the conditions
on which it is propofed to furrender. As a fecurity, or as
hoftages for thofe officers, the befiegers fend at the fame
time the fame number into the town: if the governor’s pro
pofals are not agreeable to the commander of the beiieging
army, he rejedts them, and mentions what terms he is willing
to grant. Generally fpeaking, he threatens the governor to
allow him no conditions at all, if he does not determine to
furrender quickly ; for inftance, when the paflage over the
ditch of the place is finiihed, or batteiies are erected oppo-
fite the flanks, &c. If the befieged find the conditions too
R.
Part IV,
hard, the hoftages are reftored, and the drums are beat again Of
upon the rampart, to make every body withdraw before hoi-
tilities are renewed, which is done very foo', after. It is
to be obferved, that during the negotiation they ought to
be quiet on both-fides, and by no means fhould go on with
the operations of the fiege. The governor ought durinw .
this time to be upon his guard, for fear or beinp furpriled *
by ft rat a gem ; which might expofe him to the diferetion of
the befieger.
Suppofe that the terms of capitulation are agreed noon,
two or three of the principal officers of the garrifon are fent
as hoftages to the enemy ; and the peneral of the befieging
army lends back the iame number, and of equal degree, as
a fecurity for fulfilling the capitulation.
.'.'he conditions infilled upon by the befieged muft vary
according to the different citcumftances and fituations in
which they find themfelves. But when the capitulation is
entirely fettled, an officer of artillery from the befiegers
enters the town, to take an inventory of all the artillery
and ammunition remaining in the place, in conjunflion
with an officer of artillery from the garrifon. A commif-
fory of ftores enters likewife to take an account of the pro-
vifions.
When a governor finds that he muft furrender, and that
there are confiderable magazines of ammunition and provi-
fions, he fhould ddlroy rr.oft of them before he offers to
iurrender, to the end that there may remain no more in the
place than what is neceff'ary for a capitulation, and that the
enemy may reap no advantage from thence. If he fhould
rot, before he enters into a capitulation, burn or deftroy
thole magazines, the enemy might infill on their being pre-
ferved; but they can think nothing of it when thole precau¬
tions are taken beforehand.
As foon as the befieged have delivered up a gate of the
town to the enemy, the firft regiment of the army enters,
and mounts guard.
When the day is come that the garrifon are to leave the
place, the befieging army is drawn up in two files of batta¬
lions and fquadrons, and the garrifon are to pafs between
them. The hour for their marching out being arrived, the
general and the principal officers put themfelves at the head
of the troops, to fee the garrifon defile before them.
The governor puts himielf at the head, followed by the
principal officers ; and he makes the garrifon march in the
beft order poffible. The oh left regiments move commonly
in the van and the rear, and the others in the centre with
their baggage. When there is any cavalry, it is divided in
the fame manner into three corps, for the van, -the centre,
and the rear. Small detachments of horfe and foot are
made to march along with the baggage, and to take care of
its not being rifled.
The artillery granted by the capitulation marches after
the firft battalion. When the garrifon arrive at the place
agreed upon, they deliver up the hoftages of the befiegers
to the elcort; and when the latter have rejoined the army,
they lend back the hoftages which the befieged left for the
fecurity of the efcort, with the waggons, and otfier things
granted by the befieging army for efcorting the garrifon.
When the garrifon are made prifoners of war, they are
likewife efcorted to the town agreed upon by the terms of
the capitulation.
Every thing fettled in the capitulation ought to be facred
and inviolable, and ffiould be underftood in its genuine and
moft natural ienfe : yet as this is not always p radii fed, the
governor fhould take the utmoft precaution to have no word
inferted that ffiall be in the leaft equivocal, or liable to dif¬
ferent interpretations. There are a great many examples
which prove the uecelfity of this precaution.
3
When
n ,1V W A
Part iV» , ,
or 6ie res When the garrlfon of b town capitulate in order to retire
^ t0 t|ie citadel, there are tome particular conditions tube
obferved ; inch as follow.
That the citadel fhall not be attacked on the fide next
the town ; that the fick and wounded, who cannot be re¬
moved, fhall'ftay in their prefent lodgings ; and when they
are recovered, they (hall be provided with carriages and
tran{ports to retire in fafety to the place acn-eed on in the
capitulation. None fhould be {offered to enter the citadel, _
but thole who may be of ufe in defending it; the reft, who
are called ufclrfs mouths*, by no means ought to be admit¬
ted. Mention {hould be made in the capitulation, that
thofe people {hall be conducted to fome neighbouring place
in the dominions of their fovereign, which {hould be na¬
med. A certain time ought alto to be allowed for the
whole garrifon to enter the citadel; and it {hould be ex-
preisly mentioned, that during this time the befiegers {hall
R
'95
•conftma no works that are neceffary for the reduction of Of Sieges.
the citadel.
A maritime town requires alfo fome particular attention,
in regard to the {hips that may be in the harbour. It
fhould be ftipulated", that they {hall quit the harbour the
lame day as the garrifon march out of the town, or when
the weather permits to fail ta the port agreed upon. They
fhould p-eferve their artillery, rigging, ammunition and pro-
vifions/Stc. If they {hould be obliged by ftrefs of weather
to put into any harbour of the befiegers by the way, it
ought to be mentioned in the capitulation, that they {hall
be received there, and fupplied with neceffaries for con¬
tinuing their voyage ; they ought alfo to be provided witl\
paffports, and, in a word, to have every kind of fecurity,
that they fhall not be infulted by the enemy’s fhips, but
fuffered without the ieaft obftacle to fleer to the port a-
greed upon.
War
WAR
Man of War Birch. See Pelicanus.
u W/tR-Cry was formerly cuftomary in the armies of moft
War bur- nations, when juft-upon the point of engaging. Sometimes
ton' they were only tumultuous {bouts, or horrid yells, uttered
with an intent to ftrike terror into their adverfaries ; fuch
as is now uied by the Indians in America, called the ‘zvar-
•whoop.
WARBLES, in farriery See there § xxxn.
WARBURTON (William), who has been juftly ftyled
•vir magnvs, acer, memorahilis, was defeended. from an an¬
cient and confiderable family in uheftiire. His grandfather
tiifting uiftied himfelf in the civil wars of the laft centuiy ;
and being of the royal party, probably injured his fortune
by his attachment to his king and the conftitutiqn of his
country. He married a lady of the county of Nottingham,
by whom he had three fons ; the fecond of whom, George,
being bred to the law, pra&ifed as an attorney at Newark
in that county. . , , r j r
William, the fuhjeft of this memoir, and the lecond ion
of Mr George Warburton, was born at Newark, December
24. 1698. He was firft put to febool there under a Mr
Twells, but had the chief part of his education at Okeham
in Rutlandfhire, where he continued till the beginning of
the year 17145 when, his coufin being made head maker
of the Ichool at Newark, he returned to his native place,
and was for a very fhort time under the care of that learned
and refpedlable relation. In the month of April of the
fame year, he was put out clerk to Mr Kirke, an eminent
attorney of Great Markham in Nottinghamfhire ; and con¬
tinued with that gentleman till the ipring of the yeai I7^9‘
He then returned to his family at Newark ; but whether
he practifed there or elfewhere as an attorney, is not
known to his accompiilhed biographer, the bifhop of Wor-
Ceiter.
He had always expreffed a ftrong inclination to taice
orders; and the love of letters, which tended to retard, ra¬
ther than forward, his progrefs in the profeffion choien for
him by his friends, growing every day {Longer in him, it
was deemed expedient to give way to that inclination. In
the {Indies neceffary to fit him for the church, he was di¬
rected by his couiin the fchoolmafter of Newark ; to whom,
lonj atterwards, when he ftood himfelt in the very front of
literature, he gratefully acknowledged his obligations. ^At
length, on the 2zd of December 1723, he was ordained
deacon by archbifhop Davis of York, and prieft on the firft
of March 1727, by bifhop Gibfon of London.
Though he never liked the profeihon of an attorney, he
WAR
had certainly acquired a very confiderable knowledge of the
laws of England ; for in a difpute which arole in 17^6, ^«
about the judicial power of the court of chancery, he com¬
bated with fuccefs the opinions of no lefs a man than the
lord chancellor Hardwicke, then attorney-general.
In 1728 he was prefented by Sir Robert Sutton to the
redlory of Brand-Broughton, in the diocefe of Lincoln,
where he fpent the greater part of his life, and compofed
all the great works which will carry his fame down to po-
fterity. In the lame year he was put upon the king’s lift
of Mailers of Arts, eredled on his majefty’s vifit to the uni-
verfity of Cambridge. He had already publifhed fome ju¬
venile performances, which difplayed genius and reading,
and attraded confiderable notice; but it was not till the
year 1736 that he may be faid to have emerged from the
obfeurity of a private life into the notice of the world.—
The firft publication which rendered him afterwards fa¬
mous now appeared, under the title of “ The Alliance be¬
tween Church and State; or, the Neceffity and Equity of
an Eftabliftied Religion and a Teft Law ; demonftrated
from the Effence and End of Civil Society, upon the fun¬
damental Principles of the Law of Nature and Nations.”
In this treatife, fays Bifhop Horfley J, the author “ hath { JWVto
fhown the general good policy of an eftablifhment, and the
neceffity of a Test for its fecurity, upon principles which^
republicans themfelves cannot eaiily deny. His work is oney^„ferSt
of the fineft fpecimens that are to be found perhaps in any Load,
language, of fcientific realoning applied to a political fub-^ s7*
jed.”
At the clofe of the Alliance was announced the fcheme
of the Divine Legation of Mofes, in which he had then
made a confiderable progrefs. The firft volume of this
work was publilhed in January 1737-8, under the title of
“ The Divine Legation of Mofes demonftrated on the
Principles of a religious Deift, from the Omiffion of the
Doftrine of a future State of Rewards and Pimilhments in
the Jewifti Difpenfation, in fix books, by William Warbur¬
ton, M. A. author of the Alliance between Church and
Stateand met with a reception which neither the fub-
jeft, nor the manner in which it was treated, feemed to au-
thorife. It was, as the author afterwards obferved, fallen
upon in fo outrageous and brutal a manner as had been
(carce pardonable, had it been “ The Divine Legation of
Mahomet.” — It produced feveral anfwers, and lo much a-
bufe from the authors of “ The Weekly Mifcellany,” that
in lefs than two months he was conflramed to derend him-
ielf, in “ A Vindication of the Author of the Divine 1 .e-
5 PI 2 gaticn
V/ ar’pur-
ron.
WAR
[ 796 ]
WAR
i ?-fc of
W arburton
prefixed to
bis IVorks.
gallon of Mofea, from.the Afpcrficms of the Country Cltr- there U In the ’nJv.'n,, r r >r r , ,
gyman’s Letter in the Weekly Mitcellany of February 24. denee of the mahJLv " ” Ka-t,on Mofes abundant eyj.
1747-8, 8vo,1
Ur Warburton’s extraordinary merit had now attrac¬
ted the notice of the heir apparent to the crown, in whofe
immediate fervice we find him in June 1738, when he pub-
bfhed “ Faith working by Charity to Chriitian Edification,,
a Sermon, preached at the la(l epifcopal Vifrtation for Con¬
firmation in the Diocefe of Lincoln ; with a Preface, fhow-
mg the Reafons of its Publication ; and a Poftfcript, occa-
fioned by fome Letters lately publiihed in the Weekly Mif-
cellany, by William Warburton, M. A. Chaplain to his
Royal Highnefs the Prince of Wales.”
In Maich 1737’ the world was in danger of being depri¬
ved. of this extraoidinary genius by an intermitting fever,
which with fome difficulty was relieved by a plentiful ufe
of the bark.
The “ Efiay on. Man” had been now publifoed fome
years; and it is univerfally fuppofed, that tlie author had,
in the compofition of it, adopted the philofophy of the
Lord Bolingbfoke, whom, on this occafion, he had follow¬
ed as his guide, without under {landing the tendency of his
principles. In 1738, M. de Croufaz wrote fame remarks
on .it, accufmg the author of Spinozifm and Naturalifm ;
•which falling into Mr Warburton’s hands, he publifhed a
defence of the fill! epilile, and foon after of the remaining
three, in ieven letters ; of which fix were printed in 1739,
and the feventh in June 1740, under the title of “ A Vin¬
dication of Mr Pope’s Efiay on Man, by the author of the
Xdivine Legation. a.he opinion which Mir Pope concei¬
ved of thefe defences, as well as of their author, will be bell
ieen in his letters. In confequence, a firm friendfhip was
eilablifhed between them, which continued with undiminifh-
cd fervour until the death of Mr Pope ; who, during the
remainder of his life, paid a deference and refpedt to his
friend’s judgment and abilities, which will be confidered by
many as almoil bordering on fervility.
1 owards the end of the year 1739, Mr Warburton pub-
hfhed a new and improved edition of the firft volume of the
Divine Legation ; and in May 1741, appeared the fecond
part, which completed the argument, though not the entire
plan of that work. “ A work, fays Bifhop Hurd t, in all
views ot the moft trxnfcendant merit, whether we confider
the invention or the execution. A plain fimple argument,
yet perfeflly new, proving the divinity of the Mo laic law,
and laying a fore foundation for the fopport of Chrillianity,
is theie drawn out to a great length by a chain oi realoning
fo elegantly conne&ed, that the reader is carried along it
with cafe and plea.fore ; while the matter prefented to him
is fo ftriking for its own importance, fo embtilifhtd by a
lively iancy, and illuftrated from all quarters by exquifite
Earning and the moft ingenious drfquifition, that in the whole
compafs of modern or ancient theology, there is notlung
equal or limilar to this extraordinary performance.”
This is the panegyric of a man refleding with tender-
nefs on the memory of his friend and benefactor ; but it ap¬
proaches much nearer to the truth than the cenfures ofthofe
cabaliltic critics, who, fattening upon fome weak part of the
LEmc Legation, or perhaps never having looked into it,
have ridiculoufly contended that the author was far from
being eminent as a Icholar (a), and that his work is inimi¬
cal to the eauie of Chriftianity ! Putting partiality alide,
, , guant folly of this charge, as no man can
read and uncemand that work without being convinced that
us author was a Chnftian, not only fincere but zealous :
that he was; what Johnfon calls him “ a man of vigorous
iacu-ties, . a nnnt-l fervid and vehement, fuDylied by unli-
mi ted and inceffant inquiry, with a wonderful extent and va¬
riety oi knowledge, which had neither depretted his imapL
nation nor clouded his perfpicnity ; and that to every work,
and this- work in particular, he brought a memory foil
fraught, with a fancy fertile of original combfoations, exert¬
ing at once the powers of the fcholar, the reatoner, and the
wit. ’ But we think it mutt be acknowledged, that his learn¬
ing was too multifarious to be always exaett, and his inqui¬
ries too eagerly pufoed to be always cautious. We have
no hefitation, however, to fay, that to the divine this great
v*oik, with all its imperfeflions, is, in our opinion, one of
the moll valuable that is to be found in any language.
In the fummer 174L Mr Pope and Mr Warburton, in a
country ramble, took Oxford in their way. The univerfity
was naturally pleafed at the arrival of two foch ftrasgers,
and ieemed delirous 01 inroliing the\r names among their
graduates. The degree of D. D. was intended for "the di¬
vine, and that of L. L. D. for the poet : but intrigue and
envy defeated this fcheme; and the univerfity loll "the ho¬
nour of decorating at the fame time the two greateft geni-
uies of the age, by the fault of one or two of its members.
Pope retried with fome indignation to Twickenham, where
lie confoled himlelf and his friend with this farcaftic reflec¬
tion We fhall take our degree together in fame, what¬
ever we do at the univerfity.”
The friendfhip of this eminent poet was of fervice to Mr
Warburton in moreTefpe&s than that of increafing his fame.
He introduced and warmly recommended him to molt of
Ids friends, and among others to Mr Murray, afterwards
carl or Mansfield, and Ralph Allen, Efq; of Prior-park.
In confequence of this introduaion, we find Mr Warburton
at Bath 1742 ; where he printed a fermon which had been
preached at the Abbey-church on the 24th of Odober, for
the benefit of Mr Allen’s favourite charity, the General
Hofpital or Infirmary. In this year alio he printed a Dif-
fertation on the origin of books of chivalry, at the end* of
Jan vis s 1 reface to a tranflation of Don Quixote, which Mr
I ope tells him, he had not got over two paragraphs of, be¬
fore he cried out, sh/t Erafmus, aut Diabolus.
In 1742, Mr Warburton publittied “ A Critical and
Philofophical Commentary on Mr Pope’s Efiay on Man.
In which is contained a Vindication of the Lid ETay front
the Milleprtfestation of M. de Refnal, the French Tranf-
jatoi, and of M. de Croufaz, Profefibr of Philofophy and
Mathematics in the Academy of Laufanne, the Commen¬
tator.”. It was at this period, when Mr Warburton had
the entire confidence of Mr Pope, that he advifed him to
complete the Dunciad, by changing the hero, and adding
to it a fourth book. This was accordingly executed ia
1742, and publifhed early in 1743, v/ith notes by our au¬
thor ; who, in confequence of it, received his fhare of the a-
bufe which Mr Cibber liberally bettowed on both Mr Pope
and his annotator. In the latter end of the fame year he
publifhed complete editions of “ The Eflay on Man,” and
I he Ettay on Criticifm;” and from the fpecimen which
he there exhibited of his abilities, it may be prefomed Mr
Pope
Wirb’jy-
tiiti.
* UJ‘ f
Paper
rJpA] n^rf *‘ave he*rd ^ affirmed by narrow-minded clergymen, who were deftitute themfelves of every fpark of foi-
Te niia caft T h r ^ what aro,e frGm a fHgbt acquaintance with Hebrew erkj of a very
Ln of Mofos. Wh0% mUfl ^ °WnCd? that n° Sreat rCfFa W3S indced ever ?aid h? the author of the V'1™* Lega-
WAR
[ 797 1
W A R
Pope determined to commit the publication of thofe works
which he fliould leave to Mr Warburton’s care. At Mr
pope’s defire, he, about thia time, revifed and correfted the
“ Eflay on Homer,” as it now Hands in the lad edition of
that tranflation.
The publication of “ The Dunciad” was the laft fervice
which our author rendered Mr Pope in his lifetime. Af¬
ter a lingering and tedious illnefs, the event of which had
been long forefeen, this great poet died on the 3tth or
May 1744; and by his will, dated the 12th of the pre¬
ceding December, bequeathed to Mr Warburton one half
of his library, and the property of all fuch of his works al¬
ready printed as he had not otherwife difpoled of or alie¬
nated, and all the profits which fhoukl arhe from ahy edi¬
tion to be printed after his death : but at the lame time di¬
rected that they fhould be publilhed without any future
alterations.
“In [ 744, Mr Warburton turned his attention to the
feverai attacks which had been made on the “ Divine Le¬
gation,” and defended himfelf in a manner which, -if it did
not prove him to be pofleffed of much humility or dhii-
dence, at lea it demonstrated, that he knew'' how to wield the
weapons of controverfy with the hand of a mailer. His
firil defence now appeared, under the title of “ Remarks on
teveral occafional Reflections, in Anfwer to the Reverend
Dr Middleton, Dr Pococke, the Matter of the Charter-
ploufe. Dr Richard Grey, and others ; ferving to explain
and juttify divers Paflages in the Divine Legation, objected
to by thofe learned Writers. To which is added, A Ge¬
neral Review of the Argument of the Divine Legation, as
far as it is yet advanced ; wherein is confidered the Relation
the feverai Parts bear to each other and the whole. To-
.gether with an Appendix, in Anfwer to a late Pamphlet
intitled, An Examination of Mr W ’s lecond Propo-
fltion.” This was followed next year by “ Remarks on
kveral occalional Reflections, in Antwer to the Reverend
DoCtors Stubbing and Sykes ; ferving to explain and jufti-
fy the Two Diflertations in the Divine Legation, concern¬
ing the Command to Abraham to ofler up his Son, and the
Nature of the Jewifh Theocracy, objefted to by thefe learn¬
ed Writers. Part IT. and laft.” Both thefe anfwers are
couched in thofe high terms of confident fuperiority, which
marked almoft eveiy performance that fell from his pen du¬
ring the remainder of his life.
On the 5th of September 1745, the friendfhip between
him and Mr Allen was more cloidy cemented by his mar¬
riage with Mifs Tucker, who furvived him, and is now, if
alive, Mrs Stafford Smith of Prior-park. At that impor¬
tant crifis our author preached and pubhfhed three fealon-
able fermons : t. “A faithful Portrait of Popery, by which
it is leen to be the Reverfe of Chriftianity, as it is the De-
ftruCtion of Morality, Piety, and Civil Liberty. Preached
at St James’s, Weitmintter, October 1745.” 2. “A Ser¬
mon occafioned by the prefent unnatural Rebellion, &c.
Preached in Mr Allen’s Chapel at Prior-park, near Bath,
November 1745.” 3. “ The Nature of National Offences
truly ftated.—Preached on the General Faft-day, December
18. 1745-6.” On account or the laft of thefc fermons, he
was again involved in a controverfy with his former antago-
uift Dr Stebbing, which occafioned “ An Apologetical De¬
dication to the Reverend Dr Plenry Stebbing, in Anfwer
to his Cenfure and Mifreprelentations of the Sermon
preached on the General Fait, &c.”
Notwithflanding , his great connections, his acknow¬
ledged abilities, and his eltablifhed reputation, a reputation
founded on the durable bafis of learning, and upheld by the
decent and attentive performance of every duty incident to
his ftation ; yet we do not find that he received any addi-
Warhur-
ton.
tion to the preferment given him in 1728 by Sir Robert
Sutton (except the ehaplainfltip to the prince of Wales),
until April 1746, when he was unanimomly called by the
Society of Lincoln’s Inn to be their preacher. In Novem¬
ber he publifhcd “ A Sermon preached on the 'Thankigi¬
ving apnpinted to be obferved the 9th of OCtober, for the
Suppreffion of the late unnatural Rebellion.” In 1747 ap¬
peared his edition o‘ Shakefpeare, and his Preface to Cla-
riffa ; and in the fame year he publifhed, I- “ A Letter
from an Author to a Member of Parliament concerning Li¬
terary Property.” z. “ Preface to Mrs Cockburn’s Re¬
marks upon the Principles and Reafonings of Dr Ruther¬
ford’s Effay on the Nature and Obligations of Virtue,”
&c. 3. “ Preface to a Critical Inquiry into the Opi¬
nions and Practice of the ancient Philofophers, concerning v
the Nature of a Future State, and their Method of teach¬
ing by double Doctrine,” (by Mr Towne) 1747, fecond
edition. In 173S, a third edition of “ The Alliance be¬
tween Church and State, correfted and enlarged.”
“ In 1749, a very extraordinary attack was made on the
moral charafter of Mr Pope, from a quarter where it could
be the leaft expected. An infigniftcant pamphlet, under
the name of A Patriot King, was that year publilhed by-
Lord Boiinobroke, or by his direction, with a preface to it,,
refleiting highly ou Mr Pope’s honour. The provocation
was limply this : The manufeript of that trivial declamation
had been intruded to the care of Mr Pope, with the charge
(as it was pretended) that only a certain number of copies.
Ihould be printed. Mr Pope, in his excefiive admiration of
his guide, philcfopher, and friend, took that opportunity, for
fear fo invaluable a treafure of patriot eloquence fhould be
loft to the public, to exceed his commiffion, and to run off
more copies, which were found, after his death, in the print¬
er’s warehoufe. This charge, however frivolous, was ag¬
gravated beyond meafure ; and, notwitlrttanding the proots
which Lord Bolingbroke had received of Pope’s devo¬
tion to him, envenomed with the utmoft malignity. Mr
Warburton thought it became him to vindicate his deceafed
friend ; and he did. it lo effectually, as not only to filence his , .
accufer, but to cover him with confufion J.” ,uf
About this time the publication of Dr Middleton’s In- iVarburton,
quiry concerning the miraculous Powers of the Chriftian
Church, gave rile to a controverfy, which was managed
with great warmth and afperity on both fides, and not
much to the credit of either party. On this occaiion Mr
Warburton pubhfhed an excellent performance, written with
a degree of candour and temper, which, it is to be lamented,
he did not always exercife. The tiule of it was Julian ; or a
DifcourfeconcerRingthe Earthquake and fiery Eruption which
defeated that Emperor’s attempt to rebuild the Temple at
Jerufalem, 1750.” A fecond edition of this difeourfe, “with.
Additions,” appeared in 1751, in which year he gave the
public his edition of Mr Pope’s Works, with Notes, in nine
volumes 8vo ; and in the fame year printed “ An Anfwer
to a Letter to Dr Middleton, inferted in a Pamphlet inti¬
tled, The Argument of the Divine Legation fairly ftated,”
&c.; and “ An Account of the Prophecies of Arife Evans,
the Welfh Prophet in the laft Century,” annexed to the firil
volume of Dr Jortin’s Remarks on EcclefiafUcal Hiftory,
which afterwards fubjected him to much trouble.
In 17 52, Mr Warburton publifhed the firft volume of
a courfe of fermons, preached at Lincoln’s Inn, intitled,
“ The Principles of Natural and Revealed ReligiAa, occa-
fionally opened and explained and this was two years
afterwards followed by a fecond. After the public had
been fome time promifed, it may, from the alarm which
was taken, be almoft faid threatened with, the appearance of
Lord Bolingbroke’s Works,,, they were about this time
printed^
W A R [798 |
pHnte<3. The krown abilities and inSdelity of this noble- on the 3
m?.n had created apprehenlions in the minds of many people,
| Drydtn.
of the pernicious efft&s of his dc&rires ; and nothing but
the appearance of his whole force could have convinced his
friends, hovv little there was to be dreaded from arguments
again Id religion fo weakly fupported. Many anfwers were
foon publilhed, but none with more acutenef®, folidity, and
fprightlinef', than “ A View of Lord Bolin^broke’s Philo-
fophy, in two Letters to a Friend, 175-4the third and
fourth letters were publifhed in 175^, with another edition
of the two former ; and in the fame year a fmaller edition of
the whole ; which, though it came into the world without
a name, was umverfally afcribed to Mr Warburton, and af¬
terwards publicly owned by him. To fome copies of this
is prefixed an excellent complimentary epillle from the Pre-
fident Montefquieu, dated May zfi. 1754.
At this advanced period of his life, that preferment
which his abilities might have claimed, and wdiich had hi¬
therto been withheld, feemed to be approaching tow.*ds
hint. In September I754> he was appointed one of his
Ivl a jelly’s chaplains in ordinary , and in the next year was
pre fen ted to a prebend in the cathedral of Durham, on the
death of Dr Mangey. About this time the degree of Doc¬
tor of Divinity was conferred on him by Dr Herring, then
archbilhop or Canterbury. A new imprtfiion of The Di¬
vine Legation being now called for, he printed a fourth
edition or the firft part of it, corre&ed and enlarged, dm.
dev. into two volumes, with a dedication to the earl of Liard-
wicke. i he fame year appeared “ A Sermon preached be¬
fore his Crrace Charles Duke of Marlborough, Prefident,
and tne Governors of the Holpital for the Small-pox and for
Inoculation, at the Panfh-church of St Andrew, Llolhorn,
April the 24th, 17,-5.” And in 1756, “ Natural and Ci¬
vil Events the Inltruments oi God’s Moial Government; a
Sermon, preached on the laft public Fall day, at Lincoln’s
Inn Chapel.”
In 1757, Dr Warburton meeting with Mr Hume’s traft,
entitled, I he Natural Hiftory of Peligion, filled the mar > in
of the book, as well as fome interleaved flips of paper, with
many ievere and flirewd rernaiks on the infidelity and natu-
raliim of the author. Thefe he put into the hands of his
friend Dr Hurd, wdio, making a few alterations of the ftyle,
added a flrort introdu&ion and conclufion, and publifhed
them in a pamphlet, entitled, “ Remarks on Mr David
Hume’s Natural Hifiory of Religion, by a Gentleman of
Cambridge, in a Letter to the Reverend Dr Warburton.”
j. his livcK attack upon Mr .Hume gave him fo much of¬
fence, that he thought proper to vent his fpleen on the fup-
pofed author, in the poflhumous diicourfe which he called
his Life; and thus to do greater honour to Dr Hurd than to
■any other of his numerous antagonifts.
Towards the end of the year 1757, Warburton was
promoted to the deanery of Briftol ; and in the beginning
of the year 1760, he was, through Mr Allen’s interert
with Mr Pitt, afterwards carl of Chatham, advanced to the
bifhopric of {. loucefter. That great minifter is known to
h^ve declared, ‘ that nothing of a private nature, fince he
had been in office, had gLen him fo much pleafure as bring¬
ing our author on the bench.” There was, however, ano¬
ther minifter, who dreaded his promotion, and thought that
he faw a fecond Atterbury in the nevy bifhop of Glouce-
x.er; but Warburton, fays bifhop Hurd, had neither talents
nor inclination or parliamentary intrigue or parliamentary
eloquence : he had other inftruments of fame in his hands,
and was infinitely above the vanity of being caught
“ With the fine notion ot a bufy man J.”
He was confecrated on the 20th of January 1760, and
W A R
_ ^ df the fame month preached before the houfe
of lords. In the next year he printed “ A Rational Account
of the Nature and LikI of the esacrament of the Lord’s Sup¬
per.” In 1762, he publifhed “ The Doftrine of Grace ; or
the Office and Operations of the Holy Spirit vindicated from
the Infults of Infidelity and the Abides of Fanaticifm,” 2 vols
12mo ; and in the fuccceding year drew upon himfelf much
illiberal abufe from fome writers of the popular party, on
occafion of his complaint in the houfe of lords, on the 15th
of November '763, againft Mr Wilkes, for putting his
name to certain notes on the in amous, “ Eflay on Wo¬
man.”
In 17^5 he publifbed a new edition of the fecond part
of the Divine Legation, in three volumes ; and as it had
now received his laft hand, he prefented it to his great
friend Lord Mansfield, in a dedication which deferves to be
read by every perfon who efteems the well being of fociety
as a concern of any importance. It was the appendix to
this edition which produced the well-known controverfy be¬
tween him and Dr Lowtb, which we have noticed elfe-
where (lee Lowth), as doing no great honour, by the
mode in which it was conducted, to either party. In the
next year he gave a new and much improved edition of the
Alliance between the Church and State. This was follow¬
ed, in 1767, by a third volume of fermons, to which is add¬
ed, his firft Triennial Charge to the Clergy of the Diocefe
of Gloucefter; which may be fafely pronounced one ot the
moft valuable dilcourfcs of the kind that is to be found iu
our own or any other language. With this publication he
doled his literary courfe ; except that he made an effort to¬
wards publifliing, and aftually printed, the ninth and laft
book of the Divine Legation. This book, with one or two
occafional termons, and feme valuable diredions for the ftu-
dy of theology-, have been given to the world in the fplendid
edition of his wmks in feven volumes pto, by his friend and
biographer the preient bilhop of Worcefter. That prelate
conrefles, that the ninth book of the Divine Legation dif-
plays little of that vigour of mind and fertility of invention
which appear fo confpicuous in the former volumes; but he
adds, perhaps truly, that under all the diladvantages with
which it appears, it is the nobleft effort which has hitherto
been made to give a rationale of Chriftianity.
While the bifhop of Gloucefter was thus exerting his laft
ftrength in the caufe of religion, he projected a method by
which he hoped to render it effectual fervice after his death.
He transferred L. 500 to Lord Mansfield, Sir Eardley
Wilmot, and Mr Charles Yorke, upon truft, to found a lec¬
ture, in the form of a courfe of fermons, to prove the truth
of revealed religion in general, and of the Chriftian in par¬
ticular, from the completion of the prophecies in the Old
and New Teftament, which relate to the Chriftian church,
efpecially to the apoftacy of Pap?.l Rome. To this foun¬
dation we owe the admirable Introductory LeCtures of
Hurd, and the well-adapted Continuation of Halifax and
Bagot.
It is a melancholy reflection, that a life fpent in the
conftant purfuit of knowledge, frequently terminates in the
lofs of thofe powers, the cultivation and improvement of
which are attended to with too ftriCt and unabated a degree
of ardour. I his was in fome degree the misfortune of Dr
Warburton. Like Swift, and the great duke of Marlbo¬
rough, he gradually funk into a fituation in which it was
a fatigue to him to enter into general converfation. There
were, however, a few old and valuable friends, in whole
company^ even to the laft, his mental faculties were exerted
in their wonted force ; and at fuch times he would appear
cheerful for feveral hours, and on the departure of his
friends retreat as it were within himfelf. This melancholy
habit
Waftmr.
ton*
WAR [ 799
■Warbur- habit was aggravate4 by the lofs of his only fon, a very pro¬
to mifin^ young gentleman, who died of a confumption but a
Ward ^ort Vrne brore the Bifhop, who himfelf refigned to fate
jn t]ie gift year of his age A neat marble monument has
been erefted to him in the cathedral of Glouceller, with this
jnlcription —
To the Memory of
William Wa’aburton, D. D.
For more than 19 Years Bilhop of this See;
A Prelate
Of the moft fgblime Genius, and exquifite Learning.
Both which Talents
tie employed, through a long Life,
In the Support
Of what he firmly believed,
The Christian Religion ;
And
Of what he efteemed the heft Eflablifhment of It,
The Church of England.
He was born at Newark upon Trent,
Dec. 24. 1698.
Was confecrated Bishop or Gloucefter,
Jan. 20. 1760.
Died at his Palace, in this City,
June 7. 1779. _
And was buried near this Place.
WARD (Dr Seth), an Englifh prelate chiefly famous for
his knowledge in mathematics and aftronomy, was born at
Buntingford in Hertfordihire, about the year 1617. He was
admitted of Sidney college. Cambridge, where he applied with
great vigour to his iludies, particularly to the mathematics,
and was chofen fellow of his college He was involved not a
little in the conlequences of the civil v/ar, but loon after the
Reftoration obtained the bifliopric of Exeter; in 1667, he
was tranflated to Salifbury; and in 1671 was made cha-cel-
lor of the order of the garter ; he was' the firft Proteftant
bilhop that enjoyed that honour, and he procured it to be
annexed to the fee of Sahfbury. Bilhop W^ard was one of
thofe unhappy perfons who have the misfortune to furvive
their lenies, which happened in confequence o: a fever ill
cured ; he lived to the Revolution, without knowing any
thing of the matter, and died in 1 690. He was the author
of feveral Latin works in mathematics and atlionomy,
which were thought excellent in their day ; but their ule
has been fuperfeded by later difcoveries and the Newtonian
philofophy.
Ward (Dr John), was the fon of a diffenting minifter,
and born at London in 1679, Fie for fome years kept a
ichool in Tenter-alley, Moor fields ; but rendered himlelf lo
eminent in the lludy of antiquity, that in 1720 he was cho¬
fen profeflbr of rhetoric in Grefham college : in 17du¬
ring the prefidency of' Sir Ilaac Newton, he was elefted a
fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1752 one
vice-prefidents, in which office he was continued to his
death. He was eledfed one of the truftees of the Britilh
Muteum in 1753, and died at Grelham college in 17 <8.
The work for which he is bell known, is his Lives of the
Profeflbrs of Grelham College ; which is a conhderable ad¬
dition to the hiftory of learning in our country. His Lec¬
tures on Oratory were publifhed after his dea^li, in two vo¬
lumes 8 vo.
Ward, is varioufly ufed in our old books: a ward in
London is a diftricl or divifion of the city, committed to the
Ipecial charre of one ot the aldermen ; and in London there
are z6 wards, according to the number of the mayor
and aldermen, of which every one has his ward for his
proper guard and junfdiction. A lorelt is divided into
Ward
II
Warvlhip,
] WAR
wards ; and a prifon is called a wai-d* Lailly, the heir of
the king*S tenant, that held in capite, was termed a ward du¬
ring his nonage ; but this wardlhip is taken away by the fta-
tute 12 Car. II. c. 24.
IVard-Holding, in Scots law. See Law, N0 clxv. 1. and
clxvi. 3.
Ward Hook, or Wadd-hook, in gunnery, a rod or ItafF,
with an iron end turned ferpentwife, or like a ferew, to
draw the wadding out of a gun when it is to be unloaded.
WARDEN, or Guardian, one who has the charge
or keeping of any perfon, or thing, by office. Such is the
warden of the Fleet, the keeper of the Fleet prii'on ; who
has the charge of the prifoners there, efptcially fiich as are
committed from the court or chancery for contempt.
WARDFIUYS, a port of Norwegian Lapland, 120
miles fouth-eafl of the North Cape. E. Long. 31. 12.
N. Lat. 7 . • 23
WARDMOTE, in London, is a court fo called, which
is kept in every ward of the city ; anfwering to the curiata
comitia of Rome.
WARDROBE, a clofet or little room adjoining to a
bed-chamber, ferving to difpofe and keep a perfon’s appa¬
rel in ; or for a fervant to lodge in, to be at hand to wait,
&c. *
Wardrobe, in a prince’s court, is an apartment wherein
his robes, wearing apparel, and other neceffaries, are prefer-
ved under the care and direction of proper officers.
In Britain, the Majler or Keeper ol the Great Wardrobs.
was an officer of great antiquity and dignity. High pri¬
vileges and immunities were conferred on him by king Hen¬
ry VI. which were confirmed by his fuccellors ; and king
James I. not only enlarged them, hut ordained that this of¬
fice fliould be a corporation or body politic for ever.
It was the duty of this office to provide robes for the co¬
ronations, marriages, and funerals of the royal family ; to
furnilh the court with hangings, cloths of Hate, carpets,
beds, and other neceflaries ; to furnilh houfes for ambalfa-
dors at their firft arrival; cloth:, of ftate, and other furni¬
ture, for the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and all his majefty’s
ambaftadors abroad ; to provide all robes for foreign knights^' ^ £*
of the garter, robes lor the knights of the garter at home ;
robes and all other furniture tor the officers of the garter ;
coats for kings, heralds, and purfuivants at armsj robes lor
the lords of the trealury, and chancellor of the exchequer,
&c. livery for the lord chamberlain, grooms of his rnajefty’s
privy chamber, officers of his majefty’s robes ; for the two
chief juftices, for all the barons of the exchequer, and feveral
officers of thefc courts ; all liveries for his majefty’s fervants,
as yeoman of the guard, and wardens of the Tower, trum¬
peters, kettle-drummers, drummers, and fifes ; the meflen-
gers, and all belonging to the ftables, as coachmen, footmen,
littermen, poftilions, and grooms, &c. all the king’s coaches,
chariots, harneffes, laddies, bits, bridles, &c. the king’s wa¬
ter-men, game-keepers, &c. alfo furniture for the royal
yachts, and all-rich embroidered tilts, and other furniture
for the barges.
Befides the mailer or keeper of the wardrobe, who had
a falary of L. 2000, there was his deputy, who had L. 1 50,
and comptroller and a patent clerk, each of whom has a
falary ol L. 3CO. Befides many other inferior officers and
fervants, who were all Iworn fervants to the king.
There was likewile a removing wardrope, who had its
own fet of officers, and Handing wardrobe-keepers at St
James’s, Windfor Caftle, Hampton Court., Kenfington, and
Somerfet Houfe ; but the whole of the wardrobe eftablilh-
ment was abolilhed by atft of Parliament in 1782, and the
duty of it in future to be done by the lord chamberlain.
WARDSHIP, in chivalry, one oi the incidents of te¬
nure
w
A R
See Feodal
Ward-fliip imre by knight-fervice.
"~v " vice, and rL’RNUR£.
Upon the death of a tenant, if the heir was under the
age of 21, being a male, or 14, being a female, the lord
was intitled to the wardfhip of the heir, and was called the
guardian in chivalry. This wardihip con filed in having the
cuftody of the body and lands of fuch heir, without any ac¬
count of the prorits, till the age of 21 in males, and 16 in
females. For the law fuppofed the heir-male unable to per¬
form knight fervice till 21 ; but as for the female, Ihe was
fuppoied capable at 14 to marry, and then her hufband
might perform the fervice. .The lord therefore had no
wardihip, if at the death of the anceftor the heir-male was
of the full age of 21, or the heir-female of 14 : yet if fhe
was then under 14, and the lord once had hei in ward, he
might keep her fo till 16, by virtue of the ftatute of Well-
minfter, 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 22. the two additional years be¬
ing given by the legiilature for no other realon but merely
to benefit the lord.
[ Soo ] w A R
,_KnfOHT Scr- principal accufations againft Empfon and Dudley, tire wick
e_d engines of Henry VII. that'by colour of falfe inquifi-
tions they compelled many perfsns to lue out livery from
the crown, who by no means were tenants thereunto. And
afterwards a court of wards and liveries was ere&ed, for con-
dufting the fame inquiries in a more folemn and legal man¬
ner. °
When the heir thus came of full age, provided he held a
knight’s fee, he was to receive the order of knighthood,
and was compellable to take it upon him, or elfe pay a
fine to the king. For in thofe heroical times no ptrlon
was qualified for deeds of arms and chivalry who had not re¬
ceived this order, which was conferred with much prepara¬
tion and folemnity. We may plainly difeover the footfteps
of a fimilar cultom in what Tacitus relates of the Germans,
who, in order to quail y their young men to bear arms,
prefented them in a full affembly with a fhield and lance ;
- j   a    -
^ which ceremony is fuppoied to have been the original
. the feodal knighthood. This prerogative, of compel-
I his ward Imp, fo far as it related to land, though it washing the vaffals to be knighted, or to pay a fine was ex-
not nor could be ,part of the law cHeuds, fo long as thev qprefily reedgnifed in parliament by the* fiatute de militibm
were arbitrary, temporary, or for life only ; yet when they* 1 Edvv. II. ; was exerted as an expedient for railing money
became hereditary, and did confequently often delcend upot£ by many of our beft piinces, particularly by Edw. VI and
rnfants, who by reafon of their age could neither perforhf (^Elizabeth ; but tjfis was the occafion of heavy murmurs
Tinr ltipulate for the fervices of toe feud, does not feem ng- when exerted by Charles I. : among whole many misfortunes
on -eooal principles to have been unreatonable. For the ,it was, that neither himfelf nor his people feemed able to di-
wardimp of the land, or cuftody of the feud, was retained. fiinguifh between the arbitrary ft retch and the legal exer-
the lore, that he might out of the profits thereof provide* tiort of prerogative. However, among the other conceffions
tit peiion to !upp,y the infant’s fervices till he ftould be'of^ made by that unhappy prince before the fatal recourfe to
age to perform them himfelf. And if we confider a f*wd yicm.s, he agreed to diveft himfelf of this undoubted flower of
111 its original import, as a ftiper.d, fee, or reward for attiraE the c!N>wn ; and it was accordinHy abolifhed by ftatute 16
iervice, it could no{ be thought hard that the lorT.fhi wkl Car. I. c. .20.
WARE;: a .town of Hertforffliire, with
. . „ , , . ,
withhold t!ie ftipe^i fo long as the fervice was fiifpendcd.
Though undoubtedly to our Englifh anceftors, wdiere fuch
ftipendary donation was a mere fiippofitioh or figment, it
carried abundance of hardfhip ; and accordingly it was re¬
lieved by the charter of Henry I. which t<£ok this cuftody
. —77.    »**-• « market on
Tuefdays, and a flair on the laft Tuefday in April, and Tuef-
day before St Matthew’s day (Sep. 2i.) for hoffjs and
other .cattle. It is a; large, well frequented, and wfell‘inha¬
bited thoroughfare town, feated on the river Lea, 21 miles
from the loid, and ordained that the cuftody, both of the north of London. It carries on a'great trade in malt and
J.tnd and the children, flioyld belong to the wi<£ow or next com, which they are continually fending in' lara-e quantities
of kin. Lut this nobe immunity did not continue many «■« I i? t   - vr t_. _ _ t> n.
of kin
years
The wardfhip of the body was a confequence of the wafd-
firip of the land; for he who enjoyed the infant’s efface was
the propereft perfon to educate and.maintain him in his in¬
fancy : and alfo in a political view, the lord was moll con¬
cerned to give his tenant a fuitable -education, in order to
qualify him the better to perform thofe fet vices which in his
maturity he was bound to render.
When the male heir arrived to the age of 2 r, or the heir-
female to that of 16, they might fue out their livery or ou-
Jierlemain ; that is, the delivery of their lands out of their
guardian’s hands. For this they were obliged to pay a fine,
namely, half-a-year’s profits of the land ; though this feems
expreftly contrary to magna charta. However, in confidera-
tion of their lands having been fo long in ward, they were
excufed all reliefs, and the king's tenants alfo all primer fei-
fins. In order to afeertain the profits that arofe to the
crown by thefe fruits of tenure, and to grant the heir his li¬
very, the itinerant juftices, or juftices in eyre, had it former¬
ly in charge to make inquihtion concerning them by a jury
of the county, commoruy called an inquijitio pojl mortem ;
which was inflituted to inquire (at the death of any man of
fortune) the value of his eflate, the tenure by which it was
holden, and who, and of what age, his heir was; thereby to
afeertain the relief and value of the primer feifin, or the ward-
to London. E. Long o. 3. N. Lat. 51. co.
WARN, in law, is to fummon a perfon to appear in a
court of jufiice.
WARNING of Tenants, in Scots law. See Law,
N® clxvii. 16.
WARP, in the manufa&ures, a name for the thredfls,
whether of filk, woo!,' linen, hemp, &c. that are extended
lengthwife on the weaver’s loom; and acrofs which the work¬
man, by means of his {buttle, paffes the threads of the woof,
to form a cloth, ribband, fuflian, or the like.
Warp, a (mall rope employed oqcafionally to remove a
fhip from one place to another, in a port, road, or river.
And hence,
To IVarp, is to change the fit nation of a fhip, by pul¬
ling her from one part of a-harbour, &c. to fome other, by
means of warps, which are attached to buoys ; to anchors
funk in the bottom ; or to certain Rations upon the fhore,
as polls, rings, trees, &c. I he fhip is accordingly drawn
forwards to thofe Rations, either by pulling on the warps
by hand, or by the application of fome purchafe, as a tackfe,
windiafs, or capftern, upon her deck.
When this operation is performed by the fhip’s lefier an¬
chors, thefe machines, together with their warps, are car¬
ried out in the boats alternately towards the place where
the fhip is endeavouring to arrive : fo that when fhe is drawn
up clofe to ope anchor, the other is carried out to a com-
. . , • r ,  v'*vyiv' aui_uuj, UIC OU1CI io cdiiicu UUL to a com-
Imp and livery accruing to the Ring thereupon. A manner of petent diftanwe before her, and being funk, feryes to fix the
proceeding that came in procefs of time to be greatly abufed, other whrp, by which fhe is farther advanced.
at kngth an intolerable grievance j it being one of the Warping is generally ufed when the fails are unbent, or
4 when
WAR
C Sot 3
W A R
Warran¬
dice
It
Warren.
BlackJ!'
' Ctmr/icnt.
vol. iv. p.
when they cannot be fuccefsfully employed, which may el-
ther arife from the unfavourable ftate of the wind, the op-
pofition of the tide, or the narrow limits of the channel.
j WARRANDICE, in Scots law. See Law, N° clxiv,
•51.
WARRANT, is a power and charge to a conilable or
e^her officer to apprehend a perfon accufed of any crime.
It may be iffued in extraordinary cafes by the privy-
council, or fecretaries of ftate ; but moft commonly it is il-
fued by juftices of the peace. This they may do in any
cafes w here they have ajurifdiftion over the offence, in order
to compel the perfon accufed to appear before them; for
it would be abfurd to give them pow-er to examine an of¬
fender, unlefs they had alio power to compel him to attend
and fubmit to fuch examination. And this extends to all
treafons, felonies, and breaches of the peace ; and alfo to all
fuch offences as they have power to punifh by ftatute. Be¬
fore the granting of the warrant, it is fitting to examine
upon oath the party requiring it, as well to afeertain that
there is a felony or other crime aftually committed, with¬
out which no warrant fhould be granted ; as alfo to prove
the caufe and probability of fuipedting the party againft
whom the warrant is prayed.
This warrant ought to be under the hand and feal of the
juftice ; fhould fet forth the time and place of making, and
the caufe for which it is made ; and fhould be directed to
4he conftable, or other peace officer, or it may be to any
■private perfon by name. A general warrant to apprehend
•all perions fufpedted, without naming or particularly de-
ferfbing any perfon in fpecial, is illegal and void for its un¬
certainty ; for it is the duty of the magiftfate, and ought
not to be left to the officer, to judge of the ground of fufpi-
cion. Alfo a warrant to apprehend all perfons guilty of
fuch a crime, is no legal warrant; for the paint upon which
Jts authority refts, is a fadf to be decided on a fubfequent
trial; namely, whether the perfon apprehended thereupon
be guilty or not guilty. When a warrant is received by
the officer, he is bound to execute it, fo far as the jurifdic-
tion of the magiftrate and himfelf extends. A warrant
from any of the juftices of the court of king’s bench ex¬
tends over all the kingdom, and is tefted or dated England:
but a warrant of a juftice of the peace in one county, muft
be backed, that is, figned, by a juftice of another county,
before it can be executed there. And a warrant for appre¬
hending an Bhglifh or a Scotch offender, may be indorfed
in the oppofite kingdom, and the offender carried back to
that part of the united kingdom in which the offence was
committed.
WARRANTY, War ran ti a, in law, a promife, or co¬
venant, by deed, made by the bargainer for himfelf and his
heirs, to warrant and fecure the bargainee and his heirs,
againft all men, for enjoying the thing agreed on or granted
between thAn.
WARREN (Sir Peter), an admiral, diftinguiftied by
his virtue, learning, and undaunted courage, was defeended
from an ancient family in Ireland, and received a fuitable
education to qualify him for a command in the royal navy,
in which he lerved for feveral years with great reputation ;
but the tranfa&ion which placed his great abilites in their
full light, was the taking of Louifbourg in the year 1745,
when he was appointed commodore of the Britifti fquadron
lent on that fervice. He joined the fleet of tranfports from
Bofton ity Canfo-bay on the 25th of April, having under
his command the Superb of 60, and tht* Launcefton
and Eltham of 40 g-uns^ he was afterwaixls joined by feve¬
ral other men of war fent from England, and took poffef-
fion of Louifbaurg on the 17th of June. The French, ex-
afperated at this lofs, were conftantly ®n the watch to re-
i Vox.. XVIII. Part II.
take it; and in 1747 fitted out a large fleet for that pur- Warren,
pofe, and at the fame time another fquadron to profecute dr^w
their fuccefs in the Eaft Indies. Thefe fquadrons failed at v
the fame time ; but the views of the French were rendered
abortive by the gallant admiral Anfon and Sir Peter Warren,
who had been created rear-admiral, who with a large' fleet of
(hips fell in with the French, defeated the whole fleet, and
took the greateft part of the men of war. This was the
laft fervice Sir Peter rendered to his country as a com¬
mander in the Britifh fleet; for a peace being concluded in
the fucceeding year, the fleet was laid up in the feveral har¬
bours.
He was now chofen one of the reprefentatives in parlia¬
ment for Weftminfter ; and' in the midft of his popularity
he paid a vifit to Ireland, his native country, where he
died of an inflammatory fever in 1752, fincerely lamented
by all ranks of people ; and an elegant monument of white
marble was eredted to his memory in Weftminfter abbey,
W4 rren, is a franchife or place privileged by preferip-
tion or grant from the king, for the keeping of beafts and
fowls of the warren ; which are hares and coneys, partridges,
pheafants, and fome add quails, woodcocks, and water-fowl.
Sec. Thefe being fern natura, every one had a natural
right to kill as he could : but upon the introdu&ion of the
foreft laws at the Norman conqueft, thefe animals being
looked upon as royal game, and the foie property of our fa-
vage monarchs, this franchife of free-warren was invented to
protect them, by giving the grantee a foie and exclufxve
power of killing luch game, fo far as his warren extended,
on condition of his preventing other perions. A man there¬
fore that has the franchife of warren, is in reality no more
than a royal game-keeper : but no man, not even a lord o£
a manor, could by common law juftify fporting on another’s
foil, or even on his own, unlets he kad the liberty of free
warren. This franchile is almoft fallen into di[regard fince
the new ftatutes for preferving the game ; the name being
now chiefly preferved in grounds that are fet apart for
breeding hares and rabbits. There are many intlanees of
keen iportfmen in ancient times, who have fold their e-
ftates, and referved the free-warren, or right of killing
game, to themfelves : by which means it comes to pafs that
a man and his heirs have fometimes free-warren over ano¬
ther’s ground.
A warren may lie open ; and there is no neceffity of in-
clofing it as there is of a park. If any perfon offend in a
free-warren, he is punifhable by the common law, and by
ftatute 21 Edw. Ill, And if any one enter wrongfully
into any warren, and chafe, take, or kill, any coneys with¬
out the confent of the owner, he (hall forfeit treble damages,
and fuffer three months imprifonment, &c. by 22 and 23
Car. II. c. 25. When coneys are on the foil of the party,
he hath a property in them by reafon of the pofleffiom, and
adtion lies for killing them; but if they runout of tlie war¬
ren and eat up a neighbour’s corn, the owner of the land
may kill them, and no aftion will lie.
WARSAW, a large city of Poland, the capital of that
country, and of the province of Mafovia. It is built partly
in a plain, and partly on a gentle afeent rifir.g from the
hanks of the Viftula, which is about as broad as the Thames
at Weftminfter, but very (hallow in fummer. This city and
jts fuburbs occupy a vaft extent of ground, and are fuppo-
fed to contain 70,000 inhabitants, among whom are a great
number of foreigners. The whole has a melancholy appear¬
ance, exhibiting the ftrong contraft of wealth and poverty,
luxury and diftrefs, which pervades every part of this un¬
happy country. The ftreets are fpacious, but ill paved ;
the churches and public buildings are large and magnifi¬
cent ; the palaces of the nobility are numerous' and (plen-
5 1 did i
WAS r 802 1 WAT
Wart did. but the grcateft part of the houfes, particularly in the
A fuburbs, are mean and ill-conftrufted wooden hovels.—
tonn^" Warfaw is 160 miles fouth-eall by fouth of Dantzic, 130
north-north-eaft of Cracow, and 300 north-eaft by north of
Vienna. E. Long. 21. 6. N. Lat. 50. 14.
WART. See Surgery-Index.
WARWICK, the capital of Warwickfhire in England,
and from which this county derives its name. It is very
ancient, and fuppofed by Cambden to be the place called
by the Romans Prajidium, where the Dalmatian horfe were
polled. It Hands on a rock of free-Hone, of which all the
public edifices in the town are built. Ac the Norman in-
vafion it was a confiderable place ; and had many burgeffes,
of whom 12 were obliged by their tenare to accompany
the king in his wars/ It is fupplied with water brought
in pipes from fprings half a mile from the town, befides
what it derives from the wells within it made in the jock:
and it is eafily kept dean, by being fituated upon a declivi¬
ty. Four ftreets, from the four cardinal points of the com-
pafs, meet in the centre of the town. 1 he principal pub¬
lic buildings are St Mary’s, a very Hately edifice, an hofpi-
tal, a town-houfe of free-Hone, three charity fchools, and a
noble bridge over the Avon. It has had feveral charters ;
but is governed at prefent by a mayor, 1 2 brethren, 24 bur-
geffes, &c. It is a very handfome populous town, and gives
title of earl to the family of the Grevilles. W. Long.
1. 36. N. Lat. 52. 20.
WASH,among dillillers, the fermentable liquor ufedby
the malt diftillers. See Brewery.
WASHING, in painting, is when a defign, drawn with
a pen or crayon, has fome one colour laid over it with a pen¬
cil, as Indian ink, biltre, or the like, to make it appear the
more natural, by adding the fhadow of prominences, aper¬
tures, &c. and by imitating the particular matters whereof
the thing is fuppofed to confiH.
Thus they wafh with a pale red, to imitate brick and
tile ; with a pale Indian blue, to imitate water and flate ;
with green, for trees and meadows ; with faffron or French
berries, for gold or brafs; and with feveral colours for
marbles.
Washing of Ores, the purifying an ore of any metal, by
means of water, from earths and Hones, which would other-
wife render it difficult ot fufion.
WASHINGTON, a city of North America, now build¬
ing for the metropolis of the United States. It is feated
at the junction of the rivers Potomac and the EaHern
Branch, extending about four miles up each, including a
tradl of territory Icarcely to be exceeded, in point of conve¬
nience, lalubrity, and beauty, by any in the world. This
territory, which is called Columbia, lies partly in the flate of
Virginia, and partly in that of Maryland, and was ceded by
thele two Hates to the United States of America, and by
them f flablifhed to be the feat of government after the year
1800. It is divided into fquares or grand divifions, by
flreets running due north, and fouth, and call, and wefl,
which form the ground-work of the plan. However, from
the Capitol, the prefident’s houfe, and fome of the import¬
ant areas in the city, run diagonal Hreets, from one material
objeft to another, which not only produce a variety of
charming profpefts, hut remove the infipid famenels which
Tenders i'ome other great cities unpleafing. The great lead¬
ing Hreets are all 160 feet wide, including a pavement of
jo feet, and a gravel walk of 30 feet planted with trees on
each fide, which will leave 80 feet of paved Hreet for carri¬
ages. The refl of the Hreets are in general 110 feet wide,
with a few only 90 feet, except North, South, and Eafl Ca¬
pitol Streets, which are 160 feet. The diagonal Hreets are
named after the relpedive Hates compofing the Union,while
thofe running north and fouth are, from the Capitol eafl. Wafting,
ward, named Eajl Fjrji Street, Eajl Second Street, See. and t,,n \
thofe wefl of it are in the fame manner called IVe/l Firjl w 11.
Street, Wejl Second Street, &c. Thofe running eafl and 1 wC~lj
wefl are from the Capitol northward named North A
Street, North B Street, Sec. and thole fouth of it are called
South A Street, South B Street, Sec. The fquares or divifions
of the city amount to 1150. The re&angular fquares ge¬
nerally contain from three to fix acres, and are divided into
lots of from 40 to 80 feet in front, and their depth from
about 110 to 300 feet, according to the fize of the fquare.
The irregular divifions produced by the diagonal flreets are
fome of them fmall, but generally in valuable fituations.
Their acute points are all to be cut off at 40 feet* fo that
no houfe in the city will have an acute corner. All the
houfes muft be of brick or Hone. The area for the Capi¬
tol (or houfe for the legiflatxve bodies) is fituated upon the
moll beautiful eminence in the city, about a mile from the
Eaffern Branch, and not much more from the Potomac,
commanding a full view of every part of the city, as well
as a confiderable extent of the country around. The prefi-
dent’s houfe will Hand upon a riling ground, not far from
the banks of the Potomac, poffeffing a delightful water pro-
fpedt, with a commanding view of the Capitol, and fome
other material parts of the city.
The city being fituated upon the great poll road, exact¬
ly equidiffant from the northern and fouthern extremities
of the Union, and nearly fo from the Atlantic Ocean to the.
river Ohio, upon the bell navigation, and in the midll of the
richeff commercial territory in America, commanding the
molt extenlive internal refources, is by far the molt eligible
fituation for the refidence of congrefs ; and it is now pref-
fing forward, by the public-fphited enterpriie, not only ofV
the people of the United States, but alfo of foreigners.
WASP, in zoology. See Vespa.
WATCH, in the art of war, a number of men polled at
any paffage, or a company of the guards who go on the pa-,
trole.
Watch, in the navy, the fpace of time wherein one di-
vifion of a {hip’s crew remains upon deck, to perform thfe
necelfary fervices, whilfl the reff are relieved from duty, ei¬
ther when the veffel is under fail or at anchor.
The length of the fea-watch is not equal in the fhipping
of different nations. It is always kept four hours by our
Britifh leamen, if we except the dog-watch, between four
and eight in the evening, that contains two reliefs, each of-
which are only two hours on deck. The intent of this is
to change the period of the night-watch every 24 hours ; fo
that the party watching from 8 till 12 in one night, ffiall
watch from midnight till four in the morning on the fuc-
ceeding one. In France the duration of the watch is ex¬
tremely different, being in fome places fix hours, and in
others feven or eight; and in Turky and Barbary it is uii>
ally five or fix hours.
A fir ip’s company is ufually claffed into two parties ; one
of which is called the Jlarboard and the other the larboard
watch. It is, however, occafionally feparated into three di¬
vifions, a? in a road or in particular voyages.
In a fhip of war the watch is generally commanded by a
lieutenant, and in merchant-fhips by one of the mates; fo
that if there are four mates in the latter, there are two in
each watch ; tbe firft and third being in the larboard, and
the fecond and fourth in the flat board warch: but in the
navy, the officers who command the watch ufually divide
themielves into three parties, in order to lighten their duty.
Watch, is alio uied for a fmall portable movement, or
machine, tor the meaiuring of time j having its motion re¬
gulated by a fptral fpring.
Watches*
WAT C8ai] WAT
Watch. Watehe*, ftrl&Iy taken, are all fuch movements as fiiow
patte of time j as clocks are fuch as publilh it, by ftri-
on a bell, See- But commonly the name watch is ap¬
propriated to fuch as are carried in the. pocket; and clock
to the large movements, whether they ttrike the hour or
not. See Clock.
The invention of fpring or pocket-watches belongs to the
(prefent age. It is true, we find mention made of a watch
prefented to Charles V. in the hiftory of that prince ; but
this, in all probability, was no more than a kind of clock to
be fet on a table, fome refemblance whereof we have {till
remaining in the ancient pieces made before the year 1670.
There was alfo a flory of a watch having been difeovered in
Scotland belonging to king Robert Bruce ; but this we be¬
lieve has turned out altogether apocryphal. The glory of
this very ufeful invention lies between Dr Hooke and M.
Huyghcns ; but to which of them it properly belongs, has
been greatly difputed; the Engliih aferibing it to the form¬
er, and the French, Dutch, &c. to the latter. Mr Derham,
in his Artificial Clockmaker, fays roundly, that Dr Hooke
was the inventor; and adds, that he contrived various ways
of regulation. One way was with a loadftone : Another
with a tender ftraight ipring, one end whereof played back¬
wards and forwards with the balance; io that the balance
was to the fpring as the bob to a pendulum, and the fpring
as the rod thereof: A third method was with two balances,
ef which there were divers forts; fome having a fpiral
fpring to the balance for a regulator, and others without.
But the way that prevailed, and which continues in mode,
was with one balance, and one fpring running round the up¬
per part of the verge thereof: Though this has a difadvan-
tage, which thofe with two fprings, &c. were free from ; in
that a hidden jerk, or confufed fhake, will alter its vibrations,
and put it in an unufual hurry.
The time of thefe inventions was about the year 1658 ; Watch,
as appears, among other evidences, from an infeription on —
one of the double balance watches prefented to king
Charles II, viz. Rob. Hooke invert. 1658. T. Tompion/k?/7,
1675. The invention prefently got into reputation, both
at home and abroad ; and two of them were fent for by the
dauphin of France. Soon after this, M. Huygens’s watch
with a fpiral fpring got abroad, and made a great noife in
England, as if the longitude could be found by it. It is
certain, however, that his invention was later than the year
1674, when his book de Horol. Ofcillat. was publiihed; where¬
in he has not one word of this, though he has of feverai
other contrivances in the fame way.
One of thefe the lord Brouncker fent for out of France,
where M. Huygens had got a patent for them. This watch
agreed with Dr Hooke’s in the application of the fpring
to the balance ; only M. Huygens’s had a longer fpiral
fpring, and the pulfes and beats were much flower. The
balance, inftead of turning quite round, as Dr Hooke’s,
turns feverai rounds every vibration.
Mr Derham fuggefts, that he has reafon to doubt M.
Huygens’s fancy firft was, fet to work by fome intelligence
he might have of Dr Hooke’s invention from Mr Olden¬
burg, or foEre other of his correfpondents in England ; and
this, notwithftanding Mr Oldenfworth’s attempt to vindi¬
cate himfelf in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, appears to
be the truth (a). Huygens invented divers other kinds of
watches, fome of them without any firing or chain at all;
which he called, particularly, pendulum watches.
Striking Wavches are fuch as, befides the proper watch-
part for meafuring ©f time, have a clock-part for Unking
the hours, &c.
Repeating Watches, are fuch as by pulling a firing, &c.
repeat the hour, quarter, or minute, at any time of the day
5 L 2 or
(a) To expeft perfection in a work of this extent would be unreafonable, and we truft to the candour of our readers
for their acceptance of our befl endeavours : we hold ourfelves much obliged to them for their communications of every
remark which may enable us to render the Encyclopaedia Britannica more worthy of that moil encouraging reception
which it has met with from the Public. To the regular feries of articles, the prefent Editor had once reafon to believe
that a Supplement was to be annexed, which fhould include not only thofe additions which have been made to the circle
of the fciences during the progrefs of the work, but likewife fuch articles as he or his predeceffor had, through their un¬
remitting occupation or their ignorance, fuffered to efcape their notice. In that Supplement he would have corrected all
fuch errors or miflakes in the work as might have been difeovered by himfelf or pointed out to him by his Correfpondeuts.
But he is no Proprietor, and cannot announce the publication of a Supplement but as an event of great uncertainty. He is
therefore much obliged to his highly relpedled friend and correfpondent who has put it in his power at prefent to do juflice to
the memory of Dr Robert Hooke ; one of the greateft ornaments of the Royal Society of London during the time of
Its infant ilate and juvenile vigour, and one of the moil extenfive and inventive geniufes that the world has ever fecn.
In the article Hautefeuille, we aferibe to that author the invention of the regulating or balance Ipring of a watch,
by which its motion is made as truly equable a§ by a pendulum. This is verified by the watches of Harrifon, Arnold, and
others, which do not deviate from equable motion above one fecond in feverai days. That the importance ot this is
acknowledged by the intelligent Public, is evident from the ferious and repeated deliberations of the Britifh Senate, and
the high rewards which it has given to the makers of fuch watches; and we truft that this will appear to fuch of our
leaders as are not fo much intereiled in mechanical performances a fufficient excufe for our anxiety to give the honour of
the invention to its right owner. We had collefled from our fearches that Mr Huyghens had difeovered, by his analyiis
of pendulous motions, what kind of motion would be produced by any kind of varying force, and that a force varying in
the proportion of its diflance from the place of reft would produce ifochronous vibrations, whatever might be their ex¬
tent ; and had made experiments on the force of fprings, and found them to vary according to this very law. In confe-
quence of this, he faw that a balance-watch might be made to anfwer the fame end with his cycloidal pendulnm-clock,
which he had been for feverai years trying to fit tor the difeovery of the longitude of a {hip at fea, under the protection
of the States of Holland and the court of France, having obtained a patent monopoly from the States and from Louis
XIV. When, after repeated difappointments, he introduced his propofed watches, with fanguine hopes of their per¬
formance, but before any trial, and applied for fuch an extenfion of his patent as fhould alfo comprehend a balance regu¬
lated by a ipring, he was oppofed by the watch-markers. They had willingly acquiefced in his exclufive right to the
pendulum-clock, which was entirely his own demelne ; but they could not help coniidering this extenfion of his patent as
an encroachment on a common which they had pofTeffed from time immemorial. The oppofition was general both in
Holland
Watch.
WAT
or night.—This repetition was the invention of Mr Barlow,
and nrft put in praftic by him in larger movements or clocks
about the year 1676. The contrivance immediately fet
the other artifts to work, who loon contrived divers ways
of effedfing the fame. But its application to pocket-watches
was not known before king James the Second’s reign ;
when the ingenious inventor above-m<yitioned, having direct¬
ed Mr 1 hompfon to make a repeatmg W’atch, was folicit-
ing a patent for the fame. The talk of' a patent engaged
Mr Qhare to refume the thoughts of a like contrivance,
which he had had in view fome years before : he now effect¬
ed it ; and being preffed to endeavour to prevent Mr
Barlow’s patent, a watch of each kind was produced before
l 804. ]
WAT
the king and council; upon trial of which,! .the preference
was given to Mr Quare’s. The difference between them
was, that Barlow’s was made to repeat by pufhing in two
pieces on each fide the watch-box ; one of which repeated
the hour, and the otlier the quarter; whereas Quare’s was
made to repeat by a pin that ftuck out near the pendant,
which being thruft in (as now it is done by thrufting in the
pendant itfelf), repeated both the hour and quarter with
the fame thruft.
Of the Mechanifm of a Watch, properly fo called.
Watches, as well as clocks, are compofed of wheels and pi¬
nions, and a regulator to direCt the quicknefs or flownefs of
the wheels, and of a, fpring which communicates motion to
the
Watch,
Holland and in France, and naturally came to the knowledge of Mr Hautefeuille. This perfon was confcious of a double
right to oppofe this encroachment, having alfo, though perhaps empirically, and without principle, difeovered that a
fpnng, applied to the balance of a watch, produced a furpriling.equability of vibration; and hoped by its means to produce,
a perfect, iiochronifm. By Mr Hautefeuille’s oppofition the efte£t of the French patent was flopped for want of regi-
itration. 1 he Dutch patent was however expeded, and trials were made. But their refult was unfavourable; many
things were, wanting befides the true adjuftment of the regulating power of the balance-fpring. Scientific mechanics waa
then m its infancy, Galileo was dead, Newton was but beginning his glorious career; Huyghens therefore had few af«
fiftants.
The Royal Society of London was juft founded, and Charles II. or his brother the duke of York, faw, like a prince,\\%w
conducive their labours would be to public profperity, and particularly to the improvement of navigation. The king
therefore enjoined them to turn much of their attention to this obje<fl: he eftablifhed the Royal Obfervatory at Green¬
wich/or this exprefs purpofe ; and the parliament held out encouragement for the difeovery of the longitude. It was na¬
tural therefore for Mr Huyghens to look to this quarter for encouragement; and if any one will take the pains to com¬
pare the dates of Mr Huyghens’s mathematical labours, after his differtation on the pendulum, and his correfpondence
with the Britilh literati, till he was ekdted member of the Royal Society, his private correfpondence afterward with Mr
Oldenburgh, a German, their fecretary, and hie public correfpondence with him as lecretary of the Society, he will obferve
the operation of fomething more than icientific zeal.
I Ins cprrefpondence, however, did not anfwer Mr Huyghens’s hopes; for it informed him that the ground had been
preoccupied by Mr Hooke, who had long before difeovered, that a fpring properly applied to a watch-balance would pro¬
duce ifophronous vibrations, and had alfo long ago applied for a Royal patent for the monopoly. The biliary of this
application is curious, as a mere matter of anecdote; and it is inftruflive, while it is humiliating to human vanity, fhow-
ing us, that even in the greateft chara&ers, genius and talents, and noble and undoubted virtues, may exill along with
fome of our lefs honourable propenlities, and cannot altogether hinder their operation. There never was a time in which
it was more proper that every one of us fhould have a monitor, who Ihould lometimes call out aloud to us, “ Remem¬
ber that thou art a man,” than the perfent, when fanatic vanity, under the falfe and abufed name of philofophy, is wa¬
ging war with every thing that is good or true, and threatens to plunge the cultivated portions of the human race into
their former barbarifm, with the horrid addition of the habits of favage atrocity; while the voice of religion, which would
call us together as the children of one parent, is Hilled amidft the yells of brother fiends. We hope for indulgence, then*
while we endeavour, in a few words, to make the hiftory of this invention-as clear as can be expedled in a fubjedf which
does not fo fenfibly intereft the public in general, and alter fuch a long interval of time. x
Mr Hooke, from his infancy, had a ftrong prediletflion for mechanics ; he had alfo a ftrong propenfrty to fyftem*
making y and, from his firft years of ferious occupations, entertained a notion, that every thing might be formed into a
fyftem, and that nothing could be profecuted with any well-founded profpedt of improvement unlefs it was fo treated.
His amazingly comprehendve genius grafped at every thing which came under his obfervation; and he immediately began
to form a fyftem about it.—His writings are full of feraps of fuch fyftematic views; many of them, it mull be acknow¬
ledged, hafty, inaccurate, and futile, but ftill fyftematical. He called them algebras, and confidered them as having a
fort of inventive power, or rather as means of difeovering things unknown by a procefs fomewhat fimilar to that art. He
valued himfelf highly an account of this view of fcience, which he thought peculiar to himfelf; and he frequently fpeaka
©t others, even of the moil eminent, as childifhly contenting themfelves with partial views of the corners of things. He
was likewile very apt to confider other inventors as encroachers on his fyftems, which he held as a kind of property, be-
ing ferioufly determined to profecute them all in their turn, and never recolledling that any new objedt immediately called
him off, and engaged him lor a while in the moft eager purfuit. His algebras had already given him many fignal helps ;
and he had no doubt of their carrying him through in every inveftigation. Stimulated by this overfond expectation, whea
a difeovery was mentioned to him he was too apt to think and to fay, that he had long ago invented the fame thing ;
when the truth probably was, that the courfe of his fyftematic thoughts on the fubje&s with which it was connected had
really fuggefted it to him, with iuch vivacity, or with fuch notions of its importance, as to make him fet it down in his
regifter in its own fyftematic place (for this was his conftant praCtice, worthy of inch a genius, and of immenfe fervice
to all inquifitive men). But it was put out of his mind by fome new ohjeCt of purfuit. We, at this time, can hardly con¬
ceive the ardour with which every thing was treated in thofe youthful days of icientific novelty.
Id is favourite algebra, of which he frequently fpeaks as an invaduable treafure, and the fource of all his reputation, was
his Mechanical Algebra or Method of Mechanic Invention. He fays, that no queftion in mechanics could be propofed ta
him, but he could quickly tell whether it were poiuble to foive it, and could get into the proper track for the folution.
Unfortunately
WAT
r '805 i
WAT
Snatch;
Plate
XXXVII
the whole machine. But the regulator anti fpring ot a
watch are vaftly inferior to the weight and pendulum of a
clock, neither of which can be employed hr watches. In
'place of a pendulum, therefore, we are obliged to ufe a
balance (fig. 1.) to regulate the* motion of a watch; and
a fpring (fig. 2.) which ferves in place of a weight, to
give motion to the wheels fend balance.
The wheels of a watch, like thofe of a clock, are placed
in a frame formed of two plates and four pillars. Fig. 3-
reprefents the infide of a watch, after the plate (fig. 4.) is
taken off.: A is the barrel which contains the fpring (fig.
2.) ; the chainns rolled about the barrel, with one end of it
Sxed to the barrel A (fig. 5.), and the other to^the fufee B.
When a watch is wound up, the chain which was upon
the barrel winds about the fufee, and by this means the
fpring is ftretched ; for the interior end of the fpring is
fixed by a hook to the immoveable axis, about which the
barrel revolves } the exterior end of the fpring is fixed to
the infide of the barrel, which turns upon an axis. It ia
therefore eafy to perceive how the fpring extends itfelf, and
how its elafticity forces the barrel to turn round, and con-
fequently obliges the chain which is upon the fufee to un¬
fold and turn the fufee ; the motion of the fufee is commu¬
nicated to the wheel C (fig. 5.); then, by means of the teeth,,
to the pinion r, which carries the wheel D ; then to the pi¬
nion d, which carries the wheel E 5 then to the pinion e9
which
Watch.
Unfortunately this perifhed in the burning of Grefham College, where Mr Hooke had apartments from the Royal Society 5
and he does not feem to have replaced it. It was perhaps, like the reft, nothing move than fcraps. The Correipondent
who favours us with thefe obfervations faw, in 1768, many papers of Mr Hooke's writings in the Society s archives,
which had evidently been refcued from the flames, and had been in the poffeffion of Mr Waller; part or which he publilh-
ed, and would have given more had he lived. Many of the leaves were fcraps, perhaps fingle lines ; many had dates 5
many of them were fuch as would be fragments of this mechanical algebra. Mr Hooke pofitively fays, that it was by
this fyftem that he difcovered the regulating power of a fpring. And this brings us to the iubjett in hand, to which we
hope the foregoing obfervations will not be thought too long a preface. t> vtr j r
In 1655 he was admitted into the Invisible Society at Oxford, and was particularly patromfed by Dr Ward, after-
wards bifhop of Salifbury, who inftrudled him in aftronomy, and ftrongly recommended to his mechanical genius the
difcovery of fome method of maintaining^ the vibrations of a pendulum, as of immenfe fervice to the aftronomer. -7‘J1®
Hooke accomplifhed immediately, and thought of ufing pendulum clocks for difcovering the longitude at fea ; and bis
method of mechanic inventions quickly led him, he fays, to the difcoveiy of the regulating power of fprings as equivalent
(nay, he fays, fuperior) to that of gravity. This is remarkable ; for it appears that he had at that time mathematics
enough to inform him, that nothing would produce ifochronous vibrations but an accelerative force proportional to the
fpace to be puffed through^ a truth neither obvious nor eafily come at; and that the accelerative a<SUon of gravity on a com¬
mon pendulum was not exactly in this proportion: but he did not then know, the mechanical properties of the. cycloid, a
difcovery referved to do honour to Mr Huyghens. Our Correfpondent farther informs us, that he recolkas feeing, among
the fcraps of Mr Hooke’s writing, words nearly to the following purpofe : “ To produce a tranflation of a moveable
thus
or thus in the fame time, requires a prefiing power thus
or thus
This ~
will evidently appear to be a hafty expreffion of a force as the diftance to
be run through. He had found by experiments, made probably with other
views, that the force of a fpring was proportional to its deviation from its
cpriefcent fhape, and this whatever was its ftiape. Of this truth he now faw
the value, and marked it in his regifter, and gave it to his friends, agreeably to
the cuftom of the times, in the form of a cipher ce, Hi, no, sss} tt, uu ; which
was afterwards explained “ Ut tenJio,Jic vis.”
Mr Boyle was then his chief patron, and to him he communicated hisfchcme of meafuriEg time accurately by a balance^
watch regulated by a fpring ; and {bowed him watches io conftrudted, which performed with furprifing accuracy. I nr*
mediately after the Reftoration, Mr Boyle acquainted Lord Brouncker and Sir Robert Moray, the molt eminent gentle¬
men of the age for mathematical learning, and for natural knowledge in general, with Mr Hooke’s difcovery and fcheine 5
and thofe gentlemen encouraged him to apply for a patent, and even drew up a form for an a£t of parliament, to give him
a profit on his invention by a duty on fhipping. This draught was fiiown to the king, and he granted a warrant for a
patent to Mr Hooke for 14 years ; which warrant was in the poiTefilon of Mr Waller.
It appears that thefe gentlemen were fo fenfible of the merits of the invention, and fo confident of its fucceis, that they
aflbeiated themfelves with Dr Hooke in the profecation of it. But in what refpeA they were to contribute, befides their
influence in procuring the patent and the a£l of parliament, dees not appear. There remained, however, in Mr Waller’s
pofteffion feveral fcrolls and drafts of a mutual agreement between them to this effedtj In one of them it was agreed,
that if the profits fhould exceed L. 6000, Mr Hooke fhould have ^ths of the overplus ; if it fhould be only L.4000, he
fhoufi have yd^, &c. they having the reft; and that Dr Hooke fhould be declared the author and inventor. It is probable
that they were to advance the money neceffary for carrying on the trade of watchmaking.—Many alterations were made hi
the terms of agreement^ and it appears, that before any thing definitive was done, Hooke was difgufted, becaufe they in.
filled, that if they or any other perfon fhould fall on any way of improving on thefe principles, they ftiould enjoy the be¬
nefit of it during* the currency of the patent. This he flatly refufed ; faying, that it was facile inventis addere. It is pro¬
bable that his manner of refufal, which never was gracious or polite, might offend perfons of their rank, and contribute
to put an end to the whole affair ; for it never went farther, and Hooke became much more retentive anti clofe than
formerly.
But while things were on a friendly footing, there occurred fufficient proofs of Dr Hooke’s being the author of the
invention, and that even Mr Huyghens could hardly fail of knowing fomething of it when he was in England m 1663,
ten or eleven years before hs pubiifhed his claim, and, even before he had analyfed the motion of pendulous bodies.. I n
page 247. of the Society’s Regifter, in 1660, mention is made of Hooke’s watches for the pocket, where the motion
regulated by fprings. Now Hooke, in his firfl. watches, employed two oppofite fprings, ftraight, aad acting on the ba*
lane a
W A
Wttefi, esfnci the wheel F j    
which is the balance-wheel G, whofe pivot runs in the pieces
A called the potance, and B called a fallanver, which are Ik¬
ed on the plate %. 4. This plate, of which only a part is
represented, is applied to that of fig. 3. in fuch a manner
that the pivots of the wheels enter into holes made in the
plate fig. 3. Thus the iraprefted force of the fpring ig comf
municated to the wheels : and the pinion /being then con¬
nected to the wheel 1/ obliges it to turn (fig. y.) This
wheel afts upon the palettes of the verge /, 2,"(fig. 1.), the
axis of which carries the balance HH, (fig. 1.) The pivot
I, in the end of the verge, enters into the hole c in the po¬
tance A (fig. 4.) In this figure the palettes are represent¬
ed ; but the balance is on the other fide of the plate, as may
be feen in fig. 6. The pivot 3 of the balance enters into
a hole of the cock BC (fig. 7.), a perfpe&ive view of
which is reprefented in fig. 8. Thus the balance turns
between the cock and the potance c (fig. 4.), as in a kind
of cage. 7’he affion of the balance-wheel upon the pa¬
lettes 1, 2 (fig. 1.), is the fame with what we have deferibed
with regard to the fame wheel in the clock .; /..<?. in a
watch, the balance wheel obliges- the balance to vibrate
backwards and forwards like-a pendulum. At each vibra¬
tion of the balance a palette allows a tooth of the balance-
wheel to efcape ; lo that the quicknefs of the motion of
the wheels is entirely determined by the quicknefs of the vi¬
brations of the balance ; and thefe vibrations of the balance
and motion of the wheels are produced by the adlion of the
fpring.
But the quicknefs or ilownefs of the vibrations of the
balance depend not folely upon the aftion of the great fpring,
but chiefly upon the aftion of the fpring a, c, called the
fptrolfpring (fig. 9.), fituated under the balance H, and
repreiented in perfpedtive (fig. 6.) The exterior end of
the fpiral is fixed to the pin a, (fig. 9.) This pin is ap¬
plied near the plate in a, (fig. 6.)’; the interior end of the
fpiral is fixed by a peg to the centre of the balance. Hence
it the balance is turned upon itfelf, the plates remaining im¬
moveable, the fpring will extend itfelf, and make the balance
perform one revolution. Now, after the fpiral is thus ex¬
tended, if the balance be left to itfelf, the elafticity of the
fpiral will bring back the balance, and in this manner the al¬
ternate vibrations of the balance are produced.
In fig. 5. all the wheels above deferibed are reprefented
an fuch a manner, that you may eafily perceive at firil fight
T T 806 ] WAT
then to the pinion /, upon how the motion is communicated from the barrel to the ba¬
lance.
—
In fig, to, are reprefented the wheels under the dial-plate
Ly waich the hands are moved- The pinion a is adjlifted
to the force of the prolonged pivot of the wheel D (fig. 5.),
and is called a cannon pinion. This wheel revolves in an
hour.. The end of the axis of the pinion a, upon which
the minute hand is fixed, is iquare; the pinion (fig. 10.) is
indented into the wheel by which is earned by the pinion ti»
Fig. ir. is a wheel fixed upon a barrel,, into the cavity of
which the pinion a enters, and upon which it turns freely.
This wheel revolves in 12 hours, and carries alonyv with it
the hour-hand. For a full account of the principles upon
which watches and all time-keepers are conftrudred, we muft
refer our readers to a fhort treatife, entitled Thoughts on the
Means of improving Watches, by Thomas Mudge..
IVaTciJ-glnfes, in a fhip, are glades employed to meafure
the period of the watch, or to divide it into any number of
equal parts, as hours, half-hours, &c. fa that the feveral
flat ions therein may be regularly kept and relieved, as at the
helm, pump, look-out,
WATCHING, in medicine, is, when the patient can¬
not fleep. In fevers it is a dangerous fymptom, and if long
continued ends in a delirium,
WATER, a well known fluid, diffufed through the at-
molphere, and over the furface of the globe, and abounding
in a certain proportion in animals, vegetables, and minerals. r
The ufes of water are fo univerfally known, that it would Ufes of
be fuperfluous to enumerate them in this article. It is ef-water'
fential to animal and vegetable life; it makes eafy the in-
tercourfe between the moft difiant regions of the world; *
and it is one of the moft ufeful powers in the mechanic arts.
It is often found combined with various fubftances, and is
then frequently beneficial in curing or alleviating difeafes.
. Thole properties of water which fit it for anfwering mecha¬
nical purpofes are explained in other articles of this Work (fee
Hydrostatics,Pneumatics, n° 3. Resistance, and Ri¬
vers) ; but it ftill remains for us to give an account of the late
celebrated difeovery of the compofition of water, and the vari¬
ous lubftances which are often found chemically united with it.
The ancient philofophers confidered water as one of the Not trail?
four elements. During the age of the alchymifts, when it mutable
was believed that different fubftances could be converted intofilto ear^
gold, it was alio an opinion, adopted by many, that water
could be changed into earth. Even fo late as the time of Mr
Boyle
ictnee oy a filk fibre rolled round the cylindric axis of the balance. Mr Hooke, long after this, complained to the Society
of Mr Oldenburgh s communicating this and other things to Huyghens, with whom he had an intimate correlpondence.
In 1665 Sir Robert Moray wrote a letter to Mr Oldenburgh, prefuming, from his intimacy with Mr Huyghens, that he
would know how foon his watches would be ready, and delired him to afk Mr Huyghens, “ Whether he did not apply a
fpring to the axis of the balance ?,J and if he fhould lay any thing to that purpole, then to tell him what Hooke had done
in that way, and that he intended more. N. B. Before this time the treaty had been dropped, and there appeared to Sir
Robert no farther need of concealment.
Prom thefe and other fa6Is that might be produced, we think it moft evident that Mr Hooke invented the regulating
fpring of a watch, by which it is made perfectly adeqoate to the purpofe of finding the longitude at lea ; that he invented
Jt eight or ten years before Mr Huyghens thought ofluch a thing, and fifteen years before he publifhed it in the Journal
des Sgavans in 1674.
Our readers cannot fail of making fome remarks on this anecdote, which will perhaps extenuate a little Mr Hooke’s
rtiorote behaviour, and explain, and perhaps excule, his difpolition to boaft of his own inventions and arrogate thofe of
others. If any of the expreffions in the article allotted to his name fhould have made too unfavourable an impreffion, this
note may help to foften it. We do not think that it can be inferred from thofe fafts that either Hautefeuille or Huyghens
purloined Hooke’s invention. The one might fall upon it in the courfe of his many experiments ; and the other, from
his mathematical difeoveries of the requifites for ifochronous vibrations, might be induced to try whether fprings afforded
futh a force. ^ But there can remain no doubt but that Hooke made the difeovery like a philosopher. If to this
\\ ork any Supplement fhall be given by the prefent Editor, he will endeavour ftill farther to wipe away the obloquy
vruich has been caft upon the memory of Dr Hooke for his arrogance in claiming the merit of inventions fuppofed to bs
the property of others.
rtafe. nwwii
Wah .
. r /./. h-tf . //../)• /".//.Ur /Zo 'f.
WAT f Sa
Water. Boyle this fcntiment was not laid afide. He relates, that
< a friend of his, by diftilling a quantity of water an hundred
ti- es, found at length that he had got fix-tenths of the
fitft quantity iri earth : whence he concludes, that the whole
water, by further profecuting the operation, might be con¬
verted into earth. Others have made experiments to the
fame purpofe, and feemingly with the fame fuccefs; but
the deception is now found out. Water has the power of
corroding the hardeft bodies, even glafs itfelf, by long di-
geftion, efpecially when affifted by heat; and hence thofe
who have made the experiments juft mentioned have been
themfelves deceived, by fuppofmg the earth which really
came from the containing veffel to come from the water.
Margraaf made feveral experiments to determine whether
water be tranfmutable into earth, and found that after every
diftillation a fediment was left. Lavoifier repeated Mar-
graaf’s experiments, and gave the explanation which we
alluded to, that the fediment conlrfted of portions of the
glafs feparated by the water. Dr Black, in the valuable
courfe of lea'ures which he has for many years delivered,
vuth f© much honour to himfelf, and fo much to the ad¬
vancement of the fcience of chemiftry, goes ftill farther :
he ingenioufly fuppofes, that the alkali, which is an effen-
tial ingredient in the compofition of glafs, unites with the
water, and makes the glafs fwell, and thus occalions fmall
portions of it to be detached.
Htjlorical Account of the Difcoverj of the Compofition of Water.
That water is not a Ample but a compound fubftance,
confifting of a mixture of vital and inflammable air, is one
of the moft aftonifhing and important difeoveries which has
been made fince the origin of chemiftry, or indeed fince the
origin of fcience. The hiftory of this curious and intereft-
ing difeovery we {ball trace back with as much precifion
and impartiality as pofliHe to the firft hints which were
thrown out upon the fubjeft, and endeavour at the fame
time to affign to all who have contributed to the difeovery
the merit to which they are refpedtively intitled,
tfr Warl- The thin£ that lcd chera,’fts to make exPer;me?ts
ire’* ex- concerning the compofition of water, was a letter which
leriment Mr John Warltire, le£turer in natural philofophy, wrote to
rives 'he jyr prieftley, dated Birmingham 18th April 1781, and
irft hint. pU{q;^eg jn the Appendix to the 5th volume of Dr Prieft-
ley’s Experiments and Ohfervations. This gentleman had long
entertained an opinion that the queftion “ whether heat be
a hgavy body,” might be determined by burning inflam¬
mable air mixed with atmofpherical air. For fome time he
was deterred from trying the experiment, from an appre-
henfion that the confequences of pafling the electrical fpa.rk
through fo combuftible a mixture might be attended with-
danger ; but at length, being encouraged by Dr Prieftley,.
he prepared an apparatus-for the purpole. lie got a cop¬
per ball weighing ii|. oz. and lufficient to contain three wine
pints, with a (crew ftopper adapted to it, lo that no air
could efcape. When he filled this ball with inflammable
and common air, and made the eledlric ipark to pals thro*
it, a lofs of weight was oblerved, upon an average, about two
grains. When the fame experiment was made in clofe glafs
veflels, the infide of the glafs, though clean and dry before
the operation, became immediately wet with dew, and was
lined with a footy fubftdnpe. When Mr Warltire law the
moifture, he faid to Dr Prieftley, that it confirmed an opi¬
nion which he had long entertained, that common 1 e-
pofits its moifture when it is phlogifticated. After this
experiment had been repeated by Dr Prieftley and Mr
Warltire in company, they next fired a mixture of vital and
inflammable air j but the only cffeCU which they obferved
6
7] WAT
were, that the light was much more intenfc, and the heat ~W3ter' ^
much greater. _ 4
During the fame year, and after the publication of the Mr Ca.
volume of Dr Prieilley’s works, referred to above, Mr Ca-vendifh re-
vendifh repeated the experiments of Mr Warltire ; butP^t- it
though the veffel which he ufed held 24,000 grains
ter, and though the experiment was repeated feveral times Tranf.
with common and inflammable air, he could never perceive a/lr 1784, p.
lofs of weight of more than one-fifth of a grain, and common-116, &c.
ly none at all. In all thefe experiments Mr Cavendilh did
not perceive the leaft fooly matter ; but the infide of the
glafs globe became dewy, as Mr Warltire had obferved.
The inflammable air was procured from zinc.
That he might examine the nature of the dew, he burn*
ed 500,000 grain mealures of inflammable air with two
and a half times that quantity of common air, and the
burned air was made to pafs through a glafs cylinder eight
feet long, and three quarters of an inch diameter, in order
to depofit. the dew. Thefe two kinds of air were mixed
and fet on fire by a lighted candle. In a thort time 135
grains of water were condenied in the cylinder, which had
no tafte nor imell, and which left no feniible fediment when
evaporated to drynefs ; neither did it yield any pungent
fmell during the evaporation : in fhort, it leemed pure wa-'
ter. From this experiment Mr Cavendilh concluded, that
when inflammable and common air aie exploded in a pro*
per proportion, almoll all the inflammable air, and near
one fifth of the common air, lofe their elafticity, and are
condenfed into dew ; which, when examined, is found to
be pure water. _ 5'
He wifhed next to examine the effeft produced by firing He obtain*
a mixture of vital and inflammable air. He took a
globe holding 8800 grain meafures, furnilhed with a brafs^^ vitalr
cock, and an apparatus for firing air by eleftficity. "1 he a{1ri inflaav.
globe was exhaufted of its air by an air-pump, and then a triable jutv-
mixture of 19,500 grain meafures of dephlogifticated air,
and 37,000 of inflammable air, was conveyed fucceffively
from a glafs jar, inverted in water, into the globe, and there
fired by elc&rieity. At the end of the experiment, when
the whole air was confumed, a condenfed liquor w as found
in the globe, wei <hing about 30 grains, which was fenlibly
acid to the tafte ; and, by faturation with fixed alkali and
evaporation, yielded near two grains of nitre. This pro*
du£t of nitre mutt have been occafioned by a mixture of
azotic tras, which had combined with part of the oxygene, -
or dephlogifticated air ; which are now well known to be
the component parts of the nitric acid. Thefe experi*-
ments, Mr Gavendilh informs us, were made in 1781.- 6
Mr Cavendilh having mentioned thefe experiments t6
Prieftley, that gentleman made a courfe of experiments in Cav‘en.
order to inveftigate the fame lubjeCf ; an account of which ft, repeat*
is publilhed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1783, andedby Dr
in the laft volume of his Experiments. Having-formerly fricttiey,
obferved feveral remarkable changes in fluid lubftances, in
confequence of long expofure to heat in glafs veffels her¬
metically fealed, Dr Prieftley formed a defign of expo'ing
all kinds of lolid fubflances to great heats in dole veffels.
As many fnbftances confift of parts fo volatile as to fly off
before attaining; any conficerable degree of heat in the
uiual preffure of the atmolphere, he imagined that if the
fame fubftances were compelled to bear great heats under a
greater preffure, they might affume new forms, and under¬
go remarkable changes. Happening to mention thefe
ideas to Mr Watt, the ingenious improver of the fleam-
engine, Mr Watt mentioned a fimilar idea of his, that
it might be pofiible to convert water or fteafn into perma ¬
nent air.
A T
Water. - for many years before this period, Mi* Watt tells us he
had entertained an opinion, that air was a modification of
Account of water, which was originally founded on the fafts, that in
Mr Watt’s moft cafes wherein air was actually made (which fhould be
theory. diftinguiihed from thofe wherein it is only extricated from
Phil. Tranf. anct’s containing it in their pores, or otherwife united
l1'to them in the flate of air), the fubftances were fuch as
were known to contain water as one of their conftituent
parts; yet no wrater was obtained in the proceffes, except
what was known only to be loofely connected with them,
fuch as the water of the cryftallization of falls. This opi¬
nion a.rofe from a difcovery, that the latent heat contained
in fleam diminifhed in proportion as the fenfible heat of the
water from which it was produced increafed. In other
words, the denfer the fleam was, the lefs latent heat it
contained.
Having been informed by Dr Piieflley of the refult of
the experiment of firing a mixture of dephlogiflicated and
inflammable air, Mr Watt was enabled to form the very
theory which has been fince demonftrated to be true. tt Let
us confider (fays he) what obvioufly happens in the cafe of
the deflagration of the inflammable and dephlogiflicated air.
Thefe two kinds of air unite with violence, they become
red hot, and. upon cooling totally difappear. When the
veffel is cooled, a quantity of water is found in it equal to
the weight of the air employed. The water is then the
only remaining produdl of the procefs ; and water, light,
and heat, are all the products, unlefs there be fome other
matter fet free which efcapes our fenfes. Are we not then
authorifed to conclude, that water is compofed of dephlo¬
giflicated air and phlogiflon deprived of part of their latent
PtU. cTranf.or elementary heat; that dephlogiflicated or pure air is com-
1/'S4/^P0^e<^ water deprived of its phlogiflon and united to ele-
&lJtLUr. parmentary heat and light; and that the latter are contained
J. A. De in it in a latent {late, fo as not to be fenfible to the thermo-
Xuc, tom. meter or to the eye ; and if light be only a modification of
n' P1 a,I3* heat, or a circumflance attending it, or a component part
of the inflammable air, then pure or dephlogiflicated air is
compofed of water deprived of its phlogiflon and united to
. elementary heat ?”
We have faid that the theory of Mr Watt is new demon-
ilrated to be true. To this aflertion an obje&ion may be
raifed from the language in which he ftates his theory; for
he explains it by ufing the word phlogi/loriy a word which is
now exploded from philofophy as the name of an imaginary
jfubftance. But it is fufficient to reply, that Mr Watt ufes
the word phlogifton as fynonymous with inflammable air.
It may be proper alfo to add, that the paffage quoted above
was contained in a letter from Mr Watt to Dr Prieftley,
dated the 26th of April 1783.
Mofl of the experiments hitherto made favoured the con-
clufion which Mr Watt had drawn; but fo many difficulties
occurred to Mr Cavendifli and Dr Prieftley, that they feem-
ed to helitate about the theory. Dr Prieftley in particular,
after confideration, declared againfl it; while Mr Cavendifh
only waited till the difficulties fhould be removed. In the
mean time experiments were made in a different quarter,
which gave the mofl inconteflable proofs of the truth of the
<1 theory.
Which is M. de Luc had gone to Paris in January 1783. During
eftahliflred his refidence there, he received a letter from Dr Prieftley,
by experi- announcing the refult of his experiments concerning the con-
Paris5 at Terfi°n w«it:er *nto air- M. de Luc immediately commu-
Jiies 'fut la rucatcd the contents of this letter to feveral members of the
Meteor, par Academy of Sciences. But tlie difficulties which had oc-
Se Luc, curred to Dr Prieflley prevented them from acquiefcing in
t0rt hi* ^att,s theory. In the month of June following, Dr
fhap/iv. -JBIagden, who was well acquainted with all the experiments
5 '
WAT
both of Mr Cavcndlfh and of Dr Prieftfey, and of the opl. Water/
nions of Mr Watt, made a journey to Paris, in which he 
had an opportunity of conveifing on this fubjeft with the
fame gentlemen of the Academy to whom M‘ de Luc had
formerly imparted the experiments of Dr Prieftley. Not-
withflanding the additional faffs which he was enabled to
lay before them, he found them averfe from admitting the
theory. They fuppofed that the water colle&ed after the
combuftion''of the two kinds of air had been diflblved in
them before. As the queftion depended upon the proof of
a fadl, they refolved however to make the proper experi¬
ments for examining it. The celebrated Lavoifter took
this experiment upon himfelf. It was made on the 24th of
June in the prefence of Dr Blagden and many gentlemen
of the academy; and the fucceis was as complete as the moft
fangume imagination could have conceived. It was repeat¬
ed by Meffrs Monge and Meunier, and the fame refult was
found. The compofition of water was now therefore put
beyond doubt, and is now almoft. univerfally received as an
unqueftionable fadt.
As we wifh upon all occafions to aferibe to all-eminent Attempts
men the honour which they deferve, we fhould willingly ef-efumate
timate the comparative merit of thofe philofophers who were the merit
moft adtive in this difcovery; buft though we feel ourfelves tho^
difpofed to be altogether impartial, it is attended with fo i(fthhdif.
many difficulties, that we will not prefume to affirm thatcovery.
our opinions are formed with perfedt accuracy. With re-
fpedl to Mr Watt, we think it appears that he was the fir ft ,
perion who formed the true theory. He had for many r ^
years before thought it probable, that if the latent heat of
fleam could be wholly converted into fenfible heat by a great
increafe of heat, the fleam might fuffer fome remarkable
change, fuch as into permanent air. And no fooner had
he heard of the deflagration of oxygenous and hydrogenous^^-*7 4,?l
gas by Dr Prieftley, than be formed this theory. ^
Mr Cavendifh had the merit of making a proper ufe of of Mr Ca<
Dr Priellley’s account of Mr Warltire’s experiment, fromvendifhj
which Dr Prieftley had been able to draw no conclufions,
but had confidered it merely as a^ curious fadl. Without
knowing any thing of Mr Watt’s ideas, as far as appears to
us, he made a number of ingenious experiments, which led
him to conclude, that it was highly probable that water was
a compofition of air. The air which he employed feems
not to have been pure ; fo that befides the water he procu¬
red a quantity of nitrous acid. He however adled like aa
able and candid philofopher; he went as far as his experi¬
ments would permit him, and he went no farther. In one
point he continued to differ from Mr Watt after his theory
was made public. Mr Watt fuppoled that water confifted
of dephlogillicated air (oxygenous gas) and phlogifton (hy¬
drogenous gas according to him), deprived of part of their
latent heat; whereas Mr Cavendifh thought there was no
fuch thing as elementary heat. We muft further add, that
it was Mr Cavendiflr who taught Dr Prieftley to turn to a
proper account the experiment of Mr Warltire ; and there¬
fore, that it was in fa£l from Mr Cavendiftr’s experi¬
ments ultimately that Mr Watt was enabled to eftablifti
his theory.
The merit of Dr Prieftley lies wholly in his being the in-Qf Dr
flrument of promoting this difcovery. He firft publifheid prieftley*
the experiment of Mr Warltire ; and when Mr Cavendifh
had informed him of the fuccefs he had met with in repeat¬
ing that experiment, he began alfo to fludy the fame fub-
je£l. His difeoveries were more ufeful to Mr Watt than to
the author himfelf; for Mr Watt formed the theory which
he had formerly been meditating; but Dr Prreftley never
came to a fteady conclufion on the fubjeft. We have read
over carefully sdl his papers concerning the convcrfion of
water
E 808 ]
Flate IDXXXVm
t/Jr/,' t 'f/4//i .//fr'rt/
Water,
WAT
ier >iw «»*i m*- v»„.wv *-7—&» -     - When the whole water is evaporated, and all Water
along- with the bewildered author weary and fatigued. His the communicating veflels are emptied into the bottle H, it
&. /* i 1 1 n 1  1 4-« 4-U^ vxrV»i/-h ixrnt*. n nt
experiments are very
WAT [ 809 ]
water into air, but cannot help faying, that" we went bottle H.
is found to contain exaftly the fame quantity which was put
into the retort. This experiment therefore is a Ample di-
flillation.
Exper. 2. Every thing being difpoftd as in the laft ex¬
periment, let 28 grains of pure charcoal, broken into fmall
parts, and which has been expofed to a red heat in a clofe
vefiel, be introduced into the tube EF- The experiment
is then performed in the fame manner as the former. The
water is evaporated, and a portion of it is again condented
in the worm SS, and then falls into the bottle H; but at the
fame time a confiderable quantity of an elaftic fluid efcapes
through the tube KK, which is received in veffels. When
the water is entirely evaporated, and the tube examined, the
28 grains of charcoal have wholly diiappeared.
When the water in the bottle H is examined, it is found
iia v.auwv.u.       ^  ^ ^ to have loft 85.7 grains of its weight; and when the elahic
witlTaU other chemifts of the time, believed the dodlrine of fluid which paffed off by the tube KK is weighed, it is
often made at random, almoft al
ways founded on falfe principles, and feldom lead to any
thing but to doubt and perplexity. M. Lavoiiier lent
him a copy of his ingenious paper on the compofition
of water; he repeated fome of the experiments of that
illuftrious chemift, but he only involved himfelf in num*
berlefs difficulties. We are now no longer furprifed at the
Angularity of Dr Prieftley’s opinions in religion ; either at
his incredulity in fome things, or at his licentious fentiments
in others. He that can doubt of the conclufrve evidence
which M. Lavoifier has given of the compofition of water,
mull either have received lefs underftanding than the bulk of
mankind, or his mind mult be v/arped with inextricable
prejudices. With peculiar pleafure we mention Dr Black
on this occafron. That gentleman, no lefs confpicuous for
his candour and modefly than for his ingenuity, had, along
13
And of M
Lavoiiier.
14
Proof of
the compO'
fition of
water by
analyfis.
Plate
sxxxvni.
Tg-1.
phlogifton, and taught it in his public leftures ; but, upon
examining the Lavoiiierian fyftern, he was convinced of its
truth, and had the honefty to confefs it, though he was thus
•obliged to acknowledge to his iludents, that he had for
many years been teaching errors. This acknowledgment
does much honour to Dr Black, and proves that he is well
■entitled to the high char*a&er which he has fo long held.
The merit of M. Lavoifier was great upon the prefent
occafion. From England indeed he received the theory
and the firft experiments on the compofition of water ; but
he was the flrft perfon who demondrated the theory, and
put it beyop.d doubt. His knowledge of the diflinftion
between carbone and hydrogene, as well as the perfect
accuracy with which his experiments were made, enabled
him to prove, with as much certainty as phyfrcal fcience
generally admits, that ^water is compofed of vital and in¬
flammable air. We will now give fome account of the
proofs of this fad; and, as we have never feen them ftated
with more clearnefs and precifron than by M. LavoiAer
himfelf in his Elements of Chemiftry, we fhall take our ac¬
count of them from him.
Proofs of the Gompofition of Water.
Exptr. 1. Take a glafs tube from 8 to i 2 lines diame-
- ter, and place it acrofs the furnace EFCD, with a gentle in¬
clination from E to F (a). The higher extremity of the
tube is then luted to the glafs retort A, containing a known
quantity of diftilled water. To the lower extremity F is
luted the worm SS, the lower end ©f which is Axed in the
neck of the bottle H, which bottle has the bene tube KK
Axed to a fecond opening. This bent tube is intended to
carry off any elaftic fluids which may efcape into the bottle H.
A Are is then lighted in the furnace EFCD, fufficient to
keep the tube EFred hot, but not to melt it. The water in juftly concluded, that if water be a compound of two fub-
\ A * 1 . 1 1   t      b. ^ a > r k -fc rf-a "V 7" ^ ^ f f A SI a —- . a a sva Vi ^ s-a X s-a I 1 s-a ■ V V* 4* r, 4* r \ TOil H 1 t 1 n nt* 4 I V & 1 4" HT
found to weigh 113.7 grains, which is exa&ly the weight
which the water has loft, added to the 28 grains of charcoal
which had difappeared. The elaftic fluid, on examination,
is difeovered to be of two kinds; namely, 144 cubical inch¬
es of carbonic acid gas weighing ioo grains, and 380 cubi¬
cal inches of a very light gas weighing only 13.7 grains.
Now 100 grains of carbonic acid gas confift of 7 2 grains
of oxygene, combined with 28 grains of carbone. It is
therefore evident, that the 28 grains of chaicoal muft have
acquired 72 grains of oxygene from the water. It is alio
evident, that 85.7 grains of water are compofed of 7 2 grains
of oxygene, combined with 13.7 grains of a gas capable of
being burned.
Exper. 3. Every thing being put in the fame order as
in the two former experiments, with this difference, that in-
ftead of the 28 grains of charcoal, 274 grains o^ foft iron,
in thin olates rolled up fpirally, are introduced into the tube
EF. The tube is kept red hot while the water is evapora¬
ting from the retort. After the water has been diftilled,
it is found to have loft 100 grains. The gas or elaftic fluid
weighs 15 grains, and the iron has gained 85 grains addi¬
tional weight, which put together make up 100 grains, the
weight which the water has loft. The iron has all the qua¬
lities which it would have received by being burned in
oxygene gas. It is a true oxyd (or calx) of iron. We
have the fame refult as in the laft experiment, and have
therefore another proof for concluding, that 100 grains of
water conftft of 85 grains of oxygene, and 15 of the bafe of
inflammable gas (b).
We have now exhibited two fufficient proofs, that water l>roof
is comooled of oxygene and hydrogene ; but as the compo
Ation of water is fo interefting and important a fubjedt, M. wat.er by
Lavoiiier was not fatisfied with thefe proofs alone. Hefymhefis.
the retort A is kept boiling by a Are in the furnace VVXX.
The water is gradually changed into fleam by the heat of the
two furnaces. It pafles through the glafs tube EF into the
worm SS, where it is condenfed, and then drops into the
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
fiances, it ought to follow, that by reuniting thefe two
fubftances, water would be produced. He accordingly
proved the truth of this conclufion by the following ex¬
periment.
5 K Exper,
(a) The tube EF fhould be made of glafs which can bear a ftrong heat without melting. It fliould alfo be coated
over with a lute compofed of clay and powdered flone-ware ; and to prevent it from bending during the experiment,
it muft be fepported about the middle by an iron bar.
(sj This elementary fubftance Mr Lavoifier has denominated hydrogctie, which fignifies “ tire generative principle of
water;” from water,” and yovo^ai “ I produce.” When this fubftance is combined with caloric, it is called hy¬
drogenous gas. It is the lightefl fubftance yet known, being Tyth of the weight of an equal bulk of atmofpheric air. It
is very combuflible, for it has fo great an attradlion for oxygene, that it attracts it from caloric; fo that its inflammable
property is merely its power of decompofing oxygenous gas, for it will not burn by itfelf. When drawn into the lungs,
it produces inftant death. Sec Aerology.
WAT [8
1 Water. JExfter. 4, He took a latY>e cryftal balloon A, fig. 2.
1j v " containing about 30 pints, and having a large mouth; round
which was cemented the plate of copper BC, pierced with
four holes, through which four tubes pafs. The firft tube
H/j is intended to exhauft the balloon of its air, by adapting
it to an air pump. The fecond tube gg communicates with
a refervoir of oxygenous gas placed at MM. The third
tube dV)S is connected with a refervoir of hydrogerous gas
at NN. The fourth tube contains a metallic wire GL, ha¬
ving a knob at its lower extremity L, from which an elec¬
tric fpark is paffed to b in or der to fet fire to-the hydroge¬
nous gas. The metallic wire is moveable in the tube, that
the knob L may be either turned towards T or away from
it, as there is occafion. V/e muft alfo add, that the three
tubes H /j, g g, dY) $ are furniihed with flop-cocks.
It is neceffary that the oxygenous gas, before being put
into the refervoir, fhould be completely purihed from car¬
bonic acid. This may he done by keeping it for a long time
in contadt with a folution of cauflic potafh. The hydrogenous
gas ought to be purified in the fame manner. The quan¬
tity employed ought to be double the bulk of the oxyge¬
nous gas. It is heft procured from water by means of iron,
as was defcribed in Experiment Third.
Great care muil alio be taken to deprive the oxygenous
and hydrogenous gas of every particle of water. For this
purpofe they are made to pals in their way to the balloon
A, through falts which have a flrong attra&ion for water;
as the acetite of potafh (a compound of vinegar and vege¬
table alkali), or the muriate or nitrate of lime (the muriatic
or nitric acid combined with lime). Thefe falts are difpofed
in the tubes MM and NN of one inch diameter, and are
reduced only to a coarfe powder, that they may not unite
into lumps, and interrupt the paffage of the gaffes.
Every thing being thus prepared for the experiment, the
balloon is exhaufted of its air by the tube H h, and is filled
with oxygenous gas. The hydrogenous gas is alro preffed
in through the tube J D by a weight of one or two inch¬
es of water. As foon as the hydrogenous gas enters the
balloon, it is fet fire to by an cleftric fpark. The combuf-
tion can be kept up as long as we pleafe, by fupplying the
balloon with frefh quantities of thefe two gaffes. As the
combuftion advances, a quantity of water is collefted on the
fides of the balloon, and trickles down in drops to the bot¬
tom of it. By knowing the weight of the gaffes confumed,
and the weight of the water produced, we (hall find that
they are precitely equal. M. Lavoifier and M. Mcufnier
found that it required 85 parts by weight of oxygenous
gas and 1 ^ parts of hydrogenous gas to produce 100
parts of water.
Thus we have complete proofs, both analytical and fyn-
thetical, that water is not a fimple elementary fubftance, as
it has been long fuppofed, but is compounded of two ele¬
ments, oxygene and hydrogene. We muft add, that M.
Lovoifier ufed the moil fcrupulous accuracy in making the
experiments which we have defcribed ; and that he is of
opinion that the proportions given above cannot be
from the real truth. Such then is the hiftory and proof of
the compofition of water. We come next to confider what
fubilances are chemically united or diffolved in it.
Analyfu of the different Subjlances contained in Water.
Since it is made certain by obfervation and experiment,
t£ that water contains many different kinds of fubftances; and
Advan. as its qualities, and confcquently its uies, differ much ac-
tages of a. cording to the nature of the fubftances combined with it—
nalyzing knowledge of an eafy and accurate method of analyfing
water. Waters is become a matter of the utmoft importance. By
fuch an analyfis we fhall be enabled to feleft the pureft wa-
10 ] WAT
ter for the purpofes of life, and to avoid water which might Water,
be improper and hurtful; or, when good water cannot be
had, to feparate thofe fubftances from it which render it im¬
pure. By the fame important art we (hall find it eafy to
diftinguifti thofe waters which are beft adapted to the arts
and manufaftures; we fhall alfo be able to compare different
mineral waters, to explain the caufesof their effefts in medi¬
cine, and to imitate thofe by art which are moft efficacious.
All natural waters are more or lefs impure ; for water
has fo ftrong an attraftion for different fubftances, that it
imbibes part of them in every fituation in which it is found,
not only when it flows over beds of earth, but when it filters
through ftrata of metals, and even when it is diffolved in the
atmofphere. Water cannot be procured in a pureftate with¬
out undergoing the procefs of diftillation.
Before w'e proceed to ftate the methods by which the dif¬
ferent fubftances found in water may be detefted, it will be
proper to point out to the reader fuch feniible qualities of
particular waters as may enable him to inllitute the procefs
by which the analyfis ought , to be condufted. In every
courfe of experiments, that order ought to be followed
which will lead with moft eafe and certainty to the end
which is in view; but unlefs a man from general know¬
ledge be able to conjefture with fome degree of' accuracy
what are the refults to be expefted in particular cafes, he
cannot be able to determine what experiments he ought to
make. "
The general circumftances which are firft to be attended
to in the examination of waters, are their colour, fmell, tafte, c‘rcum,
fpecific gravity, temperature, and local fituation. be attended
1. The firft thing to be attended to in water is its colour.to are,
Pure w'ater is tranfparent like cryftal. Muddinefs or a brown 18
colour is a certain proof that fome extraneous fubftance ig The coUw,
diffufed through the water. A green colour indicates the
prefence of iron, and a blue that of copper. If upon agi¬
tation airy bubbles appear in the w^ater, we are fure that it
contains carbonic acid or fixed air. The water which is to be
examined with refpeft tts colour fhould be put into a deep
glals, that we may look down into a confiderable body of
it; for we (hall thus difeover any nmddineis much better than
by viewing the water horizontally through the glafs.
2. We are next to obferve whether the water has any The fmdl,
fmell. If it be pure, it will have no fmell; if it diffufe a
fubtile penetrating odour, we have reafon to conclude that
it contains carbonic acid ; if the fmell of putrid eggs or
of the fcourings of a gun arife from it, we infer that it is
impregnated with hepar fulphuris, or fulphur combined with
an alkali. J0 |
3. Pure water has no tafte. Water containing carbonic The caftdf
acid has a mild fourifh tafte. If it have a bitter tafte, it may
contain iulphate of foda or Glauber’s fait, nitre or the ful-
phate, nitrate or muriate of magnefia, or lime combined
with the nitric or muriatic acid. If the water has a flight
aufterity of tafte, we may expeft that it contains* lime or
gypfum; if it be faltifh, it contains common fait; if the tafte
be lixivious, alkali is prefent; if seruginous, there is copper;
if ferruginous or inky, we have reafon to fuppofe that it
contains iron. ar
4. The fpecific gravity of water can enable us to difeoverSpeciiic
that it contains fome extraneous matter, but does not point £ravi!7*
out what fort of matter it is. We are always fure that the
lighted waters are the pureft. The ftandard to be employ¬
ed for comparing the fpecific gravity of water to be exami¬
ned is diddled water.
5. Another circumftance to be confidered is the tempe-Temperai
rature of the water, whether it be hot, cold, or tepid. Weture,
muft determine whether the temperature be the fame during
the whole year, or whether it depends on the weather;
whether
■VPater.
43
I,oca! fttu-
atiou.
46
Sain and
fnow wa¬
ter;
WAT t 8i
wbet^ii* it freezes in winter; if hot, whether, when allowed
to coo), it depofits any fediment, and lofes its talte and
fnicll
6, The local fituation of the water muft alfo be taken
into review. We waft conf.der the foil through which it
flows, and inquire whether there be mines or veins of metals
near, or any kind of fubftance which water can diffolve.
We muft alfo inquire whether the water flows in equal quan*
tity during the whole year, or increafes with rain, and dc-
creafes with dry weather: whether it is ftagnant or flow¬
ing ; if it flows, whether it flows fwiftly or flowly : whe¬
ther it depofitS any fediment; and if it does, of wlvat fort it
is, whether a fait, earth, metal, or metallic ochre : whethei
it petrifies bodies thrown into it: and whether there be
any fulphur to be found near it in a fubhmed ftate.
It is alto proper to obferve whether it be hard or foft ;
whether any animalcules live or vegetables grow in it ; and
whether it has any reputation for its effetts in medicine.
Water may be divided into two great divif:ons,/re/^ and
General di- fa^ wafer.—Frefh water may be divided into atmofphenc,
vifion of Jiagnant, and running.
water. Salt water comprehends moft of the feas on the globe,
25 but efpecially thofe of the torrid and the greater part of
Salt water, ^ temperate ZOnes. It contains common fait in great
quantity, fulphate or muriate of magnefia, and fulphate of
lime, befides a great quantity of putrid matter brought into
it by the rivers, or produced by the decompofition of the
numerous tribes of animals which live and die in it. See
Sea and SEA-lVater.
Atmolpheric water comprehends rain and fnow wa¬
ter. Rain is the water which is evaporated from the fea
and land, diffolved in the air, and afterwards difcharged on
the earth ; it ought therefore to referable diftilled water in
purity; and it would certainly do fo, if the atmofphere did
not abound with vapours and exhalations capable of being
combined with it. It contains a fmall quantity of fulphate
of lime, together with a very fmall portion of nitrous acid.
The rain that drop's from the tops of houfes is always mixed
with foot. Some fhowers have contained a quantity of the
pollen of flowers, which has given rife to the ftories of
Ihowers of fulphur. The rain which falls at a diftance from
towns, or after a long tiadt of wet weather, is pureft ; for
the atmofphere is then in fome meafure wafhed, if we may
nfe the expreiSon, from all heterogeneous fubftances.
Snow water is contaminated with the lame fubftances as
tain water. When newly melted, it is deftitute both of
common air and of fixed air, or the carbonic acid. . It is
probably from the want ©f thefe that fnow water is injuri¬
ous to health.
Stagnant water forms a lake ; and when a great quantity
of earth is diffufed through it, it forms a marfh. I he water
of lakes is generally very pure and tranfparent ; for as they
are not fubjedt to fo much agitation as ftreams, the fub¬
ftances that happen to fall into them ai-e not much diffuied,
but foon fubfide to the bottom. Some lakes are fait.
Marfhes are much more impure. They are generally con¬
taminated with the putrid matter produced by' the decom-
pofition of animals and vegetables, and are often of a yel-
lowifh or brownifh colour.
Running water comprehends fpring and river water.—
Spring water is the rain water, which, after difeharging it-
felf upon the earth, and being imbibed by it, again ifliies
out. As it runs below' the furface through different fub¬
ftances, it carries along with it fuch as it can difiolve, and
is therefore not fo pure as rain water. It often contains
lalts, earths, or metals.—Rivers confift of a colledlion of
fprings, and generally partake of the foil through which
they pafs. Rivers which run through great towns are load-
1 1 WAT
ed with animal and vegetable fubftaacea. But thofe which
run at a diftance from towns are purer than m;' - ' ;
becaufe, as they run with more rapidity, and to a sruxct
diftance, a great part of their impurities are thus v -
zed. If the foil be foft through which a river run , it
will be full of eaith ; but if hard and rocky, the water is ve¬
ry clear and pure. _ ag
Water is called hard when it does not diffolvc foap, or Hard w j-
boil vegetables, or make an infufion of tea. It generally ter,
contains fome acid combined with abforbent eaith, ier which
it has lefs attraftion than for the alkali of the foap. When
foap is put into fuch water, its alkali is immediately attract¬
ed by the acid of the water, the foap is decompounded, and
the oil of it fwims on the furface of the water. \v ater is
not reckoned hard if it contains left than 10 grains of ex¬
traneous fubftances in the pound weight.
30
47
Water of
lakes and
marihes;
5$
Spring and
Tiver wa¬
ter;
If the acid with which the aoforbent earth is united o? How
the carbonic, the water may be parried by boiling. But reded,
in order to make it agreeable to the palate after the calca¬
reous earth is depofited, it ought to be expofed in the open
air in broad fhallow vefiels. It will thus recover a portion
of the air which was expelled by the boiling. But ft the
earth be fufpended by any other acid, the water am be cor,
refted by the addition of fome fixed alkali, which immedi¬
ately joins itfelf to the acid, while the earth is depofited.
A folution of potafh, or of any other alkali, may be poured
into the water till it ceafe to produce any turbid appear¬
ance, or till ho more is precipitated. i he water mud
then be decanted from the fediment, or filtered it necef-
fary. _ .31
Having now mentioned the different kinds of waters, it'pw0 mc.
will be next proper to defetibe the moft accurate methods thods of
of analyzing them. Thefe are two, by precipitation and
evaporation. Precipitants ate fubftanccs which, being thrown j,recipit
into any impure water, feparate the impurities, and throwtion>
them to the bottom of the veffeh Precipitation is the
moft expeditious method of examining waters ; but it does
not enable us to form fo accurate an eftimate as is often ne-
ceffary of the precife quantity of extraneous lubftances con¬
tained in them. . 3*
The other method of analyzing water is by evaporation, And by e-
which conftlts in feparating the water from the impurities,vaporatton.
by’ converting the water into fteam, and cryftallizing the
fails contained in it. Both thefe methods are often nectf-
fary to be employed, either of them feparately being defec¬
tive. As the precipitants indicate the proper method of
conducting the evaporation, it will be proper, before we de-
feribe how to analyze water by evaporation, to deferibe
particularly the effects produced on it by applying different
prccipitants.
Method of analyzing Water by Precipitation. ^ ^
The fubftances hitherto found in water are, common at-Subftances
mofpherical air, acids, alkalis, earths, fulphurs, and metals. '
Acids, when difengaged, may be difeovered by turnfol11
or fyrup of violets ; and wdien combined with any bafe, they refts f0j.
may be dettfted by the nitrate of filver, muriate of barytes,di-fcovenng
and lime-water. Uncombined alkalis are afeettained byd16111’
Brazil wood and turmeric ; in combination with aeftfs, they
may be deteffed by’ fpirit of wine. Earths are precipitated
by the acid of fugar and the acetous acid. Sulphur is dif¬
eovered by the mineral acids ; and metals are precipitated by
lime-water and tinfture of galls. > _ 3? .
Moft waters contain common atmofpherical air. Fixed Method of
air, now called carbonic acid., is alfo found in all waters con-
quantity from T‘-5th part of the bulk of the water to a^dning
bulk equal to the water itfelf. That fome fpecies of air isc jnunonair
contained in water, is evident from the fmall bubbles which and carbo.
5 K 2 tpay me acid.
Water.
Tefb for
acid in wa¬
ter.
W A T [ 81
mny be often feen to rife in it when poured into a glafa.
Thefe bubbles are ftill more diftinguiihable in water placed
under the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump ; for the weight
of the atmofpbere being removed, the water expands ; and
the air contained in its interlaces is thus let loofe, and rifes
to the luriace. 1 he air may alfo be leparated from water
by boiling, and may be ealily colledted by a proper appara¬
tus. Experiments may then be made upon it to determine
its fpecies and quantity.
Carbonic acid is known to be contained in water by the
difeo-verirg following marks : The tafte is fomewhat pungent, acefcent,
carbonic cooling, and very agreeable. The fmell is fubtile and pene¬
trating. When agitated, it emits a number of air-bubbles,
which give it the appearance of brifknefs. Thefe are the
fenfible appearances which aerated water exhibits; but
there are tells which chemiftry furnilhes much more deci-
live.
From a pigment called litmus is obtained a tin&ure called
the tindure oj turnfol. The litmus is wrapped up in a clean
linen cloth, and iteeped in diitilled water; the water loon
a Fumes a blue or violet colour, and is then fit for ufe.
The tin&ure enables the chemift to difeover the fmallell
particle of difengaged acid; for a few drops or it poured into
water containing an acid immediately communicates a red
•colour to the whole fluid.
There is a more convenient method of ufmg the turnfol:
The iaturated tindure is boiled with a little ftarch, and then
a piece of paper is dipped'into it, fo as to tinge it com¬
pletely, Paper thus tinged, when dipped into water con¬
taining an acid, inllantly receives a red colour. The tinc¬
ture is, however, a more delicate and fenfible tell than the
tinged paper ; for water faturated with aeiial acid dots not
make any change in the colour of the paper ; yet one part
of aerated water gives a diitind red to jo parts of the tinc¬
ture.
The method.of colleding and afeertaining the elaflic
fluids contained in water was unknown till the^prefent age.
x he eaflell method is to fill a vtlfel terminating in a narrow
neck with aerated water, then tie to the neck a bladder
from which all the air has been carefully fqueezed. Let
the aerated water be boiled ; the elailic fluid is then ex-
pelled, and aicends into the bladder, where it is colledled.
The bladder may then be removed from the veil'd, and its
mouth tied up.
I here is another method, which is much more accurate,
foi determining the quantity contained in any quantity of
water : f ill a bottle or ietort with aerated water, and let a
Hopper be put into its mouth, with a hole in it. Let one
end of a crooked tube be inferted into the hole of the Hop¬
per, fo clofely that no air may efcape at the joining ; and
let the other end of the tube be bent upwards into an in*
veited veffel full of mercury. Fire is then applied to the
battle or retort, and continued till the water boil. The
f eat carries 06 the air which is conveyed through the crook¬
ed tube into the inverted veffel of mercury. If the water
be kept boiling for a Ihort time, the whole or greater pait
of the daftic fluid will be expelled, and its bulk is eftimated
by the bulk of mercury which it has difplaced. But it mull
be remembered, that the elailic fluid above the mercury is
in a Hate of greater dilatation than the external air, for it is
^ £reSd bVrie w]l0.Ie. weight of the atmofphere ; but, as
Xvi. oauffure ofcferves, it is only charged with that weight di-
minifhed by the column of mercury. b
When the aerial fluid is thus colkaed, if we wifh to fe-
rate it from parate the carbonic acid from the common air, the procefs
CriK<>n YfX • aerial fluid be feparated from Jhe mercury!
while the external air is carefully excluded ; and let the vef-
be inverted into another veffel contninino1*
37
And of col-
ieiling it,
3S
And fepa-
2 ] WAT
lime-water. The lime will immediately abforb the carbo. Water.
me acid, and form calcareous earth, while the ntmcfphcrical1 J
air is left behind. The calcareous earth may then be weigh¬
ed ; and the carbonic acid being afterwards expelled the
lofs of weight will give the quantity of carbonic acid.
The only other acids hitherto found in water befides the Method e
carbonic, are the fulphuric and muriatic acids. The prefence difc,venW
ot the lulphunc acid is moft accurately afeertained by thethefulphu*
muriate of barytes, which is a compound of the muriatic acidric acid«
with bary tes or ponderous earth. Barytes has io ftrong an
at t raft ion for the fulphuric acid, that it feparates it from all
other acids, and forms with it a compound called ponderous
/par, which is infoluble in water. As the carbonate of al¬
kali,. or an aerated alkali, may produce a muddinefs and
precipitation refembling the effefts of the fulphuric acid,
it is Eeceffary to add to it a few drops of the nitric acid,
which will diffplve any portion of barytes precipitated by '
the aerated alkali. . 1
. I he muriatic, acid may be eafily difeovered, by throwing AnT-m,
into the water impregnated with it a little nitrate of filveradc add.
(a compound of the nitric acid with filver). If there be
the fmalleft portion of muriatic acid, it inflantly feizes the
filver, and is precipitated along with it in the appearance of
a white mucilage. As the muriatic acid conflitutes about
one fourth of the muriate of iilver, we may eafily determine
its quantity, by fubtrafting one-fourth from the weight of
th.e precipitate. Along with the nitrate of filver a little ni¬
tric acid ffould be added, for the reafon mentioned in the
laft experiment.
AJkaJis are known to exifl in water by the lixivious orHnw4Ia,w
faltifh tafte which they communicate, by their effervefcencelis are de.
with acids, and by feveral precipitanls. te&ed.
There are three tefts which may be employed for difeo-
vering the prefence of alkalis. 1. Paper tinged blue by
the tinfture of turnfol, and made red by diftilled vinegar,
recovers its blue colour when dipped into water containing
an alkali. 2. The watery tinfture of Brazil wood alfo
ferves to difeover alkalis. It may either be uied in the
Hate or tinftuie, or a piece of paper may be tinged with it
after being boiled with a little ftarch. In both^cafes it re¬
ceives a blue colour from the alkali. One grain of foda dif¬
fered in 4295 grains of water changes the colour of the
tinged paper to a blue, which, though delicate, may be ea¬
fily diftiriguifhed. 3. Watery tinfture of turmeric is chan¬
ged to a brown colour by alkalis. Paper tinged with this
tinfture boiled with ftarch is alfo affefted in the lame way.
A fingle grain of foda diffolved in 859 grains of diflilled
water will obfeure the yellow colour of the tinged paper,
and turn it into a brownifh hue.
I.he tinfture of Brazil wood is remarkable for its fenfibi-
lity in difeoyering the prefence of an alkali. The tinfture
of turmeric is much flower in its decilion; but this circum-
ftance enables us, with fome degree of accuracy, to eflimate
the quantity of alkali contained. The turmdric, too, an-
fwers belt when there is occafion to examine an alkaline wa¬
ter by candle-light, as the change of colour which it produ¬
ces is eafily diftinguifhable.—Befides thefe tells now men¬
tioned, any of the infufions of vegetables which are moll ea¬
lily affefted by alkalis may be ufed with fuccefs, fuch as
floweis of mallows and fyrup of violets; but they are not on
all occafions fo decifive^
After being affured of the prefence of an alkali, we muft Method of
next determine what alkali it is. The alkalis moll ■,t
fel containing it
    com-di{lil)Kui,fi‘
monly found in water are the mineral and volatile, the vege-
table feldom occurring. The mineral alkali is combined one ano-
vvith the carbonic, fulphuric, or muriatic acid; the volatileTer.
is probably communicated by putrid animal or vegetable
fubllances \ and the vegetable is united with the lulphuric
or
Water.
43
K better
nethod.
4+
the
prefence of
earths may
be(iifcover-
id.
45
How ful-
phur is dif-
covered.
WAT T 81
or muriatic add, but more frequently with the nitric acid.
Bergman fays, that mercury, diflblved in the nitric acid
without heat, enables us to diftinguifh thefe alkalis. When
a little of this folution is thrown into water, if a yellowilh
white fubllance is precipitated, we may conclude that a cau-
flic vegetable alkali is prefent; if the precipitate be white,
there is vegetable alkali faturated with the carbonic acid.
If the precipitate be firft yellow, and afterwards become
white, mineral alkali is prefent; and if it be of a greyiih
black, we know that volatile alkali is prefent.
The fpecies of alkali may be more eaiily afeertained, by
pouring into the water a little fulphuric acid, or, what Mor-
vean recommends as anfwering the purpofe better, a little
diftilled vinegar, which with potafti forms a deliquefeent
fait, and with foda a foliated cryftallizable fait.
The earths which are moftly found in waters are lime
and magnefia. If any other earth has been difeovered, it
has been by fo few chemifts, and in fuch fmall portions,
that it has been little attended to (c). Lime and magnefia
are always united with the carbonic or fome of the foflil
acids. The carbonic acid is eafily expelled by boiling the
water, and the earth falls to the bottom, and may then
be eafily examined by applying fulphuric acid. If the
earth be calcareous, with fulphuric acid it forms gypfum ;
if it be magnefia, Eplom fait is produced ; and if it be clay,
the prodiidf is alum.
Scarcely any water is entirely free from lime; even the
pureft water, after {landing 24 hours, depofits lome faccha*
rated lime. The acid of iugar is one of the moft ienfible
lefts for difeovering it. A fmall quantity of diftilled water,
in which there is diffolved a fingle grain of pure lime, will
become muddy if the fmalleft quantity of the acid of lugar
be thrown in.- The prefence of calcareous earth may alfo
be difeovered by employing the acetite of lead. It preci¬
pitates the earth in the form of a white powder. Lut as
fulphuric acid alfo precipitates the acetite of lead, to make
the experiment accurately, it is neceffary to add a little di¬
ftilled vinegar to the precipitate, and it it conhft of ca.ca-
reous earth, it will be immediately diftolved ; but it it a
fulphate of lime, the vinegar will have no effeA upon it.—
When lime or magnefia is diffolved in any of the mineral
acids, it may be detected by adding a little carbonate of
potafh. The nature of the earth may be afterwards eafily
determined.
Of the inflammable bodies, perhaps none has been found
diffolved in water except fulphur. Sulphur is combined ei¬
ther with an alkali or with hydrogene, forming a fuiphuret
of hydrogene. Sulphuric or hepatic waters are eafily
known by the following marks : 1. A fetid fmell, which is
felt in approaching the fpring. 2. 1 he tafte is ftrong,
fomewhat fweet, not unlike that of putrid eggs, but more
difagreeable. 3. WLen a piece of filver is put into it, it be¬
comes tarmfhed. 4. But the niceft tell is a mark made on
paper with the tartarite of bifmuth or acetite of lead, which
becomes black when expofed to the vapour of the hepatic
water.
When we wifh to difeover the quantity of fulphur which,
is difi'olved in an alkali, it may be precipitated by the ful¬
phuric or muriatic acid, but much more plentihilly by the
nitric acid. To render the experiment fuccefsful, it is ne-
ceffary that the mixture fhould be heated.. When the nitric
acid is dropped in, the fulphureous fmell is inftantly diffi-
pated, the water grows turbid, and a white fubtile powder
flowly fubfides. When dried, it is found to be genuine ful-
Water.
46
3 ] WAT
phur. When the water contains a fixed alkali, the acid
has no effedb m decompofing the fulphureous water till the
alkali be faturated ; but after the alkali is faturated, the he¬
patic air is then driven off by the acid, and the fulphur fails
down.
Sulphureous water may eafily be formed artificially: A Method of
quantity of hepar fulphuris, confifting of equal parts of ful-
phur and potafli, is to be put into a veffel which communi-lwater art^
cates by a crooked tube with an inverted glafs filled withflciaiiy.
water. Sulphuric acid is then poured into the veffel contain¬
ing hepar fulphuris, a few drops at a time. The veffel con¬
taining the acid muft communicate with the velfel contain¬
ing the hepar fulphuris by a tube, that while the acid may
be poured in at pleafure, the elaftic gas which iffues from
the adfion of the acid on the hepar iulphuris may not be
diffipated, hut may pafs into the inverted glafs. This gas,
if a candle be applied, will burn, and a refiduum of fulphur
of a whitiih colour remains. The water in the inverted
veffel muft be frequently agitated, that the gas may be ab-
forbed. _ _ 47
The metals hitherto found diffolved in waters are two, iron How iron
and copper. The former occurs often, the latter rarely. lron^cllfcove::w
is united with the carbonic or fulphuric acid, and may ge- ’
nerally be detected by a greenifli or yellowifli colour, by its
inky tafte, by an ochre which it depofits, by tincture of
galls, and by flie Pruffian alkali. Only the two laft of thefe
methods require any defeription. Spirit of wine latiiratetl
with powdered galls precipitates iron flowly ; the precipitate
is purple when the quantity of iron is fniall ; out when the
quantity is large, it is black. In fome cafes indeed iron may¬
be prefent in water without giving a dark colour to the
galls. This is owing to a fuperfluity of acid. But if a
lufficient quantity of alkali be added to fatuvate the acid,
the black colour will then appear.—The Pruifian alkali is
prepared from four parts of Pruffian blue, boiled with one
part of alkali in a fufficient quantity of water. The clear
liquor muft then be faturated with an acid, and filtered, that
it may be freed from the fmall portion of Pruffian blue
which is feparated. A fingle drop of this alkali dropped
into water containing the fulphate of iron immediately
forms a Pruffian blue. In making experiments with tkio
alkali, it is proper to add a little muriatic acid. _ ~ 4g-
The quantity of iron contained in water may be afeer-And its
tamed with coniiderable accuracy, by the colour commani-quantity
cared by the tincture of galls for if the tincture be pour- ULCruine
ed into diftiikd water, then fmall pieces of iron may be add¬
ed, till the liquor has acquired the colour of the chalybeate
water ; and then we may conclude, that the quantity of iron
contained in the chalybeate water is equal co the artificial
mixture, if the colour be the fame. There is alfo another-
way of eftimating the quantity of iron. When precipita¬
ted, let the refiduum be wafhed in pure v/ater, then dried
and weighed. Pour upon, it one of the mineral acids, and
dig eft them together, and after pouring it off, wafh what
remains undiffolved ; then dry and weigh-it again, and from
the diminution of weight colled that of the iron. In this
experiment the acid employed ought not to be very ltrong>
nor great in quantity, nor ought the digeftion to be conti¬
nued long ; for if the refiduum fhould contain any felenite
whicK is foluble by acids, the felenite might feize upon a
confiderable portion of the acid, and confequently the expe¬
riment be inaccurate. _ A 9
Copper is fometimes united in water with the fulphuric How cop-
acid. It is difeovered by the blue colour which it imparts! ei;15 de£e<**
to
(c) A fmall quantity of filiceous earth was found by Bergman in an acidulous fpring, as alfo by Dr Bla -k in the
Geyzer fpring in Iceland. Clay may alfo be often found in waters} but it is probably only diffufed, not chemically dulohcL
WAT U 8
Water. the water, by an aeru^mous tade, and by the ochre which
6«—v"-** it depoiits. It may alfo be detected by throwing into the
water a piece of polifhed iron } the copper will be precipi¬
tated upon the iron.
Method of analyzing Water by Evaporation,
50 ' _
•Generaldr- Having now defcribed the methods of detecting the va-
cuniftauces r|OU3 (ubftances contained in water by precipitation, we
-tended to come n<txt to ddcribe how they are difcoveied by evapo¬
ration.
The veflcls employed in evaporating the water ought to
be broad, for fluids evaporate more quickly in proportion to
the extent ot the furface. It earthen veflels can be found
of fo clofe a texture as not to abforb any faline matter, they
may be fafely employed. Iron and copper veflels are improper,
becaufe they are liable to be coiroded. The mod conveni¬
ent arc thin glafs veflels, which may without danger be ex*
pofed to a drong heat. The capacity of the veflels de¬
pends on the quantity of water which is neceflary for the
feveral experiments. The quantity of water may be fmall
if it contain a large proportion cf extraneous matter. The
evaporation fliould be flow and gentle. The veflej employ¬
ed ought to have a cover to keep out dud; but mud have a
bole feveral inches in diameter, that the vapours may ifiue
out. The hole fhould not be opened till the vapour be io
much condenfed as to iflue with fuch force as to keep the
dud from falling in.
Order in Some fubftances require more water to diflbfve them than
which fub- others. As the quantity of water is diminifhed by evapora-
ufiiaily ap t'on’ ^iey aPPear therefore in an order correfponding to
j ear while their different degrees of folubility ; thofe which are lead
water is e-foluble appearing fird. The following is the order in which
vaporating.they are dilcovered: Fird carbonate of lime and carbonate of
iron, then gypfum, then the fulphate of potafh, then the iul-
phate of iron, then the nitrate of potafh, and next in order
the fulphate of copper ; afterwards the muriate of potafh,
then foda, then the muriate of foda, then the fulphate of
magnefa, and ladly the deliqueicent fairs. Aerated mag-
nefia, or carbonate of magnefra, is not feparated all at once,
but continues to fall during the whole procefs. This order
is often altered by the fuperabundance ot any particular lub-
5^ dance.
How the The different fubllanees may be feparated as they fuccef-
fively appear ; but it is better to continue the evaporation to
beated 2 dryneis. The refiduum fhould be carefully collefted and
well dried. It is then put into a bottle, and alcohol poured
on till it rife an inch above it. The bottle fliould then be
clofed and fhaken. After handing for a few hours, the li¬
quor may be filtered. What paffes through the filter is
preierved for a future analyfis,- and what remains behind has
eight times its weight of cold diddled water poured upon
it ; the mixture is then fhaken, allowed to hand for feme
time, and again filtered. What was diffolved by the wa¬
ter is preferved for future examination, and the refiduum
is then boiled for a quarter of an hour in fomewhat more
than four or five hundred times its weight of diddled water,
and afterwards filtered.
When it Being now purified by alcohol, cold water and hot wa-
ftows a ter, the refiduum is no longer foluble in alcohol or water,
four* flio-iid ^ ^ ^low a brown colour, this is a mark that iron is con-
be expofed tailed in it. To afeertain this point, it may be expofed for
£0 the air.
Hi, WAT
fome weeks in an open veffel to the rays of the fun, care he- Water
ing taken to maiden it from time to time. By the expo-
lure to the air, the iron wiU imbibe oxygene, and is then
xio longer foluble in vinegar. The refidtaum may then tm ^
lie weighed ; a quantity of acetous acid or diftilled vinegar add i8Cetfh°u’
is then to be poured on it, and the mixture to be digefted. to be
By the digeflion the acid will diffolve the carbonate of limeed uP°n it-
and magnefia, if there be any in the refiduum. What the
acid has not diffolved may be wafhed, dried, and weighed,
and by its lofs of weight it may eafily be determined what
the acid has taken up.
The matter diffolved by the acetous acid is then to be rhtntobe
evaporated to dryntls. It may be determined whether itevaP()rated
contains calcareous earth or magnefia by this circumftance j'0 dr5nefs
if it confift of calcareous earth, it continues dry in a moiftneg ^
air ; but ir it contain magnefia, it is deliquefcerit. The fame
point may alfo be afcercained by the fulphuric acid. This
acid added to calcareous earth, forms gypfum, or the ful¬
phate of lime ; but when added to magneiia, it diffolves it,
forming the fulphate of magneiia or Epiom fait ; or if the
refiduum contain both lime and magnefia, there will be pro¬
duced both fulphate of lime and fulphate of magnefia. i he
preeife quantity of the litnple fubftances contained in each
may be known by weighing the compound, and remember¬
ing that 100 parts of the fulphate of lime contain about 32
of pure lime, 46 of fulphuric acid, and 22 of water (d) ;
and 100 parts of the fulphate of magnefia contain 19 of
pure magnefia, 33 of fulphuric acid, and 48 of water (e).
That matter which was not diffolved by the acetous acid
is either iron or filex. The iron is foluble by muriatic acid
or by an alkali. The portion winch refifts the aftion of the
muriatic acid is filiceous earth, which may be farther exa¬
mined by the blow-pipe; for filiceous earth, when added to
foda in a ftate of fufion, combines with it with a violent ef-
fervefcence, and is thus changed into glafs.
Having now Ihown how to examine the refidue which
was infolubie in alcohol and water, it will next be proper to
deferibe how to analyze the folutions obtained by alcohol,
cold water, and hot w'ater.
1. The folution obtained by alcohol contains lime andpjowt(,
magnefia, combined with the muriatic acid or with the treat the
nitric acid. To enable us to dilcover the nature and Ration ob.
quantity of the ingredients, \-ve evaporate them to drynefs,^*1^^
and then pour lulphuric acid on the refidue; the ful- ’
phuric immediately difplaces the other acids, and unites
with the bale. If the bafe be lime, it forms a fulphate of
lime ; if it be magnefia, it produces the fulphate of mag-
nefia. ^
2. The folution obtained by cold water muft be examined And the
by evaporation. The evaporation ought to be gentle, thatfolufionob*
the cry Hals may affume regular forms. The cryftals, asta;ned'T
they fucceffively appear, are then to be placed on bibulouscoi<* wacer'
paper and dried; but not fo much as to expel any of the
water of cryftallization. The fpccies of the ialt thus form¬
ed may be diftinguifhed by the tafte and ftrape of the cry¬
ftals. But that they may be diltinguifhed with accuracy,
we fhall mention other methods : The folution obtained by
cold water may contain alkalis, neutral falts, falts united
with earths, falts united with m'etals,.and neutral lalts com¬
bined wnth eaiths or metals.
The alkalis can eafily be dilcovered by the methods
(d) The proportions given above are Bergman’s; but Dr Kirwan eftimates them differently. According to him, 100
parts of the fulphate of lime contain 32 of earth, 29,44 of acid, and 38,56 of water. When well dried, it loles about
24 of water, and therefore contains 42 of earth, 39 of acid, and 19 of water;
(e) According to Dr Kirwan, 100 grains of the fulphate of magnefia perfe£lly dry contain 45,67 of fulphuric acid,
36,54 of pure earth, and 17,8.3 of water. In cryftals they contain 23,75 of acid, 19 of earth, and 57,25 of water.
WAT
[ 8i5 1
WAT
Watr.
-y—
^Fourcrcy'
leciurts on
Cbemiftry,
vol. 11.
J8
How to
treat the
fulution ob¬
tained by
boiling wa¬
ter. *
59
Fourcroy’s
general me¬
thod ofana-
ij-fis.
inpnt'oned above, but the neutral or compound falts will
occafion more difficulty. We muft firft determine what
the acid is, and with what bafe it is united. The fulphucic
acid is dete&ed by the muriate of barytes, as ddcribed
above. The nitrous acid, when prefent, is expelled by
the iulphuric acid, and may be eafdy dillinguiffied by its
fmell and red fumes. It will be made dill more evident
by expofmg its fumes to a paper moiftened with ammonia
or vc la ile alkali. The muriatic acid is eafily dete&ed by
expofmg the fumes of it to a paper moilleued with water.
This acid may alfo be difeovered by the nitrate of iilver.
It is more difficult to difeover the bales of the neutral
falts which are always alkalis. We formerly detcribed the
method, of detecting them in water when dilengaged, but
we have now to feparate them from an acid. I’otaffi may
be feparated by barytes, foda is expelled by potafh, and am¬
monia is expelled either by potaffi or ioda.
We have mentioned already the method of diicovering
and diftinguifhing the earths and metals diffolved in water ;
but there is one compound which is extremely difficult to
feparate, viz. foda from common fait. 'Lite belt method for
effecting this is the procefs of M. Giaonetti : “ It confifts
(fays M. Fourcroy) in wafhing the mixed fait with diltilled
vinegar. The acid diffolves the mild foda ; the mixture is
dried, and waffied afrefh with fpirit of wine, which is charr
ged with the terra foliata mineratis, without touching the
marine fait; the fpirituous folution is evaporated to dry-
nefs, and the refiduum calcined ; the vinegar is decompokd
and burned ; we have then nothing but the mineral alkali,
whofe quantity is exactly found.”
3. The iolution obtained by boiling water contains only
felenite or gypfura. This may be feparated in ciyltals by
evaporation to drynefs, or it may be decompomd by an al-
kali. .
We liave now faid every thing that is neceffary refpec-
ting the two modes of analyzing water by precipitation and
evaporation ; but as a difficulty may occur to the unexperi¬
enced chemift refpefting the order in which he ought to
proceed in making his experiments, we fhall lay before our
readers the method recommended by M. Fourcroy.
He fkft examines the fenfible properties the water,
the tafte, colour, weight, &c. and then pours upon four
pounds of water the fame weight, of lime-water. If no pre¬
cipitate falls in 24 hours, he concludes that the water con¬
tains no difengaged carbonic acid, nor mild fixed alkali, nor
earthy falts with bafe of aluminous earth or magnefia, nor
metallic falts. If a precipitate be inftantly formed, he pro¬
ceeds to filter the liquid, and to examine the chemical qua¬
lities of the precipitate. If it has no talle, it it is infoluble
in water, if it effervefees with acids, and if it forms with
fulphuric acid an infipid fait almoft infoluble in water, he
concludes that it is chalk, and that the lime-water attracted
only the aerial acid diflblved in the water. On the contra¬
ry, if the precipitate be not copious, if it collefts flowly, if
it excites no effervefcence, if with the fulphuric acid it forms
a bitter fait, it is magnelia ; but it with the fame acid it
forms a fweetifh aflringent fait, it is aluminous earth or
clay. Sometimes it may be a compound ot both.
Being now examined by lime-water, he pours upon it
Other four pounds of the fame water, a gros ot two (f) of
volatile cauftic alkali, or he paffes it through fome alkaline
gas diiengaged by means of heat. When the water is fatu-
rated, he leaves it in a clofe veffel for 24 hours; then
if a precipitate be formed, as it mud contain lalts, with
iron, magnefia, or aluminous earth for its bafe, he invefti-
gates the nature of it. It mud be obferved, that the alka-
line gas is not to be depended uocn alone, but may be uied
as an auxiliary.
M. Foutcroy next pours into a certain quantity of the
water under examination a portion of caudic mineral alkali
diffolved. He continues to pour it in till no farther tnud-
dinefs is produced, as it decompofes the f?dts with a bale of
aluminous earth, or a bafe of lime. If the precipitate re-
fembles in form, colour, and quantity, that which is yielded
by lime-water, it may be preiumed that the water contains
no calcareous earth ; but if it be more weighty, copious,
and has totmed more quickly than the precipitate formed
by the lime-water, then it contains lime mixed with magne¬
fia or aluminous earth. If the precipitate contain any iron,
it is eafdy detected by its colour and tade.
Thefe obfervations of M. Fourcroy will be of great ufe
to the young chemid, in pointing out the order which he
may follow with facility and advantage in the analyfis ot
waters ; and after he has formed his opinion concerning the
ingredients contained in the water, he may examine the truth
of ic, by applying the particular tells which have already
been dclcribed.
In the account which we have given of the method of
analyzing waters, the chemical reader will obferve, frhat we
have chiefly followed Bergman. We have done fo, becaufe
we reckon him the bed writer on the fubjeeft, and becaufe
we have been more anxious to dudy truth and utility than
novelty. We ardently wifh that fome able chemid would
exhibit an accurate and eafy mode of analyzing earths,
which every farmer could prattife without a deep knowledge
of chemidry. Farmers would then be enabled to apply the
manures proper to .particular foils, in which they would be
much affifted by Dr Kirwan’s valuable Treatife on Manures.
Under the title of Mineral Waters, we have given an
analyiis of the mod remarkable waters in Europe. (See alfo
Spa, Seltzer, Pyrmont, and the names of other celebra¬
ted waters). Thofe who wifh for more information concern¬
ing the mode of analyzing water, may confult Bergman's
Chemical EiTays, Fourcroy’s Lectures on Chehudry, and
the different books referred to by thefe authors.
Hoiv Water, which is made ufe of in the church of
Rome, as alfo by the Greeks, and by the other Chridians
of the Ead of all denominations, is water with a mixture
of fait, bleffed by a pried according to a fet form of bene-
diftion. It is ufed in the bleffing of perfons, things, and
places ; and is likewife confidered as a ceremony to excite
pious thoughts in the minds of the faithful.
The pried, in bleffing it, firft, in the name of God, com¬
mands the devils not to hurt the perfons who fhall be fprink-
led with it, nor to abufe the things, nor difquiet the places,
which fhall likewife be fo fprinkled. He then prays that
health, fafety, and the favour of heaven, may be enjoyed
by fuch perfons, and by thofe who fhall ufe fuch things,
or dwell in fuch places. Vedments, veffels, and other fuch
things that are fet apart tor divine fervice, are fpi-inkled
with it. It is fometirnes fprinkled on cattle, with an in¬
tention to free or preferve them from diabolical enchant¬
ments; and in fome ritual books there are prayers to be faid
on fuch occafions, by which the fafety of fuch animals, as
being a temporal bieffing to the poffefTors, is begged ot
God, whofe providential care is extended to all his crea¬
tures. The hope which Catholics entertain of obtaining
fuch good effects from the devout ufe of holy water, is
grounded
Water.
(f) A gros is equal to .59,0703 of Englifh Troy grains*
WAT
grounded on the promife made to believers by Chrift (St
Mark xvi. ly.)* and on the general efficacy of the pray¬
ers of the church ; the petition of which prayers God is
often pleafed to grant; though fometimes, in his Provi¬
dence, he fees it not expedient to do fo. That fuch effects
have been produced by holy water in a remarkable manner,
has been afferted by many authors of no fmall weight ; as,
namely, by St Epiphanius, Haer. 30th; St Hierom, in
•the Life of St Hilarion; Theodoret Hijl. Eccl. lib. v. cap.
21. ; Palladius, Bift. Lauf. ; Bede, lib. v. cap. 4.
As a ceremony (fays the Catholic), water brings to our
remembrance our baptifm; in which, by water, we were
cleanfed from original fin. It alfo puts us in mind of that
purity of confidence which we ought to endeavour always
to have, but efpecially when we are going to worffiip our
God. The fait, which is put into the water to preferve it
from corrupting, is alfo a figure of divine grace, which
preferves our fouls from the corruption of fin ; and is like-
wife an emblem of that wifdom and difcretion which ought
to feafon every aftion that a Chriftian does, and every word
that he fays. It is wont to be blefled and fprinkled in
churches on Sundays, in the beginning of the folemn office.
It is kept in veflels at the doors of the fame churches, that
ft may be taken by the faithful as they enter in. It is alfo
often kept in private houl'es and chambers (a).
Putrid Water, is that which has acquired an offenfive
-fmell and talle by the putrefcence of animal or vegetable
fubftances contained in it. It is in the highefi; degree per-
r.icious to the human frame, and capable of bringing on
mortal difeafes even by its fmell. It is not always from the
apparent muddinefs of waters that we can judge of their
tlifpofition to putrefy ; fome which are feemingly very pure
being more apt to become putrid than others which appear
much more mixed with heterogeneous matters. Under the
article Animalcule, n° 33, is mentioned a fpecies of in-
iefts which have the property of making water iiink to an in¬
credible degree, though their bulk in proportion to the fluid
which furrounds them is lefs than that of one to a million.
Other fubftances no doubt there are which have the fame
property ; and hence almoft all water which is confined from
the air is apt to become offenfive, even though kept in glafs or
ftone-ware veffels. Indeed it is a common obfervation, that
water keeps much longer fweet in glafs-veffels, or in thofe of
earthen or ftone-ware, than in thofe of wood, where it is ex¬
ceedingly apt to putrefy. Hence, as /hips can only be fupplied
with water kept in v/ooden calks, failors are extremely liable
to thoie dileafcs which arife from putrid water ; and the dif-
covery of a method by which water could ealily be prevent¬
ed from becoming putrid at fea would be exceedingly va¬
luable- This may indeed be done by quicklime; for when
water is impregnated with it, all putrefeent matters are
cither totally deftroyed, or altered in fuch a manner as never
to be capable of undergoing the putrefa&ive fermentation
again. But a continued ufe of lime-water could not fail
of being pernicious, and it is therefore neceffary to throw
down the lime.; after which the water will have all the
purity neceffary for preferving it free from putrefaction.
This can only be done by means of fixed air; and mere
expofure in broad fhallow veffels to the atmofphere would
do it without any thing elfe, only taking caie to break the
cruft which formed upon it. Two methods, however, have
been thought of for doing this with more expedition. The
cne, invented by Dr Alfton, is, by throwing into the wa-
W A T
ter impregnated with lime a quantity of magnefia. The Water,
lime attrads fixed air more powerfully than magnefia ; in
confequence of which the latter parts with it to the lime ;
and thus becoming infoluble, falls along with the cauftic
magnefia to the bottom, and thus leaves the water perfeftly
pure. Another method is that ©f Mr Henry, who pro-
pofes to throw down the lime by means of an effervefeing
mixture of oil of vitriol and chalk put down to the bottom
of the water-caflc. His apparatus for this purpofe is as
Ample as it can well be made, though it is hardly probable
that failors will give themfelves the trouble of ufing it; and
Dr Alfton’s fcheme would feem better calculated for them,
were it not for the expence of the magnefia; which indeed
is the only objection made to it by Mr Henry. Putrid
water may be reftored and made potable by a procefs of
the fame kind.
Of late it has been difeovered that charcoal poffeffes
many unexpected properties, and, among others, that of
preferving water from corruption, and of purifying it after it
has been corrupted. Mr Lowitz, whofe experiments on char¬
coal have been publiftied in Crell’s Chemical Journal, has
turned his attention to this fubjeCt in a memoir read to the
Economical Society of Peterfburg. He found that the
effeCt of charcoal was rendered much more fpeedy by ufing
along with it fome fulphuric acid. One ounce and a half
of charcoal in powder, and 24 drops of concentrated ful¬
phuric acid (oil of vitriol), are fufficient to purify three
pints and a halt of corrupted water, and do not communi¬
cate to it any fenfible acidity. This fmall quantity of acid
renders it unneceffary to life more than a third part of the
charcoal powder which would otherwife be wanted; and
the lefs of that powder is employed, the lefs is the quantity
of water loft by the operation, which, in fea-voyages, is an
objeCt worthy of confideration. In proportion to the quan¬
tity of acid made ule of, the quantity of charcoal may be
diminifhed or augmented. All acids produce nearly the lame
effeCts: neutral falls alfo, particularly nitre and fea-falt, may
be ufed, but fulphuric acid is preferable to any of thefe;
water which is purified by means of this acid and charcoal
will keep a longer time than that which is purified by char¬
coal alone. When we mean to purify any given quantity
of corrupted water, we Ihould begin by adding to it as
much powder of charcoal as is neceffary to deprive it en¬
tirely of its bad fmell. To afeertain whether that quantity
of powdered charcoal was fufficient to effeCI the clarifica¬
tion of the faid water, a fmall quantity of it may be palled
through a linen bag, two or three inches long ; if the wa¬
ter, thus filtrated, Hill has a turbid appearance, a frelh quan¬
tity of powdered charcoal muft be added, till it is become
perfeCUy clear: the whole of the water may then be paffed
through a filtering bag, the fize of which Ihould be pro¬
portioned to the quantity of water. If fulphuric acid, or
any other, can be procured, a fmall quantity of it fliouli
be added to the water, before the charcoal powder.
The cleaning of the calks in which water is to be kept
in fea-voyages Ihould never be neglefted : they fhould be
well wallied with hot water and land, or with any other
fubftance capable of removing the mucilaginous particles,
and afterwards a quantity of charcoal-dull Ihould be em¬
ployed, which will entirely deprive them of the mufty or
putrid fmell they may have contracted.—The charcoal ufed
for purifying water Ihould be well burnt, and afterward*
beat into a fine powder.
Sea*
[ 8x6 ]
(a) This article was furnilhed by an eminent divine of the church of Rome, to whom we are indebted for greater
Jtavour*.
\V A. T [ 8
SeaJVjr?*' See Sej-IVater.
IVJTEK-Carts, csrriapfes couftrufted for the purpoie ot
watering the roads for feveral miles round London ; a pre¬
caution' abfolutely neceflary near the metropolis, where,
from fuch a vaft daily influx of carriages and hories, the
duft would otherwife become quite infufferable m hot dry
weather. Pumps are placed at proper diflances to iupply
thefe carts.
IVATER-Ordeal. See Ordeal.
Water, among jewellers, is properly the colour or ludre
of diamonds and pearls. The term, though lels properly,
isfometimes ufed for the hue or colour of other ftones.
Waver-Bellows. See Machines for blowing Air into fiuR-
HACSS. .
Water-Colours., in painting, are fuch colours as are only
diluted and mixed up with gum-water, in contradiftindtion
to oil colours. See Colour-Making. _
WAT&R-Gang, a channel cut to drain a place by carrying
off a ftream of water.
WATER-Hen. See Parra. •
Water-Line of a Ship, certain horizontal lines fuppoled
to be drawn about the outfide of a (hip’s bottom, dole
to the furface of the water in which (he floats. M hey are
accordingly higher or lower upon the bottom, in pro¬
portion to'the depth of the column of water required to
float her. „ , ,
Water-Lodged, the (fate of a (hip when, by receiving a
great cmantity of water into the hold, by leaking, &c. ihe
has become heavy and inadwe upon the (ea, (o as to yieL.
without refilfance to the efforts ot every wave ruftung over
her decks. As, in this dangerous fituation, the centre ot
gravity is no longer fixed, but flu&uating from place to
place, the (lability of the (hip is utterly loft : (he is there¬
fore almoft totally deprived of the ufe of her fails, winch
would operate to overfet her, or prefs the head under water,
plence there is no refource for the crew, except to bee
her by the pumps, or to abandon her by the boats as foon
Wa ter-Sail, a fmall fail fpread occaftonally under the
lower ftudding-fail, or driver-boom, in a fair wind and
fmooth fea.
WATER-Ouzel. See Turd ns.
Water-Spout, an extraordinary meteor confiding of a
large maff of water colle&ed into a fort of column, and
moved with rapidity along the furface of the fea.
The bell account of the water-fpout which we have met
with is in the Phil. Tranf. Abridged, vol viii. as obferved
by Mr Jofeph Harris, May 21. 1732, about funfet, lat.
2 2° ?o' N. longi 9° E. fro no Cape Florida.
“ When fir ft we (aw the fpout (lays he), it was whole
and entire, and much of the (haoe and proportion of a
{peeking trumpet ; the fmall end being downwards, and
reaching to the fea, and the big end terminated in a black
thick cloud. The fpout itfelf was very black, and the move
fo the higher up. It feeraed to be exadfiy perpendicular
to the horizon, and its fides perfectly (mooth,^ without the
lead rugjedneis. Where it fell the (pray of the fea role
to a confiderable height, which made -lomewhat the ap*
pearance of a great fmoke. From the firft time we faw it
it continued whole about a minute, and till it was quite
diffipated about three minutes. It began to wafte frorn be¬
low! and fo gradually up, while the upper part remained
entire, without any vifible alteration, till at laft it ended
in the black cloud above : upon which there feemed to fall
a very heavy rain in that neighbourhood.— 1 here was but
httle wind, and the (ky elfewhere was pretty ierene.”
Water (pouts have by fome been fuppofed to be merely
eleftrical in their origin ; particularly by Signior Beccaria,
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
i7 ] WAT
who fupported his opinion by fome experiments. P‘’ft ‘f ^
we attend to the fucceffive phenomena neceffary to coulii-
tute a complete water-fpout through their various (fa/ges,
we (hall be convinced, that recourfe muft be had to fome
other principle in order to obtain a complete folution.
Dr Franklin, in his Phyfical and Meteorological Obfervt-
tions, fuppofes a water-fpout and a whirlwind to proceed
from the fame caufe ; their only difference being, that the
latter paffes over the land, and the former over the water.
This opinion is corroborated by M. de la Pryme, in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions, where he deferibes two fpouts
obferved at different times in Yorkfhire, whofe appearances
in the air were cxadtly like thofe of the fpouts at iea, and
their effefts the fame as thofe of real whirlwinds.
A fluid moving from ail points horizontally towards a
centre, muft at that centre either mount or delcend. It a
hole be opened in the middle of the bottom of a tub filled
with water, the water will flow from all fides to the centie,
and there defeend in a whirl : but air flowing on or near the
furface of land or water, from all fides towards a centre,
muft at that centre afeend ; becaufe the land or water wnl
hinder its delcent.
The Do&or, in proceeding to explain his conceptions,
begs to be allowed two or three pofitions, as a foundation
for his hypothefis. i. That the lower region of air is often
more heated, and fo more rarefied, than the upper, and by
confequence fpecifically lighter. 1 he coldnefs oi. the up.
per region is manifefted by the hail, which fometimes falls
from it in warm weather. 2. That heated air may be very
moift, and yet the moifture fo equally diffufed and rarefied
as not to be vifible till colder air _ mixes with it; at which
time it condenfes and becomes vifible. 1 bus our breath,
although in vifible in fummer, becomes vifible in winter.
Thefe circumftances being gtanted, he prefuppofes a trait
of land or fea, of about 6o miles in extent, unfheltered by
clouds and unrefrelhed by the wind, during a (ummer’a
day, or perhaps for feveral days without intermiflion, till it
becomes violently heated, together with the lower region
of the air in contadf with it ; fo that the latter becomes
fpecifically lighter than the fuperincumbent higher region ot
the atmofphere, wherein the clouds are ufually floated : he
fuppofes alfo that the air furrounding this ttaft has not been
fo much heated dining thoie days, and therefore remains
heavier. The coniequeuce of this, he conceives, fliould be,
that the heated lighter air (hould alcend, and the heavier
defeend ; and as this rifijig cannot operate throughout the
whole traft at once, becaufe that would leave too exten ive
a vacuum, the rifing will begin precilely in that column
which happens to be lighted or mod rarefied ; and the warm
air will flow horizontally from all parts of_ this column,
where the Several currents meeting, and joining to nk,
a whirl is naturally formed, in the fame manner as a whirl
is formed in a tub of water, by the ddeending fluid re¬
ceding from all fides of the tub towards the hole in the
centre.
And as the feveral currents arrive at this central rifing .
column, with a confiderable degree of horizontal motion,
they cannot fuddenly, change it to a vertical motion ; theie-
fore as they gradually, in approaching the whirl,, decline
from right to curve or circular lines, fo, having joined the
whirl, they afeend by a fplral motion : in the fame manner
as the water defeends fpirally through the ho^e in the tub
before mentioned. #
Laftly, as the lower air neared the furface is more rare¬
fied by the heat of the fun, it is more impreffed by the
current of the furrounding cold and heavy air which is to
affume its place, and coniequently its motion towards the
whirl is fwiiteft, and fo the force of the_ lower part ot the
5 L wh11"1
WAT [8
whirl ftronixeft, and the centrifugal force of its particles
greateft. Hence the vacuum which inclofes the axis of the
whiil fhould he greateft near the earth or fea, and diminifh
gradually as it approaches the region of the clouds, till it
ends in a point.
This circle is of various diameters, fometirres very large.
if the vacuum paftes over water, the water may rife in
a body or column therein to the height of about 32 feet.
This whirl of air may be as invifiblcas the air itfelf, though
reaching in reality from the water to the region of cool air,
*n which our low rummer thunder-clouds commonly float;
but it will foon become vifible at its extremities. The agi¬
tation of the water under the whirling of the circle, and
the 1 welling and riiing of the water in the commencement
of the vacuum, renders it vil’ble below. It is perceived
above by the warm air being brought up to the cooler re-
gion, where its moifture begins to be condenftd by the cold
into thick vapour, and is then frrft difeovered at tire higheft
part, which being now cooled condenles what rites behind
at, and this latter adts in the fame manner on the fucceeding
body ; where, by the contact of the vapours, the cold ope¬
rates fafter in a right line downwards, than the vapours
themfelves can climb in a fpiral line upwards: they climb
however; and as by continual, addition they grow denfer,
and by confequence increafe their centrifugal force, and
being rifen above the concentrating currents that compofe
the whirl, they fly off, and form a cloud.
It fee ms eafy to conceive, how, by this fueceffive con-
deniation from above, the fpout appears to drop or clefcend
from the cloud, although the materials of which it is com¬
posed are ail the while afeending. The condenfation of the
moifture contained in fo great a quantity of warm air as may
be fuppofed to rife in a fhort time in this prodigtoufiy ra¬
pid whirl, is perhaps fufficient to form a great extent of
cloud ; and the fri&ion of the whirling air on the fides of
the column may detach great quantities of its water, dif-
perfe them into drops, and carry them up in the fpiral whirl
mixed with the air. The heavier drops may indeed fly off,
and fall into a mower about the Ipout; but much of it will
be broken into vapour, and yet remain vifible.
As the whirl weakens, the tube may apparently fepa-
rate in the middle ; the column of water fuhfiding, the fu-
perior condenfed part drawing up to the cloud. The tube
or whirl of air may neverthelefs remain entire, the middle
only becoming invifible, as not containing any vifible matter.
Hr Lindfay, however, in feveral letters publifhed in the
Gentleman’s Magazine, has controverted this theory of Hr
Franklin, and endeavoured to prove, that water-fpouts and
whnlwmds are drftinff phenomena ; and that the water
which forms the water-lpout, does not afeend from the fea,
as Hr I'ranklin fuppofes, but defeends from the atmofohere.
Our limits do not permit us to infert his arguments here,
but they may be feen in the Gentleman’s Magazine, vo¬
lume li. p. 359, 615 ; vol. liii. p. 1025 ; and vol. Iv. p.
594. We cannot avoid obferving,- however, that he treats
Hr Franklin with a degree of afperity to which he is by no
means intrtled, and that his arguments, even if conclufive,
prove nothing more than that fome water-ipouts certainly
8 ] WAT
do defeend ; which Dr franklin hbrdly ever ventured to deny. Wa»ep
1 here are fome very valuable differtations on this fubieit II
by profeffor Wilcke of Uptal. Watfon.
Water-Works. See Writer-Works (a).  
WATF.K-Works for entertainment. See Hydrostatics
feft. 6.
WATERFORD, a city and fea port of Ireland, in a
county of the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee. It is the fecond
place in the kingdom, and is a wealthy, populous city, en¬
joying many ample privileges. The ftreets are narrow, and
the air is notary healthy ; but it has an excellent harbour*
feated as well for trade as any in the world, and ihips of
the greateft burden may ride at the quay. It Hands on the
river Sure, 8 miles north of St George’s Channel, ?6 foutii
of Kilkenny, and 75 iouth by weft of Dublin. W. Lon r.
6. 54. N. Lat. 52. 18.
Waterford, a county of Ireland, 46 miles in length*,
and 25 in oreadth ; bounded on the loath by ct George’s
Channel ; on the weft by Cork ; on the north by the river
Sure, which fepaiates it from Tipoerary and Kilkenny ;
and on the eaft by Waterford Haven, which parts it from
Wejriord. It contains 71 parifhes, and fends io members
to parliament. It is a fine country, very pleafant and rich,
and the principal place is of the fame name.
W ATLRING, in the manufactures, is to give a luflre
to fluffs, &c. by wetting them lightly with gum-water, and
then pafiing them through the preis or calender whether
hot or cold. I lie gum-water ought to be pure, thin, and
clear, other wife the iclds of the fluff will all flick together i
trie operation mull alfo be performed when the water is very-
hot, that it may oenetrate.
Wa tf.ring Meadows. See Meadows.
WATERLAND (Dr Daniel) a learned Encdifh di*
vine wEo diftinguifhed himfelf greatly in theological con-
troverlies, was born in 16K3 at Wafely in Lincolnfhire, of
wdiich place his father was reflor. He had his academical
learning at Magdalen college, Cambridge, where he drew
up a uleful tra&, which went through feveral editions, in-
titled, Advice to a 7'oimg Student, with a Method of Study for
the jhjl four years. In I 713 he became mnfter of the col¬
lege, was foon after appointed chaplain to George I. and in
1720 preached the firfl courfe or leiftures founded by lady
Moyer in defence of our Lord’s divinity. He went through
feveral promotions; and at the time or his death in 1740,
was canon of Windio’-, archdeacon of Middkfex, and vicar
of Twickenham. Befides his controveriial writings, he
publifhed two volumes of fermons.
WATLING-street. See Way.
WATSON (Dr Robert), an elegant hiftorian, was born
at St Andrew’s, in Scotland, about the year 1730. He
was the fon of an apothecary of that place, who was alto
a brewer. Having gone through the uftial courfe of lan¬
guages and philofophy at the fchool and univerfity of his
native place, and alfo entered on the ftudy of divinity, a
defire of being acquainted with a larger circle of literati*
and of improving himlelf in every branch of knowledge*
carried him, firfl to the univerlity of Glalgow, and after¬
wards to that of Edinburgh. The period of theologicrrl
ftudiea
{a) For referring this article from the word Water to the word Works, an apology is clue to the Public ; and the
■apology which we have to offer, we are perfuaded, will be fuftarned. It is this : The gentleman who contributed the articles.
JR.f.sistancb of Fluids and River, promiled to furnifh alfo the article Water Works ; but ficknefs has hitherto prevented
him from fulfilling that promife. We truft, however, that before our preffes fhall reach to the word Works, he may
|»e able to fill up the /ketch which he has long ago drawn of this very important lubjedt. And fuch of our readers as caft.
ellimate the merit of his two articles, which we have juft mentioned, will not blame the Editor for deviating a little from
the alphabetical order* to give him a chance of iurnithing a third article, to which thefe two are fo clofely related.
Ar?tfon,
Wat's.
WAT f Si
at the univerfities of Scotland is four years : but
during that period, young men of ingenious minds find
iufficient leiture to carry on and advance the purfuits of ge¬
neral knowledge. Mr Watfon- purfued his fiudies with ar¬
dour. Few men ever ftudied more conilantly. It was a
rule with him to ftudy eight hours every day ; and this law
he obferved during the whole courfe of his life. An ac¬
quaintance with the polite writers of England, after the
union of- the two kingdoms, became general in Scotland ;
and in Watfords younger years, an emulation began to pre¬
vail of writing pure and elegant Engliih. Mr Wation ap¬
plied himfelf with great induftry to the principles of philo-
iophical or univerlal grammar ; and by a combination of
thefe, with the authority of the belt Englifh writers, formed
8 courfe of ledfures on ftyle or language. Fie proceeded
to the itudy of rhetoric or eloquence ; the principles of
which he endeavoured to trace to the nature of the human
mind. He delivered a courfe of lectures in Edinburgh on
thefe fubjedts ; and met with the countenance, approbation,
and friendfhipof Lord Karnes, Mr Hume, with othermenof
genius and learning.
At this time he had become a preacher ; and a vacancy
having happened in one of the churches of St Andrew’s, he
offered hin.felf a candidate for that living, but was difap-
pointed. Mr Henry Rymer, who then taught logic in St
Salvador’s College, was in a very infirm ftate of health, and
entertained thoughts of retiring from the cares and emolu¬
ments of his office, to live upon his fmall falary or ffipend.
Mr Watfon underftanding this, purchafed, for not a great
ium of money, what, in ramiliar phrafeology, may be called
the good-will of Mr Rymer’s place ; and, with the confent
of the other mafters of St Salvador’s, was appointed profef-
for of logic. Fie obtained alfo a patent from the crown,
confiituting him profeffor of rhetoric and belles lettres. The
ftudy of logic, in St Andrew’s, as in mod other places, was
at this time confined to fyllogilms, modes, and £:>ures. Mr
Watfon, whofe mind had been opened by conveiiation, and
by reading the writings of the wits that had berrun to flourilh
in the Scotch capital, prepared and read to his iludents a
courfe of metaphyfics and logics on the mod enlightened
plan ; in which he analyzed the powers of the mind, and
entered deeply into the nature of the different fpecies of
evidence of truth or knowledge. By his hidory of Phi¬
lip II. Dr Watfon attained in his lifetime a conliderable
degree of celebrity ; and his hidory of Philip III. publilhed
after his death, has added to his fame. Of this lad perform¬
ance, however, he has only completed the four fird books ;
the two lad were written by the editor of his manufeript, at
the defire of the guardians of his children.
On the death o. principal Tulideph, Dr Watfon, through
the earl of Kinnouli, was appointed his fucceffor ; in which
ftation he lived only a few years. He married a lady of
frngular beauty and virtue, daughter to Mr Shaw, profeffor
of divinity in St Mary’s college, St Andrew’s. By this lady
he had rive daughters, who furvived him.
WATTS (Dr Ifaac), a learned and eminent diffenting
Hunider, was born at Southampton in 1674,0!' parents emi¬
nent for piety, and c.onfiderable iufferersfor confcience fake.
In 1690 he was fent up to London for academical education
under the tuition of the Rev. Mr Thomas Rowe; and in
1696 was himfelf engaged as tutor to the fan of Sir John
Hartopp, bart. at Stoke Newington. He began to preach
In 1698, and met with general acceptance; and after offi¬
ciating for thiee years as an affidant to the R.ev. Dr Ilaac
Chauncy, he fucceeded in his padoral charge in 1702, and
continued to prelide over that church as long as he lived.
'i hough his whole income did not amount to an hundred a-
9 1 WAX
year, he allotted third of it to the poor. He died in Wave
1748. His numerous works have rendered his name fa-
mous among people of every denomination, both in this _, ^. r
and other countries, and they have been tranflated into a
variety of languages. His Lyric Poems, his Pialms and
Hymns, and his divine Songs for Children, are a fufficient
proof of his poetical talents, and have had an amazing num¬
ber of editions. His logic and philofophy have been much
admired. He alfo wrote works upon a variety of other
fiubje&s, and printed feveral volumes of his fermons. He
was admired for the mildnefs and benevolence of his dif-
pofition and the fweetnefs of his manners. After his
death, his works were colle&ed, and publifhed in fix vo*
lumes quarto.
WAVE, in philofophy, a cavity in the furace of water,
or other fluids, with an elevation afide thereof.
The waves of the lea are of two kinds, natural and acci¬
dental. The natural waves are thofe which are exaftly pro¬
portioned in fire to the ftrength of the wind, whofe blow¬
ing gives origin to them. The accidental waves are thole
occafioned by the wind’s reading upon itlelf by repercuffiou
from hills and mountains, or high fhores, and by the wafhing
of the waves themielves; otherwife of the natural kind,
againit rocks and flioals: all thefe cafes give the waves an
elevation, which they can never have in their natural Hate.
For the height of the waves, fee Sea.
Stilling IVavrs by weans of Oil. See Sea.
WAVED, in heraldry, is faid of a bordure, or any ordi-
nary or charge, in a coat of arms, having its outlines inden¬
ted in manner of the riling and falling of waves : it is ufed
to denote, that the fir ft; of the family in whole arms it {lands,
acquired its honours by fea-fervice.
WAVING, in the fca-language, is the making figns to a
veffel to come near or keep off.
WAX, or Bees Wax, in natural hiflory, a firm and foil’d
fubtlance, moderately heavy, and of a fine yellow colour,
formed by the bees from the pollen of flowers. See Apis.
The befl fort is that of a lively yellow colour, and an
agreeable fmell, fomewhat like that of honey \ when new,
it is toughifh, yet eafy to break ; but by age it becomes
harder and more brittle, lofes its fine colour, and in a great
meafure its fmell.
It appears that wax and the pollen have for their bafis a
fat oil, which paffes to the ftate of refin by its combination
with oxygene. If the nitric or muriatic acid be digefted •'f'-pts- *
upon fixed oil for feveral months, it paffes to a ftate refem-
bling wax. Wax, by repeated diftillations, affords an oil
which poffeffes all the properties of volatile oils. It is reduced
into water and carbonic acid by combuftion. The colour¬
ing matter of wax is infoluble in water and in alcohol.
Fixed alkalis diffolve wax, and render it foluble in water.
It is this laponaceous folution which forms the punic wax.
It may be ufed as the balls of feveral colours ; and may be
made into an excellent pafte for waffling the hands. Am¬
moniac likewife diffolves it; and as this folvent is evapo-
rable, it ought to be preferred when it is propoied to ufe
the wax as a varnifh.
From the common yellow wax, by bleaching, is formed
white-wax, fometimes called, very improperly, virgin-wax.
The greater the furface is in proportion to the quantity,
the looner and more pcrfttlly this operation is performed.
The ufual way is to melt the wax in hot water ; when
melted, they prefs it through a {framer of tolerable fine
linen, and pour it into round and very {hallow moulds.
When hardened by cooling, it is taken out and expofed to
the fun and air, fprinkling it now and then with water, and
often turning it: by this means it foon becomes white.
5 L 2 The
W AY [8
The hell fort is or a clear and almoll tranfparent whitenefs,
dry, hard, brittle, and of an agreeable ftneil, like that of the
yellow wax. but muck weaken
The common yellow wax is of very great ufe both in
'medicine and in many of the arts and manufaftures. It has
been fometimes given internally in dyfenteries and ero-
f:ons of the inteftines ; but its great ufe is in the making
ointments and plafters, and the greater part of thofe of the
fnops owe their confiftence to it. The white wax is alio
an ingredient in fome oi the cerates and ointments of the
/hops ; and is ufed in making candles, and in many of the
nicer arts and toanu adtures where wax is required.
SeaUngJWjix, or Spntujh-!'Fax, is a compolition of gum lac,
melted and prepared with refins, and coloured with fome
fuitable pigment.
There are two kinds of fcaling-wax in ufe ; the one hard,
intended for fealing letters, and other fuch purpofes ; the
other foft, defigned for receiving the impreffions of feals of
oiSce to charters patents, and fuch written inllruments.
The bell hard red fealing-wax is made by mixing two
parts of fhell lac, well powdered, and refin and vermilion,
powdered, of each one part, and melting this combined
powder over a gentle fire ; and when the ingredients feem
thoroughly incorporated, working the wax into Hicks.
Seed-lac may be fubftimted for the Ihell-lac ; and in Head
of refin, boiled Venice turpentine may be ufed, A coarfer,
hard, red iealing-vvax, may be made, by mixing two parts
of refin, and of Ihell-lac, or vermilion and red-lead, mixed in
the proportion of one part oi. the vermilion to twro of the
red lead, of each one part; and proceeding as in the former
preparation. For a cheaper kind, the vermilion may be
omitted, and the fliell lac alfo, for very coarfe ufes. Wax
of other colours is made by fubftituting other colouring mat¬
ters for vermilion, as verditer for blue, ivory black for black
wax. For uncoloured, foft fealing-wax, take of bees wax,
one pound ; of turpentine, three ounces ; and of olive-oil,
cue ounce ; place them in a proper veiled over the fire, and
let them boil for fome time ; and the wrax will be then fit
to be formed into rolls or cakes for ufe. For red, black,
green, blue, yellow, and purple foft fealing-wax, add to the
preceding compofition an ounce or more of any ingredients
diredled above for colouring the hard fealing-wax, and ftir
the mals till the colouring ingredients be incorporated with
the wax.
WAx-Worl, the reprefentation of the faces, &c. of per-
fons living or dead ; made by applying plafter of Paris in a
kind of pafie, and thus forming a mould containing, the exa£l
reprefentation of the features. Into this mould melted wax
is poured, and thus a kind of mafks are formed which be¬
ing painted and fet with glafs eyes, and the figures dreffed
in their proper habits, they bear fuch a refemblance that
it is difficult to diflinguilh between the copy and the origi¬
nal.
WAY, a pafiage or road.
The Roman ways are divided into confular, prsetorian,
military, and public ; and, of thefe we have- four remarkable
ones in England: the firft, Wading-llreet, or Watheling-
ftreet, leading from Dover to London, Dunllable, Toucefter,
Atterllon, and the Severn, extending as far as Anglefea in.
Wales. The fecond, called Hikenildor Ikeni/d-Jlreet, flretches
from Southampton over the river Ifis at Newbridge; thence
by Camden and Litchfield ; then paffes the Derwent near
Derby, and ends at TinmOuth. The third, called Fofit-way
becaufe in fome places it was never perfedled, but lies as a
large ditch, leads from Cornwall through Devonfhire, by
Tethbury, near Stow in the Wolds ; and beiide Coventry
to. LeiceHer, Newark, and fo to Lincoln. The fourth,
20 ] W E K
called Ermirrg of F.rmtnige-jbeet, jfextends from St David's,
in Wales, to Southamnton.
IF AY Covert, Gang, Hutch. See CorERT IVay, Gang, &C.
IFay of a Ship, is fometimes the fame as her rake, or run
forward or backward : but this term is moil commonly un-
derftood of her failing.
Wat-Leaves, in the coal bufinefs. See Coalery, n° g.
Right of IVats, inlaw. ’Phis may be grounded on a
fpecial permiffion ; as when the owner of the land grants to
another a liberty of palling over his grounds, to go to
church, to market, or the like : in which cafe the gift or
grant is particular, and confined to the grantee alone ; it
dies with the perfon ; and if the grantee leaves the country,
he cannot affign over his right to any other; nor can he
juftify taking another perfon in his company. A way may
be al.o by prefeription ; as if-all the owners and occupiers
of fuch a farm have immemorially ufed to crofs another’s
ground ; for this immemorial ufage fuppofes an original
grant, whereby a right of way thus appurtenant to land may
clearly be created. A right of way may alfo arife by adt
and operation of law; for if a man grants me a piece of
ground in the middle of his field, he at the fame time ta¬
citly and impliedly gives me a way to come at it; and I
may crofs his land for that purpofe without trcfpafs.
For when the law doth give any thing to one, it giveth
impliedly whatfoever is necefiary for enjoying the fame.
By the law of the twelve tables at Rome, where a man had
the right of way over another’s land, and the road was out
of repair, he who had the right of way might go over any
part of the land he pleafed : which was the ellablifhed rule
in public as well as private ways. i\nd the law of Eng¬
land, in both cafes, feems to correfpond with the Roman.
WAYFARING Tree. See Viburnum.
WAYWODE, is properly a title given the governors of
the chief places in the dominions of the czar of Mufcovy.
The palatines, or governors of provinces in Poland, alio bear
the quality o1 way wo es, or waiwodts. The Poles like wife call
the princes of Wallachia and Moldavia way wades; as elteern-
ing them no other than on the foot of governors ; pretend¬
ing that Wallachia and Moldavia are provinces of Poland.
Everywhere clfe thefe are called hofpodars. Du Cange
fays, that the name waywode is ufed in Dalmatia, Croatia,
and Flungary, for a general of an army : and Leunclavius,
in his Pandebls of Turkey, tells us, it ufually lignifies cap¬
tain or commander.
WEANING, putting a child away from the breall, and
bringing it to ufe common food.
WEAR, or Weer, a great Hank or dam in a river, fit¬
ted for the taking of Irfh, or for conveying the Hream to a.
mill. New wears are not to be made, or others altered, to the
nuifance of the public, under a certain penalty. See RrvER..
WEARING, or Veering, in feamanfhip. See Sea¬
manship, Vol. XVII. p. 219.
WE.ASEL, in zoology. See Mustela.
WEATHER denotes the Hate of the atmofphere with,
regard to heat and cold, wind, rain, and other meteors.
The phenomena of the weather n.uii have at all times at¬
tracted much of the attention of mankind, becaufe their fub-
frHence and their comfort in a great meaiure depended
upon them. It was not till the feventeenth century, how¬
ever, that any conliderable progrefs was made in invelliga-
ting the laws of meteorology. Flow defirous foever the
ancients might have been to acquire an accurate knowledge
of this fcience, their want of proper inHramenta entirely pre¬
cluded them from cultivating it. By the diicovery of the
barometer and thermometer in the lafl century, and the in¬
vention of accurate ele&rometers and hygrometers in the
4 P refen tj
W E A [ 82
Vwher. prefent, tfra defca is ro\r pretty well ftipplred i arid philo-
w-—v fophers are enabled to make meteorological observations with
eafe and accuracy, - Accordingly a very great number of
fuph obfervations have been colledted, which have been ar¬
ranged and examined from time to time by ingenious men,
and confequences deduced from them, on which feveral dif¬
ferent theories of the weather have been built. But meteo¬
rology is a icience fo exceedingly difficult, that, notwith-
ftanding the united exertions ot fome of the firil philofo-
• phers of the age, the phenomena of the weather are^ttill
very far from being completely underllood ; nor can we
expert to fee the veil removed, till accurace tables of obier-
» vntions have been obtained from every part of the world, till
the atraofphere has been more completely analyfed, and the
chemical changes which take place in it afcertained. From
the meteorological fads, however, which are already known,
we fhall draw up the be ft account of the weather we can.
We fhall treat of the different phenomena in the following
order—heat and cold, wind, rain, thunder, alterations in the
, gravity of the atmolphere.
Of'HtAT I. Though there rs a confiderable difference in every part
&nd Cold. Gf tge world between the temperature of the atmolphere in
furnmer and in winter ; though in the fame feafon the tem¬
perature of almoft every day, and even every hour, differs from
that which precedes and follows it ; though the heat varies
continually in the moft irregular and feemmgly capricious
manner—ftill there is a certain mean temperature in every cli¬
mate, which the atmolphere has always a tendency to ob-
ferve, and which it neither exceeds nor comes fhort of be- -
yond a certain number of degrees. What this temperature is,
maybe known by taking the mean ot tables of obfervations
kept for a number of years; and our knowledge of it muft be
the more accurate the greater the number of obfervations is.
The mean annual temperature is greateft at the equator
(or at lealt a degree 01 two on the north fide of it), and it
31 diminift.es gradually towards the poles, where it is leaft.
Method of This diminution takes place in arithmetical progrefiion, or,
difoveiing to morc properly, the annual temperature of all the
annual3*1 latitucies are arithmetical means between the mean annual
tempeiV temperature of the equator and the pole. This was ftrft
fare of difeovered. by Mr Mayer ; and by means of an equation
eveI7 which he founded on it, but rendered confiderably plainer
jd&ce. and lumpier, I<lr Kirwan has calculated" the mean annual
temperature of every degree of latitude between the equator
and the pole. Fie proceeded on the following principle.
Let the "mean annual heat at the equator be m and at the
pole m—n; put for any other latitude ; the mean annual
temperature of that latitude will be m—n X iin. <I>2. If
therefore the tempeiature of any two latitudes be known,
the value of ni and n may be found. Now the temperature
of north lat. 400 has been found by the heft obfervations
to be 62,1°, and that ot lat. 50°, 52,9''. ihe iquare of
the line of 40° is marly 0,419* an^ fquare 0f tlie fjne
of jcF is nearly 0,586. Therefore
m — 0,41 n — 62,1 and
m — 0,58 « =; 52,9 : therefore
62,1 -f- 0,41 n am 52,9 -y 058 «, as each of
them, from the two fir ft equations, is equal to m. from
this laft equation the value of n is found to be 53 nearly ;
ar.d rn is nearly equal to 84. The mean temperature of
the equator therefore is 84°, and that of the pole 310. To
find the mean temperature for every otne. latitude, we have
only to find 88 arithmetical means between 84 and 31.
In this manner Mr liirwan calculated the lollowing tabic.
< 1
W E A
7 Abie of the Mean Annual Temperature of the Standard Si¬
tuation, in every Ldtitude,
Weather*
y' rmmiJ
Lat. Temper | Lat Lemper ! Lat
9°
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
V
70
75
74
.73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
64
63
62
3 !>
31,04
31,10
31114
31/2
3'>4
3F5
3i»7
32»
32,2
3 2 >6
3-’.9
33*2
33’7
34.1
34,5
3 4,
35*5
36,
36>6
37.2
37,8
38.4
39.1
39.7
40.4
41.2
4',9
42.7
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
4 2
4’.
40
39
38
37
3 6
35
34
33
43.5
44.3
45,°9
45.8
46.7
47.5
4 "’4
49.2
50.2
5M
52.4
52.9
53.8
54.7
55,^
56>4
57.5
58.4
59.4
60.3
6 ,2
62,
63,
63.9
64.8
a5,7
66.6
67.4
68,3
32
31
3°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
.5
o
Pernper.
69.1
69,9
70.7
7l>5
72.3
72.8
73.8
74.5
7 5-4
75.9
76.5
77.2
77.8
78.3
78.9
79.4
79.9
8.,4
80.8
8 [,3
81.7
82,
82.3
82.7
82.9
83,2
83>4
83.6
84,
This table, however, only anfwers for the temperature of,n the
the atmolphere of the ocean. It was calculated for that
'part of the Atlantic ocean which lies between the 80th
degree of northern and the 45th of fouthern la itude, and
extends wellvvards as far ss the Gulf-ftream, and to within
a few leagues.of the coaft of America ; and for all that part
of the Pacific ocean reaching from lat. 450 north to lat. 40°
fouth, from the 20th to the 275th degree of longitude eaft
of London. This part o'- the ocean Mr Kirwarn calls the
Jiandard ; the reft of the ocean is fubjetft to anomalies which
wall be afterwards mentioned. 4
M Kirwan has alio calculated the mean monthly tern-And alfo
perature of the ftandarct ocean. The principles on which'he m<?an
he went were thefe : The mean temperature of April feems ff' lf
1 , 1 tempera—
to approach very nearly to the mean annual temperature ; ture>
and as far as heat depends on the action of the folar rays,
the mean heat of every month is as the mean altitude of the
fun, or rather as the fine of the ban’s altitude. Tne mean
heat of April, therefore, and the fine of the fun’s altitude
being given, the mean heat of May is found in this manner:
As the fine of the fun’s mean altitude in April is to the mean
heat of April, fo is the fine of the lun s mean altitude ia
May to the mean, heat of May. In the fame manner the
mean heats of June, July, and Auguft, are found ; but the
rule would give the temperature or the tucceedmg months
too low', becaufe it does not taM in the Mat derived from
the earth, which pofft{ft> a degite of heat nearly equal to
the mean annual temperature. The real temperature of
thefc
W E A [ g22
^Weatiier, tliefe months therefore muft be looked upon as an arith-
' v 'metical mean between the agronomical and terrcftial heats.
Thus in latitude 5 i °, the aftronomical heat of the month
©f September is 44.6:’, and the mean annual heat is 52.40 ;
therefore the real heat of this month fhould be
2
] W E A
— Mr Kirw’.n, however, after going through a Weather,
tedious calculation, found the remits to agree fo ill with —>r—»
obfervatione, that he drew up the following table partly
from principles and partly by ftudying a variety of fea-jour-
Tarlr of the Monthly Mean Temperature of the Standard from lat. 8 3° to lot. 10°.
w e a
[ 823 ]
W E A
The rm an
tempf ra-
ture of
ia d vaTies
\vith
the height
if the
place.
’1
From this table it appears, that January is the coldefl:
month in every latitude, and that July is the warmell month
in all latitudes above 48°. In lower latitudes. Au^uft
is generally wavmeft. The difference between the hoteft
and celdeft months increafes in proportion to the diilance
from the equator. Every habitable latitude enjoys a mean
heat of 60' for at lead two months ; this heat feems neccf-
fary for the p-oduftion of corn. Within ten decrees of the
poles the temperatures differ very little, neither do they
differ much within ten degrees of the equator; the tem¬
perature of different years differ very little near the equator,
but they differ more and more as the latitudes approach the
poles.
The temperature of the earth at the level of the fea is
the fame with that of the ftandard ocean; but this tempera¬
ture gradually diminifties as we afeend above that level till,
at a certain height, we arrive at the region of cerpetual
congelation. This region varies in height according to the
latitude of the place ; it is higheft at the equator, and de-
feends gradually nearer the earth as we approach the poles.
It varies alio according to the feafon, beiu - higheft in furn-
mer and loweft in winter. M. Bouguer found the cold cti
the top of Pinchinca, one of the Andes, to extend from
feven to nine degrees below the freezing point every, morn¬
ing immediately before inn rife. He concluded, therefore,
that the mean height of the term of congelation (the place
where it firft freezes during fome part of the day all the
year round) between the tropics was 15,577 feet above
the level of the fea ; but in lat. 28J he placed it in fummer
at the height of 1 ^440 feet. Now, if we take the dif¬
ference between the temperature ox the equator and the
ffeezing point, it is evident that it will bear the fame pro¬
portion to the term of con-elation at the equator that the
difference between the mean temperature of any other de¬
gree of latitude and the freezing point bears to the term of
congelation in that latitude. Thus the mean heat of the
equator being 84°, the difference between it and 32 is $z ;
the mean heat of lat. 28° is 72.3 , the difference between
which and 32 is 40.3 ; Then 52 : 15.77 : : 40.3 : 12072.
Xn t.us manner Mr itirwan calculated the following table,
Lat.
o
5
10
15
20
2 5
30
35
40
Atean height
of the
Term of
Congelation.
Fkkt.
15577
H457
35067
14498
137‘9
i3o3°
11592
10664
9016
Lat.
45
5°
55
60
65
73
75
, 80
Mean height
of the
Term of
Congelation.
Fee r.
7658
6260
4912
3684
2516
1557
748
120
If the elevation of a country above the level of the fea pro-MethoetV
reeds at a greater rate than fix feety/er mile, we muff, ac-of finding’
cording to Mr Kirwan *, for every 200 feet ol elevation f
dimiaim the annual temperature of the ftandard in. that tature
latitude as follows. If the elevation be at the rate aiLaiitudttt
6 feet per mile. j of a degree Fa&c
7 feet - \
13 feet -
lS or upwards 4
According to him J alfo, for every 50 miles diftance from|
the ftandard ocean, the mean annual temperature in drffe-. age 4£,
rent latitudes is to be deprefted or railed nearly at the fob-
lowing rate :
From lat. 70° to lat. 350 cooled \ of a degtee
35 " -ff
o
warmed i-
3°
25
20
10
7
The cauie of the heat of the atrnolphere is evidently the Caufe of
fun’s raysthis has been obferved and acknowledged in all1 hr heat
ages. The heat which they produce is leis according asoltheat*
they fall more obliquely ; hence the temperature conflantly f1--1-*
diminifhes from the equator to the pole, becaufe their ob¬
liquity conftantly increafes with the latitude. But if the
heat depended or. the folar rays alone, it would diiappeaf in.
3 the
W E A [ 824 ] W E A
, Weat^fr, the pokr region?! during winter when the fun ceafes to rife, able diftance from It. As the fea is never heated fo highly as Weather,
This, however, is by ro means the cafe ; the mean tempera- the land, the mean-iummer temperature at fca may be confi¬
ture, even at the pole, is 3 i° ; and we find within the arftic dered, all over the world, as lower than on land. Durimr
circle as hot weather as under the equator. The renfon of winter, when the power of the fun’s rays in a great meafure
air much mo^e readily
And nf the
difference
"between
land and
tea.
this is, that the fun’s rays heat the earth Confiderably during
luminer : this heat it retains and gives out fiowly during
winter, and thus moderates the violence of the cold ; and
fummer returns before the earth has time to be cooled down
beyond a certain degree. This is the reafoft that the cold-
eft weather does not take place at the winter folftice, but
fome time after when the temperature of the earth is lowedl;
and that the greateft heat takes place alfo fome confiderable
time after the fummer folftice, becaufe then the tempera¬
ture of the earth is higheft. For pure air is not heated by
the folar rays which pafs through it, but acquires fiowly the
temperature of the earth with which it is in contact. This
is the reafon why the temperature decreafes according to
the elevation above the level of the fea (a).
Since the atmofphere is heated by contadf with the fu-
perficies of the earth, its temperature rrtuft depend upon the
the tempe-capacity of that fuperficies for receiving and tranfmitting
rature on heat. Now this capacity differs very much inland and wa¬
ter. I,and, efpecially when dry, receives heat with great
readinefs, but tranfmits it through its own fubftance very
fiowly. Dr Hailes found, that in 1724, when the air and
furface of the earth were both at 88°, a thermometer placed
only two inches below the furface flood at 85'’; another 16
inches below the furface, at "jo'3; and another 24 inches
deep, at 68°. The two laft-mentioned thermometers re¬
tained the fame temperature till the end of the month,
though the temperature of the air frequently' varied, and
then fell only to 63° or 61 The earth, at about 80 or 90
feet below its furface, conftantly retains the fame tempera¬
ture; and this is nearly equal to the mean annual heat of the
country. Hence the mean annual temperature of any
country may be found out pretty accurately, by exami¬
ning the heat of deep wells or fprings. Water, on the con¬
trary, receives heat fiowly, on account of its tranfparency ;
but what it does receive, is very quickly transfufed through
the whole mafs.
I.and is often heated and cooled to a much greater de¬
gree than fea is. Dr Raymond often found the earth in
the neighbourhood of Marfeilles heated to 170°, but he
never found the ft a above 770: in winter the earth was
often cooled down to r 40, but the fea never lower than 4 50.
The fea atmolphere, therefore, ought to preferve a much
more uniform temperature than the land atmofphere ; and
we find this in fa£l to be the cafe. The caufe of the great¬
er equability of water than land is evident. In fummer the
urface of the fea is conftantly cooled down by evaporation ;
and in winter, whenever the furface is cooled, it defeends to
the bottom from its increased gravity, and its place is fup-
plied by warmer water. This procefs goes on continually,
and the winter is over before the atmofphere has been able
to cool down the water beyond a certain degree. It muft
be remembered alfo, that water has a greater capacity .for
heat than land has, and therefore is longer either in heating
©r cooling.
Thefe obfervations will enable us to explain the difference
which takes place between the annual temperature of the at-
mofphere above the ocean and that of places at lome confider-
ceafes, the fed gives out heat to the
than the earth : the mean winter temperature, therefore, at
fea is higher than on land ; and :fn cold’countries the differ¬
ence is foit more than counterbalances the differ¬
ence which takes place in fummer ; fo that in high latitude*
the mean annual temperature ought to be greater at fea than
on land. Accordingly from lat. 70° to 37'', to find the
temperature of a place, the ftanftard temperature for' the
fame latitude ought, according to Dr Kir/-an, to be de-
prefied {d of a degree for every 5 ~ miles diftance ; for the
ctfid which takes place in winter always ir.creafes in propor¬
tion to the diilance from the ftandard. At a lei’s diftance
than 50 miles the temperatures of land and fea are fo blended
together by fea and land winds, that there is little difference
in the annual mean. In lower latitudes than 30°, the rays
of the fun, even in winter, retain confiderable power ; the
furface of the earth is never cooled very low, confequently
the difference between the annual temperatures of the fea and
land becomes lefs. As we approach nearer to the equator,
the po.ver of the folar rays during winter increafes fo that }'
the mean winter temperature of the land atmofphere ap- . i
proaches nearer and nearer to that of the fea, till at laft at
the equator it equals it. After we pafs lat. 3o<J, therefore,
the mean annual land temperature gradually exceeds that of
the fea more and more till at the equator it exceeds it a de¬
gree for every 50 miles diftance.
Such then, in general, is the method of finding the mean
annual temperature over the globe. There are, however,
feveral exceptions to thefe general rules, which come now to
be mentioned.
That part of the Pacific ocean which lies between north Tempera-
lat. 52‘J and 66° is no broader at its northern extremity tare of.ths
than 42 miles, and at its fouthern extremity than [^oonor'.^e'n
1 it is reafonable to fuppofe, therefore, that its tempeia-^^2
miles
ture will be confiderably influenced by the furrounding land,
which ccnfifls of ranges of mountains covered, a great part
of the year, with fnow ; and there are befides a great many
high, and confequer.tly cold, Hands fcatcered through it.
For thefe reafons Mr Kirwan concludes, that its tempera¬
ture is at lead 4 or 5 degrees below the llandard. But
we are not. yet furnifhed wjth a fufficient number of obferva¬
tions to determine this with accuracy. ie •
It is the general opinion, that the fouthern hemifphere, be- Of the
yond the 40th degree of latitude, is coniiderably colder than ’outlern
the correfponding parts of the northern hemifphere. The caufe^ jne””
of this we fhall endeavour to affign in the article Wind. Ir
Sm?.ll feas fnrrounded with land, at leaft in tempe-Of fmall
rate and cold climates, are generally warmer in fummer^38-
and colder in winter than the ftandard ocean, becaufe they
are a good deal influenced by the temperatuie of the land.
The Gulph of Bothnia, for inftance, is for the moil part
frbzen in winter; but in fummer it is fometiraes heated to
70°, a degree of heat never to be found in the oppofite part
of the Atlantic *. The German lea is above three degrees* Mtm.
colder in winter, and five degrees warmer in fummer, than 177^'
the Atlantic The Mediterranean Sea is, for the greateV^ Kirwan >
part of its extent, warmer both in fummer and winter than Tempt™-
theture
P- J3-
(a)Ti was feme time ago the favourite opinion of philofophei s, that the heat of the earth was derived from a mafs of fire
in its centre. But there does not feem any probability in the opinion, as the heat of the earth does not increafe the deeper
vve go, but remains conftant nearly at the mean heat of the place. In the mine of Joachimftahd in Bohemn., one of the
deepeft exifting, Mr Monnet found the temperature at the depth of 1 700 feet to be 50°. The temperature of the earth
Jbas even been found to diminifti the deeper we go, though never lower than 36T
W E A
Weather-
^ Ibid-
11
Tempeta-
tnre of
JJorth
,Araei'ica<
Of iflanrls
and ftony
cejmtiks.
* P. Cette
'Journal de
Myfique,
Juh I79r-
f Abbe de
Coadrilli,
W E A [ 8ij ]
the Atlantic, which therefore flows into it, The Black
Sea is colder than the Mediterranean, and flows into it
The eaftern parts of North America are much colder than
the oppofxte coaft of Europe, and fall fhort ot the Jlandard
by about io° or I 2°, as appears from American Meteo¬
rological Tables. The caufes of this remarkable difference
are many. The highell part of North America lies between
the 4cth and ^oth degree of north latitude, and the 100th
and noth degree of longitude weft: from London; for there
the greateft rivers originate. The very height, therefore,
makes this fpot colder than it otherwife would be. It is
covered with immenfe forefts, and abeands with large
fwamps and morafies, which render it incapable of receiving
any great degree of heat ; fo that the rigour of winter is
much lefs tempered by the heat of the earth than in the
old continent. To the eafl lie a number of very large
lakes ; and farther north, Hudfon’s Bay ; about 50 miles
on the fouth of which there is a range of mountains which
prevent its receiving any heat from that quarter. This
bay is hounded on the eaft by the -mountainous country of
Labrador and by a number of iflands. Hence the coldnefs
of the north-welt winds and the lownefs of the temperature.
But as the cultivated parts of North America are now much
warmer than formerly, there is reaion to expedt that the
climate will become (till milder when the country is better
cleared of woods, though perhaps it will never equal the
temperature of the old continent.
lllands are warmer than continents in the fame degree
of latitude ; and countries lying to the windward of exten-
flve mountains or forefts are warmer than thofe lying to the
leeward. Stones or fand have a lefs capacity for heat than
earth has, which is always fomewhat moift ; they heat or
cool, therefore, more rapidly and to a greater degree. Hence
the violent heat of Arabia and Africa, and the intenfe cold
of Terra del Fuego. Living vegetables alter their tem¬
perature very flowly, but their evaporation is great ; and if
they be tall and clofe, as in forefts, they exclude the fun’s rays
from the earth, and Ihelter the winter fnow from the wind
and the fun. Woody countries, therefore, are much colder
than thofe which are cultivated.
Thus we have endeavoured to afeertain the mean tem¬
perature of every climate, and to alflgn the caufes by which
that temperature is governed, Mr Kirwan, in his admi¬
rable Treatile on the Temperature of Different Latitudes,
has done much to reduce this part of meteorology to regu¬
larity, and to lubjeft it to calculation; and he has in fome
meafure fucceeded. To enable our readers to judge how
far his rules agree with fafts, we fhall fubjoin a table of the
mean temperature of a variety of places drawn up from
aftual obiervations.
Table of fhe Mean Temperature of different Places.
Latitude.
Uw 20
I I 56
13 5
20 10
39 54
41 54
42 36
42 44
43
43 *8
43 .r
Year
i.fOb-
ftrva
tion.
I O
4
2
10
6
6
7
12
8
■3
II
Place"
Chandernagor*
Pondicherry *
Madras *
Ifle of France *
1 ’ekin *
Rome J;
Baftia *
Perpignan *
Rieux *
Marfeilles * '
Montpellier *
Mean
Heat of
theTf er.
Vol. XVIII. Pan II.
92
85
82.4
80.6
54.7
60
68.4
59>6
56,9
58.5
59.4
Latitude,
43 5°
43 51
44 50
45 22
45 28
46 31
46 35
47 12
47 H
48 27
48 3 *
48 50
48 56
4s 59
49 26
49 46
5° i7
50 51
51 31
51 41
52 4
52 30
52 32
53 11
55 45
57
59 20
59 56
60 27
Year?
of Ob-
ferva-
tion.
6° 16'
16 20
37
39 57
42 25
46 55
36
5
16
7
6
16
10
‘5
13
11
12
12
28
6
22
6
24
14
5
19
7
8
15
11
J3
4
3
15
18
10
Places.
Mean
Heat of
the Ther.
Lucca j-
Nifmes *
Bourdeaux *
Padua *
St Gothard *
Milan $
Laufanne |j
Poitiers *
Chinon *
Befangon *
Chartres *
St Brieux *
Paris *
Ratifbon *
Montrr.orenci*
Manheim
Neufchatel *
Arras *
Breda *
London
Copenhagen *
Hague *
Lynden § §
Berlin *
Franeker *
Mefcow *'
Nain *
Stockholm *
Peteiftmrg J £
Abo *
20
60.8
6c,3
56,3
53.8
3°
54.9
48.5
5 2,7
53.6
5 [>3
5°>7
52,47
52,47
49, ‘
5°>9
5r>5
50.9
48.2
51.1
50.6
5',1
51.8
48.3
49»i
52,25
40.1
27.5
44,37
39.5
41.9
A MER1CA.
Peru *
S irin am*
Guadaioupe *
Leogane, St Do¬
mingo *
Williamfburgh*
Philadelphiaf f
Cambridge*
Quebec * 
77
77.9
83
79
58
52,5
48
41.9
Weather,
u-   
4 hf. Ste.
fano Cznii,
§ Tie A-
(Ironomers,
H l)r n-r-
deil.
* Phil.
T r.inf.
§ § MV Bar¬
ker.
} | Edin,
Tran/, vol.
ii. p. 229.
f f Mem.
Stock, lii
As to the daily variations of the temperature of the at- Qaure^ 0f
mofphere, they are owing to a variety of caufes; many ofLhe daily
which are probably unknown. Some of them, however, variations
are the following : 1. Wind. It is evident that winds flow-of temi''era”’
ing from cold countries muft produce cold, and from hotture’
countries heat; and that whatever has a tendency to produce
fuch winds muft be the caufe of unufual cold ot heat.—•
2. Evaporation. Water always abforbs a quantity o^ heat
when it affumes the ftate of vapour. Hence the coldnefs
of marfhy countries, and the cold which we often experi¬
ence during and after violent rains. Hence alfo we may
expeA a cold winter after a rainy fummer, becaufe the un¬
ufual evaporation canies off the heat of the earth.—3. Va¬
pour, when condenled, gives out a quantity of heat; a coun¬
try, therefore, may be heated by the condenlation over it of
vapour brought from a dHance. Hence the iultrinefs often
felt before rain.—4. Vapours, when they remain long over
any country, may produce cold by obflru&ing the paffage
of the fun’s rays to the earth. To this caufe Dr Franklin
aferibed the very fevere winter which followed 1783 ; a year
remarkable for the thick fog which ovtrfpread Europe and
5 M America
lather.
15
Of WiNBS.
16
©f XAIN.
17
Caufes oi
evapora¬
tion.
W E A [ 826
America during feveral months,—5. When, from any of
thele cauieSjr the winter has been feverer than ufual, prodi¬
gious quantities of ice may accumulate about the pole,
which may contribute fomething perhaps towards lowering
the temperature of feveral fucceeding years.
II. The winds evidently have a very great influence on
the weather; the caufes which produce them, therefore,
ought to be examined with the greateft attention. Were
we 'able to regulate their motions, we might, in a great
meafure, mould the climate of any country according to our
pleafure ; were we able to forfee them, it would be of the
greattft imporance to navigation and agriculture. In the
torrid zone, where they are regular, the mean annual tem¬
perature remains almoft always the fame ; their irregularity
increafes as we approach the pole, and in the fame manner
the difference between the mean annual temperature increafes
with the latitude.
Wind is produced chiefly by the aftion of the fun on the
atmofphere ; there are many other caufes, however, and fome
perhaps of which we are yet ignorant. But we fhall re-
ferve this part of our fubjeft, on account of its importance
and extent, for a feparate article.
III. We come now to the moll difficult part of our fub-
jeft, the phenomena and caufes of rain. It has been long
known, that water is conftantly rifrng from the whole fur-
face of the globe, in the form of vapour, and mixing with
the atmofphere. Evaporation has been afcrited to various
eaufes ; but the greater number of philofophers have for
fome time pall acquiefced in the theory firft advanced by
Dr Halley, that it was produced by a real fslution of wa¬
ter in air, juft as fugar or fait is diffolved in water. This
thepry is fupported by a great many very plaufible argu¬
ments, which at the firft view feem to eftablifh its truth.—
Thefe arguments, however, are not all of them fo conclu-
five as they appear. Thus it was thought, that becaufe
evaporation was promoted by heat, and retarded by cold, it
bore an exaft refemblance to the foluaon of falts in liquids:
but it is now known that evaporation is not fo much re¬
tarded by cold as was at firft fuppofed ; that in fome eir-
cumftances it is even promoted by it ; and that it does not
depend fo much upon the abftftutc degree of heat or cold,
as upon the difference of temperature between the atmo¬
fphere and the evaporating furface. Befides, water evapo¬
rates much more rapidly in a vacuum than in the open air,
which could not poffibly be the cafe if evaooration were owr-
ing to the folution of water in air.
Evaporation, then, cannot be owing to folution of wa¬
ter in air ; it is produced by the combination of a cer¬
tain quantity of caloric with the particles of water, by
which it is converted into an elaftic fluid lighter than air,
which therefore immediately afeends and mixes with the at¬
mofphere. This was long ago fhown by Dr Black to be
the way in which fleam or the vapour arifmg from boiling
water is produced. The fame principles were afterwards
applied by Mr De Luc to fpontaneous evaporation; and the
proofs upon which this theory refts are quite convincing.
But though evaporation is not produced by air, vapour
would very foon condenfe and return to ifs former ftate by
contadl with colder bodies, unlefs it were attracted and lup-
ported by air. '
qualities of We are indebted to the experiments of Sauflure and De
vapour. Luc for much of our knowledge of the qualities of vapour. It
is an elaflic invifible fluid like common air, but lighter ; be¬
ing to common air, according to Sauffure,. as 10 to 14, or,
according tp Kirwan, as 10 to 12 : it cannot pafs beyond
a certain maximum of denfity, otherwife the particles of wa¬
ter which compofe it unite together, and form fmall, hollow,
vilible veiicks, called vtficular valour] which is of the
] \V E A
fame fpecific gravity with atmofpherical air. It is of this va- Weathei*.
pour that clouds and fogs are compofed. This maximum
increafes with the temperature.; and at the heat of boiling
water is fo great, that fleam can refill the whole prefiure of
the air, and exiil in the atmofphere in any quantity. See
Meteorology, n° 7—23.
Evaporation, at leall in our climate, is about four times (wL. f
greater during the fummer than the winter half-year : other vapour
things being equal, it is fo much the more abundant the great rai!ed
er the difference is between the temperature of the air andai!nua^’
of the evaporating furface ; fo much the lefs, the nearer
they appipach to the fame temperature ; and lealt of all
when they actually arrive at it. Whenever the atmofphere
is more than 15 degrees colder than the evaporating furface,
little evaporation takes place at all. Evaporation is power¬
fully promoted by winds, efpecially cold winds blowing in¬
to warm countries, or warm winds blowing into cold coun¬
tries *. Tradls of land covered with trees or vegetables emit* Temb
more vapour than the fame ' fpace covered with water, of
From the experiments of Mr Williams, the quantity appear*!'- ll-
to he one-third more J. But the method in which theie ex-f Tm/
periments were made (the lame objedlion lies againft feveral toI,
of Dr Haiks’s experiments, the original dilcoverer of the“‘ V'in’
fa£l) prevented him from afeertaining exadlly the quantity
of vapour emitted by plants. He made the plants grow in
a box well clofed up from the air, meafured the quantity of
water with which he fupplied them, and at the end of the
experiment weighed the box and the plants themfelves. By
this means he knew pretty accurately the quantity of" water
which the plants had abforbed, and which had afterwards ’:
difappeared ; and all this he concluded had been emitted by
the plants in the ftate of vapour. But it is well known that
plants have the power of decompounding water, of retain¬
ing the hydrogen, and throwing off the oxygen. A part
of the water then was decompounded and changed into air;
and the quantity of this ought to have been afeertained and
fubtrafted. Still, however, the quantity of vapour emitted
by vegetables is very great. Evaporation is promoted by
heat, and is therefore much greater in the torrid zone than
in our latitudes. There, too, the difference between the
quantities in fummer and winter is much lefs than in our
climate, becaufe the difference between the temperature of
the two feafons is lefe. Animals alfo are continually throw¬
ing off vapour by infenfible perfpiration ; the quantity of
which is Exceedingly different, according to the climate,
leafon, and temperament, and cannot therefore be calculated
exactly. According to Keil, a Angle man perfpires 31
ounces of vapour in 24 hours, and conlequently 707 pounds
of water in a year. The quantity of vapour then which is
emitted by animals alone mull be very great.
From an experiment made by Dr Watfon in England,
during fummer, when the earth had been burnt up by a.
month’s drought without rain, it appears that 1600 gallons
of water weie evaporated from a Angle acre in 12 hours.—■
If we were to fuppofe that this reprefented the mean daily
evaporation all over the globe, it would be eafy to calculate
the quantity of water annually evaporated from the whole
of its furface. And iLwe confider the ftate of the earth
when the experiment was made, the Atuation of England
nearer the pole than the equator, and the evaporation con-
flantly going on from animals and vegetables, which is not
taken in, we will furely not think the mean affumed too
great. 1600 gallons in 12 hours is 32.00 in 24 hours..
Let us call it only 300c, which is equal to 693,000 cubic
inches. An acre contains 272^640.fquare inches; fo that
the daily evaporation from every iquare inch will be about
. 1 1 of a cubic inch. This in a year will amount to fo me what
more than 40 cubic inches for every fquare inch. From the
er.pe-
W E A
[
'Vfeath?!'.
• ‘franf
J’hilad. vol
ii. p- ‘35-
no
Quantity
contained
in the at-
tnofphere
it once
ii
Never a-
niounts to
its ’inaxi-
aium.
11
Formation
clouds
experiments of Mr Williams *, it appears, that in Bradford
in New England the evaporation during 1772 amounted to
42,65 inches ; but from the way that his experiments were
conduced, the amount was probably too great. Thefe ex¬
periments, however, ferve to {how, that our calculation is
not perhaps very remote from the truth. 40 inches from
every fquare inch on the iuperficies of the globe makes
107,942 cubic pules, equal to the water annually evaporated
over the whole globe.
Were this prodigious mafs of water all to fubfift in the
atmofphere at once, it would increafe its mafs by about a
twelfth, and raife the barometer nearly three inches- But
this never happens, no day paffes without <rain in fome part
of the earth ; fo that part of the evaporated water is con-
ftantly precipitated again. Indeed it would be impofiible
for the whole of the evaporated water to fubfiil in the at-
mofphere at once, at leaft in the Hate of vapour.
M. De Sauffure has fhown, that when the thermometer
is at 66°, a cubic foot of air cannot contain more vapour
than what is equivalent to 8 grains of water. If more than
this be added, it will pals its maximum, be converted into
vdicular vapour, and at lali iall down in drops of rain. At
the temperature of 32° a cubic foot of air can contain only
4 grains, and the quantity it can contain is increaled .1109
of a grain by every additional degree of heat. ■ Suppofing
then that the whole atmofphere was faturated with water,
it would not amount to the hundredth part of the quantity
of water evaporated annually.
The quantity of vapour exifting in the atmofphere is in¬
dicated by the hygrometer. Water has the property of ar¬
riving at a ftate of equilibrium in hygrofcopic fubftances :
that is, fuppofmg a certain quantity of water attached to a
hygrofcopic fubftance, if another hygrofcopic fubftance be
brought into contaft with it containing lefs water, ibme of
the water attached to the firit lubtlance will leave it, and
attach itfelf to the other, till both contain the fame pro¬
portion of water. Air is a hygrofcopic fubftance, and fo is
every thing of which hygremeters are made. Now the hy¬
grometer never points at extreme moifture while the air
continues tranfparent, and confequently contains nothing
but invihble vapour ; the atmolphere therefore, while tran¬
fparent, never contains the greateft poffible quantity of va¬
pour. .
The higher regions of the atmofphere contain lefs vapour
than the itrata near the furface of the earth. This was ob-
ferved both by M. De Sauflure and M. De Luc, who men.
tions feveral ftriking proofs of it. See Meteorology, n°
10, See.
At fome height above the tops of mountains the atmo¬
fphere is probably ftill drier ; for it was obferved both by
Sauffure and De Luc, that on the tops of mountains the
moifture of the air was rather lefs during the night than
the day. And there can be little doubt that every ftra-
tum of air defeends a little lower during the night than it
was during the day, owing to the cooling and condeniing
of the ftratum neareft the earth. Vapours, however, mult
afetnd very high, for we fee clouds forming far above the
tops of the higheft mountains.
Rain never begins to fall while the air is tranfparent:
the invifible vapours firft pafs their maximum, and are
changed into veficular vapours; clouds are formed, and
thefe' clouds gradually diffolve in rain. Clouds, however,
are not formed in all parts of the horizon at once ; the for¬
mation begins in one particular fpot, while the reft of
the air remains clear as before : this cloud rapidly increafes
till it overfpveads the whole horizon, and then the rain be-
gins.
It is remarkable, that though the greateft quantity of va-
7 ] W E A
pours exift in the lower ftrata of the atmofphere, clouds ne- Wither^
ver be >in to form there, but always at fome confiderable * ™
height. It is remarkable, too, that the part ot the atmo¬
fphere at which they form has not arrived at the point of
extreme moifture, nor near that point even a moment before
their formation, fhey are not formed then, becaufe a great¬
er quantity of vapour had got into the atmofphere than
could remain there without pafung its maximum. It is fliil
more remarkable, that when clouds are formed, the tempe¬
rature of the fpot in which they are formed is not always
lowered, though this may fometimes be the cafe. On the
Contrary, the heat of the clouds themfelves is fometimes
greater than that of the furrounding air$. Neither then is the § /y, £ ,,,-
formation of clouds owing to the capacity of air for combi-Ar h Mi¬
ning with moifture being leffened by cold : fo far from that/;7^"
we often fee clouds, which had remained in the atmofphere
during the heat of the day, difappear in the nignt, ater the
heat of the air was diminifhed. 23
The formation of clouds and rain, then, cannot be ac-And rain
counted for by a fingle principle with which we are ac-«nno^be
quainted. It is neither owing to the iaturation of the at- ^ ^
mofphere, nor the diminution of heat, nor the mixture of
airs of different temperatures, as Dr Hutton fuppofes ; for
clouds are often formed without any wind at all either above
or below them ; and even if this mixture ronftantly took
place, the precipitation, inftead of accounting for rain,
would be almoft imperceptible.
It is a very remarkable faft, that evaporation often goes
on for a month together in hot weather without any rain.
This fometimes happens in this country ; it happens every
year in the torrid zone. Thus at Calcutta, during January
1785, it never rained at all * : the mean of the thermometer * Ajr>t. Re-
for the whole month was 66J degrees; there was no hlSh{^w,A
wind, and indeed during great part of the month little win^iien'jix.
at all. ' _ j 1 * •
The quantity of water evaporated during fuch a drought Vapour dif-
muft be very great; yet the moifture of the air, in-aPPear3>
ftead of being increafed, is conftantly ditninifhing, and at
laft difappears almoft entirely. For the dew, which is at
firft copious, dirninifties every night; and if Dr Watfon’a
experiment formerly mentioned be attended to, ft will not
be objected that the quantity of evaporation is alto very
much diminifhed. Of the very dry ftate to whica the at¬
mofphere is reduced during long droughts, the violent thun-
der-ftorms with which they often conclude is a proof, and a
very decilive one. Now what becomes of all this moifture ? It
is not accumulated in the atmofphere above the country from
which it was evaporated, otherwife the whole atmofphere
would in a much leis period than a month be perfeidly fa¬
turated with moifture. If it be carried up daily through
the different ftrata of the atmofphere, and wafted to other
regions by fiiperior currents of air, how is it poflible to ac¬
count for the different ele&rical ftate of the clouds fituated
between different ftrata, which often produces the molt vio¬
lent thunder-ftorms ? Are not vapours conduHors of the
ele&nc fluid ; and would they not have daily reftored the
equilibrium of the whole atmolphere through which they
paffed ? Had they traverfed the atmofphere in this manner,
there would have been no negative and pofttive clouds, and
confequently no thunder-ftorms. They could not have re¬
mained in the lower ftrata of the atmofphere, and been dai¬
ly carried off by winds to other countries ; for there are of¬
ten no winds at all during feveral days to perform this of-
fice : nor in that cafe would the dews diminifh, nor could An(j
their prefence fail to be indicated by the hygrometer. fames a
It is impoffible for us to account for this remarkable faftnew form
upon any principle with which we are acquainted. Thein ^ At¬
water can neither remain in the atmolphere, nor pafs thro’e--r
5 M 2 " it
"Weather.
bie.
W E A [8
it in the ftate of vapour. It muft therefore affume fome
” v other form ; but what that form is, or how it affumes it, we
know not.
Its confer- It will immediately occur to every body, that vapour is
fmn into decompofed in the atmofphere, and changed into oxygen
hyd?ogeanndand hydlo5en .gas*. But is k ^ue that a greater quantity
improba- of oxygen exifts in the atmofphere arter a long drought
than immediately after rain ? Have inch prodigious quanti¬
ties of hydrogen been found in the atmofphere as muft al¬
ways exift in it if this hypothefis were true ? Has any hy¬
drogen ever been found in analyzing atmofpheric air ? Or
if hydrogen, from its Kghtnefs, afeends to the higher re¬
gions of the atmofphere, what caufes it to defeend at parti¬
cular times, contrary to that lightnefs, in order to come in¬
to contact with oxygen ? Do not clouds often form on
mountains round the habitations of men ? Yet has the pre¬
fence of hydrogen been ever afeertained by any phenomena?
Would it not produce dangerous conflagrations when it
came into contadt with fire ? But has this been the cafe in a
fmgle inftance ? If this hypothefis were true, could rain take
place at all wuthout a conflagration in the atmofphere ? Yet
has any fuch conflagration been ever obferved ? The hypo¬
thefis, then, that vapour is changed into oxygen and hydro¬
gen in the atmofphere, and that rain is produced by the re¬
union of thefe elements, cannot be admitted, though it is
not improbable that fome fmall part of it aftually undergoes
this change. See Wind.
We do not take notice of M. De Luc’s conjedlure about
the compofition of the atmofphere, becaufe it is not fup-
ported by a Angle proof, and becaufe he refufes to believe
the analyfis of the atmofphere refulting from the very deci-
five experiments of Scheele, Lavoifier, and Pneftley, though
he has feen them often performed, and has nothing to urge
sgainft their force. There is no philofopher to whom me¬
teorology lies under greater obligations than to M. De Luc.
His difeoveries have been many and important, his experi¬
ments ingenious, and his application unwearied; but his
eonje&ures are like thofc of every other man who attempts
to fathom the wifdom of the Almighty. Were we poflef-
fefitd of an underftanding equal to that of the Author cf
Nature, we might expedt, with reafon, to dive by our con-
je&ures into the myfteries of his operations ; but in our pre¬
lent ftate they are vain.
Evaporation goes on longeft without producing rain in
the torrid zone, where the heat is greateft ; it goes on long,
eft alio in every place in fiunmer, when the heat is alfo
greateft : heat therefore feems to be an agent.
There are then two fteps of the procefs between evapora¬
tion and rain, ot which at prelent we are completely igno¬
rant : 1. What becomes of the vapour after it enters into
the atmofphere ? 2. What makes it Jay afide the new form
which it muft have aflumed, and return again to its Hate of
vapour, a-nd fall down in rain ? And till thefe two fteps be dif-
covered by experiments and obfervations, it will be impof-
fible for us to give a rational or a ufeful theory of rain.
It has for fo:r.e time pall been the opinion of philofo-
phers, that eledlricity is the principal agent in producing
rain ; and M. Bertholon allures us, that by railing proper
condudtors to draw off the eledlncal matter from the atmo-
fphere, the quantity of rain may be diminifhed at pleaiure.
'That the eledtric fluid adds a very important part in nature,
cannot be doubted, and it is not improbable that it may be
the agent in producing rain. This fuppofition indeed is
fupported by many fadts.. Dew at leaft exhibits a great many
tledlrical phenomena ; it is attra&ed by points, and attaches
itfelf to fome fubftances, while it avoids others. Whenever
there are no clouds, the eledfricity of the atmofphere is always
jpclitive $ but tke formation of clouds produces eonfiderabk
*8 1 w E A
changes in the ftate of its elcddricity. The atmofphere Weather,
alio gives figns of eledlricity conftantly during rain ; and
clouds are evidently attradfed by mountains.-—In what man¬
ner, however,, the eledtrical fluid produces rain (if it is the
agent ot all) is ftill unknown. Some philofoohers affure us,
that clouds are induced to diffolve in rain by becoming ne¬
gative, others by becoming ftrongly pofjtive, and both Yuo-
port their opinion by experiments. We do not fee the ana-
l°gy, however, between clouds and plates of m^tal covered
with drops of water. And even if their opinion were well
founded, the produdtion of the clouds themfelves would re¬
main to be accounted for.
The mean annual quantity of rain is greateft at the equa-Quality of
tor, and decreafes gradually as we approach the poles. rani differ?
Thus at * Granada, Antilles, I2C N. lat. it is 126 inches. Lg mThf
* Cape Francis, St
Domingo
% Calcutta
* Rome
[j England
^ Peterfburgh
J9
22
41
33
59
46'
23
54
16
120
8 r
39
32
16
latitude,
* Cotte
Journal it
I’hyftquc,
Oa. 179^
p. 264.
f Aftatic fit.
Searches^ val,
5-7
Theory cf
rain im-
perfedt.
28
Whefher
owing to
eledbkity.
On the contrary, the number of rainy days 1s fmalleft at the* and ii.
equator, and increafes in proportion to the diftance from it. APPe.ndix*
From north latitude 120 to 4^° the mean number of rainy -r^y
days is 78 ; from 430 to 46° the mean number is 1035 fromf Eiin.
46° to 50° it is 134 ; from 5 i° to 6o°, 161 f. ‘Tranf. ^l
The number of rainy days is often greater in winter thanii- P- 244-
in fummer ; but the quantity of rain is greater in fummerSea{^°
than in winter J. At Peterfburgh, the number of rainy orf P. Cette
fnowy days during winter is 84, and the quantity which
falls is only about five inches ; during fumrner the number ^
of rainy days is nearly the fame, but the quantity which
falls is about 11 inches [|.
More rain falls in mountainous countries than in plains. Iw-'vot
Among the Andes it is faid to rain almoft perpetually, ii. p. 244.
while in Egypt it hardly ever rains at all. — If a rain-gau re 31
be placed on the ground, and another at fome height per-Anc5 fitua*
pendicularly above it, more rain will be colle&ed into thetIOn'
lower than into the higher ; a proof that the quantity of
rain increafes as it defeends, owing perhaps to the drops at¬
tracting vapour during their paffage through the.lower ftra-
ta of the atmofphere where the greateft quantity refides.
This, however, is not always the cafe, as Mr Copland of.
Dumfries difeovered in the courie of his experiments *.
He obferved alfo, that when the quantity of rain collected iv?p' 6ig,j
in the lower gauge was greateft, the rain commonly continu¬
ed for .fome time ; and that the greateft quantity was col-
leAed in the.higher gauge only either at the end of great
rains, or during rains which did not laft long. Thefe ob¬
fervations are important, and may, if followed out, give us-
new knowledge of the caufes of rain. They feem to fhow,
that during rain the atmofphere is fomehow or other
brought into a ftate which induces it to part with its moi- «
fture ; and that the rain continues as long as this ftate con¬
tinues. Were a fufficient number of obiervations made on
this fnbjed in different places, and were the atmofphere
carefully analyfed during dry weather, during rain, and im¬
mediately after rain, we might foon perhaps difeover the
true theory of rain.
Rain falls in all feafons of the year, at all times of the
day,.and during the night as well as the day ; though, ac¬
cording to M. Toaldo, a greater quantity falls during the
day than the night. The caufe of rain, then, whatever it
may be, muft be fomething which operates at all times and
fealons. Rain falls alfo during the continuance of every
wind, but oiteneft when the wind blows from the fouth.
Falls of rain often happen iikewife during perfe& calsns.
It
W E A
[ 829 ]
W E A
Wea her. It appears from a paper publifbed by M. Cotte in the
   —- Journal de Phyfique for Oftober 179T, containing the mean
31 quantity of rain falling at 147 places, fituated between north
rual quan- latitude ii°and 60®, deduced from tables kept at theleplaces,
t:ty of rain, that the mean annual quantity of rain falling in all thefe
places is 34-7 inches. Let us fuppofe then (which cannot
be very far from the truth) that the mean annual quantity
of rain for the whole globe is 34 inches. The fuperficies
of the globe confills of 170,981,©! 2 fquare miles, or
686,401,498,471,475,200 fquare inches. The quantity
of rain therefore falling annually will amount to
2 3,3 37,650,8 12,030,156,800 cubic inches, or fomewhat
more than 91,751 cubic miles of water. This is 16,19!
cubic miles of water lefs than the quantity of water evapo¬
rated. It feems probable therefore, if the imperfection of
our data warrant any conclufion, that fome of the vapour is
actually decompofed in the atmofphere, and converted into
oxygen and hydrogen gas.
The dry land amounts to 52,745,253 fquare miles (fee
the article Sea, n° 1.); the quantity of rain falling on it an¬
nually therefore will amount to 30,960 cubic miles. The
quantity of water running annually into the fea (fee Sea,
n° 3.) is 13,140 cubic miles ; a quantity of water equal
to which muft be fupplied by evaporation from the fea,
ether wile the land would foon be completely drained of its
moiliure. # . .
The quantity of rain falling annually in Great Britain
may be feen from the following table :
§ Manchefi.
Tr.inf. Vi4.
iv.
f Phil.
Tranf. Ta-
lles of Ob
firvations-
I Ibid, vol.
Jxxix. part
1.
|1 Mr Bar-
ktr, Ibid.
| EJin.
Tranf. vol.
i. p. 2o8.
^ Statifl.
/ccrunt of
Scotland,
Vol v. p.
*45-
* * Ed in
Tranf. vol.
>• P- 333-
Years of
obfervation.
3
5
8
8
45
8
18
7
5
*4
10
5
5
20
8
Places.
Dover 9 - -
Ware, Hertfordfhire §
London f -
Kimbolton ijl
Lyndon ||
Chatfworth, Derby (hire §
Manchefter $
Liverpool $
Lancaster $
Kendal §
Dumfries $
Branxholm, 44 miles fouth-wefl
of Berwick
Langholm ^
Dalkeith ^1 ”
Glafgow *
Havvkhill # *
Mean
Rain in
inches.
37»52
23>S
i7»5
23.9
2 2,210
27)865
43)1
34)41
4G)3
61,223
36,127
3 T)*6
36>7?
25,124
31
28,966
32,532
In this country it generally rains lefs in March than in
November, in the proportion at a medium of 7 to 1 2. _ It
generally rains lefs in April than Oaober in the proportion
of 1 to 2 nearly at a medium. It generally rains lefs in
May than September, the chances that it does fo are at
lead as 4 to 3 ; b«t when it rains plentifully in May (as 1.8
inches or more), it generally rains but little in September ;
and when it rains one mch or lefs in May, it rains, plentrlul-
Kimvan, ly in Seotember *.
:n - r IV. Thunder has been explained at fueh great length rn the
article Electricity, that we fhall content ourfelves at pre-
fent with a few remarks.
Thunder is exceedingly frequent in the torrid zone, and
it feems to decreafe gradually till we approach latitude 60 ,
or perhaps farther north. During the year 17^5) in*
rijb Tranf.
ol. v. p.
1.
33
)f THUN
IE&,
dance, there were 90 thunder-dorms at Calcutta. Accord- Weather* ^
ing to Profedbr Mufchenbroek, it thunders at Utrecht at
a medium 15 times annually : in this country the medium
is confiderably below that number. Thunder, too, feems
to be very common in fome polar regions. The Abbe
Chappe informs us, that he obferved thunder much more
frequently at Tobolfki and in other parts of Siberia than in
any other country. Mufchenbroek, however, affirms, we
know not upon what authority, that it never thunders at
nil in Greenland and at Hudfon’s Bay. Thunder-dorms
happen almod always during the fummer, and very feldotn
in winter. During the year 1785 above mentioned, it ne¬
ver thundered at Calcutta in January, November, nor Decem¬
ber. In this country a thunder-dorm during winter is ex¬
ceedingly rare.
The phenomena of thunder are now no longer a fecret,
fince the great Franklin difeovered the identity of lighten¬
ing and ele&vicity; a difeovery inferior to none in the an¬
nals of philofophy. But though we can explain the nature of
thunder in general, and the manner in which it is produced,
there are feveral difficulties dill remaining, which tuture ex¬
periments and obiervations only can remove. Air is an elec¬
tric per fe, and cannot therefore when dry condutt eleftrical
matter trom one part to another. We know from the ex¬
periments of Dr Franklin and others, that the atmofphere
condantly contains in it a quantity of elettric matter. If a
dratum of dry air were eledlrified pofitively, it would occa-
fion a negative eleftricity in the neighbouring dratum.
Suppofe now that an imperfeA conduftor were to come
into contaft with each of thefe drata, we know from the
principles of ele&ricity that the equilibrium would be _re-
llored, and that this would be attended with a loud noife,
and with a dafh of light. Clouds which confid of veficular
vapours mixed with particles of air, are impel fe<5t conduc¬
tors ; if a cloud therefore come into contadt with two fuch
ftrata, a thunder clap would follow. If a podtive dratum
be htuated near the earth, the intervention of a cloud will,
by ferving as a depping-done, bring the dratum within the
ftriking didance, and a thunder clap will be heara while
the eledtrical duid is difeharging itfelf into the earth. It
the dratum be negative, the contrary effedls will take place.
It does not appear, however, that thunder is often occa-
fioned by a difeharge of ele&ric matter from the earth into
the atmofphere. The accidents, mod of them at lead,
which were formerly aferibed to this caufe, are now much
more fatisfa&orfly accounted for by Lord Stanhope s 1 heo-
ry of the Returning Stroke. Neither does it appear that
electricity is often difeharged into the earth, as the effects
of few thunder-dorms are vihble upon the earth ; that it is
fo fometimes, however, is certain. The experiments of Mr
Sauffure have demondrated, that ekarical matter is carried
into the atmofphere by fimple evaporation ; fo that there 13
no difficulty in underilanding how particular drata of air
may be fupplied with a fufficient quantity of ele&rical duid
to be charged pofitivelyand we know tnat in that cafe a
negative date mud be produced in the neighbouring dra¬
tum. In what particular manner, however, this eleftrical
matter is accumulated in particular drata of air, and how it
comes to be feparated from the vapour to which it was uni¬
ted, remain dill fecrets. They are intimately comre&ed
with the canfes of evaporation and rain, whatever they may
be, and probably the difeovery of the caufes of either would
lead to that of the others. rf
V. The gravity of the atmofphere was fird demondrated
by Torricelli, the difciple of Galileo (fee Pne^umatics,gravi-
n° 25). A column of air, the bads of which ,is a lquare Tv of the
inch, weighs at a medium 15 pounds. The weight of theATMo-
atroofphere is meafured by the barometer. ItisgreatedSi,UERE-
W E A \
feather. a(. t},e ]evtj 0f fea? becaufe there the column of
air is
longeft : there the mean height of the barometer is 30
inches. This Sir George Shuckburgh found to be the
cafe in the Mediterranean and the Channel, in the tempera¬
ture of 550 and 6o° ; Mr Bouguer, on the coaft of Peru,
in the temperature of 84®; and Lord Mulgrave, in. latitude
8o°. The mean hei ght of the barometer is lefs the higher
any place is fituated above the level of the fea, becaufe’the
column of air which fupports 'the mercury is the fhorter.
35 -t he; bai ometer has accordingly been ufed for mealurmg
Indicated heights. It indicates, too, with a great deal of accuracy^
ba’ a!1 the variations in the gravity of the atmofphere ; falling
xome.cr. vvben the atmofphere is lighter, and riling when it is hea5-
vier, than ufual. Thefe changes have attrafted the atten¬
tion of philofophers ever iince the difcovery of the barome¬
ter ; and many attempts have been made to explain them,
fome of which have been mentioned under the word Baro¬
meter. Thefe variations come natuially to be examined
here, becaufe the caufes which produce them, whatever they
are, muit have a great deal of influence on the weather.
Between tne tropics the variations of the barometer are
exceedingly fmall; and it is remarkable, that in that part
ot the world it does not defcend above half as much for eve-
M. CafanrY 200 feet °f elevation as it does beyond the tropics *.—
Journal Je ton id zone, too, the barometer is elevated about two-
fhthirds of a line twice every day ; and this elevation happens
^V79°)at t^ie ^ame time Wlt^ t^e t‘des the fea §.
f\.s the latitude advances towards the poles,' the range of
the barometer gradually increafes, till at lall it amounts to
two or three inches. I his gradual increale will appear from
the following table:
830 ]
W E A
4. 268
^ Ibid.
36
Stance of
the baro-
sueter.
Table of the Range of the Barometer.
^ Kirivan,
Jrijb Tranf.
^;ol. iii. p.
47-
■f Afiatic Re
Je a robes,
vol ii. Ap.
pendix.
§ Alancbeji
Tranf. vol.
iv.
4 Edin.
Tranf vol.
li. p.,
Tranf.
jPhiladel,
Vol. ii.
p. 14*.
4 Aug.
•I 790, p.
xio.
, 37
Phenome¬
na of the
variations
•of the ba-
fonieter
Latitude.
o°
22 23
40 55
5i «
53 13
53 23
59 56
Places.
Peru
Calcutta
Naples
Dover
Middlewick
Liverpool
Peterfburgh
Range of the Barometer,
Greateft. Annual
©,20 *
°,77 f
i,ao *
2,47 $
3>0° §
2,89 §
3»45 t
1,80
L94
1,96
2»77
In North America, however, the range of the barome¬
ter is a great deal lefs than in the correfponding European
•latitudes. In Virginia, for inftance, it never exceeds I.x
The range of the barometer is greater at the level of the
fea than on mountains, and in the lame degree of latitude
the extent of the range is in the inverfe ratio of the height
ol the place above the level of the fea.
From a table publifhed by Mr Cotte in the Journal cle
Phyfique f, it feems exceedingly probable that the barome¬
ter has always a tendency to rife from the morning to the
evening.; and that this tendency is greateft between two
o’clock in the afternoon and nine at night, at which hour
the greateft elevation takes place ; that the elevation of
nine o’clock differs from that of two by Aths, while that
at two differs from the morning elevation only by Ath ;
and that in certain climates the greateft elevation takes
place at two o’clock. We fhall inlert a part of the table
on which thefe^ obfervations are founded, which we have re¬
duced to the Englifh ftandard.
Places.
A rles
Arras
Bourdeaux
C a mb ray
Chinon
Dunkirk
Hagenau
Laon
Lifle
Mayenne
Manheim
Montmorenc
Mulhaufen
Obernheim
Paris
Poitiers
Rouen
Rome
St Maurice
le Gerard
Troyes
Years of
obferva-
tion.
6
6
11
L3
12
8
10
7
6
7
5
22
7
12
67
12
11
3
ro
10
Mean height of Barometer.
Morning.
29.9347
29,6683
29,7212
29,8756
29,7719
29,9! 99
29,5648
29.3354
29,9165
29> 717 2
29,6167
29,6536
29,1873
29,4834
29,8902
29,7276
29,8607
29,8607
29,8016
29,6885
Noon.
Evening
29,9347
26,6683!
29,8385'
29,8682
29,7795
29’9347
29,5648
29,3206
29,9274
29,7056
29,6c 18
29,6536
29,1800
29,4665
29,8607
9,7276
29,8535
29,8460
29,8016
29,6979
29,9413
29,6832
29,8385
29,8756
29,8001
29,9347
29>574I
29,3429
29,9347
29,7127
29,6167
29,6610
29,1873
29,4764
29,8756
29,7276
29,8535
29,8756
29,8090
29,6885
Year.
29,9347
29,6758
29,8385
29,8756
29,7869
29,9273
29,5648
29,3354
29,9077
29,7127
29,6093
29,6536
29,1873
29,4764
29,8756
29,7276
29,8535
29,8607
29,8016
29,6885
Weather,,
The range of the barometer is greater in winter than in
funamer. Thus at Kendal the mean range of the barome¬
ter for five years, during Oftober, November, December,
January, February, March, was 7.982 ; and-for the fix
iummer months 5.447 *.
In ferene and lettled weather it is generally high; and low
in calm weather, when the air is inclined to rain ; it finks
on high winds, riles higheft on eafterly and northerly
winds, and finks when the wind blows from the fouth f.—
At Calcutta^, however, it is always higheft when the
wind blows from the north-weft and north, and loweft when
it blows from the fouth-eaft.
The barometer falls fuddenly before tempefts, and un¬
dergoes great ofcillations during their continuance.—Mr
Copland || of Dumfries has remarked, that a high barome¬
ter is attended with a temperature above, and a low baro¬
meter with one below, the monthly mean.—Such are the
variations of the' barometer as far as they have yet been
obferved. Let us now endeavour to account for them as
well as we can.
It is evident that the denfity of the atmofphere is leaft
at the equator, and greateft at the poles; for at the equa¬
tor the centrifugal lorce, the diftance from the centre of
the earth, and the heat, all of which tend to diminiftr the
denfity of the air, are at their maximum, while at the pole
they are at their minimum. The mean height of the ba¬
rometer at the level of the fea, all over the globe, is 30
inches ; the weight of the atmofphere, therefore, is the
fame all over the globe. The weight of the atmofphere
depends on its denfity and height : where the denfity of
the atmofphere is greateft, its height mu ft be leaft ; and,
on the contrary, where its denfity is leaft, its height muft
be greateft. The height of the atmofphere, therefore, muft
be greateft at the equator, and leaft at the poles; and it
muft decreafe gradually between the equator and the poles,
fo that its upper furface will refemble two inclined planes,
meeting above the equator their higheft part*.
During fummer, when the fun is in our hemifphere, the
mean
^ Mamltfi,
Tranf. voI.|
iv. p. 547.
f Dr Hal.
ley.
§ Aftatic
Ref ear dies,
vol. ii. Ap¬
pendix.
|| ManchtJ}.
‘Tranf. vol.
Accounted
for
* Kir ican,
Irijh Tran}.
voi. ii. p*
43, &c*
W E A [ 81
Weather, mean heat between the equator and the pole d*es not differ
u   f0 much as in winter. Indeed the heat of northern coun-
39. tries at that time equals the heat of the torrid zone : thus
Byvafia‘hejn Ruflia> during July and Auguft, the thermometer rifes
a'enl'ity'of to 85° f. Hence the rarity of the atmoiphere at the pole,
the at mo- and consequently its height, will be increaled. The upper
fphere. furface of the atmofphere, therefore, in the northern hemi-
t Dr GF“j.n fphere will be lefs jnclined ; while that of the iouthern he-
mifphere, from contrary caufes, will be much more inclined,
ji. p. 229. The very reverfe will take place during our winter.
The de.nflty of the atmoiphere depends in a great mea-
fure on the prefTure of the fuperincumbent column, and
therefore decrehfes, according to the height, as the preflure
of the fuperincumbent column conftantly decreafes. But
the denfuy of the atmofphere in the torrid zone will not
decreafe fo ,faft as in the temperate and frigid zones ; be-
caufe its column is longer, and becaufe there is a greater
proportion of air in the higher part of this column. This
accounts for the obfervation of Mr Caftan, that the baro¬
meter only finks half as much for every 2CO feet of eleva¬
tion in the torrid as in the temperate zones (b). The
denfity of the atmofphere at the equator, therefore, though
at the furface of the earth it is lefs, mufl at a certain
height equal, and at a {till greater furpafs, the denfity of
the atmofphere in the temperate zones and at the poles.
In the article Wind we fhall endeavour to prove, that
a quantity of air is conftantly afeending at the equator, and
that part of it at leaft reaches and continues in the higher
parts of the atmofphere. From the fluidity of air, it is
evident that it cannot accumulate above the equator, but
muft roll down the inclined plane (c) which the upper fur¬
face of the atmofphere affumes towards the poles. As the
furface of the atmofphere of the northern hemifphere is
more inclined during our winter than that of the fouthern
hemifphere, a greater quantity of the equatorial current of
air muft flow over upon the northern than upon the fouth¬
ern atmofphere; Jo that the quantity of our atmofphere
wall be greater during winter than that of the fouthern he¬
mifphere : but during fummer the very reverfe will take
place. Hence the greateft meicurial heights take place
during winter, and the range of the barometer is leis in
fummer than in winter.
The denfity of the atmofphere is in a great meafure re¬
gulated by the heat of the place : wherever the cold is
greateft, there the denfity of the atmofphere will be greateftj
* and its column ihorteft. High countries, and ranges of
lofty mountains, the tops of which are covered with fnow
the greateft part of the year, muft be much colder than
other places lituated in the fame degree of latitude, and
confequently the column of air over them much fhorter.
The current of fuperior air will linger and accumulate over
thefe places in its paftage towards the poles, and thus oc-
cafion an irregularity in its motion, which will produce
a fimilar irregularity in the barometer. Such accumula¬
tions will be formed over the north-weftern parts of Afta,
and over North America : hence the barometer uiually
ftands higher, and varies lefs there, than in Europe. Ac¬
cumulations are alfo formed upon the Pyrenees, the Alps,,
the mountains of Africa, Turkey in Europe, Tartary, and
Tibet. When thefe accumulations have gone on for feme
l.
,1 ] W E A
time, the denfity of the air becomes too great to be balan- Weather*^
ced by the furrounding atmoiphere ; it rallies down on the
neighbouring countries, and produces cold winds which
raife the barometer. Hence the rife of the barometer
which generally attends north-eaft winds in Europe, as they
proceed from accumulations in the north-weft of Afia, or
about the pole ; hence, too, the north-weft wind from the
mountains of Tibet raifes the barometer at Calcutta.
We fhall endeavour to provein the article Wind, that
confiderable quantities of air are occalionally deftroyed in
the polar regions. When this happens, the atmofphere to
the iouth ruihes in to fill up the void. Hence fouth-weit
winds take place, and the barometer falls.
As the mean heat of our hemifphere differs in different
year§, the denfity of the atmofphere, and coniequently the
quantity of equatorial air which flows towards the poles,
muft alfo be variable. Hence the range of the barometer
is different in different years. Does this range correfpond
to the mean annual heat ; that is to fay, is the range great¬
eft when the heat is leaft, and lead when the heat is greateft?
In fome years greater accumulations than ufual take place
in the mountainous parts in the fouth of Europe and Afia,
owing, perhaps, to earlier falls of fnow, or to the rays or
the fun having been excluded by long continued fogs.
When this takes place, the atmofphere in the polar regions,
will be proportionably lighter. Hence the prevalence of
foutherly winds during fome winters more than others.
As the heat in the ton id zone never differs much, the
denfity, and confequently the height of the atmofphere,
will not vary much. Hence the range of the baiometer
within the tropics is comparatively fmall and it increafes
gradually as we approach the poles, becaufe the difference
of the temperature, and confequently of tlie denfity, of the
atmofphere increafes with the latitude.
The diurnal elevation of the barometer in the torrid zone
correfp ,nding to the tides, obferved by Mr Caftan and o-
thers, muft be owing to the influence of the moon on the at¬
mofphere. This influence, notwithftanding the ingenious at¬
tempts of D’Alembert and ieveral other philofophers, feems
altogether inadequate to account for the various phenome¬
na of the winds. It is not To eafy to account for the ten¬
dency which the barometer has to rite as the day advances,
which feems to be eftablifhed by Mr Cotte's table. Per¬
haps it may-be accounted for by the additional quantity' of
vapour added to the atmofphere, which, by increafing the
quantity of the atmofphere, may poffibly be adequate to-
produce the*cffe<ft.
The falls of the barometer which precede, and the ofcilla-
tions which accompany, violent florins and hurricanes, ftioiv
us that thefe phenomena are produced by very great rarefac¬
tions, or perhaps deftru&ion of air, in particular parts of the
atmofphere. The falls of the barometer, too, that accompany
y.'inds proceed from the fame caufe. I he obfervation made by
Mr Copland, that a high barometer is accompanied by a tem¬
perature above the mean, will be eafily accounted for by every
one acquainted with Dr Black’s theory of latent heat. The
higher the mercury ftands, the denfer the atmofphere mufl
be ; and the denier it becomes, the more latent heat it muff
jrive out. It is well known that air evolves heat when con-
denfed artificially.
The
(b) Should it not be examined whether the number of. parts which the mercury finks for every 200 feet of elevation
be not proportioned to the latitude of the place ?
(c) It is of no confequence whether the furface of the atmofphere aftually forms an inclined plane, or, becoming rf;ur
in a very flow ratio (as is probably the cafe), afeends much higher than the place at which the equatorial currents begin
to flow towards the poles; for ftill the different heights of air of the fame denfity in different parts of the atmolpheie w.U iu
£adt form an inclined plane, over which thefe. currents will roll, .notwithftanding the very rare.air which they may difplace.
\V E A r 833 ] W E A
The >V.!!ing of the barometer which generally precedes zenith, (xo) the anjiraf, when {he is at the greateft di-- Wealth,
5in remains iiill to be accounted for ; but we know too fiance from it, for the afaon of the moon varies n-eatlv  vr-i
'WeaMier,
little about the caufes by which rain is produced to be able
to account for it in a fatiVadtory manner. Probably a ra¬
refied ftateof the atmofphere is favourable to the production
of rain; we know, at lead, that it is favourable to evapo¬
ration. Suppofing the obfervations which we made upon
the changes which vaoour undergoes in the atmofphere well
founded, may not the vapour in its new form ?.ccumulate
at a confiderable height in the atmofphere ? and is not the
height at which clouds are always formed a proof of this !
May not this fubilance, whatever it is, when by feme means
or other it returns to the ftate of vapour, pafies its maxi¬
mum, and begins to fall in drops of rain, and confequently
is no longer fupported by the atmofphere, caufe the baro¬
meter to fall fuddenly, at leafl till new air rufhes in to fup-
ply its place ?
40
’Of prog-
kortica-
v ing the
weather
4i
Moon fup-
I’ofed to
influence
the wea¬
ther ;
Sfpecially
in ten litua-
Thus w'e have endeavoured to deferibe the various pheno¬
mena of the weather, and to account for them as far as the pre-
fent ftate of our meteorological knowledge enables us to go.
It will be expedted that we fhould not pafs by unnoticed
that branch of meteorology which has in all ages attradled
the attention of mankind, and. in which, indeed, every o-
ther part ot the fcience, as far as utility is concerned, evi¬
dently centres; we mean the method o‘ prognofticating the
weather. All philofophers who have dedicated their atten¬
tion to meteorology, have built upon the hope of being
able to difeover, by repeated obfervations, fome rules con-
cerning the periods of the feafons and the changes of the
weather, convinced that fuch difeoveries would be of the
hightft utility, efpecially in agriculture ; for by forefeeing,
even in part, the circumftances of the feafons, we would
have it in our power to prevent at leaft a part of the Ioffes a-
rifing from them, as by lowing, for inftance, the kind of corn
beft adapted for the rain or the drought which is to enfue.
The influence of the moon on the weather has in all
ages been believed by the common people; the ancient phi¬
lofophers embraced the fame opinion, and engrafted upon
it their pretended fcience ot aftrology. Several modern
philofophers have thought the opinion worthy of notice ;
among wdiom Melfrs Lambert, Cotte, and Toaldo, defer-
vcdly take the lead. Thefe philofophers, after examining
the fubjeft with the greateft attention, have embraced the
opinion of the common people, though not in its full ex¬
tent. To this they have been induced both by the cer¬
tainty that the moon actually has an influence on the at-
mofphere as it has on the fea, and by obfervin* that cer¬
tain fituations o1' the moon in her orbit have almoft con-
ftantly been attended with changes of the weather either
to wind, to calm, to rain, or to drou rht.
There are ten lituations in every revolution of the moon
trons,
in her orbit, when fhe nurft particularly exert her influence
on the atmofphere, and when confequently changes of the
weather moft readily take place. Thefe are (1 ) the new and
(2) full moon, when fhe exerts her influence in conjun&ion
with or oppofttion to the fun ; ( 3 and 4) the quadratures ;
(5) the perigee and (6) apogee (for the difference in the
moon’s diftance from the earth is about 27,000 miles), the
two paffages of the moon over the equator, one of which, Mr
Toaldo calls (7 J the moon’s afeending, and (8) the other the
moon’s defeending equinox, the two luniftices as M. de la
Lande has called them, (9) boreal lunt/lice, when the
moon approaches as near as fhe can in each lunation to our
?atly
according to her obliquity. With thele ten points Mr
L oaldo compared a table of 4.8 years obfervations tor Lom¬
bardy, and found the refult as follows :
Lunar Points.
New moons
Full moons
Firft quarters
La ft quarters
Perigees
Apogees
Afcending equinoxes
Defeending equinoxes
Southern luniftices
Northern 1 urn ft ices
Atrende! Atteoded
with a J w i h no
cha: gj- ofj change,
weaht r.
522
506
424
429
546
5*7
465
446
446
4+«
82
92
1 yg
182
99
13°
142
152
I54
162
7
4
3t
2 \
And after examining a number of other tables of obferva¬
tions, and combining them with his own, he found the pro¬
portions between thofe lunar points on which changes, of
the weather took place, and thofe which paffed without
any change when reduced to the loweft terms, to be as in
the laft column of the above table : fo that we may wager
fix to one, that this or that new moon will bring a change
of weather, and five to one that a full moon will be at¬
tended by a change, and. fo on. Several of thefe lunar
points often coincide with one another, occafioned by the
inequality of the moon’s periodical, anomaliftical, and fyno-
dical revolutions, and by the progreffive motion of the ap-
fes. Thus the new and full moon fometimes coincide with
the apogees, the perigees, 3cc. Thefe coincidences are the
moft efficacious. Their changing power, according to Mr
Toaldo, is as follows :
New moon coinciding with the perigee
with the apogee
Full moon coinciding with the perigee
• with the apogee
33
7
10
8
It ought to remarked, that thefe changes of the weather
feldom or never take place exactly when the moon is in thefe
lunar points, but fome time before or after ; juft as the
tide, fay the philofophers who contend for the influence of
the moon, is not at its height till after the moon has palled
the meridian.
The power of the moon over the ocean and the atmofpherc
is difplayed in a particular manner during the apfes, in con-
fequence of her different diftances from the earth during thefc
two fituations. Now the apfes advance about 40° in the zodiac
every year, and complete a revolution in about eight years
and ten months. It is probable that the feafons and the
conftitutions of years have a period nearly equal to this re¬
volution, and that therefore nearly the fame feafons return
every ten years. This periodical return of the feafons, as
Pliny (d) feems to inform us, was obierved by the ancients.
Mr Toaldo found, that in Lombardy the quantities of rain,;0^ 0f ten
which fell during periods of nine fucceffive years were near-year.-.,
ly equal; but that this was not true of other periods, for
inftance, of fix, eight, or ten years By comparing in like
manner the quantities of rain publifhed by the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris, from 1699 to 1752, he found,
that
4.1
(d) “ Tempeftates ardorcs fuos habere quadrims annis.-
&ib. 18. c. 25. . 2
-0£tonis vero augeri eafdetn centefima rcvolventi fe luna,’5
W E A
C 833 1
W E A
Waiter-
44
And of
zy years.
f/». Cette,
JVIemoires
Jur la Me-
tscrologre,
rol. i. p.
I*3-
45
t<nt of Ceries of nine years, three were greater and three
' fnialler, but on both fides almofl: equal to one another.
During the revolution of the apies, there 'axc ipui
remarkable points, the two equinq&ial and two folftttial
points; in which, when the moon is in perigee, her efftft
will be xnoft powerful on the weather. The moon pades
from one equinoctial point to another in about four years ;
in them its power is greateft: it is probable, therefore, that
when an extraordinary year happens, a return of another
may be expeCted in about four years. As the apfes
after their revolution return again in the fame order as be¬
fore, it is probable that the return of the feafons will be
nearly the fame in every feries of nine years.
Such, according to Mr Toaldo, is the period at the end
of which we are to expedf a return of the feafons. Mr
Cdtte, however, though he does not deny the influence of
the revolution of the apfes, places greater confidence in
the lunar period of 19 years ; at the end of which, the new
and full moons return to the fame day in the Julian year.
He fuppofes, that in like manner the feafons correfpond
with one another every 19 years. The fimilarity, he in¬
forms us, is Unking between the temperatures of the years
1701, 1720, 1739, 1758, and 1777. That ol 1758, upon
which we have obfervations much detailed by M. du Ha¬
mel, has a remarkable coincidence with 1777 » there was
fcarcely any difference in the temperatures of the corre-
fponding months. The years 1778, 1779, and 1780, have
been hot and dry, and they correfpond with years which
have had the fame chara&er. The years correfponding with
1782, elpecially 1725 and 1763, have been Angularly cold,
humid, and late, as was the cafe with 1782 f.
Such is an imperfeCt view of the opinions of thofe phi-
lofophers who have endeavoured to eftablifh the influence of
the moon over the weather. The moft important of their
maxims for prognofticating the weather are the following .
x. When the moon is in any of the ten lunar points a
45 VVUtll cm. mvw.. — - ;   --- i
Maxims for kove mentioned, a change of the weather may be expedeed.
prognofti¬
cating the
weather
from the
moon.
The moft efficacious of thefe points are the conjunctions
and apfes.
2. The coincidence of the conjunctions with the apies
is extremely efficacious x that oi the new moon with the
perigee gives a moral certainty of a great perturbation.
3. The new and full moons, which fometimes produce no
change on the weather, are Inch as are at a diftance from
the apfes. . '
4. A lunar point commonly changes the date into which
the weather was brought by the preceding point. For the
moft part the weather never changes but with fome lunar
point.
3. The apogees, quadratures, and fouthern luniftices, com¬
monly bring fair weather, for the barometer then rifes ; the
other points tend to make the air lighter, and theieby to
produce bad weather.
6. The moft efficacious lunar points become ftormy about
the equinoxes and folftices.
7. A change of weather feldom happens on the fame
day with a lunar point, but iometimes before and fometimes
after it. , *
8. At the new and full moons about the equinoxes, and
even the folftices, efpecially the winter folftice, the weather
is commonly determined to good or bad for three, or even
fix months.
9. The feafons and years have a period of eight or nine
years correfponding with the revolution of the lunar apies,
and another of 1 9 correfponding to the lunar period.
Would it not be worth while to publifh a meteorological
kalendar yearly, marking the time, to which the lunar points
correfpond, at which changes of the weather nlay be expeit-
Vot. XVIII. Part II.
ed, efpecially whin any of thefe points coincide j and mark- Weather.^
ing the probability of a change at any particular time ? and
might not this be attended by a diary of the weather for
the 9 or 19 correfponding years? By this means, if there
is any probability in the opinion that the moon has influ¬
ence over the weather, men would be enabled to foreiee
changes with a conflderable degree of probability ; and at
any rate, we would be able, by the united obfervations of
a whole nation, to determine whether there be any truth
in the opinion; and if there be, as its univerfality would
lead one to fuppofe, fucceeding obfervations would gradual¬
ly correct the imperfe&ion of our prefent rules, and enable
us to bring our prognoftics of the weather to the greateft
exaftnefs. ^
We ate not fo fanguine, however, as Mr Toaldo and P- Rem;irki
Cotte on this fubjeft. Even allowing the influence of the on the la-
moon on the weather to be as great as they could defire, nar Infla-
and fuppoling, which is very far from being the caie, thatUAV'
it is not influenced by any other caute, we do not fee how
the feafons could return in the fame order every 9th or
19th year. The motions of the heavenly bodies (efpecially
the moon) are, ftridly fpeaking, incommenfurable. The
lunar apogee returns to the fame fituation in eight years
ten months (without reckoning hours and minutes) ; at its
firft return it will be two months or figns removed from
the fame fituation with the fun ; at the end of the fecond *
period, (our months ; and at the end of the third, fix months;
fo that if the feafon was winter at the beginning, after three
revolutions it will be the middle of fummer. Now, how in
this cafe can the lame feafons return? Stippofing the equi-
no&ial points to produce conftantly great changes on the
weather, if one ot them during the firft irevolution happen¬
ed in winter, in the fecond it would happen in fpring, and
the third in fummer; fo that what would during the firft
revolution produce a particular winter, would in the fecond
a£t upon the fpring, and in the third on the rummer.
Would it in thete cafes produce fimilar changes on the wea¬
ther ? Surely not. And whether it did or not, would the
fame feafons return in every revolution ? In fix complete
revolutions, indeed, or 53 years, the lunar perigee returns to
the lame fituation as at firft, very nearly, in the fame ieafon: it
might be expefted then that the feafons would perform a com¬
plete revolution every 53 years» and that the 54th would ex-
aaiy relemble the firft, and fo on. This may poffibly be the
cafe, but it is by no means probable ; for when Mr 1 oaldo
compared the quantity of rain which fell at Paris during
1699, 1 700, 1701, 1702, &c. with what fell in 1752, 1753,
17 94, &c. though the firft years in each feries correfponded
pretty exa&ly, the difference being only eight lines, there
was no fuch refemblance between any of the following years.
Neither are we convinced that the influence of the moon
can have fuch an effedt on the weather as the above men¬
tioned philofophers fuppofe. The moon, only acls, as far
as we know at leaft, by producing tides in the atmofphere ;
for the refined fpeculations of Mr Toaldo about its electri¬
cal influence we cannot admit, as the eledtricity of the at-
mofphere is lefs during the night, when the moon’s influ¬
ence fhould be greateft, than during the day. Now we do
not fee how theie tides, fuppofing them greater than they
are, can be adequate to the effedls aferibed to them.
Mr Kirwan f has lately endeavoured to difeover probable + 7W/3
rules for prognofticating the different feafons, as far as re- Tran/va .
gards Britain and Ireland, from tables of obfervations alone.v- ’
On perufmg a number of obfervations, taken in England ^ j£jr_
from 1677 to 1789, he found, wan’sme-
1. That when there has been no ftorm beiore or after thet °
vernal equinox, the enfuing fummer is generally dry at leaftg the
five times in fix. ..., weather,
5 N iiiat
Wrather.
W E A [ 834
2. That when a florm happens from an eaflcrly point,
either on the 19th, 2Cth, or 21ft of May, the fucceeding
fummer is generally dry four times in five.
3. That when a ftonn arifes on the 25th) 26th, or 27th
of March (and not before), in any point, the fucceeding
fummer is generally dry four times in five.
4. If there be a {form at fouth-v/eft or weft-fouth-weft
on the i.Qth, 20th, 2ift,or 22d of March the fucceeding
iummer is generally wet five times in fix.
In this country winters and fprings, if dry, are molt com¬
monly cold; if moifi, warm: on the contrary, dry fum-
mers and autumns are ufually hot, and moift fummers cold,
fio that if we know the rnoifhnefs or drynefs of a feafon, we
can judge pretty accurately of its temperature.
From a table of the weather kept by Dr Rutty, in Dub¬
lin, for 41 years, Mr Kirwan endeavoured to calculate the
probabilities of particular feafons being followed by others.
Though his rules relate chiefly to the climate of Ireland, yet
as probably there is not much difference between that ifFand
and Britain in the general appearance of the feafons, we
fhall mention his conclufions here.
In 41 years there were 6 wet fprings, 22 dry, and 13
variable ; 20 wet fummers, J 6 dry, and 5 variable ; r 1 wet
autumns, 1 1 dry, and 19 variable. A feafon, according to
Mr Kirwan, is counted wet when it contains two wet
months. In general the cjuantity of rain which fails in dry
feafons is lefs than five inches, in wet feafons more : variable
leafons are thofe in which there falls between 3oIb. and
361b. a lb. being equal to ‘1^7639 of an inch.
1 he order in which the different feafons followed each
other was as ia the following tabic
W E A
Time*. Weather,'
bility.
T
O
2
*
t
T
1
T
f
T
O
1
?T
O
A variable fpring and dry
fummer - -
A variable fpring and wet
fummer
a - • r v
A variable fpring and V3- ) -O
riable fummer - ^ "
Hence Mr Kirwan deduced the probability of the kind
of feafons which would follow others. This probability is
expreffcd in the laft column of the table, and is to be un¬
derflood in this manner : The probability that a dry fum¬
mer will follow a dry fpring is H ; that a wet fummer will
follow a dry fpring ,8r; that a variable fummer will follow
a dry fpring T{-; and fo on.
This method of Mr Kirwan, if there is fuch a connexion
between the diflerent feafons that a particular kind of weather
in one has a tendency to produce a particular kind of wea¬
ther in the next, as it is reafonable to expeft from theory,
may in time, by multiplying obfervations, come to a great
degree of accuracy, and may at laft, perhaps, lead to°that
great defideratum, a rational theory of the weather. As
we wifh to throw as much light as' poffible on this impor¬
tant fubjedl, we fhall add to thefc a few maxims, the truth of
43
which have either been confirmed by long obfervation, orf^aXim*
Times. P.r1oba-
bliity.
A dry fpring
A wet fpring
A variable fpring
A dry fummer
A wet fummer
A variable fummer
A dry fpring
fummer
A dry fpring
fummer
A wet fpring
fummer
and
and
and dry
A v/et fpring and wet
fummer
A wet fpring and variable J
fummer . . 1
A dry fpring and variable S
fummer - , y
wdnch the knowledge we have already acquired of the caufesnofiL,
of the weather has eftabhfhed on tolerably g’ood grounds, the wea-
1. A moifl autumn with a mild winter is generally fol-tiler-
lowed by a cold and dry fpring, which greatly retards vege¬
tation.—Such was the year 1741 * Du
2. If the fummer be remarkably rainy, it is probable that^*
the enfuing winter will be fevere ; for the unufual evapora¬
tion will have carried off the heat of the earth. Wet fum-
mers are generally attended with an unufual quantity of
feed on the white thorn and dog-rofe bufties. Hence the
unufual fruitfulnefs of thefe Ihrubs is a fign of a fevere winter.
3. The appearance of cranes and birds of paftage early
in autumn announces a very levere winter; for it is a fign
that it has already begun in the northern countries.
. 4* When it rains plentifully in May, it will rain but little
in September, and vice verfa.
5. When the wind is fouth-weft during fummer or au¬
tumn, and the temperature of the air unufually cold for the
fealon, both to the feeling and the thermometer, with a low
barometer, much rain is to be expedled -f\ ' f Mar.-
6. Violent temperatures, as ftorms or great rains, Pr°-voj
duce a fort of crifis in the atmoiphere, which produces
conflant temperature, good or bad, for fome months jj. |j P. Cotie,
7. A rainy winter ptedi&s a ftenl yrear.—A fevere au¬
tumn announces a windy winter 4. t TcalJe,
Phils we have endeavoured to deferibe the various phe¬
nomena of the weather, and to explain them as far as the
infant ftate of our knowledge ©f the atmoiphere lurnifhed
us with principles.
Notwith{landing the imperfeftion of our prefent know¬
ledge of this fubjecft, the numbers and the abilities of the ^
philoxophers who are at prefent engaged in the ftudy can-
n@t fail at laft of being crowned with fuccefs; and perhaps
a rational and fatisfa&ory theory of the weather is not fo
far diftant as we at prefent ftippofe. It is a pity, however,
that in a fcience attended with fo much difficulty as meteo¬
rology is, various artificial difficulties ftiould have been
thrown in the way, which contribute very much to ob-
Itrudi its progrefs. There are no fewer titan four thermo¬
meters
Plate 1) XXXIX
WKAVIK G.
KiS*
2-,
W E A
f. 835 ]
\V E A
WeathCr me^vB uted at prefent in different parts of Europe ; and the
II obfervations made by each of them mult be reduced to one
AVeavmg- -conirnon ftandard before it is pofBble to compaie them with
U''~Y 0ne another. This is a tedious enough bufinefs, but it is
nothing at ail to the reduction of obfervations of rain and of
the barometer to one common ftandard. Every nation has its
Own peculiar meafure ; and the French, to add to the diffi¬
culty, have reckoned by lines, and twelfths of lines, inftead
of by decimal parts of an inch. Whether, however, this be
'the cafe at prefeiit or not, we know not, as we have feen no
meteorolonrical tables drawn up in France later than 1792.
T’hilofopher.s ought certainly to fix upon fome common ftan¬
dard of weights and meafures, otherwife the labour in mete¬
orology, and even in chemiftry, rouft foon become intole¬
rable. The only other poffible way to remedy this evil
would be, to conflruCt accurate tables, in which the various
weights and meafures ufed by philofophers are reduced to
one common ftandard. This has already been done in part;
but no table of this kind which we have feen is fufficient
to remedy the evil: few of them defeend to decimal parts
of fmall weights or meafures ; yet without this they feldom
can fave the trouble of calculation.
Weather, in fea-language, is ufed as an adjeftive, and
applied by mariners to every thing lying to windward of a
particular fituation : thus, a fhip is laid to have the wea¬
ther-gage of 'another, when fhe is farther to windward.
Thus alfo, when a fhip under fail prefents either of her fides
to the wind, it is then called the ‘iveather-Jicle or ’weather¬
board; and all the rigging and furniture fituated there¬
on are diftinguifhed by the fame epithet, as the ’weather-
Jhrouds, the weather-lifts, the weather-braces, &c.
To Weather, in fea-language, is to fail to windward of
fome fhip, bank, or head-land.
WeATHKH-Cock, a moveable vane, in form of a cock, or
other fhape, placed on high, to be turned round according
to the direction of the wind, and point out the quarter from
whence it blows.
WEATHER-Glafs. See Barometer.
WEATHERING, among failors, fignifies the doubling
or failing by a head-land or other place.
' WEAVING, the art of working a web of cloth, filk,
or other Huff, in a loom with a (buttle. For an idea of the
manner in which this is performed, fee Cloth.
WEAinNG-Loom, a machine for weaving cloth, filk, &c.
by raiirng the threads of the warp in order to throw in the
ftroot, and ftrike it clofe. Of thefe there are various kinds,
diftinguifhed by the different forts of cloths, fluffs, filks,
&c. in which they are employed; and which are chiefly
diftinguifhed by the number and variety of the threads they
raife in order to work the warp, either plain or in figures,
by making more or lefs of the woof or fhoot appear through
the warp. In order to give a general idea of weaving, we
fhall here deferibe the parts of the common weaver’s loom.
See Plate DXXXIX. fig. r. in which ef, ef are the front
Spoils, and £ the back polls of the loom ; 111, mm, vi m
are the /ams in their place at Q^or, as they are called in
fome parts of Scotland, the biddies, and in others the
/laves. They are compofed of ftrong threads, flretched be¬
tween two horizontal bars, an upper and a lower. 1 he
threads of one lam are fo diipofed as to pafs between the
upper threads of the warp, while they admit the lower threads
to pafs through loops or fmall holes in them, and the difpo-
fition of the threads of the other lam is fuch, that while they
pafs between the lower threads of the warp, they admit the
upper threads to pafs through the fmall holes juft mentioned.
The lams are lufperided from the ciofs bar or lam-bearer
HH, by means of ropes n, n paffing from the upper bars of
the lams over the pulleys at EE, and balanced by weights Weaving,
at the other ends. From the lower bar of each Lm or hid- ~1 1 '
die a rope paffes to the treadles or moveable bars at O O; fo
that when a foot preftes a treadle, the lam fattened to it
finks, while the other rifes bv means of the balancing
weight lufpended from the pulley at E. The workman
then throws in the woof by means of the fhnttle, and clofes it
by one or two flrokes of the lay or batten, of which W R,WB
are called the fwordi, CC the cap, or in Scotland the upper
Jhell, DD the block or under Jbeil, and PP the reed or comb
contained between thefe (hells. LL is the bench on which
the workmen fit; for the loom which our figure reprefents
is conftrutled for weaving cloth of Inch a breadth as to re¬
quire two workmen, who have their quills in a box d on the
middle of the bench on which they fit. Between the work¬
mens bench and the batten or lay is the bre.fl-bar I, 1, a
fin noth fquare beam, in which there is an opening to let the
web through as it is wove. From this opening the web SS
paffes to the knee roll or web beam GG, round which it ts
rolled by means of the (pokes, vifible in the figure, and kept
from being unrolled by a wheel with teeth and clench, vifi¬
ble likewile in the figure. In fome looms the web pafies
from the knee-roll to the wooden frame X, to be dried as it
is wove. Oppofite to the breall-bar, and on the other fide
of the batten or lay, is the cane-roll or yarn-beam, on which the
warp is rolled when put into the loom, and from which it
is gradually unrolled as the work proceeds. TT are bob¬
bins filled with yarn of the warp to mend luch threads of it
as may be broke in the weaving; and B B ^ are clues of
the fame kind of yarn with the borders of the warp, to
mend fuch threads as may there be broken.
Fig. 2. reprefents the common (huttle with the’ v aity
in the middle, in which the quill with the woof ^placed on
a faindle or axis. As this {huttle is thrown with one hand
in at one fide of the warp, and received with the other hand
at the other fide, it is obvious, that when the web is of a
breadth too great for a man to reach from one fide of it to
the other, two workmen muff be employed and much time
loft. To remedy this inconveniency, a new fhuttle has, in
this country, been lately brought into very general ufe, and
called the jlyingjhultle, hecaufe it flies through the warp
with wondertui rapidity on two fteel rollers RR (fig. 3.)
This (buttle is not thrown with the hand, but moved back¬
wards aud forwards by a very Ample piece of machinery,
of which fig. 4. will give the reader a fufftciently accurate
conception. To each end of the batten or lay L is fatten¬
ed a kind of open box B, b, with the bottom or horizontal
fide exaftly on a level with the threads of the w^arp of the
intended web. In each of thef'e boxes is a vertical piece of
wood I), d, of confiderable thicknefs, called a driver. This
driver is moved eaiily on an iron fpindlcor axis from one end
of the box to the other by means of a {lender rope CCCD, and
a handle H is feen in the figure. When the weaver is to be¬
gin his work, he lays the fhuttle on its rollers in the box B
With the iron tip T (fig. 3.) touching, or almoft touching,
the driver D (fig. 4.) Then moving the handle H, with a
{ridden jerk, towards the box b, the driver D forces the fluff*
tie with a rapid motion thro’ the warp till it ftrikes d, which
is impelled by the ftroke to the further end of the box b.
The two drivers X) and d have now changed their pofitiona
in their refpedfive boxes; fo that the driver which was at
the front of its box before, is now at the farther end of, it,
and vice verfe. Then by a hidden jerk of the hand towards
B the fhuttle is driven back till it ftrike D ; and thus is the
work continued without the weaver having eccaiton ever to
ft retch his arms from one margin of the web to the .other.
That the {huttle may not, bv the mdleadiuels of theAvork-
s N 2 JtqanT
wei r 836
man's fiand, be driven zig-zag through the warp or out of
the place in which it ought to move, the guiding or driving
rope CCCD is made to pafs through fmooth holes or loops
C, C, at the ends of the ropes EC, EC, fufpended either
from the crois bar on the top of the.loom or from the fwovds
of the batten.
This {buttle, we fhould think, a great improvement in
every kind of weaving loom, though fome of the older
tradefmen, with whom we have converfed on the fubjedl, con¬
tend, that it is valuable only in what they call light work,
fuch as cotton or linen cloth, or when the web, if woollen,
is very broad.
WEB, a fort of tifTue or texture formed of threads inter¬
woven with each other; lome whereof are extended in
length, and called the warp ; others are drawn acrofs, and
called the <zvoof.
WEDGE,' one of the mechanical powers. See Mechanics.
WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, !o
called
Mars,
from a Saxon idol named Woden, luppofed to be
worfhipped on this day.
yljh- Wednesday, the firft day of Lent, fo called from the
cuflom oblervcd in the ancient Chriftian church of penitents
exprefling their humiliation at this time, by appearing in
fack cloth and afhes.
WEED, a common name for all rank and wild herbs,
that grow of themlelves, to the detriment of other ufeful
herbs they grow among.
Weed, in the miners language, denotes the degeneracy of
a load or vein of fine metal into an utelefs marcafite.
Weeds, alfo denote a peculiar habit, worn by the re
lifts of perfons deceafed, by way of mourning.
WEEK, in chronology, a divifion of time comprifing
feven days. See Pi.jiNh<r/iRr Da\s and Sabbath.
PaJJion-WeEg, or the Holy Wkb.K, is the lait week in
Lent, wherein the church celebrates the myftery of our Sa¬
viour’s death and pafiion.
Week or Wyck, in geography, a parliament and port-
town of Scotland, in the {hire of Caithnefs. W. Long. 3.
2. N. Lat. 58. 30.
Weeks Ember. See Ember.
Feojl of Weeks. See Pentecost.
WEEVEL, Method of defraying. See Granary.
WEEVER, in ichthyology. See Trachinus.
WEEVIL, in zoology, a fpecies of curculio. See Cur-
culio.
WEIGH, a weight of cheefe, wool, &c. containing 256
pounds avoirdupois. Of corn, the weigh contains 40 bu-
fhels ; of barley or malt, fix quarters. In fome places, as
Efl’ex, the weigh of cheefe is 300 pounds.
WEIGHING, the aft of examining a body in the ba¬
lance to find its weight.
Wfighing Anchor, is the drawing it out of the ground it
had been call into, in order to fet fail, or quit a port, road,
©r the like. '
WEIGHT, in phyfics, a quality in natural bodies,
whereby they tend downwards towards the centre of the
earth. Or, weight may be defined in a lefs limited manner,
to be a power inherent in all bodies whereby they tend to
fome common point, called the centre of gravity, or, to
fpeak more accurately, to one another : and that with a
greater or lefs velocity, as they are more or lef? denfe, or
as the medium they pafs through is more or lefs rare. See
Mechanics.
Weight, in commerce, denotes a body of a known
weight appointed to be put in the balance againft other
bodies whole weight is required.
1 WEI
The feegrity of commerce depending, in a good meafure, Weigh*,
on the juilneis of weights, which are ufually of lead, iron, 
or brafs, moft nations have taken care to prevent the fal-
fification thereof, by ftartiping or marking ‘them by proper
officers, after being adjufted by fome original ftandard.
Thus, in England, the ftandard of weights is kept in the
exchequer b)^ a particular officer, called the clerk of the mar-
ket.
Weights may be diftinguifhed into ancient and modern.
I. Ancient Weights.
1. Thofe of the ancient Jews, reduced to the Engliffi
troy weight, will ftand as in the following table:
Shekel
lb.
o
60
300c
Maneh
50 Talent
dwt. gr.
9 A
6 io£
113 10 i 104.
2. Roman weights, reduced to Englifh troy
will ftand as in the following table ;
Lentes
weight,
oz. dwt.
o o
I?1'-
O r Vs
I 2
72
96
!44
192
576
6912
Silfquse
Obolus
Scriptulum
0 0 3*V
18
24
3^
48
144
1728
o o
12
16
48
576
o 18
rV
24
288
Drachma
Sextula
96
6/*
og
Sicilicus
© 4 i3t
T-
Duella
4!3
72!48!36
Uncia
o 18
12
Libra 10 18
5t
j3t
The Roman ounce is the Englifh avoirdupois ounce, which
they divided into 7 denarii, as well as 8 drachmas.
3. Attic Weights.
Englifh Trey Weight.
Ib. oz. dwt. gr.
Drachma » - 002 16.9
too
600c
Mina
6oj Talent
1 10 10
67 7 5
II. Modern Weights.
I. Englifh Weights. — Mr Renardlon, in a paper publifhed
in the Philoiophical Tranfaftions, has proved, that at firfl
there was but one weight in England, and that this was the
avoirdupois. Troy weight was introduced in the time of
Henry VII: At prefent, both the tioy and avoirdupois
weights are ufed in England.- Troy w'eight feems to have
derived its name from Troyes, a town in France, where a
celebrated fair was kept. It is ufed for weighing gold,
filver, jewels, filk, and all liquors. The avoirdupois is ufed
for weighing other things.
TdBi.R
Weigh*.
W E I
Tjbif of Troy Weight, as ufed by the
[ S3
Gohlfmiths, &c.
Grains.
24
480
>76o
Penny-weight.
Ounce.
240 12 Pound.
Apothecaries,
Grains.
20
60
480
576°
Scruple. 5
Dram. 3
24
288
8
96
Ounce.
—
12
Pound.
The troy pound in Scotland, which by ftatute is to be
the fame as the French pound, is commonly fuppofed equal
to I $ ounces and three quarters troy Englifh weight, or
7560 grains. But by a mean of the ftandards kept by the
dean-of-guild of Edinburgh, it weighs 7599Tt or 7600
grains. _ . ^
Table of Avoirdupois Weight,
«Drams.
x 6 An ounce.
256
'168
28672
57344°
16
448
1792
<5584°
A pound.
28
112
2240
A quarter.
80
A hundred.
20
A ton.
20 Mites.
24 Droits.
20 Periots.
24 Blanks.
7 T
Half-ounce,
w E I
^4 Penny-weight,
72
576
4608
9216
24
192
384
Gros.
8
64
12b
Ounce.
Marc.
2 Pound,
16
Weight.
8
16
32
3200
Ounce,
16
160
Half-quarter pound.
800
Quarter-pound.
Half oound.
400
Pound.
too
QmntaT,
'The avoirdupois pound is equal to 70O4 troy grains, the
avoirdupois ounce to 437.75 grains j and it follows ofcon-
fequence, that the troy pound is to the avoirdupois pound
as 88 to 107 nearly; for as 88 to 107, fo is 57^° to
7003.636: that the troy ounce is to the avoirdupois ounce
as 80 to 73 nearly ; for as 80 to 73, fo is 480 to 438.
An avoirdupoh pound is equal to 1 lb. 2oz. 11 dwts. zogr.
troy? a troy ounce is equ?.l to ioz. 1.55dr. avoirdupois;
an avoirdupois dram contain. 27.34375 grains; 175 troy
pounds are equal to 144 avoirdupois pounds.
The moneyers have a peculiar iubdiviiion of the grain
troy; thus,
Grain
Thed Droit
C Periot 3
The Englilh weights are ufed in the United Provinces of
America.
2. French Weights. — Different weights were formerly ufed
in moft of the different provinces of France: we believe that
they have lately undergone feveral alterations; a projeft of
this kind is given in the article Reyolution of France. Be
that as it may, a knowledge of the ancient weights of that
country is of importance on account of the books in which
they are ufed. The Paris pound contains 16 ounces, and is
divided two ways.
Grains.
The weights of the firft divifion are ufed to weigh gold,
filver, and the richer commodities ; and the weights of the
fecond divifion for commodities of lefs value.
The Paris 2 marc, or pound weight, is equal to 7560
grains troy, and the Paris ounce equal to 472,5 §ra2Q^
troy.
lb. oz. dwt. gr.
The Paris pound “ 1 3 15 0 troy
The Paris ounce =0 o 19 16.5 troy.
A grain troy = 1.2 186507 of a Paris grain.
But the pound was not the lame throughout trance. At
Lyons, e. gr. the city pound was only 14 ounces : lo that
ico Lyons pounds made only 86 Paris pounds. But be-
fide the city pound, they had another at Lyons for filk,
containing 15 ounces. At Thouloufe, and throughout the
Upper Languedoc, the pound was 13 ounces and a half of
Paris weight. At Marfeilles, and throughout Provence,
the pound was 1 3T ounces ot Paris weight. At Rouen, befide
the common Paris pound and marc, they had the weight
ol the vicomte ; which v/as 16 ounces, a half, and five-lixths
of the Paris weight. The weights enumerated under the
two articles of Englilh and French weights are the fame
that are ufed throughout the greateft part of Europe ; only
under fomewhat different names, divilions, and proportions.
French weights are ufed in all the French American fettle-
ments.
3. Dutch Weights.—The weight ufed in Amfterdam and
all over Holland is called Troy ’weight, and is exadfly the
fame with that ufed at Bruffels. The Dutch weights are
as follows:
Deuskens.
2
4
16
512
XC240
8192
Troy kern
2 Vierling.
8
256
5120
4096c
128
2560
20480
As.
32
640
512'
Angle.
20
160
Ounce.
8 iMarc.
The marc is equal, according to M. Tillet, to 4620
French grains.
The Amlterdam pound ufed in commerce is divided into
16 ounces, 32 loots, or 128 drachms. This pound con¬
tains 2 marcs troy,' and ought therefore to weigh only
10240 as : but it weighs 10280 ; fo that it is a little hea¬
vier than the troy pound of Amllerdam ; 256 lb. of com¬
merce are equal to 257 lb. troy ot Holland. t wo diffe¬
rent pounds arc ufed by apothecaries ; the one containing 2
marcs, the other only i-J, The liril is called arjenic pound
weight }■
ght.
WEI [ 83S’
weight; it contains 16 ounces, the ounce 8 drachms, the
' drachm 8 fcrupks, the fcruple 20 grains. The fecond is
called the apothecary's pound ; it is divided into 12 ounces,
or 24 loots. Three arfenic pounds are equal to 4 apothe-
icary’s pounds.
The Dutch ftone - — 8 commercial lb.
The Lifpundt, or LI. —
The hundred weight — 100
The Schippondt, or Sch. Ib. =r 300
4. Spanlfh Weights.—The marc of Gaftilepufed for weigh,
ing gold and iilver, is divided as follows:
Grains (gold weight).
T 2
12-j-
37t
75
96
600
Grain (fiiver weight).
11
12
36
72
92-54t
576
Tomine (gold weight).
Tomine (filver weight}.
3t
5°
3
6
"7 1 y
tT-T
48
Adarme.
2 Ochava.
y» 4
2tt
l6
48004608 4C0 384 \ 28 64 JO 8 I Marc.
1tt
Caftellarro.
6^ Ounce.
The marc, according t© Tillet, is equal to 7 oz. 4 gros,
8 grains French, which is equal to 4785 as of Holland-
One hundred marcs of Caftile = about 95! marcs of Hol¬
land ; 100 marcs of Holland = 107 marcs of Caftile. Me-
• dicines are fold by the fame marc ; but it is divided diffe¬
rently, containing 8 ounces, 64 drachms, 192 fcruples, 384
obolos, 1152 caradteras, 4608 grains.
The Spanifh commercial pound is divided into two
marcs, called marcs oj Tejo^ each of which is equal to the
.•marc of Caftile. This pound is divided into 16 ounces, 256
:adarmes, 9,216 grains.
5. Weights ,of Portugal—The Lifbon marc for effaying
filver confrfts of 12 deniers, and the denier of 24 grains.
The marc of Portugal for weighing gold and filver is equal,
according to Tillet, to 7 ounces, 3! gros, and 34 grains
French, which makes 4776 as of Holland ; fo that it is ex-
aftly the fame with the Lifbon pound. It is divided into
ci ounces, 64 outavas, 192 fcruples, 4608 grains.
I he pound conlifts of 2 marcs, 16 ounces, or 96 outavas.
The arroba of 32 lb. the quintal of 4 arrobas, or 128 lb.
100 Oporto pounds make 87-^th pounds of commerce of
Amfterdam.
6. Weights of Italy.— Genoa. Two kinds of weights
are ufed at Genoa, the pefo grojfo (heavy weight), and. the
pefofottile (light weight) : the latter is ufed for weighing
gold and filver, the former for other things. The pound
of the pefo lottile is equal, according to Tillet, to i marc,
,2 ounces, 2j- gros, 30 grains French. It is divided into 8
ounces, the ounce inco 24 deniers, and the denier into 24
grains. The pound of the peio groffo is equal to 1 marc,
2 ounces, 3 gros, 5 grains, French. It is.divided into \z
ounces:
The cantaro =: 100 lbs. pefo groflb.
The rubbo “ 25 lbs.
The rotolo rr ji Ib.
ICO lbs. pefo groffo = 64-f ib. of commerce of Amfterdam.
ICO lbs. pefo fottile ~ 129 marcs troy of Holland.
P.cme. The Roman pound confrfts of 12 ounces, the
1 WEI
ounce of 24 deniers, the denier of 24 grains. 'The Roman
pound, according to Tillet, is equal to 1 marc, 3 Ounces 1
-a gi'os, 14 grains, French. *
Venice. The marc for weighing gold and filver contains
8 ounces, 32 quarti, 1152 carati, or 4608 grani. An
huncied marcs iif Venice _ 97! marcs troy of Holland,
100 marcs of Holland = 10,3 of Venice. In Venice they
alfo ufe a pefo grojfo and pefo fottile. 100 lbs. pefo g-offo —
94! commencal lbs. of Amfterdam. 100 lbs. pefo fottile —
614 ditto.
*7. Sivedfh Weights.—The marc for weighing gold and
iilver is equal to 16 lods, 64 quentins, or 4384 as. The
.pound of 32 lods, ufed for weighing food, is equal, accord,
mg to Tillet, to t marc, 5 ounces, 7 gros, 8 grains French,
which makes 88481 as troy of Holland. This anfwers
exactly to the weight of the different pounds, as fixed in
tSweden, viz. 8848 as =r the pound for weighing articles
of food ; 78 21 At- as marc ufed in the mines ; 7450A—
as = marc ufed in towns and in the country ; 7078*
as = marc ufed for weighing iron ; 7416 as = pound ufed in
medicine.
x}ie fkippund = 400 lbs. for weighing food.
The centner = 120 lbs.
The waag =165 lbs.
The ften = 32 lbs.
The Swedifh as = ‘ 1 as of Holland troy.
8. German Weights. —Vienna. The marc of Vienna for
weighing gold and iilver is divided into i6Joths, 64 .quin¬
tals, or 25.6 deniers or pfennigs ; the loth into 4 quintals,
or 16 pfennigs. This marc, according to Tillet, is equal
to 1 marc, 1 ounce, 1 gros, 16 grains, french, = 5831 as
troy Holland. The pound of Vienna is divided into 2 marcs
or 4 viertings; the mark into 8 ounces, 16 loths, 64 quin¬
tals, or 266 pfenings. ^
Hamburgh. The marc for eftaying gold Is divided into
24 carats ; the carat into 12 grains. The marc for filver is
divided into 16 loths, and the loth into 18 grains. Thefe
marcs confift each of 288 grains, and are therefore equal.
I bis marc, ufed in Hamburg for gold and filver, is the marc
of Cologne, which is equal, according to Tillet, to 7 ounces,
5 grps> 7t grains, French, = 4866 as troy of Holland. It
is divided into 8 ounces, 16 loths, 64 quentins, 256 pfe-
nmgs, 4352 efches, or 65536 richt pfenings theile. The
apothecary pound ufed in Hamburgh, and almoft all Ger¬
many, is divided into 12 ounces, 96 drachms, 288 fcruples,
or 5760 grains; an ounce is equal to 621 as of Holland. The
pound of commerce is. equal, according to Tillet, to 10085
■as of Holland ; for half a pound is equal to 7 ounces, 7 gros,
23 grains, french. This pound is divided into 16 ounces,
32 loths, 128 quentins, or 512 pfenings.
9. Ruffian Weights.—The berckowitz or 400 lbs.
The poud _ - =40 lbs.
The pound is divided into .32 laths, or 96 iolatnuks.
One hundred Ruffian lbs. = i66t mares, or 82|-lbs. of
Amfteidam. One bundled lbs. of commerce of Amfter¬
dam = x2o|th lbs. of Rufiia.
10. Weights ufed in the federal parts of yffta, the Eafl
Indies, China, Perjia, See.—In I urkey, at Smyrna, &c. they
ufe the batman, or battemant, containing- 7b occos; the oc-
co contains 4 chckys or pounds, each of which, according
js eftua^ to 1 marc 2 oz. 3 gros. 28 gr.. French.
The Turkifh weights are divided as follows:
Camaras. Batmans. Occof. Roto.os. Chekis. Mercal--. Drachms,
i = 7i — 44 - too —176 =ii733t = 17600
t = 6 — 1 3tV — 24 1600 rc; 2400
t 2-,-i ~ 4 rn 266i ~ 400
1 = l'"
'1= 117f =
rr 66 j =
176
ioo
li
At
Weight,
WEI
r 839 ]
^ghe; .At Aleppo there are three forts of rottos } the firft 720
drachms, making about 7 pounds Englifh, and ferving to
weisdi cottons, galls, and other large commodities; the
fecund-is 680 drachms, ufed for all filks but white ones,
which are weighed by the third rotto of 700 drachms. At
Seyda the jotto is 60O drachms.
The other ports of the Levant not named here, ufe fome
of thefe weights ; particularly the occa, or ocqua, the rot-
tali, and'rotto.
The Chinefe weights are the piece for large commodi- .
ties; it is divided into loocatis, or cattis ; though fome fay
into 125 ; the cati into 16 taels, or tales; each tael equiva¬
lent to i-}- of an ounce Englifh, or the weight of 1 rial and
Vtj and containing 1 2 mas, or maffes, and each mas 1 o con-
drins. So that the Chinefe piece amounts to 137 pounds
Englifh avoirdupois, and the cadi to 1 pound 8 ounces.
The picol for filk containing 66 catis and j ; the bahar, ba-
kaire, or barr, containing 30c catis.
Tonquin has alfo the fame weights, meafures, &c. as
China. Japan has only one weight, viz. the cati ; which,
h6wever, is different from that of China, as containing 20
taels. At Surat, Agra, and throughout the dates of the
Great Mogul, they ufe the man, or maund, whereof they
have two kinds ; the king’s man, or king’s weight ; and
the man fimply ; the firft ufed for the weighing of common
provifions, containing 40 feers, or ferres ; and each feer a
juft Paris pound. The common man, ufed in the weigh¬
ing of merchandife, confifts likewife ©f 40 feers, but each
feer is only eftimated at 12 Paris ounces, or | of the other
feer.
The man may be looked upon as the common weight of
the Eaft Indies, though under fome difference of name, or
rather of pronunciation ; it being called mao at Carnbaya,
and in other places mein, and maun. The feer is properly
the Indian pound, and of univerfal ufe ; the like may be faid
«f the bahar, tael, and catti, above mentioned.
The weights of Siam are the piece, containing two fhans
©r cattis ; but the Siamefe catti is only half the Japanefe, the
latter containing 20 taels, and the former only 10 ; though
fome make the Chineie catti only 16 taels, and the Sia¬
mefe 8. The tael contains 4 baats or ticals, each about a
Paris ounce ; the baat 4 felings or mayons ; the mayon 2
fouangs ; the fouang 4 payes ; the paye 2 clams ; the fom-
paye half a fouang.
It is to be obferved, that thefe are the names of their
coins as well as weights ; filver and gold being ce*.n modi ties
there fold, as other things, by their weights.
In the ifle of Java, and particularly at Bantam, they ufe
the gantan, which amounts to near 3 Dutch pounds.- In GoU
conda, at Vifapour, and Goa, they have the furatelle, con¬
taining 1 pound 14 ounces-Englifh ; the mangalis, or man-
gelin, for weighing diamonds and precious ftones, weighing*
at Goa 5 grains, at Golconda, &c. 54 grains. They have
alfo the rotolo, containing 144 ounces Englifh ; the metri-
col, containing the ftxth part of an ounce ; the wall for pia-
ftres and ducats, containing the 73d part of a rial.
In Perfia they ufe two kind’s of batmans or mans ; the
one called cahi ov-cheray which is the king’s weight, and the
oxher batman of Tauris. The firft weighs f 3 pounds to
ounces Englifh ; the fecond 64 pounds. Its divifioVis are
the ratel, or a 16th ; the derhem, or drachm, which i3,’the''
50th ; the mefchal, which is half the derhem ; the duhg£'
which is the fixth part of the mefchal, being equivalent to '
6 carat grains ; and, laftly, the grain, which is the fourth
part of the dung. They have alfo the vakie, which exceeds
a little our ounce ; the fah-cheray, equal to the 1 1 70th part
of the derhein.; and the toman, ufed to weigh out large pay¬
ments of money without telling; its weight is that of 50
abafls.
11,
W E
at Cairo in Egypt.-
Weights at Cairo in Egypt. — Almoft every kind of Weight,
goods has its own weight; thefe are regulated by the canta- *
ren or principal weight.
F Rotels. _
The ordinary cantaren, or hundred weight, weighs
The cantaren. of quickfilver and tin
coffee, wine, and iron
ivory
almonds and other fruits
woods for dying
arlenic and other drugs
minium and cinnabar
gum-arabic, aloes, and othe^ aro¬
matics
rote! or votoli is neatly equal to the pound of Mar-
108 lbs. of Marfeilles are equal to 1 10 rotels. The
100
102
105
100
IIS-
120
i-5
130
135
Th
feilles
Marfeilles pound confifts of 13 ounces of Paris; fo that
100 lbs. of Marfeilles are equal to 81 lbs. Paris, and icolbs;
Paris =123 lbs. of Marfeilles.
We fhall fubjoin here Mr EerguTon’s table for comparing
the Englifh avoirdupois pound with foreign pounds :
London pound 1.0000
Antwerp 1.04
Amfterdam
Abeville 1.0989
Ancona 0.78
Avignon 0.8928
Bourdeaux 1.0989
Bologna 0.8
Bruges 1.0204
Calabria 0.73
Calais O.9345
Dieppe 1.0989
Dantzic 0.862
Ferrara °*75
Flanders a-94 33
Geneva 1.07
Genoa, grofs 0.7
. In order to fhow the proportion of the feveral weights
ufed throughout Europe, we fhall add a reduction of thfenv
to one ftandard, viz. the London pound.
The ioq lb. of-England,; Scotland, and Ireland are equal
to
Hamburgh
Lilbon
Leghorn
Norimberg
Naples
Paris
Prague
Placentia
Rochelle
Rome
Rouen
Seville
Thouloufe
Turin
Venice
Vienna
I. O 8 65 Eergufin's
I 12? ‘Tables and
0*75
I-
0-7 I
I.1235'
1,20484
O.72
O.8928 ‘
O.7874'
I.I&89
d.9259
O.8928
0.82
I.06
I.23
lb.
m
■i9r>
88
xo6
9a
1.07
113
81
93
89
96
137
153
152
154
97
104
96
112
107
89
oz.
8
of Amfterdam, Paris, &c.-
of Antwerp or Brabant,
of Rouen, the vifcounty weight,
of. Lyons, the city weight,
of Rochelle.
of Tholoufe and Upper La-nguedoc,
of Marfeiiles or Provence..
of Geneva.
of Hamburgh
of Francfort, &c.
of LeipfiC, &c.
of Genoa.
o
O
9
11
0
7
5
7
1
4
11 of Leghorn.
11 of Milan,
o of Venice,
j 0 of Naples,
o of Seville, Cadiz, &c.
13 of Portugal.
5 of Leige.
4 of Ruifn.
of Sweden,
of Denmark.
A curious weighing machine was fome time ago invented.
by M. Flanin of'Paris, whereby the weights of the principal
coun*
Plate
EXJUViH,
WEI [ S40 3
cmmtrleB in Europe, and the relative proportions they bear original Handard
to each other, are Ihown at one view. For this he received
a bounty of 20 guineas from the Society inftituted at Lon¬
don for the Encouragement or Arts, Manufactures, and
Commerce. We fhall inlert a deicription and figure of this
ingenious machine.
Figure i.. reprefents the back of the machine, which be¬
ing lufpended by the ring A, agd a weight hung to the
hook B, the Ipring C, C, C, made fait by ftrong fcrews at
g, is drawn downwards; and the bar 1), having a rack
thereon at e, turns the pinion /, in proportion to the weight
of the body hanging thereto. Figure 2. fhows the face of
the machine, on which are a number of concentric circles,
and the weights of feveral countries of Europe engraved
thereon, as exprefftd by the words on a line with them. In
the centre of this face is a ring fixed to the fmall plate,
turned by the pinion /, fhown at figure 1. From this ring
a hand projeCIs, which, by the turning of the pinion, point
to fuch part of the circle as is marked with the weight,
hung to the hook B ; and thereby fhows what weight of
any of the countries mentioned, is equal to the pounds troy
of London, which are engraved on the outer circle, or to
the pounds avoirdupois, which are engraved on the fecond
circle, and fo of the reft. A Aider moves on the hand,
which may be brought to any of the circles at pleafure, in
order to 'point out the relative weight with greater preci-
fion.
Many attempts have been made to introduce an uniformi¬
ty of weights and meafures into the commercial world ; but
hitherto they have all failed. The accomplifhment of fuch
an undertaking would be of infinite advantage to mankind,
and certainly claims the moft ferious attention of thole who
by their fituation can alone bring it about. The underta¬
king is indeed difficult, but furely not impoffible. Some¬
thing of this kind has lately been attempted in France ; and
if it fucceed, as the method is fimple, and exceedingly well
adapted for calculation, it furely defervcs to be imitated. See
Hf.roLUTioN of France*
Weight of Air. See Pneumatics, n's 14—19.
Regulation of Weights and Meafures., is a branch of the
king’s prerogative. See Prerogative and Measure.
As weight and meaiure are things in their nature arbitra¬
ry and uncertain, it is therefore expedient that they be re¬
duced to fome fixed rule or ftandard : which ftandard it is
impoffible to fix by any written law or oral proclamation ;
for no man can, by words only, give another an adequate
idea of a toot rule, or a pound weight. It is therefore ne-
cefiary to have recourfe to fome vifxble, palpable, material
ftandard ; by forming a comparifon with which all weights
and meafures may be reduced to one uniform lize; and the
prerogative of fixing this ftandard, our ancient law vefted in
the crown, as in Normandy it belonged to the duke. This
ftandard was originally kept at Winchefter: and we find in
the laws of king Edgar, near a century before the conqueft,
an injunftion that the one meafure, which was kept atWin-
-chefter, ihould be obferved throughout the realm. Moft na¬
tions have regulated the ftandard of meafures of length by
comparifon with the parts of the human body ; as the palm,
the hand, the fpan, the foot, the cubit, the ell {ulna or
arm), the pace, and the fathom. But as thefe are of diffe¬
rent dimenfions in men of different proportions, our ancient
hiftorians inform us, that a new ftandard of longitudinal
•meafure was afeertained by king Henry the Firft; who
commanded that the ulna, or ancient ell, which anfwers to
the modern yard, fhould be made of the exadl length ot his
own arm. And one ftandard of meafure of length being
gained, all others are ealily derived from thence ; thofe of
greater length by multiplying, thofe of lefs by dividing, that
WEI,
Thus, by the flatute called eomfioftig ul
na urn et pertuarum, five yards and an half make a perch ;
and the yard is (ubdivided into three feet, and each foot into
12 inches >, which inches will be each of the length of three
grams ot barley. Superficial mealures are derived by fqua-
ri.rg thofe of length ; and mealures of capacity by cubinLr
them. The ftandard of weights was originally taken from
corns of wheat, whence the lowefl denomination of weights
we have is ftill called a groin ; 32 of which are dire&ed, by
the ftatute called compofitio menfurarum, to compofe a penny¬
weight, whereof 20 make an ounce, 1 2 ounces a pound, and
fo upwards. And upon thefe principles the firft ftandards
were made ; which, being originally fo fixed by the crowm
t’^ir fubiequent regulations have been genet ally made by
the king in parliament. Thus, under king Richard I. m
his parliament holden at Weftminfter, A. D. 1197, it was
ordained that there fhould be only one weight and one mea-
fure throughout the kingdom, and that the cuftody of the
affize, or ftandard of weights and meafures. fhould be com¬
mitted to certain perfons in every city and borough ; from
whence the ancient office of the king’s aulnager feems to have
been derived, wdiore duty it was, for a certain fee, to mea¬
fure all cloths made for fale, till the office was abolifhed by
the ftatute nth and 12th William III. c. 20. Inking
John’s time this ordinance of king Richard was frequently
difpenied with for money ; which occaiioned a provifion to be
made for enforcing it, in the great charters of king John and
his fon. Thefe original ftandards were called pondus regisy
and menfura domini regis, and are directed by a variety of
fubfequent ftatutes to be kept in the exchequer chamber, by
an officer called the c/erl of the market, except the wine gal¬
lon, which is committed to the city of London, and kept in
Guildhall.
The Scottifh ftandards are diflributed among the oldefl
boroughs. The elwand is kept at Edinburgh, the pint at
Stirling, the pound at Lanark, and the iirlot at Linlith¬
gow.
Various ftatutes have been enacted for regulating and en¬
forcing an uniformity of weights and meafures; and by the
articles of union, the Engliffi ftandards are eftablifhed by law
over all Great Britain. But the force of cuftom is fo ftrong,
that thefe ftatutes have been ill obferved. The Scottifh
ftandards are ftill univerfally retained for many pwrpofes;
and likewife a variety of local weights and meafures are ufed
in particular places of both countries, which differ from the
general fta-idards of either.
WELD, or Wold, in botany. See Reseda.
WELDING-heat, in fmithery, a degree of heat given
to iron, &c. fufficient to make the furfaces of two pieces in¬
corporate upon being beaten together with a hammer.
WANMANNIA, in botany : A genus of plants of the
clafs oSandria, order monogyma, and arranged in the natural
claffification with thofe plants the order of which is doubt¬
ful. The calyx is four-leaved, the corolla has four petals,
and the capfule is bilocular and biroftrated. There are
four fpeeie$, none of which are natives of Britain.
WELL, a hole under ground, ufually of a cylindrical fi¬
gure, and walled with ffone and mortar: its ufe is tocolledt
the water of the ftrata around it.
Well, an apartment formed in the middle of a fhip’s
hold to indole the pumps, from the bottom to the lower
deck. It is ufed as a barrier to preferve thofe machines
from being damaged by the fridlion or compreffion of the
materials contained in the hold, and particularly to prevent
the entrance of ballaft, &c. by which the tubes would pre-
fently be choked, and the pumps rendered incapable of
fervice. By means of this inclofure, the artificers may
likewife more readily dtfeend into the hold, in order to ex¬
amine
W«ll,
(
W E R
[ 1
WES
PI!fi!l,
Hi/!. Nat,
lib. iv.
tap. ii.
arerne the Aate of the purnps, and repair them as occafion
requires.
IVKLL-room of a Boat, the place in the bottom where the
water lies, between the ceiling and the platform of the
ftern-fheets, whence it is thrown out into the fea with
a icoop.
Bnrntng-Wrx t. See Burk in a-Springs.
JVril of a Fjjh 'mg-vrjfei, an apartment in the middle of
the hold, which is entirely detached from the reft, being
lined with lead on every fide, and having the bottom there¬
of penetrated with a competent number of fmall holes, pal¬
ling alio through the {hip’s floor; fo that the falt-vvater run¬
ning into the well is always kept as frefh as that in the lea,
and yet prevented from communicating itfelf to the other
parts of the hold.
JV&LL-hole, in building, is the hole left in a floor for the
{fairs to come up through.
WELLS, a city of Somerfetfhire, and fee of a bifhop ;
the bifhop of Bath being alfo that of Wells.—It is fuppo-
fed to take its name from the many fprings and wells that
are near it- It is not very large ; but is adorned with
handfome buildings, both public and private. Its cathedral
is a very beautiful ftrufture, adorned with images and car¬
ved ftone-work. The bifhop’s palace joins to the cathedral;
and ou the other lide are the houfes for the prebendaries.
In the market place is a fine market-houfe, fupported by
pillars- It is governed by a mayor, and fends two members
to parliament. The chief manufacture is knit hole. W.
Long. 2. 37.'N Lat. 51. i2.
WEN, a tumor or excrefcence arifrng on different parts
of the body, and containing a cyflus or bag tilled with fome
peculiar kind of matter. See N-sevus.
WEREGILD, the price of homicide', paid partly to
the king for the lofs of a fubjeft, partly to the lord whole
vaflal he was, and partly to the next of kin of the perfon
flain.
WERST, Worst, or Verji, a Ruffian meafure equal to
3500 Englifh feet. A degree ol a gteat circle of the earth
contains about 104 werfts and a half.
WERTURIAN or Ukalian Mountains, a famous
chain of mountains forming part of the boundary of Afia.
It begins diflinCfly (for it may be traced interruptedly far¬
ther fouth) near the town of Kungur, in the government of
Kafan, in latitude 57. 20.; runs north, and ends oppofite to
the Waygatz ftrait, and rifes again in the ifle ot Nova
Zemlja. The Ruffians alfo call this range Semennoi Poias,
or, the girdle of the world', from a fuppofnion that it encir¬
cled the univerfe. Thefe were the Riphei monies : Pars
mundi damnata a natura rerum, et denfa merfa caligine § ; of
which only the fouthern part was known to the ancients,
and that fo little as to give rife to numberlefs fables. Be¬
yond thefe were placed the happy Hyperborei, a fidtion mo*It
beautifully related by Pomponius Mtla. Modems have not
been behind-hand in exaggerating feveral circumftances rela¬
tive to thefe noted hills. Ylbrand Ides, who eroded them
in his embafly to China, aflerts that they are 5000 toifes or
iathoms high ; others, that they are covered with eternal
{now. The lall may be true in their more northern parts ;
but in the ufual paflages over them, they are free from it
three or four months.
The heights of part of this chain have been taken by M.
I’Abbe d’Auteroche : who, with many affurances of his ac¬
curacy, fays, that the height of the mountain Kyria near
Bolikamlkaia, in latitude 6o°, does not exceed 471 toifes
irom the level of the fea, or 286 from the ground on which
it Hands. But, according to M. Gmelin, the mountain
Panda is much higher, being 752 toifes above the fea.
Prom Peterfburg to this chain is a vail plain, mixed with
Vet. XVIII. Part II.
certain elevations or platforms, like iflands in the rthdff of Well
an ocean. The eaftern fide defeends gradually to a great
diftance Into the wooded and morafiy Siberia, which forms
an immenie inclined plane to the Icy Sea. This is evident,
from all the great rivers taking their rife on that fide, fome
at the amazing diflance of latitude 46° ; and, after a courfe
of above 27 degrees, falling into the Frozen Ocean, in la¬
titude 7 3. 30. The Yaik alone, which rifes near the lou-
thern part of the eaffem lide, takes a fouthern direction,
and drops into the Cafpian Sea. The Dwina,the Peczora,
and a few other rivers in European Ruffia, ftiew the incli¬
ned plane of that part. All of them run to the Northern
Sea ; but their courfe is comparatively Ihovt. Another in-
clination directs the Dnieper and the Don into the Euxine,
and the vail Wolga into the Cafpian Sea.
WESLEY (John), one of the moll extraordinary cha¬
racters that ever exifted; whether we confider him as a va¬
rious and voluminous writer, a zealous and indefatigable
preacher, or the founder of the moft numerous fed in the
Chriftian world; was the fon of the Reverend Samuel Wef-
ley, reftor of Epworth in the ifle of Axhblme in Lincoln-
Ihire, and was born in that village in the year 1 703. His
very infancy was diftinguifhed by an extraordinary incident.
The parfonage-houfe at Epworth was burnt to the ground,
and the flames had fpread with fuch rapidity, that few things
of value could be laved. His mother, in a letter to her fon
Samuel Wefley, then on the foundation at Weftminfter
fchool, thanks God that no lives were loll, although for
fome time they gave up Poor ffacly, as Ihe exprefles her-
felf; for his father had twice attempted to refeue the child,
but was beaten back by the flames. Finding all his efforts
ineffectual, he refigned him to Divine Providence. But
parental tendernefs prevailed over human fears, and Mr
Wefley once more attempted to fave his child. By fome
means equally unexpected and unaccountable, the boy got
round to a window in the front of the houfe, and was taken
out, by one man’s leaping on the (boulders of another, and
thus getting within his reach. Immediately on his refeue
from this very perilous fituation the roof fell in. This ex¬
traordinary efcape explains a certain device, in a print of
Mr John Wefiey, engraved by Vertue, in the year 1745,
from a painting by Williams. It reprefents a houfe in
flames, with this motto from the prophet, “ Is he not a
brand plucked out of the burning Many have fuppofed
this device to be merely emblematical of his fpiritual delive¬
rance; but from this eircumltance it is apparent that it has
a primary as well as a fecondary meaning ; it is real as well
as allufive. This fire happened when Mr Wefley was about
fix years old.
In the year 1713 be was entered a fcholar at the charter-
houfe in London, where he continued feven years under the
tuition of the celebrated Dr Walker, and of the Reverend
Andrew' Tooke author of The Pantheon. Being eleCted
to Lincoln college, Oxford, he became a fellow of that col¬
lege about the year 1725, took the degree of Mailer of Arts
in 1726, and w'as joint tutor with the Reverend Dr Hutchins
the reCIor. He difeovered very early an elegant turn for
poetry. Some of his gayer poetical effufions are proofs of
a lively fancy and a fine claffical tafte; and fome ti anflations
from the Latin poets, while at college, are allowed to have
great merit. He had early a ftrong impreffion, like Count
Zinzendorf, of his defignation to fome extraordinary work.
This impveffion received additional force from fome domeftie
incidents; all which his aClive fancy turned to his own ac¬
count. His wonderful prefervation, already noticed, natu¬
rally tended to cherifh the idea ot his being defigned by Pro¬
vidence to accomplilh fome purpofe or other, that was out
of the ordinary courle of human events. The late Reverend
5 Q Samuel
Wcf!e
\v E S [ 842 ] WES
Sanrmel BaJcock, in a letter inferted in the Bibliotheca To- bi'Hty of attaining tlnlefa perfedlon in the prefent Hate
~ pographlca Britannica, XX. fays, “ There were fome The fubordinate teachers of both thefe claflhs of Methodiits
Wefler,
llrange phenomena perceived at the parfonage at Epworth,
and fome uncommon noifes heard there from time to time,
which he was very curious in examining into, and very par¬
ticular in relating. I have little doubt that he conflicted
himfelf the chier object of this wonderful vilitation, In¬
deed his father’s credulity was in fome degree affedled by it;
fince he collecled all the evidences that tended to confirm
the ftovy, arranged them with fcrupulous exadfnefs, in. a ma-
nufeript confiding of feveral fheets, and which is dill in be¬
ing. I know not what became of the ghod of Epworth ;
unlefs, conlldered as the prelude to the noife Mr John Wef-
ley made on a more ample dage, it ceafed to fpeak when
he began to aft.”
“ The dawn of Mr Wefley’s public miffion (continues
Mr Badcock) was clouded with mydicifm; that fpecies of
it which aftefts filence and folitude ; a certain inexplicable
introverfion of the mind, which abdrafts the padions from
ad fenfible objefts ; and, as the French Quictids exprefs it,
perfefts itfelf by an abforption of the will and intelbft, and
all the faculties, into the Deity.” In this palpable obfeure
■the excellent Fenelon led himfelf when he forfoak the (hades
of Pindus, to wander in qued of pure love with Madam
Guyon ! Mr Wefley purfued for a while the lame ignis
fatuus with Mr William Law and the Ghod of De Renty.
A date, however, fo torpid and ignoble, ill fuited the active
genius of this lingular man. His eladic mind gained drength
by compreffion ; thence burding glorious, he paded (as he
himfelf fomewhere fays) “ the immenfe chafm, upborne on
an eagle’s wings.”
The reading of the writings of this Mr William Law,
the celebrated author of Chridian Perfeftion, and of A Se¬
rious Addrefs to the Chridian World, contributed moreo¬
ver, to lead Mr John Wdley and his brother Charles, with
a few of their young fellow-dudents, into a more than com¬
mon driftnefs of religious life. They received the facra-
ment of the Lord’s Supper every week ; obferved all the
fads of the church ; viiited the prifons ; rofe at four in the
morning ; and refrained from all amui’ements. From the
exaft method in which they difpofed of every hour, they
acquired the appellation of Methodtfts ; by which their fol¬
lowers have been ever fince didinguifhed.
But a more particular account of the origin of this feft,
we (hall give from a celebrated publication. “ The Metho«-
dids (fays the editor of this work) form a very confidurable
clafs, principally of the lo wer people in tin's country. They
fprung up about fifty years ago at Oxford, and were foon
divided into two parties; the one under the direftion of Mr
George Whitfield, and the other under that of two brothers,
John and Charles Wefley. Thefe leaders, and, if we ex¬
cept Mr William Law, founders of the Methodids, were
educated at Oxford, received epifcopal ordination, and al¬
ways profeffed themfelves advocates for the articles and li¬
turgy of the edablilhed church; though they more com¬
monly praftifed the differ]ting mode of worlhip. But con¬
ceiving a defign of forming feparate communities, fuperior
in fanftity and perfeftion to all other Chridian churches,
and impreffed to a very confiderable degree by a zeal of an
extravagant and enthuliaffic kind, they became itinerant
preachers ; and, being excluded from mod of our churches,
exercifed their minidry in private houfes, fields, &c. not only
in Great Britain and Ireland, but aKb in America ; thus
collefting a very confiderable number of hearers and prole-
lytes, both among the members of the edablifhed church
and the diffenters. The theological fydem of Mr Whit¬
field and his followers is Calvinidic ; that of Mr Wefley and
his diiciples Ariaiaian j and the latter maintains, the pofft-
_ . !]glon to confid principally in
certain affect tons and inward feelings which it is impoffible
to explain ; but which, when analyfed, feem to be mecha¬
nical in their fpring and operation; and thev generally main¬
tain, that Chridians Vill be mod likely to'fucceed in the
pur (hit of truth, not by the dictates of reafon, or the aids
of learning, but by laying their minds open to the direftion
and influence of divine illumination ; and their conduct has
been directed by impulfes.”
Our readers will judge for themfelves, according to their
various modes of education, and to the different’!i,rhts in
which they may refpeftively view the doftrines of our com¬
mon Chridianity, whether this reprefentation of the ormin
of the Methodids, and of their diflinguifliing tenets, be ac¬
curate and jud.—Not prefuming to fit in judgment on the
religious opinions of any man, we fhall only obferve, that
an appellation originally given in reproach, has been gloried
in ever fince by thofe who have didinguifhed themfelves as
the followers either of Mr Whitfield or of Mr Wellev.
“ After the way called MethoSfm, fo worihip they the God
of their fathers.” But die ridicule and contempt which
the lingularity of their conduft produced, both John and
Charles Wefley were well qualified to bear. They were
not to be intimidated by danger, aftuated by mtered, or
deterred by difgrace.
The boundaries of this ifland were foon deemed by Mr
Wefley too confined for a zeal which difplayed the piety of
an apodle ; and of an intrepidity to which few' mifiiqnaries
had been fuperior. _ In 1735'he embarked for Georgia, one
of our colonies, which was at that time in a flate of politi-
and
cal infancy ; and tue great objeft of this voyatfe was to
preach the gofpel to the Indian nations in the vicinity of
that province. He returned to England in 1737. Of h
is
province
fpiritual labours, both in this country and in America, he
himfelf has given a very copious account, in a feries of
Journals, printed at diffetent periods Thefe journals drew
upon our laborious preacher and his coadjutors fome fevere
anffnadveriions from two right reverend prelates; Dr George
Lavington bifhop of Exeter, and Dr William Warburton bi-
fliop of Gloucefter. The former published, in three parts.
The Enthufiafm of the Methodifts and Papifts compared;
the third part of this performance containing a perfonal
charge of immoral conduft. Mr Wefley, in his vindica¬
tion, publifhed a letter to his Lordfhip, which produced a
reply from the latter.
Bifhop Warburton’s attack is contained in his celebrated
treatife, entitled The Doftrine of Grace : or, The Office
and Operations of the Holy Spirit vindicated from the In-
fults of Infidelity, and the Abufes of Fanaticifm: conclu¬
ding with fome thoughts, humbly offered to the coniidera-
tion of the Eftablifhed Clergy, with regard to the Right
Method of defending Religion againil the Attacks of ei¬
ther Party; 2 vols, fmall 8vo, 1762. There is much acute
reafoning, and much poignant and fprightly wit, in his
Doftrine of Grace, but there is too much levity in it for a
grave bifhop, and too much abufe for a candid Chriftian.
On this occafion, Mr Wefley publifhed a letter to the bi¬
fhop, in which, with great temper and moderation, as well
as with great ingenuity and addrefs, he endeavoured to
fhelter hitnfelf from his Lordfhip’s attacks; not only under
the authority of the Holy Scriptures, but of the church it-
felf, as by law eftablifhed.
On his return from Georgia, Mr Wefley paid a vifit to
Count
e s r
Wt(ley .Count Zinzendorf, the celebrated founder of the ha of
Weft. Moravians, or Hernhutters, at Hernuth in Upper Luiatia.
—v ' In the following year he appeared again in England, and
with Ins hi other Charles, at the head of the Methodifts.
He preached his firil field-fermon at Briltol, on the 2d of
April 173B, from which time his difciples have continued
to increafe. In 1741s a ferious altercation took place be¬
tween him and Mr Whitfield. In 1744, attempting to
preach at an inn at Taunton, he was regulajly filenced by
the magifhates. Altliough he chiefly refided foi the ic-
niainder of his life in tne metropolis, he occahonaUy travel¬
led through every part of Great Britain and Ireland, efta-
blifhing congregations in each kingdom. In
ried a lady, from whom he was afterwards leparated. By
this lady, who died in 1781, he had no children.
Y\ e have already mentioned Mr Wtfley as a very various
and voluminous writer. E)ivinity, both devotional and con-
troverlial, biography, hiftory, pbilofophy, politics, and poe¬
try, were all, at different times, the fubjedts of his pen: and,
whatever opinion may be entertained of his theological len-
timents, it is impofiible to deny him the merit ©f having
done very extenlive good among the lower claffes of people.
He certainly pofleffed great abilities, and a fluency which
was well accommodated to his hearers, and highly accept¬
able to them. He had been gradually declining for three
years before his death ; yet he fiill rofe at four in the mom¬
my, and preached, and travelled, and wrote as ufual. ,He
preached at Leathethead, in Surrey, on the Wednelday be¬
fore that event. On the Friday following, appealed the
nr ft fymptems of his approaching diffolution. Ihe four
iucceedmg days he fpent in prailmg God \ and he le t this
feene, in which his labours had been fo extenfive and fo
uftful, at a quarter before ten in the morning of the 2d of
March 1791, in the 88th year of his aye. His remains,
after lying in a kind of itate at his chapel in the city-road,
drefled in the facerdotal robes which he ufually wore, and
jon his head the old clerical cap, a bible in one hand, and a
white handkerchief in the other, were, agreeably to his own
directions, and after the manner of the interment of the late
Mr Whitfield, depofited in the cemetry behind his chapel,
on the morning of the 9th March, amid an innumerable
cencourfe of his friends and admirers; many of whom ap^
peared in deep mourning on the occafion. One lingulaiity
was obfervable in the funeral lervice. Inftead of, “ We
<rive thee hearty thanks, for that it hath pleafed thee to de¬
liver this our brotherit was read “ our father.” A fer-
iron, previoufly to the funeral, had been preached by Dr
Thomas Whitehead, one o£. the phylicians to the London
hofpital; and on the 13th the different chapels of his per-
fuafion in London were hung with black,
It has been juftly obferved of Mr Wtfley, that his labours
were principally devoted to thofe who had no inflructor ;
to the highways and hedges ; to the miners m Cornwall,
and the coalliers in Kinaiwood. Thefe unhappy creatures
married and buried among themfelves, and often committed
murders with impunity, before the Methodifls fprCng up.
By the humane and adive endeavours of Mr Wefley and
his brother Charles, a fenie of decency, morals, and religion,
w’as introduced into the lowefl clafles of mankind ; the ig¬
norant were inftru&ed, the wretched relieved, and the
abandoned reclaimed. i His perfonal influence was greater,
perhaps, than that of any other private gentleman in any
country.—But the limits of this article will not permit us
to expatiate further on the charadter of this extraordinary
man.
WEST (Gilbert), was theTon of Dr Weft, prebendary
of Winch.eft.er, and chaplain 10 king George I. but at 12
years of age loft his rather. He iludied at Wrncheiler and
843 ] WES
Eton fchools, and from thence was placed in Chrift-chufch Weft,
college, Oxford. His ftudious and ferious turn inclined ^ e^in‘
him to take orders ; but lord Cobham, his uncle, diverted < - - ^- >
him from that purfuit, and gave him a cornetcy in his own
regiment. This profeffion he feon quitted, on account of
an opening of another nature, which prefented him with a
flattering pr&fpeCt of advancement in life. A number of
young gentlemen were to be eleded from the univerlities,
and, at the expence of the government, were to be taught
foreign languages; and then fent to the fecretaries office, to
be initiated into bufinefs, and trained there for public fer-
viees, as envoys, ambafiadors, &c. Mr Gilbert Weft was
one of the few pitched upon; and on his firft introduction
into that office, lord Townfend, fecretary of ftate, treated
him with Angular marks of regard, and the ftrongeft incli¬
nations to ferve him were teftified from all quarters. But
his uncle lord Cobham’s ftrong oppofition to the meafures
of the government, rendered theie advantages entirely fruit-
lefs; and the miniiters honeftly told Mr Weft, that he muft
not expeCt them to diflinguifh his merit, as any favours con¬
ferred upon him would be imputed as done to his uncle lord
Cobham. Mr Weft now left that office, and all his views
of making his fortune ; and entering into marriage, retired
to Wickham in Kent, where he lived in great domeftic
comfort and tranquil happinefs. He was there viiited by
his valuable friends, who held the moft delightful converfe
of wit, humour, and learning, fupported upon the principles
of virtue, found reafoning, and folid friendfhip, which ren¬
dered the whole cheerful, animating, and inftru&ive. Mr
William Pitt, who was one of thofe that compofed this
happy fociety, becoming paymafter, appointed Mr Weil
treafurer to Chelfea-hoipital; and he obtained a feat at the
council-board, in confequence of a friendfhip contra&ed at
fchool with one of the duke of Devonfhire’s Ions, who pro¬
cured of his grace his being nominated one of the clerks ex¬
traordinary of that office. Towards the latter part of Mr
Weft’s life, he wholly applied himfelf to the tludy of the
Scriptures; being extremely anxious to try his utrnoft en¬
deavours to reconcile the feeming inconiiftencies which gave
the enemies to revealed religion a handle to doubt and dii-
cre-dit their authenticity. His obiervations on the refurrec-
tion, which, it has been faid, were written to qonfinn the
wavering faith of his great friends Pitt and Lyttleton, bear
ample teftimony to his reafoning powers and the fincerity
of his religion; while his tranflations of Pindar fhow him to
have been an eminent Greek fcholar, and very confiderable
poet. He had a mind replete with virtue, and was an ho¬
nour to his country ; but died at 50 years of age..
West, one of the cardinal points of the horizon, dia¬
metrically oppoiite to the call; and ftriSIy defined the in-
terfe&ion of the prime vertical with the horizon on that
fide the fun fets in.
WESTMINSTER, a city which forms the weft part
of the capital of Britain, but has a government diftindt
from the reft. This city had its name from the fituation
of its abbey, anciently called a mivjler, in refpect of that of
St Paul. That part properly called the city of Weflmin-
fler, comprehending the parifhes of St John and St Mar-,
garet, was once an ifland formed by the Thames, called
Thfirney i/lancl, from the thorns with which it was over run;
and the abbey that flood in it, Thorney-abbey. The liber¬
ties of Weftminfter contain the feveral parifhes of St Mar¬
tin in the Fields, St James’s, St Anne*, St .Paul, Covent-
garden, St Mary le Strand, St Clement, Danes, St George,
Hanover Square, and the precindl of the Savoy. The go¬
vernment, both of the city and liberties, is under, the h:
rifdidlion of the dean and chapter of Weftmirftc
as well as ecclefiaftical affairs; and their am... ;
c G 2
WES [ 844 ] w H A
Wellmorc to the prccina of St Martin le Grand, by Ncwc-ate-ftrcet, Andrian Netherlands, the United Provinces, and the North
WeflpMia.?"!'," 'orae t‘T“j£ E<r7’r ‘'‘‘a 'xe,mPted, ,f™m Sea' wi.th *•>* of the Unper and Lower Rhine, and
t,mnidiCtiOii ot the bilhop ot London and the archbiihop or compnirng a great many different ftates.
Canterbury; but the management of the civil part has, ever The tummoning princes and directors of the circle of
fince the Reformation, been in the hands of laymen, ele&ed Weftphalia, are the bifhops of Munfter, alternately with the
from time to time, and confirmed by the dean and chapter, ele&ors of Brandenburg and Palatine, as dukes ofC I eve and
The chief of thefe laymen are the high-fteward, the de- Juhers. The archives belonging to it were before the nrefent
puty-fteward, and the high-bailiff, who hold their offices ■ war (1797) kept at Duffeldorp. Its quota of men and money
for life. There are alfo 16 burgeffes and__their affiibmts, is fomewhat more than the ninth part of the whole fum srr mt
out of which are eletted two head-hurgeffes, one for the
city, and the other for the liberties. Another officer is
the hiuh-conftable, who has all the other conflables under
his direction.
WESTMORELAND, a county of England, bounded
on the north and north-weft by Cumberland; on the fouth
and fouth-eaft by Yorkfhire ; and on the fouth and fouth-
wefl by Larjcafhire. Its extent from north-eaft to fouth,
is 40 miles, and its breadth from the eaft projedion to that
;n the weft, 42. It is generally divided into the baronies
or Kendal and Weftmoreland : the former is very moun¬
tainous. but the latter is a large champaign country. Thefe
are the only principal diviftons of this county, which con¬
tains 8 market-towns and 26 parifhes. It lies partly in the
diocefe of Chefter, and partly in that of Carlifle. The ead of
Thanet is hereditary fheriff of the county, which fends only
four members to parliament. The air is clear, (harp, and fa-
lubrxous, the natives being feldom troubled with difeafes* and
generally living to old age. The foil is various; that on the
mountains is very barren, while that in the valleys is fertile,
producing good corn and grafs, efpecially in the meadows near
the rivers. In the hilly parts on the weftern borders it is ge¬
nerally believed there are vaft quantities of copper ore, and
veins of gold ; rome mines of copper are worked, but moft
of the ore Ire£ fo deep that it will not anfwer the ekpence.
ihis county yields the fineft fiate, and abundance of excel¬
lent hams are cured here. The principal rivers are, the
Eden, the Lone, and the Ken. It has alio ieveral fine
lakes, the principal of which is Winander Mere, or Win¬
dermere Water. In the forelt of Martindale, to the fouth
of Ulls-water, the breed of red deer ftill exifts in a wild
Hate.- Appleby is the county tov/n.
WESTPHALIA, a duchy of Germany, bounded to
the eaft by the bifhopric of Paderborn, and the territories
of Waldeck and Heffe ; to the fouth fey the counties of
Witgenflein and Naffau, and the duchy of Berg ; to the
north by the bilhopric of Munfter and the county of Lippe.
It is about 40 miles in length and 30 in breadth. The
lower part ot it is very fruitful, yielding plenty of corn and
cattle, and fome falt-fprings. The higher affords iron ore,
calamine, lead, copper, fome filver and gold, fine woods,
cattle, game, fifh, with a little corn. The rivers, that
cither pals through the duchy or along its borders, are the
Rahr, the Lenne, the BLge, the Dime!, and the Lippe.
There are 28 towns in it, befides boroughs and cloifters.
1 he provincial diets are held at Arenfberg. In the year
1180, the emperor Fred. I. made a donation of this duchy
to the archbifhopric of Cologne, which was confirmed by fuc-
ceediag emperors; and in 1638, the 1 aft duke of Arenfberg
ceded to it alfo the county of Arenf-berg. The duchy is
governed at prefent by a bailiff, under the archbiffiop, and
is divided into the Hellwege, the Haarftrank, and the Bor¬
land ; or other wife into the Ruden, the Werl, the Bilftein,.
and the Brilon quarters.
Westphalia, one of the circles of Germany, anciently
the people inhabiting between the Wefer and the Rhine,
were called Wejlphalians ; and hence that traft got the name
of Wijiphatia : but the circle o' that name is of a larger ex-
tentj being furrounded by the circle ot Burgundy, or the
ed by the emprre. With refpedt to religion, it is partly Prote-
ftant and partly Catholic ; but the Proteiiants predominate,
and are, at leaft the greater part of them, Calvinifts. The air
of this country is not reckoned very wholefome, and towards
the north rs extremely cold in winter. The foil in general
rs marfhy and barren ; yet there is fome good corn and
pa ft are land : but the fruit is chiefly u!ed to feed hogs j
and uence it is that their bacon and hams are fo much va¬
lued and admired.
WLI couch, coming heap, a term ufed by the maltfterj
for one of the principal articles of malt-making. See Brew-
Ung, nQ 4.
WLtSIElN (John James), a very learned German
divine, born at Bafil in 1693. his admiffion to the mi-
mitry, he maintained a thefts vcirns A'ow Tejiamenti Lite*
tjonihus •, in which he (bowed that the great variety df read¬
ings of the New Teftameut afford no argument againft the au¬
thenticity of the text.- tic had made theie various readings
the objesft of his attention ; and travelled into foreign coun¬
tries to examine all the MSS. he could come at. fn 1730,
he publifhed Prolegomena ail Novi Te/iamenti Greed editionem
accuratijjimam, cA. Some divines, dreading his unfettling
the prefent text, procured a decree of the fenate of Bafii
againft his undertaking, and even got him prohibited from
officiating in tfie mmiftry ; on which he went to Amfter-
dam,.where the Remonftrants named him to fucceed the fa¬
mous Le Clerc, then fuperannuated, as profeffor of phiio-
fophy and hiftory. At laft he publifhed his edition of th<?
New 1 eft ament, in 2 vols (olio, J752 » in which he left the
text as he found it, placing the various readings, with a
critical commentary, underneath ; fubjoining two epiftles of
Clemens Roman us, till then unknown to the learned, but
difeovered by him in a Syriac MS. of the New Teftament.
He alfo publifhed fome fmall works ; and is faid to hav*. been
not only an univerlal fcholar, but to have abounded in good
and amiable qualities. Fie died at Amfterdam in 1754.
WE 1 TER A VI A, the fouthern divifios of the Land-
gravate ot Heffe in Germany, lying along the northern bank
of the river Maine, comprehending the counties of Hanau
and Naffau.
WEXFORD, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Munfter, 38 miles in length, and 24 in breadth; bounded
on the north by Wicklow, on the eaft by St George’s
Channel, on the iouth by the Atlantic Ocean, on the weft
by Waterford and Kilkenny, and on the north by Cather-
lough. It contains 109 parifhes, and fends 18 members to
parliament. It is a fruitful country in corn and grafs ; and
the principal town is of the fame name.
YVexford, a fea port of Ireland, capital of a county of
the lame name. It was once reckoned the chief city in
Ireland, being the firft colony of the EnglifH, and is ftill a
large handfome town, with a very commodious harbour at
the mouth of the river Slana, on a bay of St George’s
Channel, 63 miles fouth of Dublin. W. Long. 6. 3. N.
Lat. 52. 18.
WHALE, in ichthyology. See BALiENA and Thy-*
SETER.
Whale, in aftronomy, one of the conftellations. See
Astronomy, n°4Q6.
Whaiz*
VVlule
II
/harton
W H A t 845 ]
W&jiR'Bone, See Bal^na, nQ 2<
IpHALE-Ft/hery. See Fishery.
, WHARF, a fpace on the banks of a haven, creek, or
hithe, provided for the convenient loading and unloading
of vefTels.
WHARTON (Philip duke of), a nobleman of the
mod brilliant parts, but of the nrofl whimfical, extravagant,
and inconiiftent turn of mind, was educat' d by his father’s
exprefs order at home. He very early married a young
lady, the daughter ox major general Holmes, which difap-
pointed his father’s views of difpofing of him in Inch a
marriage as would have been a conhdetable addition to
the fortune and grandeur of his illuftrious family ; yet that
amiable lady delerved infinitely more felicity than (lie met
with by this alliance. This precipitate marriage is thought
to have haftened the death of his father; after which the
duke, being free from paternal rdlraints, plunged into thole
exceffes which rendered him, as Pope, exprelfes it,
*< A tyrant to the wife his heart approv’d ;
“ A rebel to the very king he lov’d.”
In the beginning of the year \r]\6. he began his travels;
and as he was deligned to be inllru&ed in the llridteft Whig
principles, Geneva was thought a proper place for his refi-
dence. He firft paffed through Holland, and vififed le-
veral courts of Germany ; and being arrived at Geneva,
conceived fuch a diiguit againil his governor, that he left
him, and fet out port for Lyons, where he wrote a letter
to the chevalier de St George, who then relided at Avig¬
non, and prefented him a very fine flout horfe ; which the
chevalier no fooner received than he lent a man ot quality
to him, who took him privately to his cf urt, where he w'as
entertained with the greatell marks o. efleem, and had the
title of duke of Northumberland conferred upon him. He,
however, remained there but one day, and then returned
poll to Lyons, whence he fet out ior Paris. He like-
wife paid a vifit to the confort of James II. who then re-
fided at St Germains, to whom he alfo paid his court.
During his Hay at Paris, his winning addrefs and . abilities
gained him the eftetm and admiration of all the Britilh iub-
jefts of rank of both parties.
About the latter end of December 1716, he arrived in
England, whence he foon after fet out for Ireland, where,
though under age, he was allowed the honour to take his
feat in the houfe of peers, and immediately diftinguifhed
himfelf, notwithllanding his former condudl, as a violent
partizan for the mimltry ; in confequence of which zeal the
king created him a duke. He no fooner came of age than
he was introduced to the houfe of lords in England with
the fame blaze of reputation. In a little time he oppofed
the court, and appeared one of the moll vigorous in de¬
fence of the bifhop of Rochefter ; and foon after printed
his thoughts twice a-week, in a paper called the V rue Bri¬
ton, feveral thoufands of which were difperfed weekly.
The duke’s boundlefs profufron had by this time fo bur¬
dened his eilate, that by a decree of Chancery it was vefted
in the hands of trulleeo for the payment of his debts, al
lowing him a provifion of L. 1 200 per annum for his fub-
fiftei.ee. I his being not fuffirient to fupport his title with
fuitable dignity, he went abroad and Ihone to great advan¬
tage, with refoeft to his perfonal charailer, at the imperial
court. From thence he made a tour co Spain : the Englilh
minifter was alarmed at his arrival, feann.r that his grace
was received in the character ol an airbaflador : upon which
the duke received a iummons under the privy-leal to return
home ; but intlead o; obeying it, he endeavoured to inflame
the Spamlh court againll that ot Great Britain, for exer-
eiflng an act of power, as he calls it, within the jurifdic-
W H A
tion of his Catholic majelly. He then a&ed openly in the Wharton.^
fervice of the Pretender, and was received at his court with v ‘
the greatell marks of favour.
While his grace was thus employed, his neglected duchefs
died in England on the 14th ot April 1726, .without ilfue.
Soon after the duke fell violently in love with '1. Oberne,
one of the maids of honour to the queen of Spain, the
daughter of an Irilh colonel, whofe fortune chiefly conflfled
in her oerlonal accomplifhments. All his friends, and par¬
ticularly the queen of Spain, oppofed the match ; but. he
falling into a lingering fever, occafioned by his difappoint-
ment, the queen gave her content, and they were foon after
married. He then fpent fome time at Rome, where he ac¬
cepted of a blue garter, affumed the title of duke of Nor¬
thumberland, and tor a while enjoyed the confidence of the
exiled prince. But not always keeping within the bounds
of Italian gravity, it became neceflary ‘or him to remove
from her.ee ; when, going by fea to Barcelona, he wrote
a letter to the king ot Spain, acquainting him that he
would affitt at the fiege o
f Gibraltar as a volunteer. Soon
after he wrote to the chevalier de St George, exprefflag a
defire to vifit his court; but the chevalier adviied hun to
draw near to England.
The duke ftemed refolved to follow his advice ; and fet-
ting out with his duchefs, arrived in Paris in May 172S,
whence he loon after proceeded to Rouen, where he took,
up his refidence ; and was to far from making any concef-
fion to the government of England, that he did not give
himfelf the lead trouble about his eftate, or any other con¬
cern there ; though, on his arrival at Rouen, he had only
about L.600 in his pofleffion, and a bill of indidlment was
preferred againfl him in England for high-treafon. Soon
after the chevalier fent him L.2COO, which he fquandered
away in a courfe of extravagance ; when, to fave the char¬
ges of travelling by land, he went from Orleans to Nantz
by water, and ftaid there till he got a remittance from
Paris, which was fquar.dered almolt as foon as received.
At Nantz he was joined by his ragged fervants, and from
hence took (hipping wath them for Bilboa, when the queen
of Spain took the duchefs to attend, her perlon. bout
the beginning of the year Gd1, the duke, who commanded
a regiment, was at Lerida, but declined lo tall that he
could not move without afliilance ; yet when free from pain
did not lofe his gaiety, tie, however, received benefit from
lome mineral waters in Catalonia ; but foon after relapfed
at a fmall village, where he was utterly deftitute of ail the
neceflaries of life, till fome charitable fathers of a Bernar-
dine convent removed him to their houfe, and gave him tfll
the relief in their power. Under their hoipitable roof he
languifhed a week, and then died, without one friend or
acquaintance to clofe his eyes ; and his funeral was per¬
formed in the fame manner in which the fathers inter thofe
of their own fraternity.
Thus died Philip duke of Wharton, “ who, like Bucking¬
ham and Rochefler (fays Mr Walpole;, comforted all the
grave and dull, by throwing away the brightefl profufion of
parts on witty fooleries, debaucheries, and ferapes, which mix
graces with a great charader, but never can compoie one.
“ With attachment to no party, though with talents to
govern any party, this lively man changed the free air of
Weflminfjer for the gloom of the Efcurial, the profped'-
of king George’s garter tor the Pretender’s; and with in-
diffeience t ' all religion, the frolic lord who had writ the
ballad on the archbifhop of Canterbury, died in the habit,
of a capuchin. It is difficult to give an account of the
works of a man whole library was a tavern, and women of
pleafure his mufes. A thoufand fallits ot his imagination
may have been loft. There are only two volumes in 8voa.
called1
Wheat,
W H E [ 846 ] \V H E
called Ins Life and Writings. Thefe.contain nothing of the ling, two hours pickled will be found bell; and if prepared
latter, but 74 numbers of the True Briton, and his fpeech four or five days before-hand, in either cafe it makes no
in defence of the bifhop of Rochelter. His other works
are the ballads above mentioned ; the Drinking Match at
Wheel
Fiizc Dif-
Jistation by
the Acade-
m'y of Bour-
(teuux.
Eden-hall, in imitation of the Chevy-Chace, printed in a mif
cellany called Whartcniana ; and a parody of a fong lung at
the opera-houfe by Mrs Tofts. His lordlhip alio began a
play on the ftory of the queen of Scots.”
WHEAT, in botany. SeeTan icuM. For the culture
of wheat, fee Agriculture, n° 1 22—! 36.
I he three principal kinds of bad wheat are, the Lligbted,
the fmutty, arrd the worm-eaten. Blighted wheat is that of
which the ftalk is a* little twilled and rickety, the blade
being of a biuifin green and curled up, the ?,rain alio is
green and tuberckd : fmutty wheat appears as if great part
of the ear had been burnt, fome finall parts only being free,
and, in particular, the Hern that rifes in the centre of the
car, round which the grain is ranged : worm-eaten or rot¬
ten wheat is corrupted without lofing much of its natural
form, or external appearance ; the hulk is filled with a
greafy, black powder, that is infufferably fetid. It ap¬
peared, from the experiments of M. Til-let) that there was
a kind of in eftious quality in ail thofe kinds of wheat ; fo
that if found wheat was fprinkled with the lloru of fmutty
or rotten wheat, the crop produced would be rotten or
fmutty. It appeared alio, that among the grain which was
produced from ground manured with the ilraw of dtem¬
pered wheat, there was a much greater proportion of dif-
tempered wheat than in that produced Irom ground manu¬
red with the ftraw of good wheat : the great iecret then
was to dellroy the principle of this contagion in the wdreat
that was put into tire ground ; and M. Tillet found, as the
refult of a great number of experiments, that if the grain,
Defore it is fowed, be well moillened with a folution of fea-
falt, or nitre, in common water, none of the enfuing crop
will be fmutty, or otherwife defective, either in kind or
quality ; not only fuppofing' the grain that is fowed to be
loimd, and the ioil to be good, but even fuppofing the grain
to be llrewed with the flour ol Imutty wheat, and the ground
manured with bad ilraw.
The following receipt for preventing fmutty wheat was
publilhed in 1 769 by order of the Society for the Encou¬
ragement of Arts : they received it from Mr John Reynolds
of Adiiham in Kent.
A tub is to be procured that has a hole at bottom, in
which a flafl and tap-hofe is to be fixed over a whifp of
flraw, to prevent any fmall pieces of lime paffing (as in the
brewing way) ; this done, we put 70 gallons ef water, then
a corn bufhcl heap-full of Hone-lime," unflaked, flirring it
well till the whole is diflblved or mixed, letting it (land
about 30 hours, and then run it off into another tub as
clear as we can (as pradtited in beer) : this generally pro¬
duces a hogfhead of good flrong lime-water; then add three
pecks of fait, 42 pounds, which, with a little flirring, will
foon diffolve ; thus we have a proper pickle for the purpofe
of brining and liming our feed-wheat without any man¬
ner of obflacle, which is more than can be find in doing it
the common way, and greatly facilitates the drilling.
Herein we fleep the wheat in a broad-bottomed bafket
of about 24 inches diameter, and 20 inches deep (for large
fowing, made on purpoie), running in the grain gradually
in finall quantities from 10 to 12 gallons up to 16 gallons,
ftirring the fame. What floats, we fkim-off with a ftrainer,
and is not to be Town : then draw up the bafket, to drain
over the pickle, for a few minutes ; all which may be per-
formed within half an hour, fufficiently pickled ; and fo
proceed as before. This done, the wheat will be fit for
lowing in 24 hours, if required; but if defigned for drib
  1 c iiicirvv.o uu II
difference at all ; but fhould the feed be clammy, and Hick W!ieeiingJ'
to the notches in the drill-box, more lime mult be added to '
the lime-water ; here the mailer mull ufe hrs dilcretion, as
th^ calc requires ; for fome lime lias much more drying or
aflringent qualities in it than others. If fea-water can be
obtained conveniently, much lefs fait wall iuffice, but fome
will be found neceffary even then, ocherwife the light grains
will not float, a thing of more confequence than is generally
imagined, and it ought to be fkimmed off and thrown afide
for poultry, &c.
WHEEL, in mechanics, a fimple machine, confifling of
a round piece of wood, metal, or other matter, which re¬
volves on its axis. See Mechanics.
WnFel-Carriages. See Mechanics, Sedl. iv.
'Wheel-Anima/. See Animalcule, n° 16—23.
Wheel, Perjian. See Hydrostatics.
Wheel, Potter's. See Pottery.
Wheel is alfo the name of a kind of punifhment to
which great criminals are put in divers countries, in fome,
aflaffins, parricides, and robbers on the highway, are laid
to be condemned to the wheel, when they are to have their
bones firfl. broken with an iron bar on a fcaffold, and then
to be expofed, and left to expire on the circumference of a
wheel. In Germany they break their bones on the wheel
ittelf.— Of this cruel punifhment, it is not certain who was
the inventor : it was firfl ufed in Germany, and was, indeed,
but rarely pradlifed anywhere elfe, till the time of Francis I.
of Prance; who, by an edidl of the year 1534, appointed
it to be inflidled on robbers on the highway.
WHEELER (Sir George), a learned traveller and di¬
vine, was the fon of colonel Wheeler of Charing in Kent,
and was born in 1650 at Breda, where his parents as royal-
ifls were then in exile. He travelled through various parts
of Greece and the Eafl in company with Dr James Soon
of Lyons ; and taking orders on his return, was inftalled a
prebend of Durham, made vicar of Bafingfloke, and after¬
ward redfor of Houghton le Spring. He publifhed an ac¬
count of his Travels in 1682 in folio; and in 1689, his
Obfervations on ancient edifices of Churches yet remaining
in the Eaft, compared with Eufebius : alfo the Profeflant
Monaftery, or Chriflian (Economics. He died in 1724.
WHEELINGS, in the military art, are different mo¬
tions made both by horfe and foot, either to the right and
left, or to the nTht and left about.
General Rules for Wheeling.—The circle is divided into
four equal points: thence, wheeling to the right or left, is
only a quarter of the circle; wheeling to the right or left
about is one half of the circle.
When you wheel to the right, you are to clofe to the
right, fo near as to touch your right-hand man, but with¬
out preffing him ; and to look to the left, in order to bring
the rank about even.
When you wheel to the left, you are to clofe to the left,'
and look to the right as above diredled. This rule will
ferve for all the wheeling by ranks ; as when a battalion is
marching by fubdivifions with their ranks open, then each
rank wheels diflindlly by itfelf, when it comes to the ground
on which the ranks before it wheeled, but not before.
In wheeling, the men are to take oarticular care neither
to open nor clofe their ranks, and to carry their arms well.
In wheeling, the motion of each man is quicker or flower,
according to the diflance he is from the right or the left:
thus, when you wheel to the right, each man moves quicker
than lus right-hand man ; and wheeling to the left, each:
man moves quicker than his left-hand man ; the circle that
every man wheels being larger, according to the diflance he
4 is
w h i • r 84
Whelk is from the hand lie wheels to ; as may be ften by t-efcil-
|l bin^ feveral circles within one another, at two feet dihanee
yhidah. from each, which is nearly the fpace every man is fuppokd
to take up.
WHELK, in zoolocy. See Buccinum-
WEI ELF, the young of a dog, fox, lion, or any wild
beah.
Whelps, in a (hip, the feaman’s term for thofe brackets
which are fet up on the captfan clofe under the bars ; they
give the fweep to it, and are fo contrived that the*cablC
winding about them may not lurge fo much as it might
other wife do if the body of the cap (Ian were quite round
and fmooth.
WHETSTONE, a ftone which ferves for the whetting
of knives and other tools upon.
WEIEY, the ferum or watery part of milk.
WHIDAH, a kingdom of Africa, on the coaft of Gui-
ne?, and to the wed of the Gold Coath ; extending about
10 miles along the lea. It is a populous country, well iur-
nilbed with large villages; and there are fo many fmall ones,
that they are not above a mulket fhot from each other.—
The houfes are fmall, round at the top, and encompaf-
fed with mud walls or hedges, to ether with a great num¬
ber of all forts of beautiful and lofty trees, which afford the
moft beautiful profpeft in the world, info much that thofe
that have been here icorefent it as a perrect paradife. I he
fields are always green, and they cultivate beans, potatoes,
and truits; nor will the negroes here let a foot of ground
remain uncultivated. They fow again the very next day
after they have reaped. The inhabitants are greatly civili¬
zed, very refoeftful to each other, eipecially to ttieir fupe-
riors, and very induftvious. I he women brew the beer,
dtefs the vi&uals, and fell all forts of commodities at the
market. Thole that are rich employ their wives and Haves
in tilling the land, and they carry on a confxderahle trade
with the product, as well as in flaves ; for iome of them aie
able to deliver 1000 oL' the latter every month. The chief
men have generally 40 or 50 wives, the principal cap¬
tains 300 or 400, and the king 4000 or 5000. ^ 1 hey aie
extremely jealous, and, on the leall fufpicion, will lell them
to the Europeans for flaves. It any one happen to touch
one of the king’s wives accidentally, he is doomed to per¬
petual flavery. It is no wonder then that the women are
not fond of being the king’s wives ; and fome ©f them will
prefer a fpeedy death to fuch a miferable life. They have
no diflinftion of hours, days, weeks, months, or years. I n-
rite of circumciflon is ufed here, but they are not able to
tell why they ufe it, nor whence it is derived. i hey are
inch great game fiefs, that tney will flake ail they have at
play, not excepting their wives and children. They have
a vaft number of idols ; and they deify the moft contemp¬
tible animal that they fee firit in a morning, and even flocks
and (tones. Their principal regard is for makes, very high
trees, and the fea. An Englifh fabtor, juft arrived, found a.
fnake in the houfe belonging to the fafftory, and killed it
without the leaft fcruple ; which fo incenfed the negroes, that
they were fo* revenging the death of the inake, not only up¬
on him that killed it, but upon the whole fabfory ; but by
dint of prefents, and the interpofttion of the people of th§
ether factories, this affair was made up, and the fnake ho¬
nourably interred. However, to prevent fuch accidents,
they gave them warning not to do the like for the future.
They "have oxen, cows, goats, (beep, hogs, turkeys, ducks,
and hens ; which laft are extremely plentiful. 1 here are
many elephants, buffaloes, tigers, feveral kinds of deer, and
a fort of hares. The fruits are citrons, lemons, oranges,
bananas, tamarinds, &c. and they have vail numbers of
palm-trees) from which they obtain wine. Vfhidah was
7 ] W H I
conquered by the king of Duhoray. Their trade confjfts WhlEw
of flaves, elephants teeth, wax, and honey. The Englifh H
ft ft or y is 200 miles eaft of Cape Coaft Caftle, within land. ^v;i'd '
Bows, arrows, beautiful afla ^uays, and clubs, are the princi- y——
pal weapons of the nation.
WHIDAW-Bird. See Embert/.a.
WHIG, a party in Britain, oppofrte totlve Tories, from
whom they diflei chiefly in their political piihciples. See
Tories.
WHIM BREL. See Scolopax.
WHIN, in botanv. See Ulex.
WH1NCHET. ■ See Motacilia. _ .
WHIP, or F/mr-Stof, in a fnip, a piece of timber, in
form of a ftrong ftaff, faftened into the helm, for the fteerl-
man, in fmall fhips, to hold in his hand, in order to move the
rudder, an 1 direct the (hip.
WHIRLPOOL, an eddy, vortex, or gulr, where the
water is continually turning round.
Thole in rivers are very common, from various accidents,
and are u ft tally very trivial, and of little confequence. In
the fca they are more rate, but more dangerous. SibbaM
has related the effefts of a very remarkable marine whirlpool
among the Orcades, which would prove very dangerous to
{{.rangers, though it is of no confequence to the people who
are ufed to it. -This ts not fixed to any particular place,
but appears in various parts of the limits of the lea among
thefe iflands. Wherever it appears, it is very furious ; and
boats, See. would inevitably be drawn in and peri h with it;
but the people who navigate them are prepared for it, and
always carry an empty veifel, a log of wood, or large bundle
of ftraw, or feme fuch thing, in the boat with them ; as
foon as they perceive the whirpool, they tofs this within its
vortex, keeoing themtelves out : this fubftahee, whatever it
be, is immediately received into the centre, and carried under
w'ater ; and as foon as this is done, the fur.ace of the place
where the whirpool was becomes fmooth, and they row
over it with fafety : and in about an hour they fee the vor¬
tex begin again in fome other place, ufually at about a mile’s
diftance from the fir ft.
WhllRLWIND, a wind which moves in a fpiral diree-
tlon, as well as horizontally, which is exceedingly rapid and
impetuous, but only of ihort duration.
Dr Franklin’s opinion of the origin of whirlwinds has
been already given in the article IVATFR-Spout. If his
theory be true, it w ill fpllow, that no hurricane ever can be
fo violent as to remove an obftacle or the irze of only one
cubic inch, provided that was fupported by a power equiva¬
lent to ty pounds; for this is tire utmoft force of the atmo-
fphere when ruftimg into a perleCt vacuum, which never
could take place in the centre of a whirlwind or watcr-fpout,
Lftee'd, notwithftanding the dreadful effefts forr.etimes ob-
fei ved from hurricanes and whirlwinds, we Audi eafily per¬
ceive, that the utmoft of their power always falls very far
fliort of this. The diminution of the fpecific gravity of the
au by only -fth in the middle of the column, would produce
fuch an afflux of air from all quarters, that an obftacle pre-
fenting a furface of one foot fquare, would require a force
of 504 pounds to prevent it from being carried awray; which
the ftronget! walls that can be built by human art could
fcarce refill. Nay, even the tenth part of this, or the dimi¬
nution of the gravity of the atmofphere by 3:5th part, would
produce a preffure of upwards of 50 pounds on every fquart
foot of furface, which, it is to be doubted, whether any of
our common houfes could refift.
Some philofophers aferibe the vacuum in the atmofphere
to which, according to Dr Franklin’s theory, wftiirlwinds are
owing, to a itream of eleftric matter ruffling with violence
into the atmofpkere out of the earth. But they do not in-
w H I [ 848 ] W H I
whi;,- Jrrjiv us lm\v this matter come? to be accumulated in that
'v'nc* part of the earth ; what induces it to pafs out of the earth ;
Whi']: how it pafTes invifihly througlt pure air ; or what ferves
it for a conductor. It ieems to he the talhion among cer~
tain phikdophers to afcrihe every phenomenon, with the
ca.nte of which we are unacquainted, to electricity. But
this is merely fubil ituting a new name, and ferves rather to
retard than advance our knowledge of nature.
Some kinds of whirlwinds move with a flow motion, and
are injurious only by their vortex ; while others feem to do
rnifchief as well by their progrefTive as their whirling mo¬
tion. Of this kind are thofe called typbons ; which, by their
frequently following the courfe of rivers, feem thus alfo to
difcover their eledrical origin. Or the deifruftive etfetts of
thefe, we have an inflance in what happened at Charleftown
in South Carolina, on the iflof June It was firft:
obferved about noon, on land, upwards of 50 miles weft-by-
fouth of Charkftown, and deftroyed feveral lioufes, &c. as
it paffed along, in many places making wide avenues thro’
the woods ; from whence every tree and ihrub was torn up,
and great branches of trees were driven about in the co¬
lumn as it palled along. It direfted its courfe to Afhley
river, down which it came with furprifmg velocity ; in its
appearance refembling a column of fmoke or vapour, whoie
motion was very irregular and tumultuous. Its momentum
was fo great, that Afhley river was ploughed to the bot¬
tom, and the channel laid bare. As it came down this ri¬
ver, it made a conftant noife like thunder \ its diameter be¬
ing computed about 300 fathoms. It was met at White
Point by another of the fame kind which came down Coo¬
per’s river, but with inferior flrength ; however, on their
meeting together, the agitation of the air was much great¬
er, while the clouds, which were driving in all diredfions to
the place, fecmtd to be precipitated, and whirled round
■with incredible velocity. It then fell upon the fhipping in
the road ; entirely deftroying fome, and damaging others :
being fcarce three minutes in its paflage, though the di-
ftr.nce was near two leagues. In that fhort time it did
damage to the amount of L. 20,000 ; and had not its di-
redbion been altered by that guit which came down Coo¬
per’s river, it muff have totally deflroyed Charleftown, as
no obftacle whatever feemed capable of reft fling its fury.
WHISKY, a termfignifying water, and applied in Scot¬
land and in Ireland to a diftilled liquor drawn from barley,
which is perhaps preferable to any Englifti malt brandy : it is
ftrong, but not pungent, and free from the empyreumatic
tafte or fmell.
WHISPERING-Places. Sep Accousrics, n° 24.
WHIST, a well-known game at cards, which requires
great attention and filence; hence the name.
This game is played by four perfons, who cut for part¬
ners ; the two higheft and the two loweft are together, and
the partners fit oppofite to each other : the perfon who cuts
the loweft card is to deal firft, giving one at a time to each
perfon, till he comes to the laft card, which is turned up
for the trump, and remains on the table till each perfon has
played a card. The perfon on the left hand fide of the
dealer plays firft, and whoever wins the trick is to play
again, thus going on till the cards are played out. The
ace, king, queen, and knave of trumps, are called honours ;
in cafe any three of thefe honours have been played be¬
tween, or by either of the two partners, they reckon for
two points towards the game ; and if the four honours have
been played between, or by either of the two partners, they
reckon for four points towards the game, the game confift-
ing of ten points. Ihe honours are reckoned after the
tricks; all above fix tricks reckoning alfo towards the game.
Genera! Ruks for playing the Game of . He
who is to play firft fhould lead from the ftrongeft fuit. If r’V'**
he has a fequence of kintr, queen, and knave,'or queen,
knave and ten, he may fafely lead the higheft of the fe¬
quence ; but if he has five or fix in number, he muft begin
with the loweft. He muft always begin with the higheft
trump, by which he fotces out the fuperior trumps, and
can come in again, to make his ftrong fuit.
2. lie fhould never be afraid to play trumps when he
has five in his hand, even of the fmalleft, although he may
not have any good cards of any'other fuit. %
3. With ace and king of any two fuits, and only two or
three fmall trumps, the aces and kings fliould be played out,
in order to make as many tricks as poflible ; atid having but
two or three fmall trumps, he ftioukl never force his partner
to trump, if he finds he cannot follow fuit; but endeavour
to throw the lead into his partner’s hand.
4. He fhould in general return his partner’s lead, unlefs
he has fome capital cards of his own.
5. As this game is played with the lurch, that is, to fave
hah the (take, five points muft be made before the game is
out: he fhould not venture to play trumps when he is four
of the game, unlefs he is very ftrong, having at leaft an ho¬
nour and three trumps, or ace, king, and two fmall ones.
6. When the game is icored nine, at which ftage the
honours reckon for nothing, he fhould be ttill more cauti¬
ous how he plays trumps, even if he is ftrong in hand, and
give his partner an opportunity of trumping the adverfaries
luits, in cafe he is deficient in them.
7. If his adveifaries are fix or feven love of the game, he
fhould play a forward or bold game, that he may have a
chance, at the rifle of a trick or two, to come up with them.
If he has but three trumps and other good cards, he may-
play trumps, efpecially if he has a fequence, or queen, knave,
and a imall one.
8. He fhould always rifle a trick or two when the game
is much in his favour ; becaufe a new deal is of greater con-
fequence to the adverfary than one or two points are to him.
9. When the player finds there is a likelihood of either
faving the game or his lurch, he fhould rifle the odd trick ;
but if the game is five all, and he can make two tricks in
his own hand, he fhould make them, in order to fecure the
difference of two points, which make the game near two to
one in his favour.
jo. A good player fhould begin with a fmall trump,
when he has ace, king, and four fmall ones ; for this rea-
fon, if his partner has a better trump than the laft player,
which is an equal wager but he has, he has a chance of
fetching out all the trumps, by having three rounds of
them.
11. The odds are always in his favour that his partner
holds an honour ; confequently if he has king, queen, and
four fmall ones, he fhould begin with a fmall one.
12. When queen, knave, and four fmall trumps are
dealt him, he fhould play a fmall one firft, the odds being
in his favour that his partner holds an honour ; if he has
knave, ten, and four fmall trumps, he fhould alfo begin with
a fmall one, for the fame reafon.
13. If he has knave, ten, eight, and three fmall trumps,
the knave fliould be played firft, by which means the nine
may be prevented from winning a trick, the odds being in
his favour that three honours are played in two rounds.
14. If an honour is turned up againft him on his left
hand, and he has ten, nine, and eight, with two or three
fmall trumps; when he is to play, he fhould play through,
the honours with the ten, which will force the dealer to
play his honour to a difadvantage, if the dealer does not
3 choofe
W H I
[ 849 3
W H I
Phlft. cho©fe to Jpsvp It to the option of hie admfary whether he
-V wm pafs It or not; but if he has fix trumps of a lower cle*
nomination, and not ten, nine, and eight, and no honour
turned up againft him, he fhould begin with a fmall one.
15. Jn general, when he has two capital cards in trumps,
and two or three fmall ones, he fiiould begin with a Imall
one, for the reafon affigned in n° 1 2.
16. When he has ace, king, knave, and two fmall trumps,
or even one fmall trump, by firft playing the king, and put¬
ting the lead into his partner’s hand, who will play a trump ;
judging him to have ace and knave, from his beginning
with the king : in this cafe the knave fhould be fineffed (a),
nothing being againit him but the queen.
17. If he has knave, ten, eight, and two fmall trumps,
by playing the knave fiifl, it is odds but in two rounds of
trumps the nine falls, or he may finefle the eight when his
partner returns trumps.
18. With five trumps of a lower denomination, he fhould
begin with the fmalleft, unlefs he has a iequence of ten, nine,
and eight; then he fhould begin with the ten.
19. When he has king, queen, ten, and one fmall trump,
he muft begin with the king, and wait tor his partner’s re¬
turn of the trumps, in order to fineffe the ten, by which
means he may won the knave.
20. In order to prevent the ten from winning, when he
has queen, knave, nine, and one fmall trump, he mult be¬
gin with the queen. And in cafe he has knave, ten, eight,
and one fmall trump, he ihould begin with the knave, that
the nine may not win.
21. If he has ten, nine, eight, and one fmall trump, he
fhould begin with the ten ; thereby he ftrengthens his part
ner’s hand, leaving it at his option to take it or not.
22. He fhould begin with a fmall one, when he has the
ten and three fmall trumps.
23. If has a good fuit, and ace, king, and four fmall
trumps, he muft play three rounds of trumps, in order to fe-
cure his ftrong fuit from being trumped.
24. When he has king, queen, ten, and three fmall
trumps, he fhould begin with the king, becaufe he has a
chance of the knave’s coining down in the fecond round :
and to fecure his ftrong fuit, he fhould not wait to fineffe
the ten. If he fhould have queen, knave, and three Imall
trumps, and fome good fuit to make, he muft begin with a
fmall one.
25. If he has knave, ten, eight, and two fmall trumps,
with a ftrong fuit, he fhould begin with the knave, in order
to make the nine fall in the fecond round ; but if he has
knave, ten, and three fmall trumps, with a good fuit, he
fhould play a fmall one firft.
26. With ten, nine, eiadit, and one fmall trump, provi¬
ded he has a good fuit, he fhould begin with the ten; by which
means he may get the trumps out, and have a chance of
making his ftrong fuit.
The following obfervations will enable a player to know
that his partner has r.o more of a fuit which either of them
has played. Suppofe he leads from queen, ten, nine, and
two fmall cards of any fuit, the fecond hand puts on the
knave, his partner plays the eight; in this cafe, he having
queen, ten, and nine, it is a demonftration, if his partner
plays well, that he can have no more of that fuit. By that
difcovery, he may play his game accordingly, either by for¬
cing his partner to trump that fuit, it he is ftrong in
trumps, or by playing another fuit. If he has king, queen,
and ten of a fuit, and he leads his king, his partner plays the
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
knave ? this alfo demon ft rates he has no more of that fuit. ( ‘Wh'ft.
If he has king, queen, and many more of a fuit, and be¬
gins with the king, in fome cafes it is good play in a part¬
ner, when he has the ace and one fmall card in that fuit
only, to win the king with the ace; for fuppofe the partner
to be very ftrong in trumps, by taking the king with the
ace, he gets the lead and crumps out, and having cleared
the board of trumps, his partner returns his lead; and the
ace being out, there is room for him to make that whole
fuit, which could not have been done if the partner had kept
the ace. Suppofe he has no other good card in his hand
befides that fuit, he loles nothing by the ace’s taking his
king ; and if it fhould fo happen that he has a good card
to bring in that fuit, he gains all the tricks which he makes
in that fuit by this method of play: as his partner has ta¬
ken his king with the ace, and trumps out upon it, he has
realon to imagine that his partner has one of that luit to
return him ; for which reafon he fhould not throw away any
of that fuit, even to keep a king or queen guarded.
Method of playing ivhen an honour is turned up on the
right hand.— Suppofe the knave is turned up on his right
hand, and that he has king, queen, and ten ; in order to
win the knave, he muft bcgm with the king ; by which
means, his partner may fuppofe him to have queen and ten
remaining, efpecially if he has a fecond lead, and he does not
proceed to play the queen.
Suppofe the knave turned up as before, and he has ace,
queen, and ten, by playing his queen, it anfwers the purpofe
of the former rule.
When the queen is turned up on his right hand, and he
has ace, king, and knave, by playing his king, it anfwers
the fame purpofe of the former rule.
In cafe an honour is turned up on his left hand, fuppo-
fing he fhould hold no honour, he fhould play trumps
thiough the honour as foon as he gets the lead ; but if he
fhould hold an honour (except the ace), he muft be cautious
how he plays trumps, becaufe, in cafe his partner holds no
honour, his adveriaty will play his own game upon him.
Method of playing the fequcnces.—The higheft in fequences
of trumps fhould be played, unlefs he has ace, king, and
queen ; and then he fhould play the loweft, which informs
his partner of the ftate of his game.
When he has king, queen, and knave, and two fmall ones,
which are not trumps, he fhould begin with the knave, whe¬
ther he is ftrong in trumps or not, as he makes way for the
whole fuit by getting the ace out.
If he is ftrong in trumps, and has a fequence of queen,
knave, ten, and two fmall cards of a fuit, he fhould play
the higheft of his fequence ; for it either of the adverfaries
fhould trump that fuit in the fecond round, being alfo ftrong
in trumps, he will make the remainder of that fuit, by fetch¬
ing out their trumps. When he has knave, ten, and nine, and
two fmall cards ot a fuit, he may play in the like manner.
If king, queen, and knave, and one fmall card ot any
fuit, is the cafe, whether ftrong in trumps or not, he
fhould play the king; and when there are only four in num¬
ber, the lame method of play fhould be obferved by in¬
ferior fequences.
When weak in trumps, he fhould begin by the loweft of
the iequence, provided he has five in number, becaufe if his
partner has the ace of that fuit he will make it. If he has
the ace and four fmall cards of a fuit, and weak in trumps,
leading from that fuit, he fhould play the ace. When ftrong
in trumps, the game may be played otherwife.
3 P How
(a) Fineje, is to play a fmall card which may win, keeping the fuperior card or cards to lay over the right hand ad-
verfary.
V/ H I [ 850 1
Ifnw to mals a fLnmy or luin every inch.—Suppofe A
and B partners againit C and and C to deal, A to have
the king, knave, nine, and feven of hearts, which are tramps,
a quart-major in fpades, a tierce-major in diamonds, and the
ace and king of clubs. Then fuppofe B to have nine fpades,
two clubs, and two diamonds. Alfo fuppofe D to have ace,
queen, ten, and eight of trumps, witlr nine clubs, and C to
have five trumps and eight diamonds. A leads a trump, which
D wins, and L) is to play a club, which his partner C is to
trump ; C leads a trurnp, which his partner D wins ; 1) then
will lead a club, which C will trump ; and G will play a
trump, which 13 will win ; and 13 having the heft trump
will play it ; alter which 13 having" feven clubs in his hand,
makes them, fo that he flams A and B.
How to play any hand of cards according to the nearejl calcu¬
lations of his partner's holding certain winning cards :
1 That he has not one certain winning card,
is - - -
2 That he has not two certain winning cards,
is - -
But it is about 5 to 4 that he has one
or bogh, or
3 That he has one card out of any three cer¬
tain winning cards, is about
4 That he has not three certain winning
cards, is about 3 1 to 1, or
5” That he has net two of them, is about 7
to 2, or
6 That he has not one of them, is about 7
to 6, or - . 37S
7 That he holds one or two of them, is in
his favour about 13 to 6, or - 481 to 222
8 And about 5 to 2 that he holds 1, 2, or
ail three of them.
W H I
to
I 7 to 2
32 to 25
5 to 2
681 to 22
547 ^ i56
to
325
The ufe of thefe calculations is for a whill-player to play
his-cards to the molt advantage. For inltance,
As the lirft calculation is two to one that his partner
does not hold one certain winning card.—Suppofe then a
fuit is led, of which the fecond player has the king and
a fmall one only, he fliould put on the king, becaufe the
odds are in his favour that the third player cannot win if.
For the fame reafon, when he is fecund player, and to lead,
he Ihould play a king in preference to a queen, becaufe
it is two to one the ace does not take it j but it is five to
four the queen will be taken by either ace or king, which'
may be in the third hand.
According to the fecond calculation, of its being five to
four that his partner holds one certain winning card out of
any two: If he has two honours in any fuit, he can play
to an advantage, knowing, it is five to four in favour of his
partner’s having one of tlve two honours ; and by the fame
rule, if he is fecond player, having a queen and one fmall card,
by playing the queen he plays five to four againlt himfelf..
It is obvious, from the third calculation, which proves it
to be five to two that his partner has one card out of any
three certain winning cards, that he who plays the knave
fecond hand, having but the knave and one fmall card-
of the fame fuit, mud play five to two- againft himfelf,
and difeovers his game to a great difadvantage ; for which
reafon, he Ihould play the lowell of any fequence which
be may hold in his hand, as the knave, if he has king,
queen, and knave; the ten, if he has queen, knave, and
ten, &c. By fo doing, his partner has an opportunity of
judging what card to play in that fuit, according to the
odds for or again ft him.
From the above c?.lculation, if he has ace, king, and two
fmall trumps, he is entitled to win four tricks out of fix,
provided Re has four winning cards of any fuit; or five WIiift3n,
tricks out of feven, if he has five winning cards of any 1 v-—.
fuit : by playing two rounds of trumps, and taking out^?e
eight of them, it is five to two but his partner has a third
trump; and if it fliould be fo, he makes the tricks intended. Beaufort.
WHIS1 ON (William), an Englifn divine of great
parts, uncommon learning, and of a lingular character, was-
born at Norton near Twycroffe in the county of Leicef-
ter, where his father was reftor, in 1667. He was admit¬
ted of Clarehall, Cambridge, where he purfued his lludies,
particularly in the mathematics, and commented tutor
which his ill health at length forced him to decline. Ha¬
ving entered into orders, he, in 1694, became chaplain to
Dr More biihop of Norwich ; and in this llation he publifh-
ed his firft worky intitled, A New Theory of the Earth, See.
in which he undertook to prove the Mofaic do£f,rine of the
earth perfeftlyagreeable to reafon and philofophy. This work
brought no fmall reputation to the author. In the begin¬
ning of this century he was made Sir Ifaac Newton’s de¬
puty, and afterwards his fucceffor, in the Lucafian profef-
irrfhip of mathematics; when he refigned a living he had in
Suffolk, and went to refide at Cambridge. About this
time he publifhed feveral fcientifical works, explanatory of
the Newtonian philofophy; and he had the honour of be-
isg one of the firft, if not the very firft, who rendered thofe
principles popular and intelligible to the generality of read¬
ers, About the year 1710, he was known to have adopted
Arian principles, and was forming projects to fupport and
propagate them : among other things, he had tranllated the -
Apoftolical Conftitutions into Englifh, which favoured the
Arian dotftrine, and which he afferted to be genuine. The'
confequence was, that he was deprived of his profefforfhip,.
and banifhed the univerfity ; he neverthelefs purfued his
fcheme, by publifhing die next year his Primitive Chrifti-
anity Revived, 4 vols, 8vo. for which the convocation fell
upon him very vehemently. On his expulfion from Cam¬
bridge, Mr WJrifton fettled in London; where, without
fullering hij zeal to be intimidated, he continued to write,
and to propagate his Primitive Chriftianity, with as much ar¬
dour as if he had been in the moll fiourilhing circumilances.
In [721,3 fubfeription was made for the fopport of his fa¬
mily, which amounted to 4701. For though he drew pro¬
fits from reading aftronomical and philofophical le6kires, and *
alfo from his publications, which were very numerous, yet
tlrefe of themfelves would have been very infufficient : nor,
when joined with the benevolence and charity of thofe who
loved and etleemed him for his learning, integrity, and pie¬
ty,. did they prevent his being frequently in great diftrefs.
He continued long a member of the church of England, and
regularly frequented its fervice, though he difapproved of
many things in it: but at laft he went over to the Baptifts,.
and attended Dr Forfter’s meeting at Pinner’s Hall, Broad-
ftreet. Among other performances not fpecified above, he
wrote Memoirs of his own life and writings, which contain
fome curious particulars.
He was remarkable for fpeaking the plaineft truths on
every occaiion, and to perfons of every degree. During the
year 1725, that he, with Dr Clarke, Dr Berkeley, and'
others, had the honour to attend Queen Caroline on a cer¬
tain day of every week, to talk of the prpgrefs of feience,.
her Majefty one evening took occalion to pay him a jull
compliment on his truth and integrity, requeiling that he.
would, with his ufual plainnefs, point out to her any fault
that he might have obferved in her conduct:. At firil h®
begged to be excufed, adding, that few perfons could bear
to have their faults plainly told to them, and leaft of all
royal perfonages, who, from their elevation, are neceffarily
furrounded by flatterers, to whofe lips, truth is a itranger.
' Her
tfhifton
H
White.
W « I [85
Her Majefty replied, that be was to cortfider aev not as a
queen, but as a philofopher ; and that philofophy is of very
little ufe, if it cannot enable its profefTors to bear without
" offence truths neceffaty to their own improvement. Upon
this he told her, that the. greateft fault which he had obfer-
• ved in her condufL, was her indecent behaviour in the houfe
.of God, which, he affured' her, had made very unfavourable
. impreffions on the minds of many perfons, who, coming to
. town from diftant parts of the country, had gone to the
chapel to obtain a fight-ef her majefty, the king, and the
royal family. The Queen made no reply ; but in about
fix weeks afterwards renewed her requeft, that Mr Whifton
•would point out the moft glaring improprieties in her con-
fdudl. To this he anfwered, that he had laid down a maxim
from which he could not deviate, never to point out to any
jperfon more than one fault at a time, and never to give a
■fecond reproof till he had oblerved fome good confequence
to have arifen from the firft (A)* Much to the Queens
.honour, fire was pleafed with this plain-dealing, and conti¬
nued to think favourably of Mr Whitton. This honeft, but
iwhimfical and credulous man, died in i“62, at the advan-
'•ced age of" 99.
WHITBY (Dr Daniel), a very learned Englifh writer,
•was born in i638, and bred at Oxford ; where, in 1664, he
, v/as eledted perpetual fellow of his college. He afterward
Became chaplain to Dr Seth \\ ard, bifhop of oaliltiury ;
who collated him in 1668 to the prebend of Yatefbury in
that church, and foon after to that of Hufhorn and Bur-
bach. In 1672 he was admitted chanter of the laid church,
ion the death of ^lr John South, and tnen, or foon after, rec¬
tor of St Edmund’s church in Saliffeury. He w^as made a
prebendary of Baunton Regis in 1696, and died in 1726.
He was ever ftrangely ignorant of worldly affairs, even to
a degree that is fcarcely to be conceived. . His writings are
numerous, and well known 4 particularly Ins Commentary on
the New Teftament.
Whitby, a fea-pott town in the North Riding of York¬
shire, Rated on the river Elk, near the place where it falls
into the fea. The houfes are neat,ftrong, and convenient; the
number of inhabitants about 9000. Ship-building is their
principal manufacture. W. Long. o. 24. N. Lat.54.30.
WHITE, one of the colours of natural bodies.
IVhite of the Eye, denotes the firlt tunic or coat of the
eye, called albuginea. See Anatomy, n° 142.
White of an Egg. See Albumen and Egg.
JVh 1 te Friars, a name common to feveral oiders of monks,
■ from being clothed in a white habit.
White Sea, is a bay of the Frozen Ocean, fo called in
the north part of Mufcovy, lying between Ruffian Lapland
and Samoieda ; at the bottom of which Hands the city of
Archangel. This was the chief port the Ruffians had before
their conquefl of Livonia.
IVhite Colour for painting. See Chemistry, n® 703.
White Copper. See Chemistry, ne it57*
White Drop, War^s. See Chemistry, iP 746.
White Iron, or Tin.plate, iron-plates covered over with
tin ; for the method of making which, fee Latten.
In 1681 tin-plates were manufactured in England by one
Andrew Yarranton, who had been lent to Bohemia to learn
the method of making them. But the manufacture was
foon afterwards diicontinutd. It was revived again^in 1742,
and is now arrived at as great, if not greater, perfection.in
this country than in any other.
White Cead. See Chemistry, n° 875.
White Throat, in ornithology. See Mota.cil.la.
, 1 w 11 1
WHITE 1'IEI.D (George), the celebrated preacherWMtrfeld.
among the people called Afet/Wi/?., wae born ir the year havcn_
1714, at the Bell in the city of Glopcefter, which was then  
kept by his mother. At about 1 2 years of age he was put
to a grammaf-fehool; but his mother entering into a fecond
marriage, which proved a difadvantageous one, he, when
about i 5, put on a blue apron, and ferved her in the capa¬
city of a drawer or waiter. After continuing about a year
in this fervile emuloyment, {he turned over the bufinefs to
his brother ; who* marryin r, and George not agreeing with
his filler-in-law, he left the inn. Some time after, meeting
with an old fchool-fellow, then a fervitor in Pembroke col¬
lege, Oxford, he was induced to attempt getting into the
fame college in a like capacity, and fucceeded. Here Mr
Whitefield/who from his own account appears to have al¬
ways had a tlrong tinfture ot enthufiafm in his con .-a tut ton
from his very childhood, diftinguiffied himfelr by the auite-
rities of his devotion, and acquired confiderable eminence in
fome religious affemblies in that city- At the age o 21,
die fame' of his piety recommended him fo etieCtually to
Dr Benfon, then biffiop of Gloucefter, that he made him a
voluntary offer of ordination. Immediately after this regu¬
lar admiffion into the miniffry, Mr Whitefield applied h.m-
felf to the moft extraordinary, the moft indefatigable, dutrea
of his charaCter, preaching daily in prifons, fields, and open
ftreets, wherever he thought there would be a likelihood o
making profelytes. Having at length made himfelf umver-
fally known in England, he embarked for America, whege
the tenets of Methodifm began to fpread very fall under his
friends the Wtlleys; and.firft determined upon the inftitu-
tion of the orphan-houfe at Georgia, which he afterwards
effeaed. After a long courfe of peregrination, his fortune
increafed as his fame extended among his followers, -and he
ereded two very extenfive buildings for public woil ip,
under the name of Tabernacles^ ; one in Tottenham Court
Road, and the other in Moor fields. Here, with the he p
of fome affiftants, he continued for feveral. years, ^
by very crowded congregations, and quitting the king on-
only occafionaUy. Beiides the two tabernacles already
mentioned, Mr Whitefield, by being chaplain to the coun-
tefs dowager of Huntingdon, was conncCled with two other
religious meetings, one at Bath, and the other at 1 un-
bridge, chiefly ereded under that lady’s patronage, by a
lively, fertile, and penetrating genius, by the moft unwearied
zeal, and by a forcible and perfuafive delivery, he never tail¬
ed of the defired effed upon his ever crowded and aumiring
audiences. America, however, which always engaged much
of his attention, was deftined to clofe his eyes; and he <
at Newberry, about 40 miles from Bofton in New England,
U1 WHITEHAVEN, a fea-port town of Cumberland,
with a market on Thurfdays, and one fair on Auguit Ut
for merchandife and toys. It is Rated on a creek ot the
Ra, 011 the north end of a great bergh or lull, walked by
the tide of flood on the welt fide, where there is a large
rock or quarry of hard white ilone, which gives name to
the place, and which, with the help ol a ftrong ftone-wall.
Rentes the harbour, into which finall barks may enter, it
is lately much improved in its buildings, and noted lor its
trade in pit-coal and fait, there being near it a prodigious
coal-mine, which runs a confiderable way under the lea.
They have a cuftomhoufe here ; and they carry on a good
trade to Ireland, Scotland, Chefter, Brfttol, and other paits.
It is 10 miles fouth weft of Cockermouth, and 289 north-
wrfl of London. W. Long. 3. 6. N.
(a) Bifliop Berkeley ivas prefent at thele coneerfationc, and from his fon wc received die account which we have gi
MU of them. They ar'e likewife mentioned, but not ftated lo accurately, by Brlhop Newton in 1m own L le.
WHY
[
'Whiteneft WHITENESS, the quality which denominate? or con
Whyte MtnteS 3 body wblte>
WHITES, or Fluor Albus. See Medicine, n9 250.
WHITING, in ichthyology. See Gadus.
WHITLOW, or Whitloe. See Surgery.
WHITSUN-Farthings, otherwife called Smoke-far.
things or Quadrantes Pentecojlales, a coinpofition for offerings
which were anciently made in Whitfun-week by every man
in England, who occupied a houfe with a chimney, to the
cathedral church of the diocefe in which he lived.
WHII SUNDAY, a folemn feftival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on the fiftieth day after Eafter, in me-
moiy of the defeent of the Holy Ghofl upon the apoftles
in the viable appearance of fiery cloven tongues, and of
thofe miraculous powers which were then conferred upon
them. r
It is called Whitfunday, or White-Sunday ; becaufe this
being one of the dated times for baptifm in the ancient
church, thofe who were baptifed put on white garments,
as tjpes of that Ipiritual purity they received in baptifm.
As the defeent of the Holy Ghoft upon the apoltles hap¬
pened upon the day which the Jews called Pentecofly this
feflival retained the name of Penkcoji among the Chriftians.
IPHiTsvNDAY JJIe, one of the New Hebrides, which lies
about four miles to the fouth, runs in the fame diredfion,
and is ot the fame len th, having more Hoping expofures
than Aurora : it appears to be better inhabited, and to
contain more plantations
WHORTLEBERRY. See Vaccinium.
WHY FT (Dr Robert), an eminent phyfician, born at
Edinburgh on the 6th September 1714, was the fon of
Robert Whytt, Efq; of Bennochy, advocate. This gentle¬
man died fix months before the birth of our author', who
had alfo the misfortune to be deprived of his mother before
he had attained the feventh year of his age. After receiving
the firft rudiments of fchool-education, he was fent to the
univerfity of St Andrew’s ; and after the ufual courfe of
inflru&ion there, in claflical, philofophical, and mathemati¬
cal learning, he came to Edinburgh, where he entered upon
the ftudy of medicine, under thofe eminent medical teachers,
Monro, Rutherford, Sinclair, Hummer, Alfton, and Innes.
After learning what was to be acquired at this univerfity,
m the protecution of his ftudies he vilited foreign countries;
and after attending the moft eminent teachers at London,
laris, and Leyden, he had the degree of Doftor of Phyfic
conferred upon him by the univerfity of Rheims in 1736,
being then in the 2 2d year of his age.
Upoh his return to his native country, he had the fame
honour alio conferred upon him by the univerfity of St An¬
drew’s ; where be had before obtained, with applaufe, the
degree of Matter of Aits.
Not long afterwards, in the year I737> be was admitted
a Licentiate of Medicine by the Royal College of Phyfici-
ans of Edinburgh ; and the year following he was railed to
the rank of a Fellow of the College. From the time of his
admiflion as a licentiate, he entered upon the pra&ice of
phyfic at Edinburgh; and the reputation which he acqui-
xec for medical learning, pointed him out as a fit fucceffor
ior the fiiIt vacant chair in the univerfity. Accordingly,
when Di Sinclair, whofe eminent medical abilities, and
perfuafive powers of oratory, had contributed not a little
to the rapid advancement of the medical fchool of Edin-
bur eh, found that thofe confpicuous talents which he pof-
feffed could ro longer be exerted in the manner which
they once .had been when he enjoyed bodily vigour unim¬
paired by age and powers of mind unclouded by dileafe,
he refigned his academical appointments in favour of Dr
Whytt.
S52 ] WHY
This admiflion into the college took place on the 2Cth
of June 174^ * and he began his firft courfe of the inftitu-
tions of medicine at the commencement of the next winter-
ftffion. I he abilities which he difplayed from his acade*
mical chair, in no particular difapuomted the exceftations
which had been formed of his leftures. The Latin tongue
was the language of the univerfity of Edinburgh ; and he
both fpoke and wrote in Latin with fingular propriety, ele¬
gance, and perfpicuity. At that time the fyttem and fenti-
ments ot Dr Boerhaave, which, notwithftanding their errors,
mutt challenge the admiration of lateft ages, were very ge¬
nerally received by the moft intelligent phyficians in Britain.
Dr Whytt had no fuch idle ardour for novelties as to throw
them entirely afide becaufe he could not follow them in
every particular. I he inftitutions of Dr Boerhaave, there¬
fore, furnifhed him with a text for his ledtures ; and he was
no lefs fuccefsful in explaining, illuftrating, and eftabliftn'ng
the fentiments of the author, when he could freely adopt
them, than in refuting them by clear, connedted, and deci-
five arguments, when he had occafion to differ from him.
I he opinions which he himlelt propofed, were delivered and
enforced with iuch acutenels of invention, fuch difplay of
fadts and foice of argument, as could rarely fail to gain
univerial affent from his numerous auditors ; but free from
that felffufficiency which is ever the offspring of ignorance
and conceit, he delivered his conclufions with becoming
modefly and diffidence.
From the time that he firft: entered upon an academical
appointment, till the year 1756, his prelections were con¬
fined to the inftitutions of medicine alone. But at that
period his learned colleague Dr Rutherford, who then filled
the pradtical chair, who had already taught medicine at
Edinburgh with univeral applaufe for more than thirty
years, and who had been the firft to begin the inftitution of
clinical ledtures at the Royal In&rmary, found it neceffary
to retire from the fatiguing duties of an office to which the
progrefs of age rendered him unequal. On this crifis Dr
Whytt, Dr Monro, fen. and Dr Cullen, each agreed to
take a fhare in an appointment in which their united exertions
promifed the higheit advantages to the univerfity. -By this
arrangement Undents, who had an opportunity of daily
witneffing the practice of three fuch teachers, and of hearing
the grounds of that pradtice explained, could not fail to de¬
rive the moft fclid advantages.
In thefe two departments, the inftitutions of medicine in
the univerfity, and the clinical ledtures in the Royal In¬
firmary, Dr Whytt’s academical labours were attended with
the moft beneficial confequences both to the ftudents and to
the univerfity. But not long after the period we have laft
mentioned, his ledturcs on the former of thefe fubjeds un¬
derwent a very confiderabie change. About this time the
illuftrious Gaubius, who had fucceeded to the chair of Boer¬
haave, favoured tire world with his Jnjiitutiones Pathologist.
This branch of medicine had indeed a place in the text
which Dr Whytt formerly followed ; but, without detrac¬
ting from the charadter of Dr Boerhave, it may juftly be
faid, that the attention he had beftowed upon it was not
equal to its importance. Dr Whytt was Rnfible of the
improved ftate in which pathology now appeared in the
writings of Bocrhaave’s fucceffor ; and he made no delay
in availing himfelf of the advantages which were then af¬
forded.
In the year 1762, his pathological ledfures were entirely
new-modelled. Following the publication of Gaubius as
a text, he delivered a comment, which was read by every
intelligent ftudent with the moft unfeigned fatisfadfion. in
thefe ledtures he collected and condenled the fruits of ac¬
curate obfervation and long experience. Enriched by all
the
Whytfc
WHY
r 853 ]
W I c
lH'hytt. the opportunities of information which he had enjoyed, and
by all the difcernment which he was capable of exerting,
they were jullly confidered as his moft tinifhed prodaftion.
For a period of more than twenty years, during which
he was juftly held in the higheft efteem as a lecturer at
Edinburgh, it may readily be luppofed that the extent ot
. his practice correfponded to his reputation. In faft, he re¬
ceived both the firft emoluments, and the higheft honours,
which could here be obtained. With extenfive practice in
Edinburgh, he had numerous confultations from other places.
His opinion on medical fubjedts was daily requefted by his
rnolt eminent contemporaries in every part of Britain.
Foreigners of the firft diftindtiem, and celebrated phyiicians
in the molt remote parts ot the Britiih empire, courted an
intercourte with him by letter. Befides private teftimomes
Of efteem, many public marks of honour were conferred
upon him both at home and abroad. In 1752> be was
elefted a fellow of the Royal Society of London ; in 1761,
he was appointed firft phyfician to the king in Scotland ;
and in t 764, he was chofen prefident of the Royal College
of Phyficians at Edinburgh.
But the fame which Dr Whytt acquired as a pradlition-
er and teacher of medicine, were not a little increafed by
the information which he communicated to the medical
world in different publications. His celebrity as an author
was ftill more extenfive than his reputation as a profeffor.
His firft publication, An Effay on the Vital and ether In¬
voluntary Motions of Animals, although it had been begun
foon after he had finifhed his academical courfe of medical
education, did not come from the prels till 1751 ; a period
of fifteen years from the time that he had finifhed his aca¬
demical courfe, and obtained a degree in medicine : but the
delay of this publication was fully compenfated by the mat¬
ter which it contained, and the improved form under which,
it appeared.
The next fubjeft which employed the pen of Dr Whytt
was one of a nature more immediately praftical. His Effay
on the Virtues of Lime-water and Soap in the Cure of the
Stone, firft made its appearance in a ieparate volume in 17^2.
Part of this fecond work had appeared ieveral years before in
the Edinburgh Medical Effays: but it was now prefented
to the world as a diftind publication with many improve¬
ments and additions.
His third work, intitled Phyfiological Effays, was firft
publifhed in the year 17 55. This treatife confifted of two
parts ; ift, An Inquiry into the Caufes which promote the
Circulation ol the Fluids in the very {mall Veffels of Ani¬
mals ; and 2dly, Obfervations on the Senlibility and Irrita¬
bility of the Parts of Men and other Animals, occafioned
by Dr Haller’s treatife on that iubjed. The former of
thefe may be confidered as an extenfion and farther illu-
ftration of the fentiments which he had already delivered in
his Effay on the Vital Motions, while the latter was on a
fubjed of a controverfial nature. In both he difplayed that
acutenefs of genius and ttrength of judgment which appear¬
ed in his former writings.
From the time at which his Phyfiological Effays were
pubiifiied, feveral years were probably employed by our
author in preparing for the prefs a larger and perhaps a
more important work than any yet mentioned, his Obfer-
vations on the Nature, Caules, and Cure of thofe Diforders
which are commonly called nervous, hypochondriac, and hy-
Jltric. This elaborate and ufeful work was publifhed in the
year 1764.
The laft of Dr Whytt’s writings is intitled, Obfervations
on the Dropfy in the Brain. This treatiie did not appear
till two years after his death ; when all his other works
were colleded and publiihed in one quarto volume, under
the diredion of his fbn and of his intimate friend the late
Sir John Pringle.
Befides thefe five works, he wrote many other papers,
which appeared in different periodical publications; par¬
ticularly in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, the Medical
Effays, the Medical Obfervatior.s, and the Phyfical and Li¬
terary Effays.
* At an early period of life, foon after he had fettled as a
medical praditioner in Edinburgh, he entered into the mar¬
ried ftate. His firft wife was Mifs Robertfon, filter to Ge¬
neral Rohertfon governor of New York. By her he had
two children ; both of whom died in early infancy, and
their mother did not long furvive them. A few years
after the death of his firft wife, he married as a fecond
wife Mil's Balfour, ftfter to James Balfour, Efq; of Pil-
rig. By her he had fourteen children ; but in thefe
alio he was in fome refpeds unfortunate ; for fix of them
only furvived him, three Ions and three daughters, and of
the former two are firrce dead. Although the feeling
heart of Dr Whytt, amidft the diftreffes of his family,
muft have often tuffered that uneafinefs and anxiety which
in fuch circumftances is the unavoidable confequence of pa¬
rental affedion and conjugal love ; yet he enjoyed a large
(hare of matrimonial felicity. Bnt his courfe of happinefs
was terminated by the death of his wife, which happened
in the year 1764 : and it is not improbable that this event
had fome fhare in haftening his own death ; tor in the be¬
ginning of the year 1765 his health was fo far impaired,
that he became incapable of his former exertions. A tedi¬
ous complication of chronical ailments, which chiefly ap¬
peared under the form of diabetes, was not to he refilled by
all the medical fkill which Edinburgh could afford : and at
length terminated in death, on the 15th of Apiil 1766, in
the 5 2d year of his age.
W1 BURGH, a confiderable town of Denmark, in North
Jutland, with a bifhop’s fee, remarkable for being the feat
of the chief court of juftice in the province. The hall
where the council affemble* has the archives of the country,
and efcaped the terrible fire that happened in the year J 726,
and which burned the cathedral-church, that of the Black.
Friars, the town-houfe, and the bifhop’s palace; hut they
have all been rebuilt more magnificent than before It is
feated on the lake Weter, in a peninfula, 25 miles north-
weft of Slefwick, and 110 north-by-weft of Copenhagen,
E. Long. 9. 50. N- Lat. 56. 20
WICKER, fignifies made of fmall twigs.
WICKET, a fmall door in the gate of a fortified place,.
See. or a hole in a door through which to view what paffes
without.
WICKLIFF (John), the firft divine in Europe who
had refolution to attempt a reformation of religion, was
born about the year 13.24, in. the pavifh of Wychff, near
Richmond, in Yorkfhire. He was educated at Oxford,
firft in Queen’s, and afterwards in Merton college, of which
he was a probationer-fellow. Having acquired the reputa¬
tion of a man of great learning and abilities, in 1361 he
was chofen mafter of Baliol-hall, and in 1365 conftituted
warden of Canterbury college, by the founder archbifhop
Simon de Klip ; but was, in 1367, ejected by the regulars,
together with three fecular fellows. He thought their pro¬
ceedings arbitrary, and therefore appealed to the pope ; but
inftead of obtaining redrefs, in 1370 the ejedlment was con¬
firmed. i his difappointment probably contributed fome-
what towaids his enmity to the fee of Rome, or rather to
confirm that enmity ; for he had long before written againil
the pope’s exactions' and corruptions o: religion. How¬
ever, his credit in the univerfity continued ; tor having taken
the degree of doftor in divinity, he read public le&urea
With-
Whytt
II
Wickliff.
W I C fl 854 ] . vW I L
^reat Spplaufe ; in which he frcqnently expoitd t<.
luklow. ;ltnK,jp;oriS 0f the Mendicant friars. About this time he
,in' publiflied a defence of his fovereign Edward lit. againit
the pope, who had infilled on the homage to which his pre-
deceflbr king John had agreed. This defence was the caufe
of WicklifF’s introduftion at court, and of his being fent
one of the ambaffadors in 1374 to Bruges, where they met
■ jfche pope’s nuncios, in vrder to fettle feveral eccleliaftical
.matters relative to the pope’s authdlity. Tn the mean time
Wickliffwas prefented by the king to the reftory of Lutter-
^vorth in Leicefterfliire, and in 1375 he obtained a prebend
in the church of Weft bury in Gloucefterfhire. Wickliff con¬
tinued hitherto, without moleftation, to oppofe the papal
authority ; hut in 1377 a bull was fent over to the atch-
bifhop of Canterbury, and to Courtney biftiop of London,
-ordering them to fecure this arch-heretic, and lay him in
irons; at the fame time the pope wrote to the king, re-
quefting him to favour the bifhops in the profecution : he
alfo fent a bull to Oxford, commanding the univerfity to
give him up. Before thefe bulls reached England Edward
III. was dead, and Wickliff, protected by John duke of
Lancafter, uncle to Richard II. favoured by the queen rro-
•ther, and iupported by the citizens of London, eluded the
.perfecution of pope Gregory IX. wdio died in 1378. In
the following year this intrepid reformer prefented to parlia¬
ment a fevere paper againft the tyranny of Rome, wrote
.againft the papal fupremacy and infallibility, and publifhed
a book On the Truth of ^the Scriptures, intended to prepare the
way for an Englifh tranfiation of them, in which he had
.made confidcrable progrefs. In 1381 he publifti Sixteen
■Conditions •, in, the firft of which he ventured to expofe tire
grand article of tranfubftantiation. Thefe conclufions being
.condemned by the chancellor of Oxford, Wickliff appealed
to the king and parliament ; but being deferted by his nn-
ifeady patron the duke of Lancafter, he was obliged to
make^a confeffion at Oxford; and by an order from the
.king was expelled the univerfity. He now retired to his
living of Lutterworth, where he finilhed his tranflation of
the bible. This verfron, of which there are feveral manu-
< Jcript copies in the libraries of the univerfities, Britifh
Mufeum, &c. is a very literal tranflation from the Latin
vulgate. In 1383 he was fuddenly ftruck with the pally ;
a repetition of which put an end to his life in December
1384. Tie was buried in his own church, where his bones
were fuffered to reft in peace till the year 1428, when, by
an order from the pope, they were taken up and burnt.
—Befides a number of works that have been printed, he
left a prodigious number of manuferipts; an accurate lift
of which may be feen in bifhop Tanner’s Bib. Brit. Hib.
Some of them are in the Bodleian Library, others in the
Britifti Mufeum, &c.
Wickhff wras doubtlefs a very extraordinary man, confr-
dering the times in which he lived. His natural fagacity
difeovered the abfurdities and impofitions of the church of
Rome, and he had the honefty and refolution to promulgate
his opinions, which a little more fupport would probably
have enabled him to eftablifh : they were evidently the
foundation of the fubfequent reformation.
WICKLOW, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter ; bounded on the north by the county of Dublin ;
on the eaft by the Irifh Sea ; on the fouth by Wexford ;
and on the weft by Kildare and Catherlough. It is 33
rules in pth, 20 in breadth, and indifferently fruitful.
It contains 54 parifhes, and fends 10 members to parliament.
Wicklow, the capital of a county of the fame name, in
Ireland ; feated on the fea-fide, with a narrow harbour, at
the mouth of the river Leitrim, over which Hands a rock,
.iftead of a caftrle, furrounded by a ftrong wall, 24 miles
iouth of Dublin. W. Long. 6. 7. N, I,at. C2. Cs. 11
WIDGEON, in ornithology. See Anas. Wild^T
WIDOW, a woman who has loft her huiband.
WIT E, a married woman, or one joined with, and under
the protection of, an hufband. See Husband.
Isle of WIGHT, an bland lying on the 1'outh coaft of
Hamplhire, from which it is feparated by a narrow channel.
It is about 21 miles in length, and 13 in breadth, it is
nearly divided into equal parts by the river Mede or Cowes,
which rifing in the fouthern angle, enters at the northern,
into the channel, oppofite the mouth of Southampton Bay.
The fouth coaft is edged with very fteep cliffs of chalk and
freeftone, hollowed into caverns in various parts. The weft
fide is fenced with ridges of rocks, of which the moft re¬
markable are thole called, from their {harp extremities, the
Needles. Between the illand and the main are various fand-
banks, efpecialiy off the eaftern part, where is the fafe road
of St Helen’?. Acrofs the bland, from eaft to weft, runs a
ridge of hills, forming a traft of line downs, with a chalky
or marly foil, which feed a great number of fine-fleeced
fheep. Rabbits are alfo very plentiful here. To the north
of this ridge the land is chiefly pafture : to the fouth of it
is a rich arable country, producing great crops of corn. The
variety of profpeCds which this illand affords, its mild air,
and the neat manner in which the fields are laid out, render
it a very delightful fpot. It is devoted almoft folely to
hulbandry, and has no manufadlory. It is one of the prin¬
cipal refources of the London market for unmalted barley.
Among its pvoducls are to be reckoned a pure white pipe¬
clay, and a fine wdiite cryftalline land ; of the latter of which
great quantities are exported for the ufe of the glals-works
in various parts. Its principal town is the borough of New¬
port : it likewife contains the two fmall boroughs of Newtou
and Yarmouth.
WILD-fire. See Wild-Fire.
WILDERNESS, in gardening, a kind of grove of
large trees, in a fpacious garden, in which the wmiks are
commonly made, either to interfeft each other in angles, or
have the appearance of meanders and labyrinths.
Wilderneffes (fays Mr Miller) Ihould always be propor¬
tioned to the extent of the gardens in which they are made ;
for it is very ridiculous to fee a large wildernefs planted with
tall trees in a fmall fpot of ground ; and, on the other hand,
nothing can be more abfurd than to fee little paltry fquare?,
or quarters of wildernefs-work, in a magnificent large garden.
As to the fituation of wulderneffes, they Ihould never be. pla¬
ced too near thejiabitation, nor fo as to obftrudt any diftant
profpeft of the country, there being nothing fo agreeable
as an unconfined profpeeft.: but where, from the fituation
of the place, the fight is.confined within the limits of the
garden, nothing can fo agreeably terminate the profpect as
a beautiful feene of the various kinds of trees judicioully
planted ; and if it is fo contrived that the termination is
planted circularly, with the concave towards the light, it
will ha*ve a much better effedt than if it end in ftraight lines
or angles. The plants Ihould always be adapted to the
fize of the plantation ; for it is very abfurd for tall trees
to be planted in the fmall fquares of a little garden.; and
in large defigns finall Ihrubs will have a mean appearance.
It ^fiiould alfo be obferved never to plant evergreens a-
mongft deciduous trees ; but always to place the evergreens
in a wildernets in a feparate part by themfelves, and that
chiefly in light.
As to the walks, thole Tiat have the appearance of
meanders, where the eye cannot diftoyer more than twenty
or thirty yards in length, are generally preferable to all
others,
W I z
r ^
' ^iWeVnefc.others, ami thefe fhould now and then lead into an open
Wilkins.- ch-c.jV piece of errafs ; in the centre of which may be pla-
u",'*v—^ ced cither an obeli lie, ftatue, or fountain; and if in the
middle of the wildernefs there be contrived alarje opening,
in the centre of which may be eredted a dome or banqueting
hmife, furrounded v/ith a green plot of grafs, it will be a con-
fiderable addition to the beauty of the whole. From the
Tides of the walks and openings, the trees fhould rife gradu¬
ally one above another to the middle of the quarters; where
fhould always be planted the large ft growing trees, fo that
the heads of all the trees may appear to view, while their
items will be hid from the fight. Thus, in thofe parts
which are planted with deciduous trees, rofes, honeyfuckles,
fpirsea frutex, and other kinds of low-flowering Ihrubs, may
be planted next the walks and openings ; and at their feet,
near the fides of the walks, may be planted primrofes, vio¬
lets, daffadils, &c. not in a ftraight line, but fo as to appear
accidental, as in a natural wood. Behind the firft row ot
Ihrubs fhould be planted lyringas, althaea (rutex, mezereons,
and other flowering-fhrubs of a middle growth ; and thefe
may be backed with many other forts of trees riling gradual¬
ly to the middle of the quarters.
The part planted with evergreens may be difpofed in the
following manner, viz. in the firft line next the great walks
may be placed the lauruftinus, boxes, fpurge.laurel, juni¬
per, favin, and other dwarf evergreens. Behind thefe may
be placed laurels, hollies, arbutufes, and other evergreens-of
a larger growth. Next to thefe may be planted alaternules,
phyllireas, yews, cyprefles, Virginian cedars, and other trees
of the fame growth ; behind thefe may be planted Norway
and filver firs, the true pine, and other forts of the fir growth;
atid in the middle fhould be planted Scotch pines-, pinafter,
and other forts of the larger growing evergreens ; which
will afford a moft delightful profpeft if the different lhades
of the greens are curioufly intermixed.
But befide the grand walks and openings (which fhould
always be laid with turf, and kept well mowed), there fhould
be fome fmaller ferpentine walks through the middle of the
quarters, where perfons mac *etire for privacy ; and by the
fides of thefe private walks may alfo be fcattered fome wood-
ftowers and plants ; which, if artfully planted, will have a
very good effeft.
In the general defign for thefe wilderneffes, there fhould
not be a fttidiedand ftiff correfpondency between the feveral
parts ; for the greater diverfity there is in the diftribution
of thefe, the more pleafure they will afford.
WILKINS (Dr John), a moft ingenious and learned
Englifh biffiop, was the foil of a goldfmith of Oxford, and
was’born in *1614. He adhered to the parliament during
the civil wars, by whom he was made warden of Wadham
college in 1648 : he married afterwards the fifter of Oliver
Cromwell, and procured a difpenfation l* retain his warden-
ftfip notwithftanding. Richard Cromwell made him mafter
of Trinity college, Cambridge, from which he was ejected
on the Reftoiation. He their became preacher to Gray’s-
Jnn, reftor of St Laurence Jewry, London, deaft of K ip-
pon, and in 1668 was promoted to the hifhopric of Chefter:
he died in 1672. Biflrop Wilkins thought it prudent to
fttbmit to the powers in being ; he therefore fubferibed to
the folemra league and covenant while it was enforced, and
was equally ready to fwear allegiance to king Charles when
he was reftored : this, with Iris moderate fpirit toward dil-
fenters, rendered him not very agreeable to churchmen. His
mathematical and philofophical works, which contain many
in ’enious and curious pieces, confidering the time when
they were written, have been collected in one vol. 8vo. He
publiflred alfo fome theological trails. He was the firft
preftdent of the Royal Society.
war,
William.
55 1 W IE
WILL, that faculty of the mind by which it embraces
or rejeils any thing offered to it. See Metaphysics.
Will, or Lajl Will, in law, fignifies the declaration of
a man’s mind and intent relating to the difpofition of his
lands, goods, or other eftate, or of what he would have
done after his death. In the common law there is a di-
ftinilion made between a will and a teftament: that is called '
a will where lands or tenements are given ; and when the
difpofition concerns goods and chattels alone, it is termed a
tfjiamer.t. See Iestament.
WiLL-with-a-whifp, or Jark-with-a-lanthorn, two popu¬
lar names for the meteor called ignis fatuus. See Light,
n° 46.
WILLIAM of Malmsbury, an hiftorian of confrder-*
able merit in the reign of king Stephen ; hut of whofe life
few particulars are known. According to Bale and Pits, he
was furnamed Somerfetus, from the county in which he was
born. From his own preface to his fecond book De Regibus
Anglorum, it appears that he was addidltd to learning from1
his youth ; that he applied himfelf to the ftudy of logic,
phyfic, ethics, and particularly to hiftory. He retired to
the Benedidtine convent at Malmfbury, became a monk, and
was made precentor and librarian ; a iituation which much
favoured his intention of writing the hilfory of this king¬
dom. In this monaftery he fpent the remainder of his life,
and died in the year 1142. He is one of our moft ancient
and moft faithful hiftorians. His capital work is that in-
titled De Regibus Anglorum, in five books ; with an Appen¬
dix, which he Ityles Hijhrut Novella, in two more. It is a
judicious colle&ion of whatever he found on record relative to
England, from the invafion of the Saxons to his own times.
William of Newbury, fo called from a monaftery in
Yorkfhire, of which he was a member, wrote a hiftory
which begins at the conqueft and ends at the year 1 197.
Bliss Latin ftyle is preferred to that of Matthew Paris ;
and he is intitled tg particular praife, for his honeft regard
to truth, in treating the fables of Jeffery of Monmouth
with the contempt they deferve ; as well as tor expreffing
his approbation of Henry II.’s defign of reforming the
clergy, by bringing them under the regulation of the fecu-
lar power. >
William of V/deham, hi Hi op of Winchefter, was born in
the village of Wykeham, in the county of Southampton, iu '
1 ^24. He had his education at Winchefter and Oxford.
Having continued near fix years in the univerfity, his pa¬
tron Nicholas Wedal, governor of the province of South¬
ampton, took him into his family, and appointed him his
counfellor and fecretary. Fie could not have made choice
of a fitter perfon for that employment, no man in that age .
writing or fpeaking more politely than Wykeham. For
this reafon Edington, bifhop of Winchefter, lord high trea-'
furer of the kingdom, appointed him his fecretary three
years after, and alfo recommended him to king Edward III.
who took him into his fervice. Being Ik died in geometry
and architedlure, he was appointed -lurveyor of the royal
buildings, and alio chief juftice in eyre : he it was who fu- -
pet intended the huilding'of Windfor-caftle. He was after¬
ward chief fecretary of ftate, a keeper of the privy-feal;
and in 1367 fucceeded Edington in theffee of Winchefier.
A little after he was appointed lord high-chancellor and pre-
fident of the privy-council. That he might well dilcharge
the feveral functions of his employments, both fccckfiaftical -
and civil, he endeavoured, on one hand, to regulate ‘his own
life according to the ftvicleft maxims, and to promote fitch
pariih-prrefts only as were able to give due inftrndtions to ’
their parifhioners, and at the fame time led exemplary lives :
on the other liand, he did allm his power to cau-ie juftice ttV-
be exactly adminiftered. In 1371 he rsfgned his chancel¬
lor ft ;p.
5
W t L
lovflup, and fome time after the great fen!. „,Trv
returned to England, after having carried on a very fuccefs
ful war in France, found his exchequer in great diforder.
The duke of Lancafter, one of his ions, at the head of le-
veral lords, having brought complaints againft the clergy,
w ho then enjoyed moil polls in the kingdom, the king're¬
moved them from their employments. But the laymen,
who were railed to them, behaved fo ill, that the king was
forced to reitore the ecclefiaftics. The duke of Lancafter
flowed ftrong animofity to the clergy, and fet every engine
at work to ruin Wykeham. Fie impeached him of extor¬
tion, and of difguiiing things, and obliged him to appear at
the King’s-bench. He got fuch judges appointed as con-
demned him ; and not fatisfied with depriving him of all
the temporalities of his bifhopric, he advifed Edward to
banidi him : but this prince rejedled the propofal, and after¬
ward reilored to Wykeham all that he had been divefted of.
Richard II. was but eleven years old when Edward died :
whereby the duke of Lancaller had an eafy opportunity of
reviving the accufations againil the bifhop of Winchefter :
neverthelefs Wykeham cleared himfelf. Then he founded
two noble colleges, the one in Oxford, the other in Wiu-
cheller. Whilft he was exerting his utmoil endeavours to
improve thefe two fine foundations, he was recalled to court,
and in a manrler forced to accept ot the office of lord high-
chancellor in 13K9.—Having excellently difcharged the
duties of that employment for three years, he obtained leave
to refign it, forefeeing the difturbances that were going to
break out. Being returned to his church, he finifhed his
college, and built there fo magnificent a cathedral, that it
almoft equals that of St Paul’s in London. He laid out
feveral fums in things advantageous to the public and to the
poor ; notwithllanding which, in 1397 he was in great
danger ; for he and fome others were impeached of high-
treaion in open parliament: however, he was again fully
cleared. From that time till his death he kept quiet in his
diocefe, and there employed himfelf in all the duties of a
good prelate. He died in 1404, in the Bill year of his
age.
William, the name of feveral kings of England. See
England, n 87 —92, and Britain, n° 302.
Fort-WiiUAM^ a fortrefs in the Highlands of Scotland,
creded in king William’s reign, as was alfo a fmall town
adjoining, called Mary burgh, in honour of his queen. It is
fituated in Invernefsfhire, on a narrow arm of the fea called
Loch Eil, which might eafily, by a very fhort canal, be uni¬
ted to the Weftern lea. Fort-William is of a triangular
form, having two baftions, and is capable of admitting a
garrifon of Boo men ; but could not be defended againft
an attack, as it is commanded by feveral hills in the neigh¬
bourhood.
William's Fort, is a fatftory of Afia belonging to the
Taft-India company, feated on one of the branches of the
river Qanges, in the kingdom of Bengal. The tort was
firft built in the fhape of an irregular tetragon of brick
and mortar; and the town has nothing regular in it,
becaufe every one built a houfe as he liked heft, and for
his own conveniency. The governor’s houfe is within the
fort, and is the beft piece of archite&ure in thefe parts.
Here there are alfo convenient lodgings for the fadlors and
writers, with llore-houfes for the company’s goods, and ma¬
gazines tor ammunition. About 50 yards from the fort is
the church, built by the charity of merchants refiding here,
i he town is called Calcutta, and has a pretty good hofpital
for the lick, though few come out of it alive. It is go¬
verned by a mayor and aldermen, as moft of the company’s
factories in the Eaft Indies now are. In 1757 it was fur-
C . 856 1 W I L
Edward being pH fed by the nabob of Bengal, who took U, and put weft
of thofe that had made reiiftance into a place called the
Black Hole, where Uloft of them were fmothered. This
nabob was afterwards killed, and another fet up in his room,
more friendly to the Englilh ; and the fa&ory was re-efta-
blifhed. E. Long. 86. o. N. Lat, 22. 27.
Sweet-Wllliam. See Lianthus.
WILLIAMSBURG, a town of North America, in
Virginia, and formerly capital of that ftate. It is fituated
between two creeks; one falling into James, and the other
into York River. The diftance of each landing place is
about a mile from the town, which, with the difadvantage
of not being able to bring up large vefiels, and the want of
enterpnfe in the inhabitants, has occafionedits decay. Here
is a college, defigned for the education of the Indians, but
which, on account of their averfion to learning, never an-
fwered the purpofe. It is 60 miles eaft of Richmond. W.
Long. 76. 30. N. Lat. 37. 10.
WILLIAMSTADT, a lea-port town of Holland. It
is a handiome ftrong place, and the harbour is well frequent¬
ed. It was built by William prince of Orange in 1585 ;
and in 1732 belonged to the ftadtholder of Friefland. The
river near which it is built is called Butterfiet or Holland
Diep ; and is one of the bulwarks of the Dutch on the fide
of Brabant, where they always keep a garrifon. This place
made a gallant defence in 1793 againft the French, who
were obliged to raife the fiege. It is 15 miles, north-eaft of
Bergen-op-Zoom, and 12 fouth-weft of Dort. E. Long.
4. 30. N. Lat. 51. 39.
WILLIS (Dr Thomas), a celebrated Englilh phyfician,
was born at Great Bodwin, in Wiltlhire, in 1621, and
lludied at Chrift-church college, Oxford. When that city
was garriloned for the king, he, among other fcholars, bore
arms for his Majefty, and devoted his leifure hours to the
ftudy of phyfic. The garrifon of Oxford at length furren¬
dering to the parliament, he applied himfelf to the pradlice
ot his proteffion ; and foon rendered himfelf famous by his
care and fkill. He appropriated a room as an oratory for
divine iervice according to tht thurch of England, whither
moft of the loyalifts in Oxford daily reforted. In 1660, he
became Sedleian profeflbr of natural philofophy, and the
fame year took the degree of doftor of phyfic. In 1664,
he dilcovered the famous medicinal fpring at Alftropp, near
Brackley; He was one of the firtt members of the Royal
Society, and foon made his name iiluftrious by his excellent
writings. In 1666, after the fire of London, he removed
to V eftminfter ; and bis pra&ice became greater than that
of any of the phylicians his contemporaries. Soon after
his fettlement in London, his only fon Thomas falling into
a confumption, he fent him to Montpelier in France for the
recovery of his health ; and it proved fuccefsful. His wife
alfo labouring under the lame diforder, he offered to leave
the town ; but fhe, not fuffering him to neglecft the means
of providing for his family, died in 1670. He died at his
houfe in St Martin’s in 1675, anc! was buried near her in
Wellminfier-abbey. Dr Willis was extremely modeft and
unambitious, and refufed the honour of knighthood. He
was remarkably pious : As he rofe early in the morning,
that he might be prefent at divine fervice, which he conftant-
ly frequented before he vifited his patients, he procured
prayers to be read beyond the accuftomed times wdiile he
lived ; and at his death fettled a ftipend of 20I, per annum
to continue them. Fie was a liberal benefadlor to the poor
wherever he came, having from his early pradlice allotted
part of his profits to charitable ufes. He was exadl and re¬
gular in all his hours: and though his table was the refort
of moft of the great men of London, yet he was remark¬
able
Wllliwi
Willi*,
wniug^y
Wilm’t.
W I L [ Sj7 ] W I L
able for h’!s pkinnefs, and his being a man of little difcourfe, excefles. _ The firll involved him in fenfuality, and the other
complaifance, or fociety ; but he was juftly admired for his led him into.many adventures and ridiculous frolics. Once
deep infight into natural and experimental philofophy, ana- difguifing himfelf fo that he ccmlcl not be known T “l9
tomy, and chemiftry ; for his fuccefsful praftice; and for neareft friends, he fet up m Tower-flreet for an Italian
the elegance and purity of his Latin ftyle. He wrote, x. A mountebank, and there, difperfed ^nis noftrums for lome
treatiie in Englifh, intitled A plain and eafy Method for prefer-
nring thofe that are well from the InfeSion of the Plague, and for
curing fuck as are infetled. 1. Several Latin works, which were
collected and printed at Amfterdam, in 1682, in 2 vols 410.
WILLUGHBY(Francis), a celebrated natural hiftorian,
was the only fon of Sir Francis Willughby, knight. He was
fond of ftudy from his childhood, and held idlenefs in abhor-
he being fo great an economift with regard to his time,
WilmoO
Witfon. *1
rence; 0 0
as not willingly to lofe or mifapply theleaft part of it, by which
means he attained great (kill in all branches oflearning, and
particularly in themathematics. But obferving that the hiftory
of animals was in a great meafure negle&ed by his country¬
men, he particularly applied himfelf to that province ; and
for this purpofe carefully read over what had been written
on that fubjeft by others. He then travelled feveral times
over his native country ; and afterwards into France, Spain,
Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries, attended by his in¬
genious friend Mr John Ray. It is remarkable, that, not-
withftanding the advantages of birth, fortune, and parts, he
was as humble as any man of the meanetl fortune ; was fo-
ber, temperate, and chafle ; fcrupuloufiy juft ; fo true to
his word and promife, that a man might venture his eftate
and life upon it; fo faithful and conftant to his friend, as
never to defert him when fortune frowned upon him ; and
remarkably pious, patient, and fubmiffive to the divine will.
This is the charafter given of him by Mr Ray, whofe ve¬
racity none will doubt. This ingenious and learned gentle¬
man died in 1672, at 37 years of age ; having impaired his
health by his application. Fie wrote, 1 Ornithologia libri
ires, 'folio, which was afterwards tranllated into Englifh,
with an Appendix by Mr Ray, in folio. 2. Hiftoria Pfci-
um libri qnatuor, folio. 3‘ Letters of Francis Wlllughby,
Efq; added to Philofophical Letters between the learned Mi-
Ray and feveral of his correfpondents, publiftied, in 8vo, by
William Derliam. 4. Several ingenious papers in the Phi¬
lofophical i'ranfaftions.
WILMOT (John), earl of Rochefler, a great wit in
the reign of Charles II. the fon of Henry earl of Rochefter,
was b@Vn in 1648. He was taught grammar and claffical
learning at the free-fehool at Burford; where he obtained
a quick relifh of the beauties of the Latin tongue, and after¬
wards became well verfed in the authors of the Auguftine age.
In 16 he was admitted a nobleman of Wadham college,
where he obtained the degree of mafter of arts. He after¬
wards travelled through France and Italy ; and at his re¬
turn was made one of the gentlemen of the bed-chamber to
the king, and comptroller of Woodftock Park. In 1665,
he went to fea, and was in the Revenge, commanded by
Sir Thomas Tiddiman, when an attack was made on the
port of Bergen in Norway ; during the whole a&ion he
fhowed the greateft refolution, and gained a high reputa¬
tion for courage ; which he fupported in a fecond expedi¬
tion, but afterwards loft it in a private adventure with Lord
Mulgrave.
Before the earl of Rochefter travelled, he had given into
the moft diiorderly and intemperate way of living ; at his
return, however, he feemed to have got the better of it en¬
tirely. But falling into the company of the courtiers, who
continually praAited thefe exceffes, he became fo funk in
debauchery, that he was for five years together fo given up to
drinking, that during all that time he was never cool enough
to be mafter of himfelf’. His violent love of pleafure, and
kis difpolition to extravagant mirth, carried him to great
Vou XVIII. Part II.
weeks. He often difguifed himfelf as a porter, or as a beg¬
gar, fometimes to follow a mean amour ; at other times, he
would go about merely for diverfion, in odd fhapes ; and
aAed his part fo naturally, that he could not be known even
by his friends. In fhort, by his conftant indulgence in wine,
wqmen, and irregular frolics, he entirely wore out an ex¬
cellent conftitution before he was 30 years of age. In Oc¬
tober 1679, when recovering from a violent difeafe, which
ended in a confumption, he was'vifited by Dr Burnet, upon
an intimation that fuch a vifit would be agreeable to him.
Dr Burnet publifhed an account of In’s conferences with
Lord Rochefter ; in which it appears, that though he had
lived the life of a libertine and atheift, yet he died the death
of a penitent Chriftian. Fits death happened in 1680;
fince which time his poems have been various times printed,
both feparately and together: but when once he obtained
the charaAer of a lewd and obfeene writer, every thing in
that ftrain was fathered upon him ; and thus many pieces
not of his writing have crept into the later editions of his
works. T’he author of the Catalogue of Royal and Noble
Authors fays, he was “ a man whom the Mufes were fond
to infpire, and afhamed to avow, and who praAifed without
the leaft referve that fecret which can make verfes more
read for their defeAs than their merits. Lord Rocheiter’s
Poems have much mare obfeenity than wit, more wit than
poetry, and more poetry than politenefs.” His writings,.be-
fides thofe already mentioned, are, ASatyre againft Mankind;
Nothing, a poem ; Valentinian, a tragedy ; Fifty-four Let¬
ters to Henry Saville, and others ; Seven more to his Wife
and Son : a Letter on his deathbed to Dr Burnet. He
alfo left behind him feveral other papers, and a Hiftory of
the Intrigues of the Court of Charles II. but his mother, a
very devout lady, ordered all his papers to be burned.
WILSON (Florence), known in the republic of letters
by the name of Rlorentius Volujinus, was born at Elgin in
the (hire of Murray in Scotland, and educated in the uni-
veriity of Aberdeen. Travelling to England with an inten¬
tion to improve his fortune, he had the felicity to be introdu¬
ced to cardinal Wolfey, who appointed him tutor to one of his
nephews. In that capacity he went to Paris, and continu¬
ed there till the cardinal’s death. During his refidence in
that city he became acquainted with the learned cardinal
Bellai, archbifhop of Paris, who allowed him a penfion, and
meant to have appointed him royal profeffor of the Greek
and Latin languages in the univerfity of Paris : but Bellai
being difgraced, Wilfon’s profpeAs faded with the fortunes
of his patron, whom neverthelefs he attended on his journey
to Rome. Wilfon was taken ill at Avignon, and the car¬
dinal proceeded without him. Aftenhis recovery, he paid
a vifit to the celebrated cardinal Sa$61et, the Mecasnas of
his time, who was alfo bifhop of Carpentras, where he then
refided. The cardinal was fo charmed with his erudition,
that he appointed him profeffor of the learned languages,
with a ftipend of too fAdits per annum.
During his refidence at Carpentras, he wrote his cele¬
brated treatife De Animi Tranquillitate. Mackenzie fays that
he afterwards taught philofophy in Italy ; and that, being-.
at length deiirous of returning to Scotland, he .began his .
journey homeward, was taken ill at Viene in Dauphiny,
and died there in the year 1547. He was generally elteem-
ed an accomplifhed linguift, an admirable philofopher, and
an excellent Latin poet. He wrote, beiide the above trea¬
tife, Poemata. Lond. 1619, 410. 2. Commsntatio quit-
$ dam
W I L [
WiiTon. (}am tffeajogica {n aphorifmos diJfeSa^ per Selri/t. Gryph. 3.
~v lofophia Arijlot. Synopjis, lib. iv.
Wit son (Thomas), lord bilhop ef Sodor and Man, was
born in 1663, at Burton, in the county of Chefter. He
received the rudiments of his education at the county town,
and from thence was removed to the univeifity of Dublin.
His allowance at the univerfity was sol. a year ; a fum,
fmall es it may now appear, which was in thofe days fuf-
ficient 'or a fober youth in fo cheap a country as Ireland.
His firft intention was to have applied to the ftudy of
phyfic; but from this he was diverted by archdeacon
Hewetion, by whofe advice be dedicated himfelf to the
church. He continued at college till the year 1686, when,
♦ on the 29th of June, he was ordained deacon.
'Iheexadl time of Mr Wilfon’s leaving Dublin is not
known : but on account of the political and religious dif-
putes of thofe days, it was fooner than he intended. On
the 10th of December, in the fame year, he was licenfed to
the curacy of New Church in Winwick, of which Dr Sher¬
lock, his maternal uncle, wras redtor. His Itipend was no
more than 30 1. a-year; but being an excellent economiit,
and having the advantage of living with his uncle, this fmall
income was not only fufEcient to fupply his own wants,
but it enabled him to fupply the wants of others ; and for
this purpofe he fet apart one-tenth of his income. In 1692
he was appointed domeftic chaplain to William earl of Der¬
by, and tutor to his fon James Lord Strange, with a falary
of 3c 1. a-year. He was foon after ele&ed mailer of the
alms houfe at Latham, which brought him in 20 1. a-year
mor^‘ now an income far beyond his expeftations,
or his wilhes, except as it increafed his ability to do good,
he fet apart one fifth of his income for pious ufes, and par¬
ticularly for the poor. In fiiort, as his income increafed, he
increafed the portion of it which was allotted to the pur-
pofes of chanty. At firll he fet apart a tenth, then a
fifth, afterwards a third, and lallly, when he became a bi-
fhop, he dedicated the full half of his revenues to pious and
charitable ufes.
He had not been long in the fervice of Lord Derby, be¬
fore he was offered the valuable living of Buddelworth in
Yorklhire ; which he refufed to accept, as being inconfiftent
with the refolves of his confcience againft non-refidence,
Lord Derby choofing Hill to retain him as chaplain and
tutor to his Ion. In 1697 he was promoted, not without
fome degree of compulfion on the part of his patron, to the
bifhopric or the Hie of Man*, a preferment which he held
58 years. In 1698 he married Mary, daughter of Thomas
Patten, Efq; of Warrington. By this lady, who furvived
her marriage about fix years, he had four children ; none of
whom furvived him except the late Dr Wilfon, prebendary
of Weflmintter.
“ The annual receipts of the bilhopric (fays the author
©f his memoirs) did not exceed 300 1. in money Some
neceflaries in his ht ufe, as fpices, fugar, wine, books, &c.
mult be paid for with money ; diftreffed or Ihipwrecked
mariners, and iome other poor objects, required to be re¬
relieved with money ; but the poor of the ifland were fed
and clothed, and the houfe in general fupplied from his
demelnes, by exchange, without money. The poor, who
could weave or fpin, found the bell maiket at Bifhop’s-
court, where they bartered the produce of their labour for
corn. laylors and fhoemakers were kept in the houfe
eonltantly employed, to make into garments or {hoes that
doth or leather which his corn had purchafed ; and the aged
and innrm were fupplied according to their feveral wants.
Mr Moore of Douglas informed the editor, that he was
once witnefs to a pleafing and fingular inflance of the Bi-
Ihop’s attention to lome aged poor of the ifiand. As he
858 1 ' WIN
Phi- was diflributing fpe&acles to fome whofe eye-fight failed Wilwn
them, .Mr Moore expreffed his furprife, as he well knew not . II
one of them could read a letter. ‘ No matter (faid the Winchek
Bilhop with afmile), they will find ufe enough for them;
thefe fpe&acles will help them to thread a needle, to mend
their clothes, or, if need be, to keep themfelves free front
vermin.”
So great was the bilhop’s attachment to his flock, that
no temptation could feduce him from their fervice. He
more than once refilled the offer of an Englilh bilhopric.
There is an anecdote of his loidlhip and cardinal Fleury,
which does great credit to them both. The cardinal want¬
ed much to fee him, and fent over on purpofe to inquire
after his health, his age, and the date of his confecration,
as they were the two oldell bilhops, and he believed the
poorelt,in Europe: at the fame time inviting him to France.
The bifliop fent the cardinal an anfwer, which gave himifo
high an opinion of him, that the cardinal obtained an order*
that no French privateer Ihould ravage the ISe of Man.
This good prelate lived till the year, 1755, dying at the
advanced age of 93. His works have lately been publilhed
in 2 vols gto.
WILTON, a market town in Wiltfiiire,.three miles weft,
of Sahfbury. It was once fo confiderable as to give title to
the county. It formerly had 12 churches ; and Odo, bro¬
ther-in-law to William I. was bilhop of Wilton : only one
now remains. It lends members to parliament, and is the
place where the knights of the Ihire are chofem It has a
great manufadlory of carpets, which are brough|: to high
perfe&ion. Wilton is famous for lord Pembroke’s feat,
fo well known through Europe for its containing a grand
alfemblage of the produdlions of the greatdl and moll an¬
cient mailers in painting and fculpture.—Two fairs are held
here annually.
WILTSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on the
well by Somerfetfhire, on the call by Berklhire and Hamp-
fhire, on the north by Gloucellerlhire, and on the fouth by
Dorfetlhire and part of Hamplhire. The length amounts
to 39 miles ; its breadth to 30 ; and its circumference to.
140. It contains 29 hundreds, 23 market-towns, 304 pa-
rifhes, and about 876,00c fouls. Befides two members for
the fhire, and two for the city of Salifbury, each of the fol¬
lowing towns fends two members to parliament, v/z. Wilton,
Downton, Hindoo. Heytefbury, Weftbury, Caine, Devizes,
Chippanham, Malmfbury, Cricklade, Great Bedwin, Lud-
gerfhall, Old Sarum, Wooton-Baffet, Marlborough.
The air of this county is very healthy, not only in the
more low and level parts, but alio on the hills. The foil
of the vales is very rich, and produces corn and grafs in
great plenty. The beautiful downs in the fouth yield the
finefl paflure for fheep, with which they are overfpread*
The greatefl difadvantage the county labours under is want
of fuel, as there are no coal-pits, and but little wood. T his
county is noted for great quantities of very fine cheefe, and
for its manufacture of broad cloth, to which it was invited
by the great plenty and finenefs of its wool. Befides a
number o? lefler flreams, it is watered by the rivers Ifis,
Kennet, Upper and Lower Avon, Willy, Burne, and Nad-
der, which are well ftored with fifh.
WINCHELSEA, a town in Suffex* which has no mar¬
ket, but has one fair on May 14th for cattle and pedlars
ware. It was an ancient place, at leaH the old town,
which was fwallowed up by the ocean in 12 co. It is now
dwindled to a mean place, though it retains, its privileges,
and fends two members to parliament. It is feated on a.
rocky cliff, on an inlet of the fea; and had a haven, now
choked up. It had 18 parhh-churches, now reduced to
one. The market-houfe. is. in the naidft of the town, from,
whence
W I N
[ 859 1
W I N
ft!
I! ,
Winckle-
man.
wlipncc run four paved ftreets, at the end of which are four
ways, which had formerly buildings on each fide for a con-
fiderable diftance. It is 2 miles fouth-weft of Rye, and 71
fouth-eaft of London, It is governed by a mayor and ju¬
rats, though it has but about 70 houfes, Three of the
gates are liill Handing, but much decayed, E. Long, o,
44. N. Lat. 50, 58.
Winchelsea (Anne countefs of), a lady of excellent
genius, eipecially in poetry, was maid of honour to the du-
chefs of York, fecond wife to king James II. and was after¬
wards married to Heneage, fecond fon of the earl of V\ in-
chelfea. One of the moft confiderable of the countefs of
Winchelfea’s poems was that on the Spleen. A. collection
of her poems was printed at London in 1 7I3> containing a
tragedy never afted, intitled /Jrjjlomcnes- The countefs died
in 1720 without iffue, as her hufband did in 1726.
WINCHESTER, the capital of the county of Hamp-
fhire in England. It is a very ancient city, fuppofed to
have been built feveral centuries before Chrift. 1 he Ro¬
mans called it Ve>,ta Belgarwn, the Britons Caer Givent, and
the Saxons JVittanceaJier; whence came the prefent name.
It Hands upon the river Itchin. in. a bottom furrounded
with chalky hills ; and is generally allowed to have been a
confiderable place in the time of the Romans. Some of
the firH converts to Chrifiianity are fuppofed to have lived
here. In the cafile, near the weft-gate, many of the Saxon
kings anciently kept their court. The cathedral was
founded by Kenegulfe, a king of the Mercians ; but there
were many GhriHians, and places for their worfhip here,
long before that period. It is a large pile, and has a ve¬
nerable look, but is not very elegant. Befides the tombs,
there are many curious pieces of workmanlhip in it; the
chief of which are, 1. The font, ereaed in the time of the
Saxons. 2. Copper Hatues of James I, and Charles I. 3.
The bifhop’s throne. 4. The Halls of the dean and pre¬
bendaries. 5. The afcent to the choir and altar. 6. J he
pavement, inlaid with marble of diverfe colours, in various
figures. 7. '■ he altar-piece, reckoned the noblefi in Eng¬
land. 8. The paintings in the windows, elpecially the
great e?.H window. At the hofpital of the Holy Crois,
every traveller that knocks at the door may claim a man-
chet of white bread and a cup of beer ; of which^ a great
quantity is provided every day for that purpofe. This hof¬
pital was intended for the maintenance of a mafier and 30
penfioners, but only 14 are now maintained in it; and the
maHer enjoys a revenue of 800I. a-year. This city is about
a mile and a half in compals, and almoH furrounded with a
wall of Hint, has fix gates, large fuburbs, broad clean fireets;
bu( the private houfes are in general but ordinary, many of
them being very old. The city is interfperfed with a great
many gardens, which contribute to its beauty and healthi-
nds. The corporation confiHs of a mayor, high-Heward,
recorder, aldermen, two coroners, two bailiffs, 24 common-
council-men, a town-clerk, four conffables, and four fer-
jeants at mace ; and the city gives title of marquis to the
duke of Bolton. A Roman highway leads from hence to
Alton ; and went formerly, as it is thought, from thence
to London. The charming downs in the neighbourhood
contribute greatly to the health and plealure of the inha¬
bitants. t he river Itchin is navigable for barges from
hence to Southampton. W. Long. x. 21. N. Lat. 5 {• 5*
WiNCKLEMAN (Abbe John), was born at Stendall,
in the old Marche of Brandenburgh, in 1718. His father
wedel, he went into Saxony, where he refided feven years
more, and was librarian to count Bunau at Nothenitz..  
When he left this place, 1754, he went to Drefden, where
he formed an acquaintance with the ableff artiffs, and par¬
ticularly with M. Oefer, an excellent painter, and one of the
beff draughtfmen of the age. In that year he abjured Lu-
theranifm, and embraced the Roman Catholic religion. In
September 17 ?5, he fet out for Italy, and arrived at Rome
in December following. His principal objeft was to lee the
Vatican library, and to examine the ruins of Herculaneum.
Mr Winckleman carried with him into Italy a fenfe of
beauty and art, which led him inftantly to admire the mst-
Her-pieces of the Vatican, and with which he began to ffudy
them. He foon increafed his knowledge ; and it was not
till after he had thus purified his tafte and conceived an idea
of ideal beauty, which led him into the greateff fecrets ot
art, that he began to think of the explanation of other
monuments, in which his great learning csuld not fail to
dHinguifh him. His erudition enabled him to fill up his
principal plan of writing the “ Hiffory of Art. In 175^
he planned his “ ReHoration of Ancient Statues,” and a
larger work on the afie of the Greek Artifis, an-d
defigned an account of the galleries of Rome and Italy', be¬
ginning with a volume on the Belvedere Hatues, in the
manner of Richardfon, who, he fays, only ran over Rome.
He alfo intended a hiflory of the corruption of taHe in art,
the reiloration of Hatues, and an illuftration of the obfeure
points of mythology. All thefe different effays led him to
his “ Hiffory of Art,” and his “ Monument! Inediti.” It
muff, however, be confeffed, that the firH of theie works
has not all the clearnefs and precifion that might be ex¬
pelled in its general plan and divifion of its parts and ob-
jefts; but it has enlarged and extended the ideas both of
antiquaries and colleffors. The delcription of the gems
and fulphurs of the Stofch cabinet contributed not a little
to extend Mr Winckleman’s knowledge. Few perfons have
opportunities of contemplating fiich valt collections. The
engravings of Lippef and count Caylus are all that many
can arrive at. Mr Winckleman’s Monument! Incditi, of
which he had begun the third vol. 1767, feem to have fe-
cured him the effeem of antiquaries. Had he lived, we
fhould have had a work long wifhed for; a complete col*
leefion ©f the bas-reliefs difeovered from the time of Bartoh
to the preidht, the greater part of which are in the pof-
feffion of cardinal Albani.
When cardinal Albani fucceeded to the place of libra¬
rian of the Vatican, he endeavoured to get a place for
the Hebrew language for Winckleman, who refufed a ca-
nonry, becaufe he would not take the tonfure. The elec¬
tor of Saxony gave him, 1761, unfolicitcd, the place of
counfellor Richter, the direftion of the royal cabinet of
medals and antiquities at Drefden. Upon the death of the
Abbe Venuti, 1762, he was appointed prefident of the an¬
tiquities of the apoffolic chamber, with power over all dif-
coveries and exportations of antiquities and pi£fures. This
is a poff of honour, with an income of 160 feudi/^r annum.
tie had a profpeft of the place of prefident of antiquities in
the Vatican, going to be created at 16 feudi per month,
and was named correfponding member of the Academy of
Infcriptions. The king of Pruffia offered him by Col.
Quintus Icilius the place of librarian and direClor of his
cabinet of medals and antiquities, void by the death of M.
Gautier de la Croze, with a handfome appointment. He
nn the old Marcne or xoranaenourgn, in 1710. xais. — T r rr „ XXJhpn it came
was a fhoemaker. This wonderful man, to all appearance made no kruple of accepting t e °.eri f
j t * t • a •   1 „ or. tn thp none s ears, he added an appointment out ox ms own
deffined by his birth to fuperintend a little ichool in an ob¬
feure town of Germany, raifed himlelf to the office of pre¬
fident of antiquities in the Vatican. Alter having been
feven years profeffor in the college of Seehaufen near Saif-
to the pope’s ears, he added an appointment out of his owm
purfe, and kept him at Rome. _
In April 1768, he left Rome, to go with M. Cavaccppl
over Germany and Switzerland. When he came to Vienna,
jQ_? he
WIN [ _
fo pleafed with the reception he met. with, that he
Wind. matie a longer fay there than he had intended. But, being
' fuddenly i'eized with a fecret uneaiincfs and extraordinary
defire to return to Rome, he fet out for Italy, putting off
ins vifits to his f-'tends in Germany to a future opportunity.
As ne pafed through XViefte, he wTas aflaflinated, June 8.
170s, by a wretch named Arcangdi, a native of Campiglio,
a town in the territory of Piftoia, with whom he had made
an acquaintance on the road. This mifereant had been
condemned for a robbefy to work in fetters four years,
and then to be bannhfccl the Auftrian territories, on an oath
never to return. He had obtained a mitigation of one of
his fentences, and retired to Venice ; but, changing his
quarters backwards and forwards, be was fo reduced in
circumfances that lie at length took up his lodgings at
the inn to which the Abbe happened to come. Arcangeli
860 ] WIN
But, notwithllanding this, many of the phenomena remain Wirufi
unexplained, and a rational and fatisfaftory theory feeing
ftill bey nd our reach. It will not be expected, that where
philofophers in general have failed, we (hall fucceed. If we
can collect the faAs hitherto alcertained, and explain ludj
of them as the late difeoveries have enabled us to underhand,
we trull we Ihall obtain the indulgence of the Public, though
we cannot hoaft of throwing much new light on this dilh-
cult fubjeft. ^
Hifiory of the Winch,
As the winds of the torrid zone differ in feveral impor¬
tant particulars from thole which blow without the tropics,
we fhall firft delcribe them, and afterwards thofe of the tem¬
perate zones.
I. In thole parts of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans which Wind- 0f
•J r 1 /rj /• T .  mu,,. ui uic nuariuc ana racmc oceanswruenWind
pa d fuch arduous court to him, that I15 entirely gamed he neareft the equator, there is a regular wind during thedreT
ins conncience : arm havino* hppn r, ,,c 7,    _ u i .1 » . » ^ —
hio confidence ; and having been favoured with a fight of
the valuable prefents which he had received at Vienna,
formed a defign to murder and rob him. He bought a
new fharp knife on purpofe and as the Abbe (who had in
the moft friendly manner invited him to Rome) was fitting
down in his chair, early in the morning, he threw a rope
over his head, and before he could dilenjage himielf, [tab¬
bed him in five different places. The Abbe had itill ftrength
to. get down to the ground floor, and call for help; and
being laid on a bed in the midft of the moft violent pain,
he had compofure fufficient to receive the lafl facraments,
and to make his will, in which he appointed cardinal Alex¬
ander Albani his refiduary legatee, and expired in the af¬
ternoon. I he murderer was foon after apprehended ; and
executed on the wheel oppofite the inn, June 26.
A’ube Winckleman was a middk-fizca man ; he had a    .... ....    „« U1 „„.
veiy low forehead, fharp nofe, and little black hollow eyes, fouth-eaft winds become gradually more foutberly, and thev
which gave him an aipeft rather gloomy than otherwife. north.fail- whirl? *r • £X]mr *- U r. 4. . «■ 1- ^ 3 4
if he had any thing graceful in his phyfiognomy, it was
his mouth. A fiery and impetuous difpofition often threw
him into extremes. Naturally enthufiaftic, he often indul¬
ged an extravagant imagination; but as he pofTeffed a
ftrong and folid judgment, he knew how to give things a
juft and intrinfic value. In confequence of this turn of
mind, as well as a negledted education, a cautious referve
was a quality he little knew. If he was bold in his deci-
fions as an author, he was ftill more fo in his converfation,
and has often made his friends tremble for his temeritv.
If ever man knew what friendfhip was, that man was Mr
Winckleman, who regularly prabtifed all its duties; and for
this reafon he could boail of having friends among perfons
of every rank and condition.
WIND is a fenfible agitation of the atmofphere, occa- C(Ul oi caiuia, ana wmen inner par
aonea by a quantity of air flowing from one place to ano- tial changes in particular places from the fituatioa and in
ther. • .u. •   • . •
whole year called the trade-<wincl. On the north fide of the R lD
equator it blows from the north-eaft, varying frequently
jaoiut or two towards the north or eaft ; and on the feuth
tide it, from the fouth-eaft; changing fortetimes in the *
fame manner towards the fouth or eaft. The fpace inclu-The
dec! between the fecond and fifth degree of north latitude is"*^’
the internal limit of thefe two winds. There the winds can
neither be faid to blow from the north nor the l-outh; calms
are frequent, and violent florms. This ipace varies a little
in latitude as the fun approaches either of the tropics.— In
the Atlantic ocean the trade-winds extend farther north on
tae American than on the African coaft ; and as we ad¬
vance weftward, they become gradually more eafferly, and Je-
creafe in ftrength *. Their force dimimfhes likev/ife as we *
approach their utrnofl boundaries. It has been remarked/<?v, Phil
alio, that as the fun approaches the tropid of Cancer, the Mr,
fouth-eaft winds become gradually more foutberly, and thevn*'“
north-eaA winds more eafterly : exactly the contrary takes
place when the fun is approaching the tropic of Capricorn (j. § Ibidem,
The trade-wind blows conftantly in the Indian ocean 3 '
from the icth degree of fouth latitude to near the 30th .
But to the northward of this the winds change every fix
months, and blow direbtly oppofite to their former courfe.
Thefe regular winds are called monfoons, from the Malay
word moufin, which fignifies “ a feafon f.” When they f Forefl’,
fhift their direftion, variable winds and violent ftorms fuc-?»
ceed, which la ft for a month and frequently longer; and ^' -9
dining that time it is dangerous for veffels to continue at
fea.
The monioons in the Indian ocean may be reduced to
two ; one on the north and another on the fouth fide of the
equator; which extend from Africa to the longitude of New
Holland and the eaft coaft of China, and which itiffer par-
ther.
As navigation depends in a great meafure upon the di¬
rection and force of the winds, as the temperature of cli¬
mates is greatly influenced by them, and as they are abfo-
lutely neceffary to preferve the falubrity of the atmofphere,
it is not furpnfing that they have very much engaged the
attention of mankind. To be acquainted with the laws by
which they are regulated, and to be able to calculate before¬
hand the corkquences of thefe Iawrs, has been in every age
the eager wifh of philofophers. But whether it ha/been
flexion of the neighbouring countries.
1. Between the and icth degrees of fouth latitude
the fouth-eaft trade-wund continues from April to Oftober ;
but during the reft of the year the wind blows from the
north weft J.. Between Sumatra and New Holland thist^r7^-
monloon blows from the fouth during our fummer months,^’ P^tl- '
• • ... Fran/. Abr,
approaching gradually to the fouth-eaft as we advance to^V(™q'j
wards the coaft of New Holland ; it changes about the end >36. * 1
of September, and continues in the oppofite diredtion till
. -o- 7 r *'»'• il Has uccu April I). Between Africa and Madagaicar its.direftion is,?
owing to an improper method of ftudying this fubjedt, or to influenced by the coaft; for it blows from the north-eaft
its lying beyond the reach of the human faculties, philofo- from October to April, and during the reft of the year from
phera have not made that progrefs in it which the fanguine the fouth-weft Bruce's
imaginations of feme individuals led them to expedt. Ma- 2, Over all the Indian ocean, to the northward of the TWj^A.vo!
ny 1 coveries indeed have n^^de ; and from the num- 3d degree of fouth latitude, the north-eaft trade-wind blows1, l1,4jS>-
from Odtober to April, and a fouth weft wind from April
to Oftober jj. From Borneo, along the coaft of Malacca il /,r R:'1*
and^'lbl<^ I
s ^ ^ ^ ***«v4v. ^ auu xi.uujL tliC IIUMI•
bers and the genius of the philofophers at prefent engaged
»n this ftudy, others equally important may be expeded.
WIN [ £
Win*- and as far as China, this monfoon in Cummer blows nearly
u—v-—* from the fouth, and in winter from the north by eaft §.
§ 0, Hai- rj1(i coa[t of Africa, between Mozambique and Cape
/(ji, itnc. Qaardefan, the winds are irregular during the whole year,
owing to the different monfoons which furround that parti¬
cular pi a or,—Monfoons are likewife regular in the Red Sea;
between April and October they blow from the north-well,
and duri'nR the other months from the fouth-ealt, keeping
* Bruce's conftantly parallel to the coaft of Arabia *. .
Tnjwhr.vol. Monfoons are not altogether confined to the Indian O-
cean ; on the coa i of Brazil, between Cape St Auguiline
and the ifiand of St Catherine, the wind blows between
September and April from the eaft or north-calf, and he-
• ival- tween April and September from the fouth-weit '('• l he
ter Raleigh'S^y of Panama is the only place on the well fide of a great
Yij continent where the wind fhifts regularly at different lea-
toreji sfoy. . ^ere jj- eafterly between September and March ;
but between March and September rt blows chiefly fiom
the fouth and fouth-wefl. ” <
Such in general is the direction of the winds In the torrid
zone all over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; out
they are fubjeft to particular exceptions, which we fhall now
endeavour to enumerate.—On the coaft o' Afiica, from
C?.oe B '.yador to Cape Verde, the winds are generally
north-weft; from hence to the ifland of St ihomas near
the equator they blow aim oft. perpendicular to the inore,
bending gradually, as we advance louthwards, firtt to the
weft and then to the fouth-weft j[. On the coaft of New
Spain likewife, from California to the Bay of Panama, the
winds blow almoft conftantly from the weft or fouth-weft,
except during May, June, and July, when lane*winds pre¬
vail, called by the Spaniards PcpQgayos. On the coait of
% Sir Wal. Chili and Peru f, from 20° or 30° fouth latitude, to the
ttr R.i’eigh's equator, and on the parallel coail of Africa, the wind blows
Vuyage. the whole year from the fouth, varying according to
Fhiivrfjn .the direction of the land towards which it inclines, and ex-
Ah>. vol. ii. tending much farther out to fea on the American than the
i. th. 4-
p.97.
t Halley,
ibid.
P
4
Sea and
land
breezes.
African coaft. The trade-wmds are alfo interrupted fome-
times by wefterly winds in the Bay of Campeachy and trie
Bay of Honduras. _ ,
As to the countries between the tvupics, we are too little
acquainted with them to be able to give a fatisfadtory hifto-
ry of their winds.
In all maritime countries between the tropics of any ex¬
tent, the wind blows during a certain number of hours eve¬
ry day from the fea, and during a certain number tiiivarus
the fea from the land ; thefe winds are called the fea ana
land breezes. The fea breeze generally fets in about ten
in the forenoon, and blows till fix in the evening ; at feven
* the land-breeze begins, and continues till eight in the moi n-
• Marfan's ing, when it dies away*. During fummer the fea-breeze
Hifl ”f Su- is very perceptible on all the coafts of the Mediterranean
maira, p. Sea an(J even foinetiines as far north as Norway Jj. .
In the ifirud of St Lewis on the coaft or Atrica, in 16^
north latitude, and 160 weft lonpitude, the wind during the
rainy fealon, which lafts from the middle ol July to the
middle of October, is generally between the fouth and eaft ;
during the reft of the year it is tor the moil part eaft or
north-eaft in the morning; but as the fun rifes, the wind
approaches gradually to the north, till about noon it gets
to the weft of north, and is called a fea-breeze. Sometimes
it fifths to ti e call as the fun deicends, and continues there
during the whole night. In February, March, April, May,
and June, it blows almoft conftantly between the north and
n a. weft $. In the ifland of Balama, which lies likewife on the
§ weft eoalt of Africa, in the j 1 th degree of north'latitude,
Hr‘irj\ vol. t^ie wind during nine months of the year blows from the
lix. arc. 25*
6r 1 W 1 N
fouth-weft; but in November and December a very cold ,
wind blows from the north-eaft*. , * p, Bea-
In the kingdom or Bornou, which lies between the 16thErj..
and 20th degree of north latitude, the warm feafen js intro-See viapin
duced about the middle of April by fultry win us from the
fouth-eaft, which bring along with them a delude of ram t•
In pezzv.n, which is fjtuatcd about the 25th degree of 6
north latitude, and the 3 tth degree of eaft longitude, the Bormui and
win^ from May to Au >ull blows from the eaft, fouth call,
or fouth well, and is nteulely hot J Affociation^
In Abyfiinia the winds generally blow from the we-v,^ ; x00.
north-weft, north, and north eaft. During the months oft ibid.
June, July, Au nil, September, and October, the^ north , Z .
and noi tli-eaft winds blow almonft conftantly, efpecially in ' 3
the morning and evening ; and during the reft of tae year
they are much more frequent than any other winds . s
At Calcutta, in the p’-ovince cf Bengal, the word blow'3
during January and February" from the iouth weft and^.
fouth"; in March, April,and May, from the 1011th ; in Jun-., ^ 8
July, A ugufl, and September, from the iouth and fouth Ca cr.tta,
eaft ; in Oclober, November, and December, from the north-^ ^
weft*.—At Madras the moft frequent winds are the north
and north-eaft.——At Tivoli in St Domingo, and at lies devuls i. and
Vaches, the wind blows ofteneft from the fouth and fouth-in Appm.
eaft J.—From thefe l ifts it appears, that in moll tropical^ ^^
countries with which we are acquainted, the wind generally mingo.
blows from the neareft ocean, except during the coldeft^ p. Cotte9
months, when it blows towards it. . . 'J)r>'‘r df
II. In the temperate zones the direftion of the winds is
by no means fo regular as between the tropics. Even |n vVinds of
the lame deoree of latitude, we find them often blowing inthe North
different direftions at the fame time ; while their changesTempe-
are frequently fo ludden and fo capricious, that to account
for them has hitherto been found impoffible. When winds
are violent, and continue long, they generally extend over a
large traft of country ; and this is more certainly the cafe
when they blow from the north ot eaft than tiom any other
points §. By the multiplication and comparifon of Meteoro- § Derbam',
logical Tables, fo re regular conneftion between the changes
i/. Buf-
Jun s L\af.
Hf. vol. i
P-3N- 5
f Volney's
Travels.
1| I'onlcppi
don's hut-
Hi/1- cf
Jser-wuy.
s
Winds in
St Lewis
and Ba a.
of the atmofphere in different places may in time be ^brei-^^^
ved, which will at laft lead to a fatisfaftoiy theory ot the
winds. It is from fuch tables chiefly that the following tails
have been collefted. n
In Virginia, the prevailing winds are between the foutb- Of Ameri-
eivejt, <u>f, north, and th-<wejl ; the moft frequent is theca,
jouth 'wjl, which blows more conftantly in June, July, and
Auguft, than at any other feafon. The nortlt-'wefi winds *Jefcrfont
blow moft conftantly in November, December, Janirry, A
February *. — At Ipfwich m New England the prevailing
winds are alio between the (ouih weji, ojjejl, north, and north- philad. vol.
eafi \ the nioft frequent is the north weft \ \ But at Cam it. a: t. 10.
bridge, in the fame province, the moft frequent wind is
the C‘fouth-eaft J.—The predominant winds at New Acad’so\,
are the north ami weft § : And in Nova Scotia north weft^ ^
winds blow for three-fourths of the year |j —The fame wind f /W. Cate,
blows moft frequently at Montreal in Canada ; but at *
bee the wind generally follows the direftion of the river St§ ‘
Lawrence, blowing either from the north-eajt or fouth-weft ^ , ,erent
t\x Hudfon’s Bay w jl rly wim s blovvr for three-fourthsSiaii? 0/
of the year; the north weft wind occafions the greateil cold, /
but the north and north eft are the vehicles of tuow *. ^,"33^
It appears from thefe fafts, that wefterly winds are moft^ cMtSt
frequent over the whole eaftern coaft of North America ; Hid.
that in the louthern provinces fouth weft winds predominate; * ennaet t
and that the noith-weft become gradually more frequent t.s
we approach the Rigid zone. _ p. 4i,
In Egyptj during part of May, and during June, July,
ft Augull}
4
Wind.
Egypt,
South-weft.
North-call
North-well
Well
WIN [ 662 j
Angufl, and September, the wind blows aim oft conftantljr Winds.
fiom the north, varying fometimes in June to the and
in July to the ivejl and the eajl; during part of September,
and in October and November, the winds are variable, but
blow more regularly from the eajl than any other quarter;
in December, January, and February, they blow from the
north, north■‘w Jl, and 'tuejl * towards the end of February
they change to the fouth, in which quarter they continue
till near the end of March ; during the laft days of March
and in April they blow from the fouth-etijl, fouth, and fouth-
tvejl, and at laft from the eajl; and in this direction they con¬
tinue during a part of May J.
In the Mediterranean the wind blows nearly three-fourths
of the year from the north ; about the equinoxes there is al¬
ways an eajlerly wind in that lea, winch is generally more
conftant in Ipring than in autumn f. Thefe obfervatior.s
do not apply to the gut of Gibraltar, where there are feldom
any winds except the eajl and the <w<Jl.—At Baftia, in the
ifiand of Coriica, the prevailing wind is fouth-ioejl *.
In Syria the noeth wind blows from the autumnal equi
w
Days.
11 2
53
5°
53
I
N
Winds,
South ^aft
Eaft
South
North
f Volr.ey 1
Travels,
vnt. i. p.
58.
1 *
The Medi¬
terranean,
f Ibid, p.
and 65.
Cette,
ibid.
1 4
Syria and
other parts nox to November ; during December, January, and Febru-
t'f Alia, ary, the winds blow from the ivjl and fouth tv ejl ; in March
they blow from the fouih, in May from the ecjl, and in
June from the north. From this month to the autumnal
equinox the wind changes gradually as the fun approaches
the equator; hr ft 10 the eajl, then to the fouth, and laftly to
the wejl\.—At Bagdad the moft frequent winds are the
% Vermont's fonth-wejl notth-iaejl; at Pekin, the north and the
AtBic fwl.fouth \ ; at Kamtfchatka, on the north-eaft coaft of Afia,
p. cxiii. ^e prevailing winds blow from the lufl §.
In It?.ly the prevailing winds differ confiderably accord¬
ing to the fituation of the places where the obiervations have
been made: At Rome and Padua they are northerly, at Mi¬
lan eajlerly f.—All that we have been able to learn concern¬
ing Spain and Portugal is, that on the weft coaft of thefe
countries the ivejl is by far the molt common wind, particu¬
larly in fummer; and that at Madrid the wind is north-eajl
for the g reate it part of ihe fummer, blowing almoft con-
ftantly from the Pyrenean mountains J.—At Berne in Swit¬
zerland the prevailing winds are the north and tuejl; at St
Gottard, the not th-eajl\ at Laufanne, the north-uvejl and fouth-
.tvejl
Father Cotte has given us the refult of obfervations made
at 86 different places of France || ; from which it appears,
that along the whole fouth coaft of that kingdom the wind
blows moft frequently from the north, north-tv Jl, and north-
eajl ; on the weft coaft, from the tvejl, fouth-tvejl, and norih-
nvejl; and on the north coaft, from the fouth-ivejl. That in
the interior parts of France the fouth-tvejl wind blows moft
frequently in 18 places ; the tvefl wind in 14 ; the north in
13 ; the fouth in 6 : the norih-eajl in 4 ; the fouth-eafl in 2 ;
the eajl and no-th ivejl each of them in one.— On the weft
coaft of the Nether lands, as far north as Rotterdam, the pre¬
vailing winds are probably the fouth-tvejl, at leaft this is the
cafe at Dunkirk and Rotterdam It is probable alfo that
along the reft of this coaft, from the Hague to Hamburgh,
the prevailing winds are the north-<weJl, at leaft thefe winds
are moft frequent at the Hague and at Franeker The
prevailing wind at Delft is the fouth-eajl j and at Breda the
north and the eajl J.
In Germany the eajl wind is moft frequent at Gottingen,
Munich, Weiffemburg, Duffeldorf, Saganum, Erford, and
at Buda in Hungary ; the fouth-eajl at Prague and Wirtz-
burg ; the nonh-eajl at Ratifbone ; and the ivejl at Manheim
and Berlin J.
From an average of ten years of the regifter kept by or¬
der of the Royal Society, it appears, that at London the
•winds blow in the following order^
•j- Volney's
Truv. voi.
i. p. 3^6.
4 Cotte,
ibid.
>5
Italy,'
+ Cotte,
ibid.
16
Spain,
4 Bohun's
ilif. nf
IVinds, p.
1x6.
T7
Switzer-
Jand,
5 Cotte,
ibid. 1
|| Ibid.
18
Trance,
19
The Ne
therla; ds
i Ibid.
S Ibid.
| Ibid.
20
Germany,
4 Ibid.
21
Britain,
DavS, ’
26
18
It appears, from -the fame regifter, that the fmith-ivejl
wind blows at an average more frequently than any other
wind during every month of the year, and that it blows
longeil in July and Auguft ; that the north eajl blows moft
conifantly during January, March, April, May, and June,
and moft feldom during February, July, September, and
December ; and that the florf/j-Tev/? wind blows oftener from
November to March, and more feldom during September
and October than any other months. The fouth-tvejl winds
are alio moft frequent at Briftol, and next to them are the,,
north-eajl §. TrJ”
The following table of the winds at Lancafter has beenIxvTp.*.
drawn up from a^regifter kept for feven years at that place 1 Mami.
TXT- * t " EVflrt/i vul,
Winds. Days. Winds. Days.iv. p. 134.
South-weft . 92 South-eaft » 35
North-eaft - 67 North
South < * 51 North-weft
Weft - 41 Eaft
The following table is an abftrafl of nine years obferva-
tions made at Dumfries by Mr Copland J. |
3°
26
17
Winds.
South
Weft
Eaft
South-weft
Days.
82!
69
68
Winds.
North
North-weft
South-eaft
North-eaft
Days.
3M-
25F
i8i
The following table is an abftraft of feven years obferva¬
tions made by Mr Meek at Cambuflang near Glafgow 1 ; t CtatlfcA
Winds. Days. Winds
South weft * 174 North-eaft
North-weft - 140 South-call
It appears, from the regifter from which this table was
extracted, that the north-eajl wind blows much more fre¬
quently in April, May, and June, and the fouth-tvejl in
July, Auguft, and September, than at any other period.
We learn from the Statiftical Account of Scotland, that the
fouth-tvejl is by far the moft frequent wind all over that king¬
dom, efpecially on the weft coaft. At Saltcoats in Airfhire,
for inftance, it blows three-fourths of the year; and along
the whole coaft of Murray, on the north-eajl fide of Scot¬
land, it blows for two-thirds of the year. Eaft winds are
common over all Great Britain during April and May; but
their influence is felt moft ieverely on the caftern coaft.
The following table exhibits a view of the number of
days during which the wefterly and eafterly winds blow in
a year at different parts of the ifiand. Under the term
tvejlerly are included the north-weft, weft, fouth weft, and
fouth ; the term eajlerly is taken in the lame latitude.
Wind
Places. Wefterly. Eafterly.
-r-. Account of
XJAYS- of Scotland,
1 04 vol. v. p,
47a45- 1
Years of Obfer.
10
7
51
9
10
London
Lancafter
Liverpool J
Dumfries
Branxholm, $4 miles
fouth-weft of Ber¬
wick f,
Cambuflang
Hawkhill, near Edin¬
burgh f,
Mean
233
216
I/O
227,5
232
214
229,5
2i7»4
J 32
J49
*75
137.5
4 Ufanebj
ter Tran]'
vol. iv.
133
Ml
135.5
144.7
In
§ Kdiulvt^
TranJ. vul.
i. p. zaj.
t Ib id.
\V I N
t
W I N
Wincf.
In Ireland the fouth-weft and we]} are the gjrand trade-
winds. blowing moft in fummer, autumn, and winter, and
kail in iprins^ The north-eaft blows mod in foring, and
tv / nearly double to what it does in autumn and winter. The
'Hift. of the routh-t(ji and north-'wrft are nearly equal, and are moft fre-
iVe tier, ' ^ ^ 1 n , n
Wind.
21
Irelinri,
^ Jlutty
^ • ’'duIi ftuent a^ter fouth-weft and weft
lin.
2.1
North of
Europe.
| Cotte,
^four. de
fhtf. I791
20
19
N.
i4
S.E.
12
At Copenhagen the prevailing winds are the eaji and
fouth-eafl; at Stockholm, the weft and north [|. In Rufiia,
from an average of a regifter ot 16 years, the winds blow
from November to April in the following order :
Weft. N. W. Eaft. S. W. South. N. E.
'Days 45 26 23 22
And during the other fix months,
Weft. N. W. Eaft. S, W.
Days 27 27 49 24
The weft wind blows during —   ,
the north-weft 53 ; the fouth-weft and north 4b days each
During fummer it is calm for 41 days, and during winter
• Guthrie on for 2i*. In Norway the moft
the Climate fouth, the fouth-wft, and fouth-eaft.
tf Rujjia ri, j*. _n.i a  1U,
N.
15 32
the whole year 72 days »
South. N. E.
22
S. E.
18
I Pontoppi-
diiit's Nat.
diifl. of
Roriuay,
part i.
44
Winds of
the South fouth
TtMPE.
RATE
Zone.
25
Gf the
Cape of
Good
Hope,
| Meteor.
lip s and
IVbite's
Voyages.
26
Of the
South Sea.
23
863 1
fouth temperate zone from the north-weft, changing, how¬
ever, frequently to all points of the compafs, and in the
north temperate zone blowing particularly during fpring
from the north-eaft. _ _ v -1 t of
As to the velocity of the wind, its variations are aim oft w^c_l y
infinite ; from the pentleft breeze to the hurricane, which
tears up trees and blows down houfes. t has been re¬
marked, that our moft violent winds take place when nei¬
ther the heat nor the cold is greateft; that violent winds
generally extend over a great tra<ft of country ; and that
they are accompanied with fudden and ijreat falls in the
mercury of the barometer. The wind is fometimes very
violent at a diftance from the earth, while it is quite calm at
its furface. On one occafion Lunardi went at the rate of 70
miles an hour in his balloon, though it was quite calm at
Edinburgh when he afeended, and continued io during his
whole voyage. See keumatics.
For the inllruments invented to mealure the velocity of
the wind, fee Anemoscope and Anemometer.
frequent winds are the
        7 j ^ The wind at Bergen is
„ _ feldom diie<ftly weft? fiut genera^y ^out^*we^: or ^out^'e.a^'’
Eiin.Jranf.^ nQrth_Weft, and efpecially a north-eaft wind, are but little
v° known there -|\
From the whole of tbefe fafts, it appears that the moft
frequent winds on the fouth coafts of Europe are the north,
the north-eaft, and north-weft; and on the weftern coaft,
the fouth-weft : that in the interior parts which lie moft
contiguous to the Atlantic Ocean, fouth-weft winds are
talfo moft frequent; but that eafterly winds prevail in Ger¬
many. Wefterly winds are alfo msft frequent on the north-
eaft coft of Afia.
It is probable that the winds are more conftant in the
 ith temperate zone, which is in a great meafure co¬
vered with water, than in the north temperate zone, where
their direftion rauft be frequently interrupted and altered
by mountains and other caufes.
M. de la Bailie, who was fent thither by the French king
to make aftronomical obfervations, intorms us, that at the
Cape of Good Hope the main winds are the fouth-eaft and
north-weft ; that other winds feldom laft longer than a few
hours ; and that the eeft and north-eajt winds blow very fel¬
dom. The fouth-eaft wind blows in moft months of the
year, but chiefly from Oftober to April ; the north-weft
UC^prevails during the other fix months, bringing along with
tnif PH- it rain, and tempefls, and hurricanes. Between the Cape
of Good Hope and New Holland the winds are commonly
wefterly, and blow in the following order ; north-weft, fouth-
weft, wtjl, north
In the great South Sea. from latitude 30° 4^° fouth,
the fouth-eaft trade-wind blows moft frequently, efpecially
when the fun approaches the tropic of Capricorn ; the wind
next to it in frequency is the north-weft, and next to that is
the fouth-weft. From fouth latitude 40° to 50' the pre
vailing wind is the north-weft, and next the fouth-weft.
From 50° to 6o° the moft frequent wind is alfo the north
wft, and next to it is the weft *.
Thus it appears that, the trade-winds lometimes extend
farther into the fouth temperate zone than their ulual limits,
oarticularly during fummer ; that beyond their influence
the winds are commonly wefterly, and that they blow in the
following order : north-weft, fouth-weft, weft.
General ob- Thus have we finifhed the hiftory of the dire&ion of the
krvations. winds. Ip the torrid zone they blow conilantly from the
north-eaft on the north fide of the equator, and from the
fouth-eaft on the fouth.fide of it. In the north temperate
zone they blow moft frequently from the fouth-weft; in the
3
*- Wale’s
Meteor.
Tailes.
29
Theory of the Winds.
The atmofpljere is a fluid furrounding the earth, and ex-The atmo«»
tending to an unknown height. Now all fluids tend inva* a
riably to a level: if a quantity of water be taken out ot any
part of a veffc-1, the furrounding water will immediately flow
in to fupply its place, and the furface will become level as
before ; or if an additional quantity of water be poured into
any part of the vefiel, it will not remain there, but diffufe
itfelf equally over the whole. Such exaftly would be the
cafe with the atmofphere. Whatever therefore deftroys the
equilibrium of this fluid, either by increafing or diminiihing
its bulk in any particular place, mull at the fame time ocea-
fion a wind. > # 3°
Air, befides its qualities in common with other fluids, isCapaMe of
alfo capable of being dilated and compreffed. Suppofe
vefiel filled with air: if half the quantity which it con-gon p
tains be drawn out by means of an air-pump, the remainder
will Hill fill the vefiel completely ; or it twice or three times
the original quantity be forced in by a condenfer, the veffel
will ftiil be capable of holding it.
Rarefied air is lighter, and condenfed air heavier, than
common air. When fluids of unequal fpecific gravities are
mixed together, the heavier always defeend, and the lighter
alcend. Wete quickfilver, water, and oil, thrown into the
fame veflel together, the quickfilver would uniformly occu¬
py the bottom, the water the middle, and the oil the top.
Were water to be thrown into a veflel ot oil, it would im¬
mediately delcend, becaufe it is heavier than oil. Exatlly
the fame thing takes place in the atmofphere. Were a
quantity of air, for inllance, to be fuddenly condemed at
a diftance from the furface of the earth, being now heavier
than before, it would defeend till it came to air of ito own
denfity ; or, were a portion of the atmofphere at the iur-
face of the earth to be fuddenly rarefied, being now lighter
than the funounding air, it would immediately afeend. 31
If a bladder half filled with air be expofed to the heat °^3ydheal
a fire, the air within will foon expand, and diftend the blad-an coi
der; if it be now removed to a cold place, it will foon be¬
come flaccid as before. This ihows that heat rarefies and
that cold condenfes air. The furface of the torrid zone is
much more heated by the rays of the fun than the frozen
or temperate zones, becaule the rays fall upon it ;; uch more
perpendicularly This heat is commurftcated to the air
near the lurface of the torrid zone, which being thereby ra¬
refied, afeends ; and its place is luppliedby colder air, which
ruflies in from the north and fouth. 3s
The diurnal motion of the earth is greateft at the equa-The heat of
tor, and diminifhes gradually as we approach the poles, where the fuU3
it
Wind,
WIN I 864 ] WIN'
LvCi) fpot of the earth s iurface at fouth, the internal boundary of the trade-winds mull be that Wind.
parallel the torrid zone which is hotteil, becaufe there
the aleenfion of the rarefied air muft take place. Nor
 it ceafes altogether. v ^     
^ the equator moves at the rate of 15 geographical miles in a
minute ; at the 40° of latitude, it moves at about 1 if miles
in a minute; and at the 300, at nearly 13 miles. The at-
mofphere, by moving continually round along with the
earth, has acquired the fame degree of motion; fo that thofe
parts of it which are above the equator move fafter than
thofe which are at a dillance. Were a portion of the atmo-
fphere to be tranfported in an inftant from latitude 30° to
y the equator, it would not immediately acquire the velocity
of the equator; the eminences of the eaith therefore would
flrike againft it, and it would affume the appearance of an call
wind. This is the cafe in a fraaller degree with the air that
flows towards the equator, to fuoply the place of the rarefied
air which is continually afcending: and this, when com¬
bined with its real motion from the north and fouth, muft
caufe.it to afifume the appearance of a north eafterly wind on
33 this fide the equator, and of a fouth-eafterly beyond it.
The earth’s The motion weftwards occafioned by this difference in ce-
“°- ^rity alone would not be great; but it is farther increafed by
1'n>' another circumftanee. Since the rarefaftion of the air in the
torrid zone is owing to the heat derived, from the contiguous
earth, and fince this hea-t is owing to the perpendicular rays
of the fun, thofe parts muft be hotteft where the fun is ac¬
tually vertical, and confequently the air over them muft be
moft rarefied ; the contiguous parts of the atmofphere will
therefore be drawn moft forcibly to that particular foot.
Now fince the diurnal motion of the fun is from eaft to weft,
this hotteft fpot will be continually fhifting weftwards, and
this will occafion a current of the atmofphere in that direc¬
tion. That this caufe really operates, appears from a cir-
cumftance already mentioned: when the fun approaches ei¬
ther of the tropics, the trade-wind on the fame fide of the
equator aflumes a more eafterly direction, evidently from
the caufe here mentioned; while the oopofite trade-wind, be¬
ing deprived of this additional impulfe, blows in a diredh'on
more perpendicular to the equator.
The wefterly diredfion of the trade-winds is ftill farther
increafed by another caufe. Since the attra&ion of the fun
she moon, an(j moon produces fo remarkable an effedf upon the ocean,
we cannot but fuppofe that au effedt equally great at leaft is
produced upon the atmofphere. Indeed as the atmofphere is
nearer the moon than the fea is, the effedt produced by at-
tradtion upon it ought to be greater. When we add to this
the elafticity of the air, or that difpofition which it has to
dilate itlelf when freed from any of its preffure, we cannot
but conclude that the tides in the atmofphere are confider-
able. Now fince the apparent diurnal motion of the moan
is from eaft to weft, the tides muft follow it in the fame
manner, and confequently produce a conftant motion in
the atmofphere from eaft to weft. This reafoning is con¬
firmed by the obfervations of feveral philofophers, particu-
§ Journal larly of M. Caftan that in the torrid zone the barome-
de Pbyjlque, ter is always two-thirds of a line higher twice every 24
jifnl I790<hours than during the reft of the day ; and that the time
of this rife always correfponds with the tides of the fea j a
proof that it proceeds from the fame caufe.
All thefe different caufes probably combine in the pro-
dudfion of the trade-winds ; and from their being fometimes
united, and fometimes diftinft or oppoftte, arife all thofe
little irregularities which take place in the direction and
force of the trade-winds.
Since the great caufe of thefe winds is the rarefadtion of
the atmofphere by the heat of the fun, its afcenfton, and
She confequent ruftiing in of colder air from the north and
34
And the
action of
SS
Produce
the trade
winds*
—7~ 1  * —• fince 1
the lun does not remain ftationary, but is conftantly fhift-mi limit*!
mg f?om one tropic to the other, we ought naturally to ex-of which
petft that this boundary would vary together with its exci-
ting caufe ; that therefore when the fun is perpendicular to
the tropic of Cancer, the north eaft trade-winds would ex¬
tend no farther fouth than north latitude 23,5° ; that the
fouth-eaft wind would extend as far north; and that when
the fun was in the tropic of Capricorn, the very contrary
would take place. We have feen, • however, that though
this boundary be fubjeft to confiderabie changes from this
very caufe, it may in general be confidered as fixed between
the fecond and firth degrees of north latitude.
Though the fun be perpendicular to each of the tropics Is thTpa-
during part of the year, he is for one half of it at a confi-rallel of
derable diftance ; fo that the heat which they acquire while S''eateft
he is prefent is more than loft during his abfence. Butmea11
the fun is perpendicular to the equator twice in a year,
and never farther diftant from it than 23I0 ; being there¬
fore twice every year as much heated, and never fo much
cooled, as the tropics, its mean heat mull be greater, and
the atmofphere in confequence generally moft raiefied at
that place, Wby then, it will fee alked, is not the equator
the boundary of the two trade-winds ? To fpeak more ac¬
curately than we have hitherto done, the internal limit of thefe
winds muft be that parallel where the mean heat of the
earth is greateft. This would be the equator, were it not ,
for a reafon which fhall now be explained.
It has been ftiown by aftronomers, that the orbit of the Which is
earth is an elliplis, and that the fun is placed in one of the on the
phoci. Were this orbit to be divided into two parts by a,H>rthfide
ftraight line perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis, and paffing ^.c^e eTa*
through the centre of the fun, one of thefe parts would be 0l ’
lefs than the other; « nd the earth, during its paffa^e through
this fmaller part of its orbit, would conftantly be nearer the
fun ihan while it moved through the other portion. The
celerity of the earth’s motion in any part of its orbit is al¬
ways proportioned to its diftance from the fun ; the nearer
it is to the fun, it moves the fafter; the farther diftant, the
flower. The earth paffes over the fmaller portion of its or¬
bit during our winter ; which muft therefore be ftiorter than
our fummer, both on account of this part of the orbit being
fmaller than the other, and on account of the increafed ce¬
lerity of the earth’s motion. The difference, according to
Caftini, is 7 days, 23 hours, and 53 minutes. While it is
winter in the northern, it is fummer in the fouthern, hemi- 39
'       -'-—7   ., ^ v
fphere ; wherefore the fummer in the fouthern hemifphere Bccaijfe t!ie
muft be juft as much ftiorter than the winter as our winter™^" helt
is fhorter than our fummer. The difference therefore be-north he.
tween the length of the fummer in the two hemifpheres ismifphere
almoft 16 days. The fummer in the northern hemilphere‘s great£ft>
confifts of i 9,0-;- days, while in the fouthern it confifts only
of 174Y. They are to one another nearly in the proportion
of 14 to 12,8 ; and the heat of the two hemifpheres may
probably have nearly the lame proportion, to one another
The internal limit of the trade-winds ought to be that pa¬
rallel where the mean heat of the globe is greateft : this
would be the equator, if both hemifpheres were equally hot;
but fince the northern hemifphere is the hottett, that pa¬
rallel ought to be fituated fomewhere in it; and fince the
difference between the heat of two herrtifpheres is not
great, the parallel ought not to be far diftant from the equa¬
tor (a).
The
(a) This parallel could be determined by calculation, provided the mean heat of both the fegments into which it di¬
vides
W I N
r 86^ 1
W I N
40
Caufe of
the nion*
Ib'onf,
The trade-wind would blow regularly round the whole globe
if the torrid zone were all covered with water. If the In¬
dian Ocean were not bounded by land on the north, it would
blow there in the fame manner as it does in the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans. The rays of light pafs through a tranf-
parent body without communicating any, or at leaf! but.a
•fmall degree of heat. If a piece of wood be inclofed in
u glafs veffel, and the focus of a burning glafs direfted upon
it, the wood will be burnt to afhes, while the glafs through
which all the rays paffed is not even heated. When au
opaque body is expoled to the inn’s rays, it is heated in pro¬
portion to its opacity. If the bulb of a thermometer be ex-
pofed to the fun, the quickfilver will not rife fo high as it
would do if this bulb were painted black. Land is much
more opaque than water ; it becomes therefore much warmer
when both are equally expofed to the influence of the fun.
Tor this reafon, when the fun approaches the tropic of
Cancer, India, China, and the adjacent countries, become
much hotter than the ocean which wafhes their fouthern
coafts. The air over them becomes rarefied, and afcends,
while colder air ruflies in from the Indian Ocean to fup-
ply Its place. As this current of air moves from the equa¬
tor northward, it mult, for a reafon already explained, af-
fume the appearance of a louth-weft wind ; and this tenden¬
cy eaftward is inereafed by the fituation of the countries to
which it flows. This is the caufe of the fouth-weft mon-
foon, which blows during fummer in the northern parts of
the Indian Ocean. Between Borneo and the coaft of,China
its direction is almoft due north, becaufe the country to
which the current is dire&ed lies rather-to’Hhe weft of north;
a circumftance which countera&s its greater velocity.
In winter, when the fun is on the fouth fide of the equator,
thefe countries become cool, and the north-eaft trade-wind
refumes its courfe, which, had it not been for the inter¬
ference of thefe countries, would have continued the whole
year.
As the fun approaches the tropic of Capricorn, it becomes
almoft perpendicular to New Holland : that continent is
heated in its turn, the air over it is rarefied, and colder air
ruffles in from the north and weft to fupply its place. This
is the caufe of the north-weft monfoon, which blows from
October to April, from the third to the tenth degree of
fouth latitude. Near Sumatra its direftion is regulated by
the eoaft : this is the cafe alfo between Africa and Mada-
gafcar.
The fame caufe which occafions the monfoons, gives rife
to the winds which blow on the weft coafts of Africa and
America. The air above the land is hotter and rarer, and
confequently lighter than the air above the lea; the lea air
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
W!nrf.
tales
orrid
zone,
therefore flows in, and forces the lighter land atmofphere to
iifeend. . - , 41
The fame thing will account for the phenomena or the Ancj 0f tjis
fea and land breezes. During the day, the cool air of thefea and
fea, loaded with vapours, flows in upon the land, and ta^t’8
the place of the rarefied land air. As the fun declines, the -c - *
rarefaftion of the land air is diminifhed : thus an equili¬
brium is reftored. As the fea is not fo much heated du*
rincr the day as the land, neither is it fo much cooled du¬
ring the night; becaufe it is conftantly expoling a new fur-
face to the atmofphere. As the night approaches, there¬
fore, the cooler and denfer air of the hills (for where there
are no hills there are no fea and land breezes) falls down
upon the plains, and preffing upon the now comparatively
lighter air of the fea, caufes the land-breeze.
The rarefied air which afeends between the fecond and
fifth degrees of north latitude, has been fhown to be the
principal caufe of the trade-winds. A.s this air afcends, it . 4^
muft become gradually colder, and confequently heavier ; Air
it would therefore defeend again if it were not buoyed up f
by the eonftant afeent of new rarefied air. It muft there-,
fore fpread itfelf to the north and fouth, and gradually mix
in its paffage with the lower air; and the greater pait of it
probably does not reach far beyond the 30°, which is the
external limit of-the trade-wind. I bus there is a conftant
circulation of the atmofphere in the torrid zone ; it afcends
near the equator, diftufes itfelf toward the north and fouth,
defeends gradually as it approaches the J®0* 2nd returning
agam towards the equator, performs the fame circuit. It
has been the opinion of the greater part of thofe who have
confidered this fubjeft, that the whole of the rarefied air
which afcends near the equator, advances towards the poles
and defeends there. But if this were the cafe, a conftant
wind would blow from both poles towards the equator, the
trade-winds would extend over the whole earth ; for other-
wife the alcent of air in the torrid zone would very foon
ceafe. A little refleftion muft convince us that it cannot
be true : rarefied air differs nothing from the common air
except in containing a greater quantity of heat. As it a-
feends, it gradually7 lofes this fuperfluous heat. What then
fhould hinder it from defeending, and mixing with the at¬
mofphere below ? That there is a conftant current of fu-
perior air, however, towards the poles, cannot be doubted ^
but it coniifts principally of hydrogen gas. We (nail im¬
mediately attempt to aflign the reafon why its accumulation
at the pole is not always attended with a north wind.. -An/moves
If the attraiftion of the moon and the diurnal motion °fwegv^ar(j>
the fun have any effeft upon the atmofphere, and that they
have iome effed can hardly be difputed, there muft be a
5 R real
vide, the globe were known. Let the radius of thi, globe be = I, the circumference of a great circle = ^jndyon.
fequently the arc of a great circle =3, and the folid contents of a hemifphere —2. Since the inte nul t o e
trade-winds is not far diftant from the equator, we may confider that portion of the Iphere intercepted between it and
the equator as a cylinder, the bafe of which is the equator, and its height the arc intercepted^between the equa or and
the internal limit of the trade-winds. Let this arc be -v4 and confequently the cylinder itfelf _ 3 *, eJuaJ to e^ct 3
of the fouthern fegment into which this internal limit divides the globe above the northern. Let the heat ofjhe no^ h-
ern fegment be =«, and that of the fouthern =j. The fouthern fegment is 2 + 3*, the northern _ 2 3*.
Now let us fupppofe that the bulk of each fegment as reciprocally as its heat, and we fliail have this formula, 2 + 3 *
Wherefore * Now if we fuppofe n = 14, and * = 12.8. r— is
3*
3 H + 3 /     ' 3 ” + 3 J ^°’+*
To ^duce this value of * t'o degrees, we muft multiply it by 60, fince a great circle was made = 6 : it gives ^ 48
*7" as the internal limit of the trade-wind. This is too fmall by 2*1 T 33"- But the value which we h*ve f«und^s only
that of the fine of the arc intercepted between the equator and the internal limit ; the are ftle wo ,
greater ; befides the proportion between the heat of the two fegments is an aflumed quantity, and may probably be
greater than their difference in bulk : and one reafon tor this may be, the great proportion of land in the northern compa¬
red with the fouthern fegment. See the Journal de Phyftque, Alai I791*
WIN [ 866
Wi id. real motion of the air weflwards within the limits of the
trade-winds. When this bo^.y of air reaches America, it«
Ar.d4ftrikesfurther Pa^age weftwards is ftopt by the mountains which
afrainft the extend from one extremity of that continent to the other.
American From the momentum of this air, v/hen it ftrikes againit the
mountains ijides of thefe mountains, and from its elafticity, it mull ac¬
quire from them a confiderable velocity, in a dire&ion con¬
trary to the firft, and would therefore return eallwards a-
gain if this were not prevented by the trade-winds. It
mull therefore rufh forwards in that direction where it
meets with the leatl refinance ; that is, towards, the north
and louth. As air is nearly a perfectly eladic body, when
it ilnkes againfl the fides of the American mountains its
velocity will not be perceptibly diminilhed, though its di-
re&ion be changed. Continuing, therefore, to move with
the velocity of the equator, when it arrives at the tempe-
45 rate zones it will affume the appearance of a north eaft or
cafions our ^OUt^*ea^ W*n<^‘. *3 to he afcribed the frequency
tmth-weft of fouth-weft winds over the Atlantic Ocean and weftern
winds. parts of Europe. W hether thefe winds are equally fre¬
quent in the Northern Pacific Ocean, we have not been able
to afcertain ; but it is probable that the mountains in Afia
produce the fame effed as thofe in America.
It is not impoffible that another circumftance may alfo
contribute to the produ&ion of thefe winds. In the article
Weather, we endeavoured to prove that the annual eva¬
poration exceeds confiderably the quantity of rain which
falls; and found reafon to conclude, therefore, that part of
the evaporaced water was decompounded in the atmofphere.
In that cafe, the oxygen, which is rather heavier than com¬
mon air, would mix with the atmofphere ; but the hydro¬
gen (a cubic foot of which weighs only 41.41 grains,
while a cubic foot of oxygen weighs 593.32 grains) would
afcend to the higher regions of the atmofphere.
By what means this decompofition is accomplifhed (if it
takes place at all) we cannot tell. There are probably a
thoufand caufes in nature of which we are entirely ignorant.
Whether heat and light, when long applied to vapours, may
not be able to decompound them, by uniting with the hy¬
drogen, which feems to have a greater attraction for heat
than oxygen, has ; or whether the eleCtrical fluid may not
be capable of producing this effect—are queilions which fu¬
ture obiervations and experiments mull determine. Dr
Franklin filled a glafs tube with water, and pafled an eke-
trical (hock through it; the tube was broken in pieces, and
the whole water difappeared. He repeated the experiment
v/ith ink in ft tad of water, and placed the tube upon white
paper : the fame effects followed ; and the ink, though it
diiappeared completely, left no (tain on the paper. Whether
the water in thefe cafes was decompofed or not, it is impof¬
fible to fay ; but the fuppofition that it wras, is not impro¬
bable. An experiment might eafily be contrived to deter¬
mine the point.
This decompofitioR would account for the frequency of
fouth-well winds, particularly in fummer; for thus new air
is furnifhed to fupply the place of that which is forced
northwards by tlie caufes already explained. Perhaps it
may be a confirmation of this corje&ure, that the fouth-
vveft winds generally extend over a greater tract of country'
than moll other winds which blow in the temperate zones*
45
Air gene¬
rated in
the toirid
zone.
3 WIN
What has been faid of fouth-weft winds, holds equally with Wiml
regard to north-weft winds in the fouth temperate zone.
After fouth-weft winds have blown for fome time, a great ^n{j47
quantity of air will be accumulated at the pole, at lead ifmulaS'
they extend over all the northern hemifphere : and it ap- at the piilj,
pears from comparing the tables kept by fome of our late
navigators in the Northern Pacific Ocean with fimilar tables
kept in this ifland, that this is fometimes the cafe fo far as
relates to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. When this ac¬
cumulation becomes great, it mud, from the nature of fluids,
and from the elafticity of air, prefs with a confiderable and
increaling force on the advancing air • fo that in time it 4j
becomes ftronger than the fouth-weft wind. This will oc. Producei
cafion at firft a calm, and afterwards a north wand; whichnnrth*«4
will become gradually eafterly as it advances fouthwards,wiu(ls*
from its not affuming immediately the velocity of the earth.
1 he mafs of the atmofphere will be increafed in all thofe
places over which this north-eall wind blows : this is con¬
firmed by the almoft conftant rife of the barometer during
a north-eafl wind.
Whatever tends to increafe the bulk of the atmofphere
near the pole, mud tend alfo to increafe the frequency of
north-eaft winds ; and if there be any feafon when this in¬
creafe takes place more particularly, that feafon will be
mod liable to thefe winds. During winter the northern
parts of Europe are covered with fnow, which is melted in
the beginning of fummer, when the heat of the fun becomes
more powerful. Great quantities of vapour are during that
time railed, which will augment both the bulk and weight
of the atiTtofphere; efpecially if the conjeclure about the
converfion of vapour into air has any foundation. Hence
north-eail winds are mod prevalent during May and June (b\
But it will be faid, if this hypothefis were true, the fouth-
weft and north-eaft winds ought to blow alternately, ani
continue each of them for a dated time ; whereas the fouth-
weft wind blows fometimes longer and fometimes (horter,
neither is it always followed by a north-eaft wind.
If the conje&ure about the decompofition of vapour m
the tgrrid zone be true, the hydrogen which formed a part
of it will afcend from its lightnefs, and form a ftratuni
above the atmofpherical air, and gradually extend itfeif,
as additional hydrogen rifes, towards the north and fouth,
till at laft it reaches the poles. The lightnefs of hydrogen
is owing to the great quantity of heat which it contains ; 4$
as it approaches the poles it mufl lofe a great part of this9^con,Pf
heat, and may in consequence become heavy enough to mix ^
with the attnofphere below. Oxygen makes a part of thep^ f!
atmofphere; and its proportion near the poles may fome- *
times be greater than ordinary, on account of the additional
quantity brought thither from the torrid zone. Mr Ca-
vendifh mixed oxygen and hydrogen together in a glafs jar;
and upon making an eleftrical (park pafs through them,-
they immediately combined, and formed water-
That there is electric matter at the poles, cannot be
doubted. The Abbe Chappe informs us, that he faw thun¬
der and lightning much more frequently at Toboliki and
other parts of Siberia than in any other part of the world.
In the north of Europe the air, dining very cold weather,
is exceedingly eleCtric : fparks can be drawn from a per-
fou’s hands and face, by. combing his hair, or even pow¬
dering-
(e) The frequency of north-eaft winds during thefe months is the greateft defedl in the climate of Scotland, and is
ielt indeed feverely over all Great Britain. In the united dates of America, thefe winds keep pace with the clearing of
the land. Some time ago, in Virginia, they did not reach farther than Williamfburgh ; now they reach to Richmond, #
which is fituated confiderably farther weft, and are even beginning to be felt dill farther within the country *. Mighty^’j .^mtt
it not be poffible then to prevent the frequency of thefe winds in this country, by planting trees along the whole ea.it of Firg»A
coaft ? It is a pity that the experiment were not tried; were it to fucceed, it would very materially improve the climate. F IiS*
\V I N
51
Another
raule of
fouth eaft
winds;
Ph'lofo-
ln'm wltfe a puff. JEpirtus was an tye-witnefs to this
faft, and to flill more attonifhing proofs of the electricity
of the atmofphere during great colds.
May not the appearance of the aurora borealis be owing
to the union of oxygen and hydrogen by the intervention
of the eledtric fluid ? That it is an eleftrical phenomenon
at leaft, can hardly be doubted. Artificial electricity is
much ItrengthCned during an aurora, as Mr Volta and Mr
Canton have obferved ; and the magnetic needle moves with
the fame irregularity during an aurora that has beeh obferved
in other electrical phenomena. This faCt we learn from
Bergman and De la Lartde. Many philofophers have at¬
tempted to demonftrate, that auroras boreales are beyond the
earth’s atmofphere ; but the very different teiults of their
calculations evidently prove that they were not poflefied of
fufficient data.
If this conjeCture be true, part of the atmofphere near
the poles mull at times be converted into water. This
would account for the long continuance of iouth-wetl winds
at particular times: when they do fo, a decornpolition of the
atmofphere is going on at the pole. It would render this
conjeCture more probable, if the barometer fell always when
a fouth-weft wind continues lortg.
If this hypothefis be true, a fouth-weft. wind ought al¬
ways to blow after aurorae boreales ; and we are informed
by Mr Winn *, that this is actually the cafe. This he
[ 867 ]
W I N
Wind.
—y—
^TrarfRio never to ^ 23 inftahcts. He obferved alfo, that
10^1772?*'w^en the aurora was bright, the gale came on within 24
hours, but did not laft long ; but if it was faint and dull,
the gale was longer in beginning, and lefs violent, bilt it
continued longer." This looks like a confirmation of our
conjeCture. Bright aurorae are probably nearer than thofe
which are dull. Now, if the aurora borealis be attended
with a decompofition of a quantity of air, that part of the
atmofphere which is neareft muft firft fufh in to fupply the
defeCt, and the motion will gradually extend itfelf to more
diftant parts. Juft as if a hole were bored in the end of a
long veflel filled with water, the water neareft the hole
would flow out immediately, and it would be fome time
before the water at the other end of the vefiel began to
move. The nearer we are to the place of precipitation,
the fooner will we feel the fouth-weft wind. It ought
therefore to begin fooner after a bright aurora, becaufe
it is nearer than a dull and faint one. Precipitations of the
atmofphere at a diftance from the pole cannot be fo great
as thofe which take place near it; becaufe the cold will
not be fufficient to condenfe fo great a quantity of hydro¬
gen ; fouth-weft winds, therefore, ought not to laft fo long
after bright as after dull aurorce. Winds are more violent
after bright aurorae, becaufe they are nearer the place of
precipitation ; juft as the water neat the hole in the veflel
runs fwifter than that which is #t a confiderable diftance.
If thefe conjeClufes have any foundation in nature, then:
are two fources of foiith-weft winds ; the firft has its origin
in the trade-winds, the fecbnd in precipitations of the a't-
mofphere near the pole (c). When they originate from
the firft caufe, they will blow in countries farther fouth
for fome time before they are felt in thofe which are farther
north ; but the contrary will take place when they are
owing to the fecond caufe. In this laft cafe, too, the ba¬
rometer wall fink cenliderably ; and it aCtually does fo coh-
ftantly after aurorse, as we are informed by Mr Madifon
who paid particular attention to this fubjeCt. By keeping
accurate meteorological tables in different latitudes, it mighty
eafily be difcovered whether thefe confequences be true, and
confequeutly whether the above conjectures be well or ill
grounded. S *
There are alfo two fources of north-eaft winds ; the firft Another
\s an accumulation of air at the pole (n), the fecond a Pre'
cipitation of the atntofphere in the torrid zone. For the wilKie>
dtfcovery of this laft caufe we are indebted to Dr Frahkliu.
In rygo he was prevented from ohferving ah eclipfe of the
moon at Philadelphia by a north-eaft ftorm, which camif
about feven o’clock in the evening. He was ftlrpriled to
find afterwards that it had not come oh at Boftoh till heir
11 o’clock : and upon comparing all the accounts which
he received from the feveral colonies of the beginning of
this and other ftorms of the fame kind, he found it to be
always an hour later the farther north-eaft, for every 100 ^
miles.
** From hence (fays he) I formed an idea of the courfe
of the ftorm, which I will explain by a familiar inftance. I
fuppofe a long canal of water flopped at the end by a gat<:.
The water is at reft till the gate is opened ; then it begins
to move out through the gate, and the water next the gate
is firft in motion, and moves on towards the gate ; and lo
on fucceffivdy, till the water at the head of the canal is in
motion, which it is laft of all. In this cafe all the water
moves indeed towards the gate; but the fucceffive times of
beginning the motion are in the contrary way, Viz. from
the gate back to the head of the canal. Thus, to produce
a north-eaft ftorm, I fuppofe fome great rarefaction of the
air in or near the gulf of Mexico ; the air rifmg thence has
its place fupplied by the next more northern, cooler, and
therefore denfer, and heavier air ; a fiicceflivd current is
formed, to which Our coaft and inland mountains give a
north-eaft diredlion f.”
Currents of air from the poles naturally, as has been ob-,a/ letters,
ferved, afl'ume a north-eaft direction as they advance fouth-p. 389.
wards ; becaufe their diurnal motion becomes lefs than that Cau(5^of
of the earth. Various circumftances, however, may chartge^.^
this diredtion, and caufe them to become noith, or even wp1(js>
north-weft, winds. The fouth-weft winds themielves may
often prove fufficient for this; and violent rains, or great
5 R 2 heat,
(c) We are now rather doubtful whether the firft caufe here affigned be fo general as we at firft imagined. The al-
snolt conftant finking of the barometer when a fouth wind blows, feems to indicate, that it is geneiahy occafioned by de-
compofitions of the atmofphere. Nor ate We certain that mountains are adequate to produce the effect afifoned them.
(d) When the ice, which in Ruffia accumulates on the infides of the windows of the common people 6 honiCa, thaws,
it lets loofe a quantity of mephitic air, producing all the dangerous fffedts of charcoal {Dt- Guthrie^ of thB Climate &/
Rujfia, Edin. Tranf vol. ii. p. 220.). May not then a quantity of air be extricated from ice during its thawing ? And
may not this be another feurce of north-eaft winds? We are not ignorant ot the experiment which Dr cjUrriet made to
ditcover this (fee Manchejter Tranfadions, vol iv.) ; and that he found that ice in this country fets loofe no air in the
aft of thawing. But Dr Guthrie has ffiown us, in the effay above referred to, that water;, by being long eXpofed to
intenfe cold, changes its nature, and acquires qualities which it had r.ot before. Ould it not be worth the while of
the philofophers in Ruffia, and other cold countries, to inveftigate this a little farther ? We would recommend it to the
confideration of the ingenious Dr Guthrie himfelf; who, from his fituation, has the heft opportunities of invelligating the
matter completely. It is certainly of very great importance, and might lead to difeoveries that would remove our prefenl
difficulties in meteorology, and enable us to give a fetisfattory and uleful theory of the weather.
\
Wind.
54
Why they
are fb fre¬
quent in
Korth
America.
55
Caules of
eaft and
Kell wind?,
56
Pat rial
winds.
WIN [ 868 ] WIN
heat, by leffening or rarefying the atmofphere in any coun¬
try, will produce the fame effefk in countries to the weft-
wards when north winds happen to be blowing.
In North America, the north-weft winds become gra¬
dually more frequent as we advance northwards. The "call
coaft of this continent, where the obfervations were made
from which this conclufion was drawn, is alone cultivated ;
the reft of the country is covered with wood. Now culti¬
vated countries are well known to be warmer than thofe
which are uncultivated ; the earth in the latter is fhaded
from the fun, and never heated by his rays. The air, there¬
fore, in the interior parts of America, muft be conftantly
colder than near the eaft coaft. This difference will hardly
be perceptible in the fouthern parts, becaufe there the in¬
fluence of the fun is very powerful; but it will become gra¬
dually greater as we advance northwards, becaufe the in¬
fluence of the fun dtminilhes, and the continent becomes
broader. Hence north-weft winds ought to become more
frequent upon the eaft cdaft as we advance northwards ;
and they will probably ceafe to blow fo often as foon as the
whole continent of North America becomes cultivated.
Thus have we attempted to explain the caules which
produce the more general winds that prevail in the torrid
•and temperate zones. The eaft and weft winds, when they
are not partial and confined to a very fmall portion of the
atmofphere, feem to be nothing die but currents of air
brought from the north or fouth by the caufes already men¬
tioned, and prevented from proceeding farther by contrary
currents. If thcfe currents have come from the north, they
will affume the appearance of eaft winds; becaufe their di¬
urnal motion will be Id's than that of the more fouthern
latitudes over which they are forced to remain ftationary.
The fouthern currents will become weft winds, for a con¬
trary reafon. This will furniih us with a reafon for the
coldnds of eaft winds, compared with weft winds. If this
account be true, there ought very frequently to be a weft
wind in a latitude to the fouth of thofe places where an eaft
wind blows. This might eafily be determined by keeping
accurate regifters of the winds in different latitudes, and as
nearly as poffible under the fame meridian ; and upon the
refult of thefe obfervations the truth or faliehood of the a-
bove conjedture muft finally reft.
Sefldes tkefe more general winds, there are others which
extend only over a very fmall part of the earth. Thefe o-
riginate from many different caufes. The atmofphere is
compofed of three different kinds of air, oxygen, azote,
and carbonic acid; to which may be added water. Great
quantities of each of .thefe ingredients are conftantly chan¬
ging their aerial form, and combining with various fub-
ftances ; or they are feparating from other bodies, affuming
the form of air, and mixing with the atmofphere. Partial
voids, therefore, and partial accumulations, muft be conti¬
nually taking place in different parts of the atmofphere,
which will occaiion winds varying in diredfion, violence, and
continuance, according to the fuddennefs and the quantity
of air deftroyed or produced, liefides thefe there are many
other ingredients conftantly mixing with the atmofphere,
and many partial caufes of condenfation and rarefadfion in
particular places. Po thefe, and other caufes probably hi¬
therto unknown, are to ift afcribed .all thofe winds which
blow in any place befides the general ones already ex¬
plained ; and which, as they depend on caufes hitherto at
leaft reckoned contingent, will probably for ever prevent
uniformity and regularity in the winds. All thefe caufes,
however, may, and probably will, be difcovered : the cir-
cumftances in which they will take place, and the effects
which they will produce, may be known j and whenever
this is the cafe, the winds of any place may in florae mea»
fure be reduced to calculation.
It is of importance, in the firft place, to know the general
winds, and the caufes which produce them; they will blow
ofteneft in every country, continue longeft, and in a great
meafure ftamp the nature of the climate. To explain thefe
has been the intention of this effay ; and though we have
probably failed of fuccefs, eur attempt, we hope, will not be
altogether ufelefs. The facts which are here colledted will
at leaft facilitate the labours of the future inquirer. Were
accurate obfervations made over the whole globe of the di¬
rection and velocity of the winds, and efpecially of the time
when they begin and ceafe to blow, fo much light would
be thrown in a lliort time upon this important fubjedt, that
a theory of the winds might be formed, capable of explain¬
ing all the phenomena, and really ufeful to the human race.
Not IVinds. See Samiel.
IViND-Flower. See Anemony.
IViNn-Milly a kind of mill, the internal parts of which arc
much the fame with thofe of a water-mill: from which, how¬
ever, it differs, in being moved by the impulfe of the wind
upon its fails or vanes, which are to be confidered as a wheel
in axis. See Mechanics, n° 62.
IViND-Gage. See Wind-Gage.
Wind-Galls, in farriery. See there $ xxxiii.
WiND-Gun. See Aik-Gun.
Injlrumenis for meafuring the Jlrength, velocity, 8cc. of the
Wind. See Wind-GAGE, Anemometer, and Anemo¬
scope,
WiND-Hatch, in mining, a term ufed to exprefs the place
at which the ore is taken out of the mines.
WiND-Shod, a name given by our farmers to a diftemper
to which fruit-trees, and fometimes timber-trees, are fub-
je£t. It is a fort of bruife and fhiver throughout the
whole fubftanee of the tree ; but the bark being often not
affedfed by it, it is not feen on the outiide, while the infide
is twilled round, and greatly injured. It is by fome fuppo-
fed to be occafioned by high winds ; but others attribute it
to lightning. Thofe trees aie moll ufually aft'edted by it
whole boughs grow more out on one fide than on the other.
The bell way of preventing this in valuable trees, is to take
care in the plantation that they are ffieltered well, and to cut
them frequently in a regular manner while young.
IViNu-Taught, in fca-language, denotes the fame as ftiff
in the wind. Too much rigging, high malls, or any thing
catching or holding wind aloft, is faid to hold a fhip wind-
taught ; by which they mean, that fhe Hoops too much in
her failing in a Hiff gale of wind. Again, when a Ihip
rides in a main llrefs of wind and weather, they ftrike down
her top malls, and bring her yards down, which die would
hold too much wind, or be too much diftended and wind-
taught.
Wind-Sails, a fort of wide tube or funnel of canvas, em¬
ployed to convey a ftream of frelh air downward into the
lower apartments of a fhip.
This machine is ufually extended by large hoops fituated
in different parts of its height. It is let down perpendicu¬
larly through the hatches, being expanded at the lower end
like the bale of a cone ; and having its upper fide open on
the fide which is placed to windward, fo as to receive the
full current of wind ; which entering the cavity, fills the
tube, and rulhes downwards into the lower regions of the
Ihip. There are generally three or lour of thefe in our ca¬
pital Ihips of war, which, together with the ventilators, con¬
tribute greatly to preferve the health of the crew.
WINDAGE of a Gun, is the difference between the
diameter of the bore and the diameter of the ball.
1
WIND-
win r
WINDLASS, a machine ufed for raifing huge weights,
W’iijdlais vv ^ i c
'll as guns, Hones, anchors, occ. . nr
Wine. It is very fimple, confifting only of an axis or roller, fup-
 ported horizontally at the two ends by two pieces or wood
and a pulley ; the two pieces of wood meet at top, being
placed diagonally fo as to prop each other ; the axis or
roller goes through the two pieces, and turns in.them. _ he
pulley is fattened at top where the pieces join. Lattly,
there are two Haves or handfpikes which go through tae
roller, whereby it is turned, and the rope which comes over
the pulley is wound off and on the fame. >
Windlass, in a fhip, is an inftrumeot in fmall ihips, pla¬
ced upon the deck, juft abaft the fore-maft. It is made of
a piece of timber fix or eight feet fquare, in form of an axle-
tree, whofe length is .placed horizontally upon two pieces
of wood at the ends thereof, and upon which it is turned
about by the help of handfpikes put into holes made for
that purpofe. This inftrument ferves for weighing anchors,
•r hoifting of any weight in or out of the fhip, and will ‘pm-
chafe much more than any capftan, and that without any dan¬
ger to thofe that heave ; for if in heaving the windlafs about,
any of the handfpikes ihould happen to break, the windafs
would pall of itfelf. . , ,,
WINDOW, an aperture or open place m the wall
of a houfe to let in* the light. See Architecture,
The word is Welch, uynt dor, fignifying the paffage for
the wind. Window is yet provincially denominated nvindor
in Lancafhire ; i- e. wind-door, or the paflagc for air, as
that for people was peculiarly called the door.
Before the ufe of glafs became general, which was not
till towards the end of the 12th century, the windows in
Britain feem generally to have been compofed of paper.
Properly prepared with oil, this forms no contemptible de¬
fence againft the intruftons of the weather, and makes no
incompetent opening for the admiffion of the light. It is
ftitt ufed by our architedts for the temporary windows ot
unfinifhed honfes, and not unfrequently for the regular ones
our work-fhops. But fome of the principal buddings we
may reafonably fuppofe to have been windowed m a tape-
rior manner. They could, however, be furmfhed merely
with lattices of wood or fheets of linen, as thefe two remain-
ed the only furniture of our cathedrals nearly to the eighth
century ; and the lattices continued in fome of the meaner
towns of Lancafhire to the 18th; and m many diftnds of
Wales, and many of the adjoining parts o. England, are in
ufe even to the prefent moment. Thefe feem al to have been
fixed in frames that were called capfamenta, and now there¬
fore cafoments in Wdles and Lancafhne.
WINDSOR, a borough-town of Berkfhire, 22 miles
weft of London, moft remarkable for the magnificent pa¬
lace or caftle fituated there on an eminence, which com¬
mands the adjacent country for many miles, the river
Thames running at the foot of the hill. I he knights of
the garter are inftalled in the royal chapel here. It lends
two members to parliament. W. Long. o. 36. N. Lat.
51 WIND WARD, in the fea-language, denotes any thing
towards that point from whence the wind blows, in relpect
of a fhip : thus windward-tide, is the tide which runs againtt
WINE, an agreeable fpirituous liquor, produced by fer¬
mentation from thole vegetable fubftances that contain fac-
charine matter. A very great number of vegetable fub-
ftances may be made to afford wine, as grapes, currants,
mulberries, elder, cherries, apples, pulie, beans, peas, tur-
neps, radilhes, and even gvafs itfelf. Hence, under t e c.a.s
869 ] WIN
of wines or vinous liquors, come not only wines, abfolute-
ly fo called, but alfo ale, cyder, &c
Wine.
Wine, however, is in a more particular manner appropn- (
ated to the liquor drawn from the fruit of the vine. ri he
procefs of making wine is as follows : When the grapes arev.
ripe, and the faccharine principle is developed, they are then chap. 6.
prefied, and the juice which flows out is received in veffels of
a proper capacity, in which the fermentation appears, and
proceeds in the following manner: At the end of feveraimaking
days, and frequently after a few hours, according to the wiHe.
heat of the atmofphere, the nature of the grapes, the quan¬
tity of the liquid, and the temperature of the place m which
the operation is performed, a movement is produced in the
liquor, which continually increafes; the volume of the fluid
increafes ; it becomes turbid and oily ; carbonic.acid is dil-
engaged, which fills all the unoccupied part of the vefltl,
and the temperature rifes to the 7 2,5th degree.. At the end
of feveral days thefe tumultuous motions fubfide, the mafs
falls, the liquor becomes clearer, and is found to be lefs lac-
charine, more odorant, and of a red colour, from the rea&ion
of the ardent fpirit upon the colouring matter of the pellicle
of the grape. .
The wine is ufually taken out of the fermenting veflels
at the period when all the phenomena of fermentation have
fubfided. When the mafs is fettled, the colour of the li¬
quor is well developed, when it has become clear, and its
heat has difappeared ; it is put into calks, where, by a fet
cond infenfible fermentation, the wine is clarified, its prin¬
ciples combine more perfectly together, and its tafte and
fmell become more and more developed. If this fermenta¬
tion be flopped or fuffocated, the gafeous principles are re¬
tained, and the wine is brilker, and more of the nature of
It appears, from the interefting experiments of the Mar¬
quis de Bullion, that the vinous fermentation does not take
place unlefs tartar be prefent.
The caufes of an imperfe& fermentation are the follow- 2
ing : 1. If the heat be too little, the fermentation languilhes, Caufts of
the faccharine and oily matters are not Efficiently elaboia-^P^^^
ted, and the wine is undluems and fweet. 2. If the.faccha-
rine body be nat fufficiently abundant, as happens in rainy
feafons, the wine is weak, and the mucilage which predomi¬
nates cairfes it to become four by its decompofition. 3*
the juice be too watery, concentrated and boiling' mull ^13
added. 4. If the faccharine principle he not Sufficiently
abundant, the defeft may be remedied by the addition of Su¬
gar. Macquer has proved that excellent wine may be made
of verjuice and fugar ; and M. de Bullion has made wine at
Bellejames with the verjuice of his vine rows and moul
fugar. .
There have been many difputes to determine whether
grapes fHould be prefled with the ftalks or without. 1 his-
depends on the nature of the fruit. When they are highly
charged with faccharine and mucilaginous matter, the ftalk.
comas the infipidity of the wine, by its bitter principle :
but when, on the contrary, the juice is not too iweetj the
ftalk renders it drier, and very rough. 3
The colouring principle of wine is of a refinous^nature, Cr louring
and is contained in the pellicle of the grape ; and the fluid0 5
is not coloured until the wine is formed ; for until then there
is nothing which can diffolve it : and hence it is that white ,
wine may be made of red grapes, when the juice ot the grape
is expreffed, and the hulk thrown away. If wine be evapo¬
rated, the colouring principle remains in the refidue, and.
may be extraaed by fpirit of wine. Old wines^ lo!e their
colour, a pellicle being precipitated, which is eitner depofi-
ted on the fides of the bottles, or falls to the bottom. It
'Vfht,
\V I N ' [
wine be expofed to the heat of the fan during the fummer,
the colouring matter is detached in a pellicle, which falls to
the bottom : when the veflel is opened, the difcolouring is
more fpeedy, and it is effe&ed in two or three days during
the lummer. I he wine thus deprived of its colour is noc
4 perceptibly weakened.
Vinous fer- i he vinous fermentation has been examined with great
enhiintd! accura(T voider. According to him, the vege¬
table juice of which wine is to be made confifts of oxygen,
hydrogen, and carbon, combined with one another in diffe¬
rent proportions, io as to form chiefly water and fugar,
'1 he fermentation produces a reparation of the elements,
and a new combination of them ; a quantity of the oxygen
and carbon combine and fly off in the itate of carbonic acid;
part of the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, combine firft
with each other, and then ail together, to form alcohol;
another part forms acetous acid ; the water ftill remains, and
a reflduum falls to the bottom compofed of the three ele-
j ments combined in other proportions.
^ different kinds of wines produced in Europe and
wiues.CIent P31*^8 °f the world are many; the principal of them
and their qualities are well known : a catalogue of them
would ferve no purpofe here. We fhall, however, fubjein a
table of the quantities of the ingredients of the principal
kinds from Neumann’s Chemiftry.
W I N
A quart of
Aland
Alicant
Burgundy
Carcaffone
Champagne
French
Frontignac
Vin Grave
Hermitage
Madera
Malmfey
Vino de
Monte >
Pulciano J
Mofelle
Mufcadine
Neufschatel
Palm Sec
Pontac
OldRhenifh
iRhenifh
Salamanca
Sherry
^Spanifh
Vino Tinto
Tokay
Tyrolred"^
wine
jRed wine
j White
Highly rec-
Fhick, oily,
uildtuoujye-
tified Spirit.’dnous mat¬
ter.
oz. dr. gr.
i 6
6
2
6
5
o
o
o
7
3
o
oz. dr. gr.
oo_
006
o
o
0
o
3
o
1
20
OO
OO
OO
OO
CO 3
OO
2 6 OO
20
OO
10
40
40
OO
OO
Gummy
and tartar-
ou» mat¬
ter.
OZ,
I
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
dr. gr,
5
i
Water.
oop
oolz
GO
o 3 oo
ooo
$
oo
oo
oo
CO
oo
oo
oo
oo
oo
oo
oo
OOj
oop
ooo
4
4
o
4
5
o
3
4
o
4
4
3
20
OO
OO
00
20
CO
20
OO
OO
oo(9
oo
oo
2 OO
40
OO
1
o
7
4
2
2
1
o
2
4
6
00
40
4°
20
00
o
20
00
4C
00
00
40
30
00
oc
CO
00
20
34
00
00
00
00
00
lb. oz. dr. gr
5 3 00
00
20
3°
00
20
30
00
20
ooj
00
2 8 O 20
O 4 CO
00
00
9
5
2
2
9
8
9
3
o
10
o
o
2 8
10
00
00
00
40
40
06
00
00
00
00
00
00
20
OO
The colour of wine is frequently artificial; a deep red is
aim©ft always the effeft of artificial additions, as of the red-
* woods, elder berries, bilberries, &c. • In France no fecret
is made of thefe pra&ices, the colouring matters being pub-
*iicly thrown out after they have been uied.
Xtris well known to be a common practice among wine-
Wh*.
870 ]
coopers, innkeepers, and other dealers m wines, to adulte¬
rate bad wine in order to conceal its defers : if, for in- —^
ftance, the wine be four, they throw into it a quantity of 6
fugar of lead, which entirely takes away the four tafte.^f p'
For fimiiar purpofes alum is often mixed with wine. Such wine!*
fnbftances, however, are well known to be extremely perni¬
cious to the human conftitution ; it becomes of importance
therefore to be able to deleft them whenever they happen
to be contained in wine. Several chemifts who have turned
their attention to this fubjeft, have furnifhed us with tells
for this purpofe.
To difeover lead diiTolved in wine, boil together in a pint To / a
of water an ounce of quicklime and half an ounce of floured
of brimftone ; and when the liquor, which will be of a yel- w ne-
low colour, is cold, pour it into a bottle, and cork it up Watfon's
for ufe. A few drops of this liquor being dropt into a
giafs of wine or cyder Containing/osrrf, will change the whole
into a colour more or lefs brown, according to the quantity tf’,111’
of lead which it contains. If the wine be wholly free from ' 3?,‘
lead, it will be rendered turbid by the liquor, but the colour
will be rather a dirty white than a black brown.
By this teft, however, iron is alfo precipitated when dif-
folved in wine, and is apt to be taken for lead ; a miftake
which has ruined feveral honeft merchants. The following
teft is therefore preferable, as not liable to the fame incon¬
venience.
lake equal parts of calcined oyfter-ftiells and crude ful- Another
phur in fine powder, and put them in a crucible, which method,
put into a fire, and raiie the heat fuddenly till it has been
expoied to a white heat for 15 minutes. Then take it out, let
it cool, beat the ingredients to powder, and put them into
a well corked bottle. To prepare the teft-liquor, put 20
grains of this powder, together with 120 grains of cream
of tartar, and put them into a ftrong bottle, All it up with
water, boil it for an hour, and let it cool. Cork the bottle
immediately, and fhake it from time to time. After fome
hours repofe, decant off the clear liquor into an ounce vial,
having firft put 22 drops of muriatic acid into each vial.
Cork thefe vials accurately with a little wax mixed up with
a little turpentine. One part of this liquor, mixed with
three parts of fufpefted wine, will difeover the prefence of
the fmalleft quantity of lead or copper, by a very fenfibie
black precipitate, and of arfenic by an orange precipitate ;
but will have no effeft on iron, if there be any : the prefence
of which, however, may be afeertained by adding a little
potafh, which will turn the liquor black if there be any
iron. Pure wine remains limpid after the addition of this
liquor t\ . ' t Jw»<Ah
As this fubjeft is of importance, we fhall add M. Four-
croy’s obfervations. on the Hate in which lead exifts in wine,0<So!lcr
and on the methods of difeovering its prefence : Of the dit- ^ ^
ferent principles which compofe wine, there was no doubt State of
(fays he) but that acids were the only ones which were ca-le^ !n
pable of diffolving oxyd {calx) of lead. But was it the tarta-wine*
reous acid always contained in larger or fmaller quantity in
wine,orthe acetousacid developed in thofewhich have become
fharp, and which there is a greater temptation to fweeten£
Experience had proved to me that the acidulous tartrfte of
potafh, or the cream of tartar, takes oxyd of lead from the
acetous acid, and a precipitate of tartrite of lead is formed ;
the pure tartareous acid prepared in Scheele’s method pro¬
duces the fame effeft. In order to underftand how the
fharp wine which contains thefe two acids can hold the oxyd
of lead in folution, I made the experiments which gave me
the following refults : 1. The acidulous tartrite (crem. tart.)
has no fenfibie aftion upon the oxyds of lead ; 2. The pure
tartareous acid has a flight aftion upon the oxyds, and forms
on their furface a little tartrite of lead {tartarifed lead), in
Wine.
Tt forms
rt aceto-
tartrite
of. lead.
ir
Other me
thods i f
dete<3ii’g
this lalt.
WIN [ 871 ]
a -*hk:e powder; 3. Wine which only contnina the tavta- with care
reous acidule, would not have any action upon the femi-
vitrous oxyd of lead or litharge ; 4. Sharp wine which we
attempt to fvveeten by this oxyd of lead, a&s firfl upon it
by the acetous acid it contains; 5. When this acetite
of lead is formed, the tartareous acid precipitates it in
the form of tartrite of lead : this is proved by the precipi¬
tate which the folution of the acetite of lead or fngar of lead
forms in the wine ; 6. But the acetous acid, if it be in large
enough quantity, redifTolves the tartrite of lead in the wine
juft as diftilled water would. Bergman has pointed out
this folution of tartrite of lead in acetous acid for diftin-
guifhing the tartareous fait from the fulfat of lead [vitriolof
lead) ; 7. As this folution of tartrite of lead in the acetous
acid is much quicker, and more eafy in (harp wines than in
diftilled water and vinegar, it is probable that the caufe of
this difference depends upon the citric and malic acids which
I have found in wine, and which I fhall take notice of
again on another oecation j 8. Litharged wine then, or wine
fweetened with lead, contains tartrite diflblved in the ace¬
tous acid, and perhaps at the fame time in the malic and ci¬
tric acids.
“ It was neeeffary afterwards to know the properties of this
combination. What experience has taught me is as fol¬
lows : I particularly examined the tartrite of lead and its
fohition in acetous acid. The tartrite of lead is fcarcely at
all foluble in water; it is in the form of powder, or of fmall
white grains which have no fenhble tafte ; when it is diffol-
ved In vinegar, the vinegar is foftened, its fharpnefs is dimi-
nilhed remarkably, and the folution takes a flight fweetifh
tafte, much lefs ftrong than that of the pure acetite of lead.
This tafte proves that the union of the tartrite of lead with
vinegar is not only a folution like that of fait in water,
by which the properties of the fait are not changed, but a
combination which gives occalion to new properties. It is
a kind of a triple fait, different from thofe we have hitherto
known, formed of two acids and of one bafe ; whereas the
other triple falts deferibed hitherto are compofed of one
acid and two bafes. I name this new triple fait acdo-tartrite
of lead. The acetous acid adheres to it more than water in
a common folution : what is remarkable in this combination
is, that the two acids appear to adhere to the bafe with an
equal force, although they have a different attraction for it:
nothing is neceffary to produce this equilibrium, but to unite
fir ft the oxyd of lead with the acid to which it adheres the
moft ftrongly, and afterwards to put this firft compound in
contact with the weaker acid.
• “It was neceffary, in order to difeover eafy and certain
methods of afeertaining the prefence of lead in wine, to exa¬
mine with care the properties and phenomena of the de-
compofitions of the aceto-tartrite of lead. Fixed alkalis
and ammoniac [volatile alkali) precipitate from this fait an
oxyd of lead, which is of a greyifh white colour; but as
they occafion a precipitate in pure wane, they* cannot be of
any ufe. The fulphuric [vitriolic) acid decompofes the
aceto-tartrite of lead, and forms with it inftantly fulfat of
lead; which being very little foluble, and very heavy', is pre¬
cipitated. The oxalic, or pure faccharine acid, and the aci^
cfolous oxalat, or the fait of forrel of the {hops, likewife de*
compote this fait, and take from it the lead. The oxalat
of lead is precipitated in great abundance : thefe two acids,
the fulphuric and oxalic acids, not producing any precipi¬
tate in pure wine, are very proper to fliow the prefenee of
lead in wine. The fulfat and oxalat of lead, when they are
precipitated from wine, are coloured, whereas they are very
white when they are formed in diftilled water ; but their red
or brown colour does not prevent us from difeovering them
by a very funple method. If the precipitates be collected
Wine.
W I N
and are cautioufly heated upon a coat with a
blow-pipe, they fmoke, become white, exhale vapours, paf* " ¥ "r
fuccefllvely thro' the dates of the red and yellow oxyds of
lead, and at length are reduced into metallic globules at the
inftant they are perceived to be agitated by a very evident
effervefcence : if we ceafe to blow at this inftant, we obtain
globules upon the charcoal. In order to this, it is necefta-
ryr, however, that the charcoal be folid, and be not cracked,
and that we (hould not have blowed too ftrongly ; otherwife
the globules would be abforbed, and would difappear. The
fulfat of lead requires a longer time to be reduced than the
oxalat of the fame metal, and there is a greater hazard of
loiing the metallic particles, which, befide, are in fmall quan¬
tity.
“ To thefe two firft procefles, already fufficiently certain
of themfelves, I wiftied to be able to add one which might be
capable of pointing out inftantly the prefence of lead, by an
appearance belonging exclufively to this metal, and which
might unite to this advantage that of manifefting very final!
quantities of it. Diftilled water impregnated with fulphurated
hydrogenous gas, or hepatic gas, extricated from folid alkaline
fulphurets [Overs offulphttr) by acids, prefented me with
thefe properties. This folution blackens very deeply that
of the aceto-tartrite of lead, and renders ToWtl1
m water or in wine very fenfible. The fenfibility of this
reaftive is fuch, that we may dilute litharged wine with a
fiifficient quantity of water t@ take away almoft entirely the
colour of the wine, and this readtive will ftill produce a very
manifeft alteration. The fulphurated water has, beiides, the
advantage not to occafion any change in the wines which do
not contain a metallic fubftance, and it is not precipitated
by the acids of wine, like the folutions of alkaline fulphu¬
rets. In order to procure this rea&ive pure, it is neceffary
to prepare it at the inftant of the experiment, by receiving
in a vial full of diftilled water, and inverted upon a flielf of
a fmall hydro-pneumatice apparatus, filled with diftilled wa¬
ter, the fulphurated hydrogenous gas, feparated from the fo¬
lid fulphuret of potafti by the fulphuric or muriatic acid, and
firft filtered through water in another vial; when the fecond
vial contains the third of its volume of the fulphurated hy¬
drogenous gas, the gas is fhaken ftrongly with the water,
which fills the two-thirds of the vial; and when the abforp-
tion is over, the teft liquor is prepared. This reaftive
changes very quickly in the air r it is rreceffary to make it
the moment it is t® be employed, and to keep it in a
vefiel quite full and well corked. If there were any fear
that the black colour and the precipitation by the gafeous
fulphurated water fhoukl not be fuffiefent to prove the pre¬
fence of lead in fpirituous liquors, I would obferve, that this
fear would be diminifhed by employing the three rea&ives
mentioned in this memoir, and by depending only on the
correfpondent effofts of thefe three reaftives : but all fufpi-
cion would be removed, by reducing the three precipitates
by the blow-pipe, and obtaining globules of lead from each
of them.”' **
Some years ago, the Academy of Lyons propofed the Me hod
following prize-queflion, What is the beft method of aiccr-.^ a|um
taining the orefence and the quantity of mum dffTolved in^jjy0jve(j
wine, efpecially in very deep coloured red wine ? The prrxcin wine,
was gained by M. J. S. Beraud. From his experiments, it
appears that a mixture of lime-water and wine in any pro¬
portion whatever, will at the end of 12 or 15 hours furnilli
a quantity of cryftals, which may be feparated by filtration,
and that thefe cryftals will be eafreft difeovered when the
quantities of wine and lime-water are equal; but that wine
containing alum diftolved in it, will not form cryftals when
mixed with lime-water, but merely depofits a muddy fedi-
ment. To know therefore whether any wine contains alum
, ■ * , of •
WIN r 872 ] WIN
Wine, <?r not, we have only to mix a (mall quantity of It with lime- it would be improper to keep them longer, for wines in tre- wine
~v  water: if cryflals are formed, it contains no alum ; if not, it neral have not the body they had formerly, from the vines y-L
does. A gain, if wine contains alum, the refiduum that re- being too much forced.
mains after filtration will, as it dries, fplit into quadrilateral It fometimes happens /that wines feuddy and llubborn
fegments, which will detach themfelves from the paper will not fall with one or even two forcings. It will then be
which contains them ; but if the wine contains no alum, the proper to give them five or fix gallons of good ftrong wine
refiduum, after it is dry, will remain united and attached to and force them with the whites of a dozen eggs,With a
the paper. If one meafure of wine and two thirds of a tea-fpoonful of fand produced from fawing-marbk, or a fmall
mealure of lime-water depofit cryftals, we are certain that fpoonful of fine fait. Bottled wine inWinter fhould be
if the wine contains alum, the proportion of that alum to well covered with faw-duft, and if the vaults are cold and
the wine will be lefs than 1 to 1152 ; if, when equal parts damp, ftrew it deep on the floor ; if faw-duft is thrown up-
of wine and lime-water are mixed, no cryftals be depofited, on the hogftieads, and their Tides are bedded feme inches
*vc may be fare that more than ^-gth part of the mafs of thick, it will keep them from the fret,
wine confiffs of alum. _ The fame treatment is to be regarded with white wines,
j A great proportion of the wine confumed in this country except that they require to be higher matched, particu-
is brought from Spain and Portugal ; government has al- larly Mufcat wines ; fuch as Frontignac, Beziers,' &c.
Wrays difeouraged the importation of French wines by heavy which being often fweetened with honey, are very fubjedl
taxes. We are not fure how far fuch condmft is founded to fret ; and thefe only frequent rackings, with a great deal
on good policy, as the French wines are confefledly the beft, ofbrimftone, can copl. Hermitage, from not being fuffici-
and might be thecheapeft ; but fuch is the jealoufy and en- ently dried, and poffefiing more richnefs than claret, is alfo
rmty that has always fubfilled between Britain and France, very liable to come on the fret, and will require much the
fhat both nations have been contented to injure themfelves fame treatment as the Mufcat wines. Attention fhould be
provided they could do a greater injury to their neighbours, had to bottle in fine weather, when the wind is north ; but
Befides, the advantages which Britain derives from the For- to avoid cold or frofty weather. The months of April and
tugal trade are very great, and it would not be eafy per- Oftober are favourable. The beft time to bottle port wine
»3 haps to fecure them on any other terms. is four years after the vintage, and to keep them two years
Diretftions • It may be worth while to infert here a few'direftipns about in bottle before you begin to ufe them. When wines are
for the the treatment of wines after they have been imported,into this racked, and the lees immediately palled thro’ flannel bags into
ofTniport- country-~ On landing, the lefs they are expofed the better ; clofe-necked jars, and dire&Iy bottled, there will be very little
ed wines. ^or 31 e affefted by the feafons, and more or lefs by cli- loft by rackings, as the wine when fine may ferve for filling
mate. March and April are the proper times for (hipping tip.
wines from France, and they will be landed in England and When wines are deftined for warm climates, it may be pro-
Ireland in the fame degree of temperature. The great art in per to rinfe the hogfheads with brandy; and in bottling many
keeping winss is to prevent their fretting, which is done by rinfe the bottles and corks with it. Wines that have re-
keepmg them in the lame degree of heat. In fpring and fall, mained a certain time (three or four months) in a vault, and
the wines in Bourdeaux are fubjeft to changes that may be dan- made lefs or more lee, ought never to be fent into the coun-
gerous, if not prevented by neceffary rackings : thefe changes try without firft racking them, otherwife they may be liable
are folely the effeft of the feafons. If wines are chilled, to fret ; and if bottled in that ftate, may rilk being loft,
and of courie turn foul, from being (hipped and landed in Wines which may be ordered for immediate drinking
cold weather, they will foon recover by putting them in a will be forced on the (hipping, and in a few weeks after they
warm vault, w'ell covered with faw-duft. As foon as they are landed will be fit for the bottle. The .forcings proper
are in the vault, they ought to be covered up. But if (hip- for claret are the whites of a dozen eggs, beat up with a
ped and landed in fummer, if the fmalleft degree of fermen- tea-fpoonful of fine fait, and well worked with a forcing
ration be found on them, it will be requifite to dip the bung rod. Take care to ufe no bad egg. This is for one hogf-
clothes in brandy, and leave the bungs loofe for fome days, head.
to give it time to cool ; and if in a fortnight or three weeks The forcing for white wine is ifinglas difTolved in wine,
the fermentation do not ceafe, and the wine become bright, One ounce is fufficient for two hogftieada. No fait is to be
it will be proper to rack it (matching the hogfheads well ufed in forcing the white wines. See Croft on Wines, 8vo,
with brimftone), and force it with the whites of eight eggs. 1 788. 2
If it then becomes fine, bung it tight, and let it remain fo We (hall infert here the following receipt for making Receipt for
until it is bottled. If wines new landed are wanted foon raifn-ivine.— Fo a 20 gallon veffel take 100 pounds of rai-making'
for the bottle, it will be neceftary to force them immediate- fins; pick off the ftalks, chop them grofsly, and put
ly, and let them remain bunged dole (or at leaft a month, into an open tub more wide than deep. Add two parts in
to recover from the forcing, or if two months the better ; three of the water to them, and let them (land days,
for wines bottled in high order come much (ooner into ftirring them well every day. Then drain and prefs them,
n drinking than if bottled when flat, which all wines are after putting afide the liquor that runs from them. Add the
foicing. Wine muft never be bottled the leaft foul, which remainder of the water to the raifins that have thus been
produces a tendency to fret; and if bottled in this ftate, will preffed, and let it (land upon them one week, frequently (tir-
never come in order, but may pofiibly be loft ; for this there ring them as before. Then prefs off the liquor, and add it
is no remedy but repeated rackings; and care muft be taken to. what you firft collefted ; putting both runnings to-
(after rinfing the hogfheads well and drawing them) to burn gether into your veffel, together with one quart of brandy,
a good piece of match in them. This cools the wine, and To colour it, burn three-fourths of a pound ©f fugar into
there is no danger of hurting the colour, for it recovers it a fmall quantity of the liquor, and add this to the wine,
in a little time : but if it did, it is abfolutely neceftary ; for When the liquor in the barrel has done fiftging, ftop the vef-
if wine is fuffered to continue on the fret, it will wear itfelf fel clofe, and let it ftand till fit to be bottled. The greater
to. n°thing, Wines bottled in good order may be fit to the quantity which the vefl'el holds, and the longer it is kept
drink in fix months ; but they are not in perfeftion before in the wood, the better will it be.
twelve; from that to two years they may continue fo ; but , WiNz-Prefs, a machine contrived to fqueeze the juice out
of
WIN T Fi z\ro m atic a .
Plate DXl i.
" t/jr////fa //rr/r^'v/.
WIN 873 ] WIN
Wire 0f grapes, and confiding of fevcral pieces of timber, variouf-
V ^Jera difpofed, which compofe three bodies of timber-work,
jj!!1Jcra‘, clofely united to the axis, which ferves as a fwing whereby
it may be moved by the vice. Of thefe there are different
fixes as well as different conftrudlions ; for an account of
which, illuffrated by figures, fee Miller’s Gardener’s Dic¬
tionary, article IViNE-Prefs.
Spirit of Winty or alcohol, a name given by chemifts to
every ardent fpirit produced by diltillation. See Chemistry*
Index.
WING, that part of a bird, infeft, See. whereby it is en¬
abled- to fly. See Bird and Ornithology.
Wings, in military affairs, are the two flanks or extremes
of an army, ranged in form of a battle ; being the right and
left fides thereof.
WINTER, one of the four feafons or quarters of the
year. See Season, &c.
Winter commences on the day when the fun’s diftance
from the zenith of the place is greateft, and ends on the
day when its diffance is at.a mean between the greateft and
leaf!.
Under the equator, the winter as well as other feafons
return twice every year ; but all other places have only one
winter in the year ; which in the northern hemitphere begins
when the fun is in the tropic of Capricorn, and in the fouth-
ern hemifphere when in the tropic of Cancer; fo that all
places in the fame hemifphere have their winter at the fame
time.
IViNTER-Ilerry. See PhysAlis.
W1NTERA, in botany : A genus of plants of the
clafs of polyandria, and order of pentagynia ; and in the na¬
tural fyftem arranged under the 12th order, Holoracea.
The calyx is three lobed ; there are fix or twelve petals ;
there is no ftyle ; the fruit is a berry, which is club-fhaped
as well as the germen. There are two fpecies ; the aroma-
tica and granadenfis.
■ Wintera aromatica, is one of the largeft foreibtrees upon
Terra del Fuego ; it often rifes to the height of 50 feet.
Its outward bark is on the trunk grey and very little
wrinkled, on the branches quite fmooth and green. The
branches do not fpread horizontally, but are bent upwards,
and form an elegant head of an oval ftiape. The leaves come
out, without order, of an oval elliptic fhape, quite entire,
obtufe, flat, fmooth, fhining, ol a thick leathery fubftance,
evergreen, on the upper fide of a lively deep green colour,
and of a pale bluiflr colour underneath, without any nerves,
and their veins fcarcely vifible ; they are fomewhat narrower
near the footftalks, and there their margins are bent down¬
wards. In general, the leaves are from three to four inches
long, and between one and two broad ; they have very fhort
footftalks, feldom half an inch long, which are fmooth, con¬
cave on the upper fide, and corwex underneath. From the
fears of the old footftalks the branches are often tubercula-
ted.
The peduncles, or footftalks for the flowers, come out
of the axilla fo/iorum, near the extremity of the branches ;
they are fiat, of a pale colour, twice or three times Ihorter
than the leaves ; now and then they fupport only one flower,
but are oftener near the top divided into three fhort branches,
each with one flower. The bratteae are oblong, pointed,
concave, entire, thick, whitifh, and iituated one at the ba¬
lls cf each peduncle.
There is no calyx; but in its place the flower is furrounded
with a fpathaceous gem, of a thick leathery fubftance, green,
but reddifh on the fide which has faced the fun : before this
gem burfts, it is of a round form, and its fize is that of a
finall pea. It burfts commonly fo, that one fide is higher
than the other, and the fegments are pointed. The-corolla
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
confifts always of feven petals, which are oval, obtufe, con- Wlntera.
cave, ereft, white, have (mail veins, and are of an une--v-—*
qual fize, the largeft fcarcely four lines long; they very
loon fade, and drop off almoft as foon as the gem burfts.
The filaments are from 15 to 30, and are placed on the flat
end fide of the receptacle ; they are much fliorter than the
petals, and gradually decreafe in length towards the fides.
The antherse are large, oval, longitudinally divided into two,
or as if each was made up of two oblong antherjs. The
germina are from three to fix, placed above the receptacle,
turbinated, or of the fhape of an inverted fig ; flat on the
infide, and fomewhat higher than the ftamina ; they have no
flyles, but terminate in a itigma, which is divided into two
or three fmall lobes.
Dr Solander, to whom the world is indebted for the de-
feription, never faw the fruit in its perfeftly ripe ftate ; but
could conclude from the unripe fruit which he faw in abun¬
dance, that each germen becomes a feparate feed-veffel, of a
thick flefhy fubftance, and unilocular ; and in each the rudi¬
ments of three, four, or five feeds were plainly difcernible.
See Plate DXL. where n^ t. reprefents the. fpathace-
ous gem, after it is burft open. 2. The fame. 3. The
fame (a) with the corolla (l) remaining within it. q.^One
of the petals fpread out. 5. The ftamina (a) and the piftilla
(l>) after the gem and the corolla are taken away. 6. The
outfide of an anthera (a) with its filament (l>). 7. The in¬
fide of the fame. 8. The germina (a) fituated on the
centre of the receptacle, after the ftamina have been remo¬
ved ; the lobated ftigma (h). 9. The convex or outer-
moft fide of a germen (a) with its ftigma (i). 10. The in¬
fide of the fame. 11. A germen cut open longitudinally,
fo as to fhovv the rudiments of the feeds. 12. A germea
cut through tranfverfely.
The weather is much more fevere in the chmate where
thefe trees are natives than in Britain ; here, therefore, it
is thought they would thrive very well.
The bark of the wintera, or winter’s cinnamon, brought
over by the Dolphin, in refpeft to figure, exaftly refembles
that which was delineated by Clufius. The pieces are about
three or four inches fquare, of different degrees of thicknefs,
from a quarter to three quarters of an inch. It is of a dark
brown cinnamon colour ; an aromatic fmell, if rubbed ; and
of a pungent hot fpicy tafte, which is lafting on the palate,
though imparted (lowly. It has the name of winter's cinna¬
mon, from a faint refemblance in colour and flavour to that
grateful aromatic, though differing from it greatly in every
other refpeft. This bark is only brought to us from the
Straits of Magellan, and is the produce of the tree above de-
feribed; much celebrated as an antifcorbutic by the firfl
difeoverers, but unknown in the pra&ice of phyfic, no quan¬
tity, except as a curiofity, having been brought to Europe
till the return of the fhips fent out on the expeditions to the
South Seas. The bark which was fubftituted in the room
of this is the canella alba of the (hops. See Can ell A.
From feveral experiments made by Dr Morris, the cor¬
tex magellanicus appears to be an aftringent of a particular
kind, and therefore likely to be of ufe in leveral manufac¬
tures. Water is the proper folvent or this bark ; though
the inline, gummy, and refinous parts are fo blended in it,
as in faffron and feme other vegetables, that it parts with
them readily in proof and rectified fpirits of wine, though
not in fo great a quantity.
The infufion and decoftion of this bark were of fo grate¬
ful an aromatic bitter tafte. that it feema likely to be a plea-
fant vehicle for fome of the naufeous drugs. With this
view, on fubftituting the powder of this bark for the carda¬
mom feeds in making the infufion of fenna, as directed in
the London Difpeniatory, the naufeous finell and tafte or
5 S
WIT [ 874 ] WIT
Wire that excellent purgative was fo effectually covered, as to be
^y!|t fcarcely diftinguifhed by the niceft palate. TinCture of rhu-
— barb alfo prepared with this bark inffead of cardamoms Teem¬
ed far lefs dilagreeable.
WIRE, a piece of metal drawn through the hole of an
iron into a thread of a finenefs anfwerable to the hole it paf-
fed through.
Wires are frequently drawn fo fine as to be wrought along
with other threads of filk, wool, flax, See.
The metals molt commonly drawn into wire are prold,
filver, copper, and iron. Gold-wire is made of cylindrical
ingots of filver, covered over with a flein of gold, and thus
drawn fucceffively through a vail number of holes, each
fmaller and fmaller, till at lait it is brought to a fineuefs ex¬
ceeding that of a hair. That admirable duftility which
makes one of the dittinguifhing characters of gold, is no¬
where more confpicuous than in this gilt wire. A cylinder
or 48 ounces of filver, covered with a coat or gold, only
weighing one ounce, as Dr Halley informs us, is ulually
drawn into a wire, two yards of which weigh no more than
one grain ; whence 98 yards of the wire weigh no more than
49 grains, and one Angle grain of gold covers the 98 yards ;
fo that the ten thoufandth part of a grain is above one-
eighth of an inch long.
WiRF- of Lapland. The inhabitants of Lapland have a
fort of fhining flender fubffance in ufe among them on feve-
ral occafions, which is much of the thicknefs and appearance
of our filver-wire, and is therefore called, by thofe who do
not examine its ttruefure or fubltance, Lapland wire. It is
made of the finews of the rein deer, which being carefully
ieparated in the eating, are, by the women, after foaking in
water and beating, fpun into a fort of thread, of admirable
finenefs and ftrength, when wrought to the fmalleff fila¬
ments ; but when larger, is very itrong, and fit for the pur-
poles of ftrength and force. Their wire, as it is called, is
made of the fineft of thele threads covered with tin. The
women do this bufinefs ; and the way they take is to melt
a piece of tin, and placing at the edge of it a horn, with a
hole through it, they draw thefe finewy threads, covered
with the tin, through the hole, which prevents their coming
out too thick covered. This drawing is performed with
their teeth : »md there is a fmall piece of bone placed at the
top of the hole, where the wire is made flat; fo that we al¬
ways find it rounded on all fides but one, where it is flat.
This wire they ufe in embroidering their clothes as we
do gold and filver; they often fell it to ftrangers, under the
notion of its having certain magical virtues.
WISDOM, ufually denotes a higher and more refined
notion of things immediately prefented to the mind, as it
were, by intuition, without the affiftance of ratiocination.
Sometimes the word is more immediately ufed, in a mo¬
ral fenfe, for what we call prudence^ or diferetion, which con-
fifts in the foundr.els of the judgment, and a conduct anfwer¬
able thereto.
Wisdom of Solomon, one of the books of the Apocry¬
pha. It abounds with Platonic language, and was proba¬
bly written after the Chabalhftic phiiofophy was introduced
among the Jews.
WIT, is a quality of certain thoughts and expreffions,
much eafier perceived than defined. According to Mr
Locke, wit lies in the affemblage of ideas, and puffing thofe
together with quicknefs and variety, wherein can be found
any relemblance or congruity, thereby to make’up pleafant
piftures and agreeable vifions to the fancy, Mr Addilon
limited this definition confiderably, by obferving, that every
refemblance of ideas does not conftitute wit, but thofe only
which produce delight and furprife. Mr Pope defined wit
to be a quick conception and an eafy delivery : while, ac¬
cording to a late writer, it confifts in an afllmilation of di- tyg
ftant ideas.
The word wit originally fignified wfdom. A witte was
anciently a wife man : the wittenagemot, or Saxon parliament,
an affemblage o, wife men. So late, as the reign nf Eliza¬
beth, a man oFpiegnant wit, of great wit, was a man of vaft
judgment. We ftill lay, in his wits, out of his wits, for in
or out ot found mind. The word, however, is now applied
in a more limited fenfe.
Without attempting to expofe the inaccuracy of the de¬
finitions above mentioned, or hazarding a definition of our
own v/here fo many eminent men have failed, we fhall endea¬
vour to fhovv in what true wit confifts.
It is evident that wit excites in the mind an agreeable
ftnpnie, and that this is owing entirely to the ftrange affem¬
blage of related, ideas prefented to the mind. This end is
effected, 1. iby debafing things pompous or feemirgiy grave;
2. By aggrandiiing things little or frivolous ; 3. By fetting
ordinary objebts in a particular and uncommon point of
view, by means not only remote but apparently contrary.
Of fo much coniequence are furprife and novelty, that no- ^>a
thing is more taftelefs, and fometimes dilgufting, than a PMhM
joke that has become ftale by frequent repetition. For the9/AW..-t
fame reafon, even a pun or happy allufion jwill appear excel-V91, u
lent when thrown out extempore in converfation, which
would be deemed execrable in print. In like manner, a wit¬
ty repartee is infinitely more pleafing than a witty attack :
for though, in both cafes, the thing may be equally new to
the reader or hearer, the effedf: on him is greatly injured,
when there is accefs to fuppofe that it may be the flow pro-
dublion of ftudy and premeditation. This, however, holds
moft with regard to the inferior tribes of witticifms, of which
their readinefs is the beft recommendation.
We fhall illuftrate thefe obfervations by fubjoining a fpe-
cimen or two of each of thefe forts of wit:
Of the firft fort, v/hich confifts in the debafement of
things great and eminent, Butler, amongft a thoufand other
inftances, hath given us thofe which follow :
And now had Phoebus in the lap
Of Thetis taken out his nap :
And, like a loblfer boil’d, the morn
From black to red began to turn.
Hudibras, part ii. canto 2.
Here the low allegorical ftyle of the firft couplet, and the
fimile uled in the fecond, afford us a juft notion of this low-
eft fpecies, which is diftinguifhed by the name of the ludi¬
crous. Another fpecimen from the fame author you have in
thefe lines :
Great on the bench, great in the faddle.
That could as well bind o’er as fwaddle.
Mighty he was at both of thefe,
And ftyl’d of war, as well as peace .*
So iome rats of amphibious nature,
Are either for the land or water.
• Ibid, part i. canto T.
In this coarfe kind of drollery, thofe laughable tranflations or
paraphrafes of heroic and other ferious poems, wherein the
authors are faid to be travdlied, chiefly abound.
The fecond kind, confifting in the aggrandifement of little
things, which is by far the moft fplendid, and diiplays a
foaring- imagination, thefe lines of Pope will ferve to illu¬
ftrate :
As Berecynthia, while her offspring vie
In homage to the mother of the iky.
Surveys around her in the bleft abode,
An hundred fons, and every fon a god :
Not with lefs glory mighty dulnefs crown’d.
Shall take thro' Grubitreet her triumphant round ;
w r t
[ 875 ]
w 1 T
Wit.
And her ParnafTus glancing o’er at once,
* Behold a hundred fons, and each a dunce.
This whole fimilitude is fpirited. The parent of the cele-
ftials is contrafted by the daughter of night and chaos; hea¬
ven by Grubllreet ; gods by dunces- Befides, the parody
it contains on a beautiful paflage in Virgil adds a particu¬
lar luftre to it. This fpecies we may term the tbrafonical,
or the mock-majejlic. It affefts the moft pompous language,
and fonorous phrafeology, as much as the other affefts the
reverfe, the vileft and moft grovelling dialeft.
To this clafs alfo we muft refer the application of grave
refleftions to mere trifles. For that great and ferious are na¬
turally affociated by the mind, and likewiie little and trifling,
is fufnciently evinced by the common modes of expreffion
on thefe fubjefts ufed in every tongue. An appofite in-
ftance of fuch an application we have from Philips;
My galligaflcins, that have long withftood
The winter’s fury and encroaching frofts.
By time lubdued, (IVhat ’will not time fubduel')
An horrid chafm ditclole. Splendid Shilling.
Of the third fpecies of wit, which is by far the moft mul-
tifarious, and which refults from what may be called the
queernefs or Angularity of the imagery, we {hall give a few
ipecimens that will ferve to mark fome of its principal va¬
rieties. To illuftrate all would be impoffible. The firft
lhall be where there is an appatent contrariety in the things
(lie exhibits as connefted. This kind of contrail we have
in thefe lines of Garth:
Then Hydrops next appears amongft the throng ;
Bloated and big (he flowly fails along :
But like a mifer in excefs fhe’s poor.
And pines for thirft amidft her watery ftore.
Difpenfary.
A fecond fort is, where the things compared are what
with dialefticians would come under the denomination of
difparates, being fuch as can be ranked under no common
genus. Of this we fhall fubjoin an example from Young;
Health chiefly keeps an Atheift in the dark ;
A fever argues better than a Clarke:
Let but the logic in his pulfe decay,
The Grecian he’ll renounce, and learn to pray.
Univerfal Pajfion.
A third variety in this fpecies fprings from confounding
artfully the proper and the metaphorical fenfe of an expref¬
fion. In this way, one will affign as a motive what is dif-
covered to be perfeftly abfurd, when buc ever fo little at¬
tended to ; and yet, from the ordinary meaning of the words,
hath a fpecious appearance on a Angle glance. 01 this kind
we have an inltance in the fubfequent lines;
While thus the lady talk’d, the knight
Turn’d th’ outflde of his eyes to white.
As men of inward light are wont
To turn their optics in upon’t.
Hudibras, part iii. canto I.
For whither can they turn their eyes more properly than to
the light ? _ .
A fourth variety, much refembling the former, is when
the argument or comparifon (for all argument is a kind ot
comparifon) is founded on the fuppofal ol corporeal or per-
fonal attributes in what is ftriftly not fufceptible of them ;
as in this,
But Hudibras gave him a twitch
As quick as lightning in the breech,
Juft in the place where honour’s lodg’d,
As wife philofophers have judg’d ;
Wit
Becaufe a kick in that place more ^
Hurts honour than deep wounds before. ^ Witchcraft.
Ibid, part ii canto 3. c—-y—iJ
The fifth, and only other variety which we (hall mention,
is that which arifes from a relation, not in the things figm-
fied, but in the ligns ol all relations, no doubt the flighted.
Identity here gives rife to puns and clinches ; refemblance
to quibbles, cranks, and rhimes; Of thefe it is quite unne-
ceffary to exhibit fpecimens.
Wit (John de), a celebrated penfioner of Holland, and
one of the greateft politicians of his time, was the fon of
Jacob de Wit, burgomatter of Dort, and was born in 16 25.
He became well {killed in civil law, politics, mathematics,
and other fciences ; and wrote a treatife on the Elements
of Curved Lines, publifhed by Francis Schooten. Having
taken his degree of doftor of law, he travelled into foreign
courts, wheie he became etleemed for h:s genius and pru¬
dence. At his return to his native county in 1650, he be¬
came penfionary of Dort, then counfellor-penfionary of
Holland and Weft Frief.and, intendant and regifter of the
fiefs, and keeper of the great feah He was thus at the
head of affairs in Holland ; but his oppofition to the re-
eftablifhment of the office of ftadtholder, which he thought
a violation of the freedom and independence of the republic,
coft him his life, when the prince of Orange’s Party P(e*
vailed. He and his brother Cornelius were affainnated by
the populace at the Hague in 1674, aged 47.
WITCH, a perfon guilty of witchcraft.
WITCHCRAFT, a fupernatural power which perfons
were formerly fuppofed to obtain the poffeffion of by enter¬
ing into a compaft with the devil. ri hey gave themfelves
up to him body and foul; and he engaged, that they fhoui
want for nothing, and that he would avenge them upon aft
their enemies. As foon as the bargain was concluded, t^ e
devil delivered to the witch an imp, or familiar Xpirit, to oe
ready at a call, and do whatever it was direfted. By the
affiftance of this imp and the devil together, the witch, who.
was aim oft always an old woman, was enabled to tranfport
herfelf in the air on a broom-ftick or a fpit to diftant places
to attend the meetings of the witches. At tnefe meetings
the devil always prefided. They were enabled alfo to
transform themfeves into various fhapes, particularly to ai-
fume the forms of cats and hares, in which they moft de¬
lighted ; to inflift difeafes on whomfoever they thought
proper; and to punith their enemies in a variety of w.ay3.
The belief that certain perfons were endowed vyith fu¬
pernatural power, and that they were affifted by invifible
fpirits, is very ancient. The fagae of the Romans feem
rather to have been forcerers than witches', indeed the idea
of a witch, as above deferibed, could not have been prevalent
till after the propatration of Chriftianity, as the heathens ia.
no knowledge of the Chriftian devil. . ^
Witchcraft was univerfally believed in Europe till the
16th century, and even maintained its ground with tolerable
firmnefs till the middle of the feventeenth. Vaft numbers
of reputed witches were convifted and condemned to be burnt
every year. The methods of difeovering them were various.
One was, to weigh the fuppofed criminal againft the church Provincial
bible, which, if fhe was guilty, would preponderate: another, Glo/ary.
by making her attempt to fay the Lord’s Prayer; this no
witch was able to repeat entirely, but would omit lome part 01
fentence thereof. It is remarkable, that all wicches did not he-
iitate at the fame place; fome leaving out one part, and fotne
another. Teats, through which the imps fucked, were indu¬
bitable marks of a witch ; thefe were always raw, and a o
iufenfible ; and, if fqueezed, fometimes yielded a drop of
blood. A witch could not weep more than three tears,
and that only out of the left eye. 'i his want of tears
5 S 2 was>
WIT [876
Wi c he raft W?S) tjje witeh-finders, and even by feme judges, con-
T fidered as a very rubftantial proof of guilt. Swimming a
witch was another kind of popular ordeal generally pradli-
fed : xor this fhe was ftripped naked, and crofs-bound, the
right thumb to the left toe, and the left thumb to the right
toe. ^ f'hus prepared, fhe was thrown into a pond or river,
in which, if guilty, fhe could not link ; for having-, by her
compact with the devil, renounced the benefit of the water
] WIT
Brought over L 16
Item. For one to go to Finmouth for the
laird, - - . 0
-T*
Witchcraft,
Summa town part, L. 17 1 Scots
Both, L. 34 11
_ , Or 2 ly ^ Ster.
   i^Huuuccu cue oenenc or me water For a confiderable time after the inquifition was ereftpd’ Dr W
of baptifm, that element, in its turn, renounced her, and re- the trials of witches (as heretics) were confined to tW'r»
luiedto receive her into its bofom. Sir Robert Filmer tribunal; but the goods of thofe who were condemned helno-^"
mentions two others by fire : the fi-rft, by burning the confifeated to the holy office, its minifters were fo aftive mviTti
thatch o. the houfe of the lufpe&ed witch ; the other, di{covering forcerers, that the different governments found
burning any animal fuppofed to be bewitched by her, as a it neceffary to deprive them of the cognifance of this crime,
bog or ox. * hefe, it was held, would force a witch to confefs. On the continent, commiffioners were then appointed for the
ihe trial by the ftool was another method ufed for the difeovery and convidion of witches, who, though lefs aeftive
di covery of witches, ft was thus managed ; Having taken than the inquilltors, were but too zealous in profecutins-
the fufpeifted witch, fhe was placed in the middle of a room their function. In iacm. Smeno^r
Hnnn a fror>i or* f-oKI/a 1 ^J   • r .1 /-
1  7 in luc iinuaie or a room
upon a liool or table, crofs legged, or in fome other uneafy
pofture ; to which if fhe fubmitted not, fhe was then bound
with cords : there fhe was watched, and kept without meat
or deep for the fpace of 24 hours (for, they faid, within
that time they fhould fee her imp come and fuck). A
little hole was likewife made in the door for imps to come
in at; and left it fhould come in fome lefs difcernible fhape,
they that watched were taught to be ever and anon fweeping
the room, and, if they faw any fpiders or flies, to kill them;
if they could nqt kill them, then they might be fare they
were imps. If witches, under examination or torture, would
not con.efs, all their apparel was changed, and every hair
ua their body /haven oft with a ftiarp razor, left they fhould
xecrete magical charms to prevent their confeffinm Witches
were moft apt to confefs on Fridays. °
By iuch trials as thefe, and by the accufation of children,
old womeq, and fools, were thoufands of unhappy women
condemned for witchcraft, and burnt at the flake. In the
18th volume of the Statiftical Account of Scotland there is
the trial of two witches, William Coke and Alifon Dick, in
Kirkaldy, in j 636. The evidence on which they were con¬
demned is abfoJutely ridiculous : they were, however, burnt
lor witchcraft. I he expences which the town and kirk-
ieliion were put to on this occafion were as follows:
In prlmit—To Mr James Miller, when he
went to Prellowne for a man to try
them, 47«. . . L.2 7
Item.--—Vo the man of Cuirofs, (the execu¬
tioner), when he went away the firft
time, 12s. . . 0 ,2
—For coals for. the witches, 24. s. j 4
Item.—In purchafing the commiffion, - g 0
Item.-—Vox one to go to Finmouth for the
laird to fit upon their affize as judge, o 6
Item. For harden to be jumps to them, 3 IO
Item.—Yox making of them, - _ Q 8
8
Summa for the kirk’s part L. 17 10 Scots.
The Town’s part of expences deburfed extraordinarily upon
WilKam Coke and Alifon Dick.
/« primh. For ten loads of coals to burn
them, 5 merks, - _ L, 3
Item.— For a tar barrel, 14 s. _ * q
Item.—For towes, ■ - o
Item.—To him that brought the executioner, 2
Item. —To the executioner for his pains, 8
Item.—For his expences heie, _ 0
Carryover L. 16 15 o
6
6
18
14
16
their function. . In 1494, Sprenger and Inftitor, two per!
fons employed in this commiffion, publifhed a colledlion of
trials, moft of which had come before themfelves, under the
title of Malleus Makficarum : this ferved as a kind of in-
ftitutefor their fucceffors.
Wr^eis a^a*n^ witchcraft were ftigmatized as
Atheifts, though they only endeavoured to prove the im¬
becility of the perfons accufed, and the infatuation or the
knavery of their accufers. Such were the eoithets bellowed
by Dr Henry ft^re, and even by Cudworth himfelf. Wie-
rus, the difciple of the celebrated Agrippa, gave rife to the
firft great controverfy on this fubjetft. His matter had
taught him humanity ; and he endeavoured, but with too
feeble a hand, to flop the bloody proceedings of the judges
Wierus appears to have been a well-difpoied, weak man’
with extenfive reading on his fubjed, but too narrow-mind!
ed to comprehend it thoroughly. He involved himfelf in
unfpeakabie difficulties, by admitting the adion of fuper-
natural powers in certain difeafes, and in poffeffions, while
he denied that witches had any concurrence in them Thefe
appearances (faid he) are illufions of the devil, who per-
fuades Ample and melancholy perfons that the mifehief he
himfelf performs, is done by them, and at their pleafure.
He was weak enough to attempt the explanation of every
ttory alleged by his antagoniils, without queftionin r the
truth of the fads. ^
Bodmus, a French lawyer of eminence, who had affifted
at feveral trials of witches, wrote againtt Wierus, in his De¬
monomania. He urged the concurrent tettimom'es of fuffi.
cient witneffes, and the confeftions of the witches themfelves,
to eftablifh the exiilence of forcery. Wierus owned that
the unhappy perfons believed themfelves to be guilty of the
crimes alleged againft them, but that they were'deceived by
the devil. But what do you make of the witches-meet¬
ings, cried Bod in us ? The witches (replied his antagonift)
are atrabilious. This explanation was fo tinfatisfadory
that Wierus puffed for a magician, whom the devil had
furnilhed with fpecious arguments to fave others from punifh-
ment. Lerchemer, Godelmann, Ewichius, Ewaldus, and
fome others, followed him, nqtwithftanding this iligma ; but
they were, oppofed by men of more acutenefs and confift-
eacy than themfelves ; by Remigius, who had condemned
feveral hundreds of forcerers to the flames;. Delrio, whofc
book is a complete Corpus Magiae; Cujas, Eraftus, Scribo-
nms, Camerarius, and a croud of others.
In this country, while the belief in witchcraft was fup-
ported by reyal authority (for James I. is univerfally known
to have written on demonology) countenanced by Bacon,
and generally adopted among the people, only one writer
was hardy enough to oppofe it. This was Reginald Scott,
who publifhed aicolledlion of impoftures detedled, under the
title of Dilcoveries of Witchcraft. James ordered the book
to
Witness.
WIT [877
Witchcraft to be biv-nt by the common executioner, and the judges
continued to burn witches as ufual. During the civil wars,
upwards of eighty were hanged in Suffolk, on the accufa-
tions of j Hopkins the witch-finder. Webfter was the nex*t
writer againfl witchcraft ; but he had a different fate from
that of Scott, for mod of his arguments were refuted by
Glanville. This very acute writer was induced to publilh
his Phiiofophica! Confiderations about Witchcraft, by the
apprehenfion, that the increafing difbelief of witches and
aoparitions tended to affeif the evidences of religion, and
even of a Deity. In refpeft of argument, he was certainly
fuoerior to his adverfaries ; his reafoning is perfpicuous,
though fometimes fubtle, refted on the moll fpecious foun¬
dations of evidence, and arranged with great fkill.
On the continent, this controverfy feemed almofl for¬
gotten, till Ilekker publifhed his Monde Enchantee, in
which he denied the exilfence of witches on the Cartefian
principle, that the Deity is the fource of all a&ion, confe-
quently a&ions fo oppoltte to his nature and attributes can¬
not be fuppofed to exift. fie was anfwered by Frederick
Hoffman, the father of the modern theory and pra&ice of
medicine, in his differtation De Eiai/oh Potentia in Corpora.
The latefl witchcraft frenzy was in New England, about
3692, when the execution of witches became a calamity
more dreadful than the fword or the peflilence. 1 he ac-
cufers became fo daring, that neither civil nor religious
authority would have proved a fecurity again'l their attacks,
if all the profecutions had not been fuddenly dropped, and
the nri.oners fet at liberty. So far did thofe wretches pro¬
ceed* in abfurdity, that a dog was accufed of throwing per-
fons into fits by looking at them. As foon as the profe¬
cutions were flopped, all reports of witchcraft ceafed.
It would be ridiculous to attempt a ferious refutation of
the exiflcnce of witches ; and at prefent, luckily, the talk is
unneceffary. In this country, at lead, the difeouragement
long given to all fufpicion of witchcraft, and the repeal of
the ftatuces againft that crime, have very much weakened,
though perhaps they have not entirely eradicated, the per-
fuafion. On the continent, too, it is evidently on the decline;
and notwithftanding the exertions of Dr De Haen, and
of the celebrated Lavater, we have little doubt but that
in a fhort time poflerity will wonder at the credulity of
their anceftors. That there ever were witches, is an opinion
that cannot for a moment be believed by a thinking man.
The a&ions imputed to them were either abfurd or im-
pofiible ; the witnefles by whole evidence they were con¬
demned, either weak enthufiafts or downright villains ; and
the confeffions afenbed to the witches themfelves, the tffedts
of a ditordered imagination produced by cruel treatment
and exceffive watchings. As to the nightly meetings, demo-
nologifls themfelves have been obliged to confefs, that they
were nothing elfe but uneafy dreams, often produced by
foporific compofitions. The fa£ls which have been brought
forward by the advocates for witchcraft bear in their
front the moll evident marks of trick and impollure ; and
this has conftantly been found out whenever thefe facts have
been properly examined, bee Sorcery.
WIT ENA mot, or Witena Gemot, among the Anglo-
Saxons,, was a term which literally figniiied the afiferably of
the wife men ; and was applied to the great council of the
nation of latter days called.the parliament.
WITHERS of a Horse, the jun&ure of the fhoulder-
bones at the bottom of the neck and mane, towards the
upper part of the fhoulder.
WITNESS, in law, a perfon who gives evidence in any
caufe, and is fvvorn to fpeak the truth, the whole truth, and
nothing but the truth.
Pried by IViTNESins, a fpecies of trial without the inter-
5
1 W O A
vention of a jury. This is the only method of trial known
to the civil law, in which the judge is left to form in his
own bread his fentence upon the credit of the witneffes ex- (.
amined: but it is very rarely ufed in the Englifh law, which
prefers the trial by jury before it in almoft every inftance.
Save only that when a widow brings a writ of dower, and
the tenant pleads that the hufband is not dead ; this being
looked upon as a dilatory plea, is in favour of the widow,
and for greater expedition allowed to be tried by witntffcs
examined before the judges: and fo, faith Finch, fhall no
other cafe in our law. But Sir Edward Coke mentions fome
others ; as, to try whether the tenant in a real action was
duly fummoned, or the validity of a challenge to a juror:
fo that Finch’s obfervation mult be confined to the trial of
dire£b and not collateral iffues. And in every cafe Sir
Edward Coke lays it down, that the affirmative mull be
proved by two witneffes at the lead.
WITS1US (Herman), a learned and eminent divine of
North Holland, born at Enckhuifen in 1626. He was pro-
Witfias
, II
Woa.'!.
feffor of divinity fucceffively at Franeker, Utrecht, and
Leyden ; and applied himfelf fuccefsfully to oriental learn*
imr, of which his capital work JElgyptiaca affords fufficientf
proof. His CEconomy of the Covenants between God and
Men, is warmly recommended by Mr Hervey in his I heron
and Afpafio. He died in 1708.
WIT i’ENBERG, a city of Germany, capital of the
circle of Upper Saxony, 50 miles north of Drefden. It is
under immediate vaffalage, and the ieat of an aulic judical
tory, a general fuperintendency, an infpeftion and coniift-
ory. The town is not large ; but. is well fortified, and
contains a famous univerfity, in which Melanclhon was a
profeffor. In this place Martin Luther firft began to
preach againil the pope’s indulgences ; and in the cathedral
of All Saints he is laid to have been buried. In the old
citadel of this town the ancient Saxon eleftors ufed to re^
fide. Belides the univerfity, there is a? Latin fchool in the
town, with fix matters. The library belonging to the uni-
verfity is faid to be very valuable. In 1756 the Pruffians
being matters of the town, deftroyed a part of its fortifica*
tions. E. Long. 12. 47. N. Lat. 51. 49.
WO AD, in botany. See Isatjs.
The preparation of woad for dying, as prafinfed in France*,
is minutely defer!bed by Ailrue, in his Memoirs for a
Natural Hiftory of Languedoc. The plant puts forth at
firil five or fix upright leaves, about a foot long and fix
inches broad :• when thefe hang downwards, and turn yel*
low, they are fit for gathering: five crops are gathered in
one year. The leaves are carried direftly to a mill, much
referabling the oil or tan mills, and ground into a fmooth
pafte. If this procefs was deferred for fome time, they
would putrefy, and fend forth an infupportable flench. The
pafte is laid in heaps, preffed clote and Imooth, and thd
blackifh cruft, which forms on the outfide, reunited if it
happens t© crack : if this was negle&ed, little worms would
be prodused in the cracks, and the woad would lole a part
of its ftiength. After lying for fifteen days, the heaps are
opened, the cruft rubbed and mixed with the infide, and
the matter formed into oval balls, which are prefled clofo
and folidfin wooden moulds. Thefe are dried upon hurdles;
in the fun, they turn black on the outfide; in a clofe place,-
yellovvifh, efpecially if the weather be rainy. The dealers in
this commodity prefer the fu ft, though it is faid the work¬
men find no conliderable difference betwixt the two. The
good balls are dittinguifhed by fheir being- weighty, of am
agreeable fmtll, and when rubbed, of a violet colour within;
For the ufe of the dyer, thefe balls require, a farther pic-
paration : they are beat with wooden mallets, on a brick oft
itone floor, into a. grofs powder; which is heaped up hr
tire
11
^Voahoo.
W O A [8
the middle ot the room to the height of four feet, a fpace
ber g left for palling round the Tides. The powder, moift-
ened with water, ferments, grows hot, and throws out a
thick fetid fume. It is ihovelled backwards and forwards,
and moiftened every day for twelve days ; after which it is
liirred Ids frequently, without watering, and at length made
into a heap for the dyer.
VAiad not only affords a lafting and fubftantial blue,
which, according to the fcale of the dyers, may be reduced
into many different fhades, but is alio of great ufe in dyeing
and fixing many other colours. But notwithllanding this,
and its being a commodity of our own, the ufe of it has very
much declined fince the introduction of indigo ; for the
•purchafe ofwhichTarge fums go annually out of the nation,
t he realon of this is, that mdigo affords a more lively and
plealing colour, is managed with more eafe by the dyers,
and does their bulinefs more expeditioufly. Yet with all
thefe advantages, it is univerfally acknowledged, that the
colour which indigo affords is inferior to that of woad in
many refpeCIs, and particularly in permanency ; for which
reafon, they are frequently ufed in conjunction ; woad to
give fohdity and fubftance, and indigo to give brightnefs
and colour. But the worft confequence that has attended
the ufe of indigo is, not barely leffening the confumption,
but abating the price and depreciating the intrinfic value of
woad ; fo that leis care is taken in the management of it;
to which in a great meafure the inferiority of its colour,
at leaf! in fome places, is at prefent owing. The declenlion
in its confumption is not the cafe here only, but alfo in
other countries; for it was once the great ftaple of Lan¬
guedoc, and was cultivated alfo in Normandy, and in other
provinces of France; as it alio is in Spain, Portugal,
trie Azores, and Canary iflands, Switzerland, in the neigh-
uouiliood of Geneva, in different parts of Germany, and in
Sweden.
An idea has been entertained, that by an alteration in the
manner of curing of it, the inconveniencies that are fuppo-
ied to attend the ufe of it might be removed, and that woad
might be brought to anf'wer all the purpofes of indigo ;
which, if it could be accomplilhed, would be moft certainly
u great advantage, and an advantage which every true lover
of his country would wifh fhould take place here rather
than any where die. The author of the Natural Hiftery
of Languedoc fuggefts, that woad, if cured in the fame
manner as indrgo, might produce as lively a colour; and
adds, that from fome experiments made by himfelf, he is
convinced the method would effedually anfwer. The cele¬
brated M. Du ITamel du Mon^eau informs us, that h a vino-
pro po fed to Mr Fontendle, a phyfician in Louiliana, the
cultivating the paftel there in the manner of indigo, that
gentleman acquainted him, that by treating indigo after the
manner of paflej, be had obtained a very beautiful green :
which indeed is always the cafe when the indigo is only al¬
lowed to abforb a fmall quantity of oxygen ; for it is now
w'dl knov.m that its blue colour is owing to the abforption
of that gas. r
WOAHOO, one of the Sandwich Jffands, lying to the
north-weft of Morotoi, at the diftance of feven leamies.
1 iom the appearance of the north-caff and north-weft parte
it is the fineft ill and of the group. Nothing can exceed the
verdure of the hills, the variety of wood and lawn, and rich
cultivated valleys, which the whole face of the country dif-
pJays. A bay is formed by the north and weft extremities,
into which a fine river emoties itfdf, through a deep valley
but as the w ater is brackiih for 200 yards from the en¬
trance, watering in it is not convenient. It contains about
f)=,coo inhabitants. Lieutenant Hergeft, commander of
the Dasdalus fforefhip, who had been fent from England,
78 1 W O L
p New South Wales, and thence to the Southern
I acme Ocean, with a fupply of provifions for the Difco-
vuy hoop. Captain Vancouver, then on a voyage of difeo-
very, was acre furpnfed and murdered by the natives, to-
gether with Mr Gooch, the aftronomcr. W. Long- icy
51. N. Lat. 21. 4$. ^ O '*
WODEN. See Odin, and Mythology, n° 40.
MODEVILE ( Anthony), earl of Rivers, brother to
the queen of j^dward IV. was born in the end of 1442 or
in the begmnmg of 1443. Though one of the moft’ac-
comphfhed men of his age, very little is known of his pri¬
vate hntory. He was early and conftantly employed either
in the tumults of thofe turbulent times, or in difeharging-
% duties of fome of the higheft offices of the ftate, with
which he was mvefted. Yet he found leifure to cultivate
letters, and to be the author of works which, though of little
va.ue now, made fome noife in that age, when learning was
at a low ebb m England. Thefe coniifted chiefly of tranf-
lations from the French ; and his Lordfhip, with his print¬
er Caxton, were the firft Englifh writers who had the plea-
iure to fee them works publifhed from the prefs. This ac-
comphfhed, brave, and amiable nobleman was treacheroufly
imprifoned by Richard III. in Pomfret callle, where, du¬
ring his confinement, he compofed a fhort poem, which has
been preferved by John Rous of Warwick, and breathes,
lays Dr Henry, a noble fpirit of pious refignation to his ap¬
proaching fate.. He was beheaded on the 2 2d of June 1482,
m the 41ft year of his age. H ^
WOLAW, a town in Germany, in Silefia, and capital
of a duchy of the fame name. It is furrounded with ftrong
wails and a morals, and one part of the houfes are built with
hone. I he caftle is alfo encompaffed with deep ditches,
and the greatefl part of the inhabitants are employed in a
woollen manufaftory. In 1709 a Proteftant church was al¬
lowed to be built here. It is feated on the river Oder, 20
miles north-weft of Breflau, and 32 fouth eaft of Glogau.
L. Long. 16. 54. N. Lat. 51. 18.
V OLD, VrELD, or Dyers IVeed. See Rkseda.
WOLF, in zoology. See Canis.
JVoLh-Fi/hy or Sea-lVolf. See Anarchicas.
Wo l f or Woolf Poifon. See Poison.
WOLFE (Major-general James), was born at Wefter-
ham in the county of Kent, about the beginning’ of the year
1726. His father was Lieutenant-general Edward Wolfe.
Fie went into the army when very young ; and applying
himfelf with unwearied affiduity to the fliidy of his profeU
fion, foon became remarkable for his knowledge and his ge¬
nius. He diftinguifhed himfelf at the battle of Lafelt when
little more than 20, and received the higheft encomiums
from the commander in chief. After the peace he ftill con¬
tinued to cultivate the art of war. Fie contrived to in¬
troduce the greateft regularity and the exadteft difeipline
into his corps, and at the fame time to preferve the affedlion
of every foldier. In 1758 he was prefent as a brigadier-
general at the fiege of Louifbourg. He landed firft on the
illand at the head of his divifion; and in fpite of the violence
of the furf, and the force and well direfted fire of the ene¬
my, drove them from their poll with great precipitation.
I he furrender of the town, which happened foon after, was
in a great mealure owing to his activity, bravery, and fkili.
lire fame v/hich he acquired during this liege pointed him
out to Mr Pitt, v/ho was then mirfifter, as the properelt
perfon to command the army deftined to attack Quebec.
I his was the moft difficult and the moft arduous underta¬
king ol the whole war. Quebec was the capital of the
French dominions in North America ; it was well fortified,
lituated in the midft of an holtile country, and defended by
an army of 20,000 men, regulars and militia, beffdcs a con-
fiderable
WolKe.
lilofopby
i. il.
W O L [879
fiderable number of Indian allies. The troops deftined for
this expedition confided ot ten battalions, makin g up alto¬
gether about 7000 men. Such was the army deilined to
oopofe three times their own number, defended by fortifica¬
tions, in a country altogether unknown, and in a late fcalon
in that climate for military operations. But this little army,
fays an officer who was prelent at that expedition, and who
has been fo obliging as to communicate all the information
we defined, was always fanguine of fueccfs ; for they were
commanded by General Wolfe, who,, by a very uncommon
magnanimity and noblenefs of behaviour, had attached the
troops fo much to his perfon, and inlpired them with Inch
relolution and fteadineis in the execution of their duty, that
nothing feemed too difficult for them to acootnplifh. 1 he
admirable Ikill with which his meafures were planned, and
the prudence and vigour with which they were executed, is
well known. He landed his army on the northern ihore of
the river St Lawrence in fpite of the enemy, and forced
them to a battle, in which they were completely defeated.
The confequence of this battle was the reduftion of Que¬
bec, and the conqueft of Canada. In the beginning of the
battle General Wolfe was wounded in the vvrilt by a rr.ulket-
ball ; .he wrapt his handkerchief round it, continued to give
his orders with his ufual calmnefs and perfpicuity, and in¬
formed the foldiers that the advanced parties on the front
had his orders to retire, and that they needed not be furpri-
fed when it happened. Towards the end or the battle he
received a new wound 111 the bread > he immediately retired
behind the rear-rank fupported by a grenadier, and laid
himielr down on the ground. Soon after a (bout was
heard; and one of the officers who flood by him exclaimed,
“ See how they run i” The dying hero afked with fome
emotion, “ Who run?” “ The enemy (replied the officer);
they pive way every where.” 1 he general then laid,
“ Pray, do one of you run to Colonel Burton, and tell him
to march Webb’s regiment with all fpeed down to Charles
river, to cut off the retreat o!" the fugitives from the bridge.
Now, God be praifed, I ffiall die happy !” He then turn¬
ed on his fide, clofed his eyes, and expired.
The death of General Wolfe was a national lofs univer-
fally lamented. He inherited from nature an animating
fervour of fentiment, an intuitive perception, an extenfive
capacity, and a paffion for glory, which ftimulated him
to acquire every fpecies of military knowledge that lludy
could comprehend, that aftual fervice could illullrate and
confirm. 1 his noble warmth of dilpofition ieldom fails to
call forth and unfold all Uie liberal virtues of the foul.
Brave above all eftimation of danger; generous gentle,.com¬
placent, and humane; the pattern of the officer, the dailing of
the foldier. There was a fublimity in his genius which foared
above the pitch of ordinary minds ; and had his faculties
been exercifed to their full extent by opportunity and ac¬
tion, had his judgment been fully matured by age and ex¬
perience, he would, without doubt, have rivalled in reputa¬
tion the mofl celebrated captains of antiquity. His body
was brought to England, and buried with military honours
in Weftminfter abbey, where a magnificent monument is
erected to his memory.
Wolfe (Chriftian), a celebrated German philofopher,
was born at Breffau in 1(179. After having been well in-
ftrudled in the rudiments of learning and fcience in his own
country, Wolfe profecuted his iludies fucceffively in the uni-
verfities of Jena, Hamburgh, and Leipfic. At the age of
26 he had acquired fo much dillinftion, that he was ap¬
pointed profeffor of mathematics, and loon afterv/aids of
philofophy in general, in the univerfity of Hall. Alter
Leibnitz had publifhed his 'Theoduca, Wolfe, ftruck with
the novelty of the edifice which that philofopher had raffed,
'6
!!
Wo'.fran
] W O I.
affiduoufiy laboured in the inveiligation of new metaphy.it-
cal truths. He alfo digelted the Elements of Mathematics
in a new method, and attempted an improvement of the art ^
of reafoning in a treatife On the Powers of the Human
Underflanding. Upon the foundation of Leibnitz’s doc¬
trine of Monads, he formed a new fyffem of Cofmology and
Pneumntology, digefted and demonllrated in a mathematical
method. i his work, entitled Thoughts on God, the
World, and the Human Soul, was publifhed in the year
1719; to which were added, in a'fubfequent edition, Heads
of Ethics and Policy.
Wolfe was now riling towards the fummit of philofophi-
cal reputation, when the opinion which he entertained on
the doArine of neceffity being deemed by his colleagues
inimical to religion, and an oration which he delivered in
praife of the morality of the Chin.de having given much o'-
fence, an accufation of herefy was publicly brought again't
him ; and, though he attempted to juftity himlelt in a trea¬
tife which he wrote on the fubjeA of fatality, a royal man¬
date was iffued in November 1723, requiring him to leave
the Pruffian dominions. Having been formerly invited by
the landgrave of Heffe-Caffel to ,11 a profeffor’s chair in the
univerfity of Caffel, Wolfe now put tumielt undei the^pa¬
tronage of that prince, who had the liberality to afford him-
a fecure afylum, and appointed him profeffor of r-nathe r a¬
tios and philofophy. The queflion concerning the grounds
of the ccnfure which had been paffed upon Wolfe was now
every where free,y canvaffed ; almoft every German univer¬
fity was inflamed with difpufes on the fiffijeA of liberty and
neceffity; and the names of Wolfians and Anti Vv olfians>
were every where heard. After an interval of nine years,
the king of Pruffia reverfed his fentence of exile, and ap¬
pointed him vice-chancellor ot the univerfity of Hall; where
his return was welcomed with every expreffion of triumph.
From this time he was employed in completing his Inftitules
of Philofophy, which he lived to accompliffi in every branch
except policy. In 1747 he was created a baron by the
eleAor of Bavaria, and fucceeded Ludowig in the office ot
chancellor of the univerfity. He continued to enjoy ihe!e
honours till the year 1 7 74, when he expired. He poffefled
a clear and methodical underftandmg ; which by long exer-
cife in mathematical invefligations was particularly fitted for
the employment of digeffing the feveral branches ot know¬
ledge into regular fyItems ; and his fertile powers of inven¬
tion enabled him to enrich almoft every field of fcience in
which he laboured, with fome valuable additions. The lu¬
cid order v/hich appears in all his writings enables his reader
to follow his conceptions with eafe and certainty, through,
the longeft trains of reafoning.
WOLFEMBUTTLE, a confiderable town of Germa¬
ny, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Bruni-
wick, with a caftle where the duke of Brunfwick Woltem-
buttle relides. It is one of the ftrongeft places in Germa¬
ny, though.the fortifications want repairing in ieveral places.
There is an excellent library, kept in a building lately erec¬
ted for that purpole, confifting of 116,000 printed books,
and 2000 uncommon books, with a cabinet of curiohties,
relating to natural hiftory. It is feated on the rivet Ocker^
five miles fouth of Brunfwick, and 30 weft of Halberftadt.
E. Long. 10. 42. N. Lat. 52. 18.
WOLFRAM, or Tungsten. See Tungsten.
Wolfram, in natural hiftory and chemiftry, the name of
a peculiar mineral, lately ranged among the femi metals.
See Mineralogy, p. 134, col. 2.
This mineral, which the Germans have called wofram or CranfledCs
wolfralh, a name tranflated into Latin fpanui lupi, or father Mineraioa?.
lupus Joists, has been met with hitherto only in mines of tin 5 tr^njhted ty
for, though many authors would make it more common, it
W O L
m' , is an error owing to their confounding fome gloiTy iron-ores
with the true wolfram, as appears by the fpecimcns which
are frequently found in cabinets under this name. It has
been, on account of the bad effefts produced by this mineral
m the fmelting of tin-ores, from which it is very difficult to
feparate it by waflring, becaufe of its great fpecific weight,
that the names oifpuma lupt, lupus Jovis, and wolfram^ have
been given to it by the miners and fmelters.
d'his is really a metallic ore, and contains the very femi-
metal lately difcovered in the tungften ; both being mi¬
neralized, or rather formed by the fame tungftenic acid'
1. It is of a black or brown ffiining colour, of a radiated
or foliated texture, of a moderate hardnefs, and fometimes
f o brittle as to be eafily broken between the fingers; but it
is very weighty, its fpecific gravity being = y,i jg.
2. When fcratched it (hows a red trace, and this diftin-
guilhes it from the tungften,Mineralogy, part it. p.73. Col.
x. which is a variety of the ore of the fame femi-metal. *
3. It is found in fcattered mafles, cryftallized into hexae-
dral flat prifms, coming to a point, with four fides, and thefe
points terminated obliquely.
4. Internally it is ffiining, with the luftre almoft of a
metal.
5. When it is broken, its textftre appears leafy; and the
- leaves are flat, but fomewhat confufed.
6. On fome fides they are unequal, and very feldom
ftriated.
7. It is always opaque 5 and when feraped, it yields a
powder of a dark reddiffi grey,
. 8. The wolfram will not melt by itfelf with the blow¬
pipe, the angles being only rounded; but,
9. Internally it preferves its ftrufture and colour without
*• change.
.IO- Wilh microcofmic fait (phofphate cf ammoniac) it fufes
with effervefcence; and forms a glafs of a pale red in the ex¬
terior flame, and much darker in the interior.
11 . With borax it likewife effervefees, and forms by the
interior flame a glafs of a greenifti yellow, which by the ex¬
terior tin ns reddiffi.
12.. Being expofed in a crucible to a ftrong fire for one
bout, it fw tiled, became fpongy, and of a brownifh colour}
entered into a femi-vitrification; and was attrafted by the
magnet.
13. Equal parts of nitre and wolfram being put in a red-
hot crucible, they detonated, or rather boiled up with a
blue flame round the edges, and a nitrous vapour arofe}
the matter, when cold, on being put into water, partly
Solved, and a few drops of acid produced a white preci¬
pitation.
14. Pounded wolfram, digefted in a fand-heat with a
fufficient quantity of marine acid, to the depth of the
| hicknefs of a finger above the matter, after "one hour’s
boiling, the powder turned yellow ; which is the fame phe¬
nomenon. as happens with the tungftenic acid. See Che¬
mistry-/Wrjf.
15* It appears by the chemical analyfis of wolfram made
by MetT. John and Fault de Luyart, that its contents con-
fift of 22 pails of manganele m the itate ot black oxyd j
?3>5 of iron, 65 of a yellow wolfranic oxyd, and of quartz
and tin. n
16. A good quantity of this yellow oxyd being colledfed,
it was obferved that it was entirely infipid, and that its fpe¬
cific gravity was =6,120. It effervefees with microcofmic
fait; produces a tranfparent blue colour without any (hade
of red; and effervefees alfo with borax and with mineral al¬
kali. This fame matter does not diffolve in water; but when
triturated with it, forms a kind of emulfion ; to which the
acetous acid gives a blue colour, but does not diffolve it.
[ 880 ]
W O L
11118 ndat*?r» however, diffolves completely in cauftic vege.
table alkali, both by the dry and moift way; and the liquor H
acquires a great bitternefs. By pouring oa it fome nitrous
acid a precipitate enfues, which leaves on the fibre a white ^
lalt; and this being well edulcorated, has a tafte at firft iweet,
aftervyards (harp ^and bitter, producing a very difagreeable
fenfation on the throat. It is in faft a true acid combined
with a portion of the alkali and precipitating acid.
I 7‘ Phis acid melts, if alone, by the flame umed with
the blow-pipe.
18. This white fait is a true metallic triple fab, as ap¬
pears by putting joo grains in a crucible with powdered
charcoal; for after one hour and a half of a ftrong fire
when cooled a button was found, which fell to powder be- '
tween the fingers. Its colour was brown ; and, on exami¬
ning it with a magnifier, there was a congeries of metallic
globules, of the bignefs of pins heads; which, when broken,
exhibit the metallic appearance of a fteel colour in the frac¬
ture ; and their fpecific gravity was = 17,600.
19. Thefe metallic globules, melted with other metals,
gold and platma excepted, afford duaile alloys with filver
or copper; and hard ones with call iron, tin, antimony,
bifmuth, and manganefe.
It has been fuppofed that this is a new metal before un¬
known: That this was evinced, 1. by its fpecific gravity, equal
to 17,600 ; 2. by the tinges it gives to different glaffes ; 3.
by its great difficulty to fufe, which is greater than that of
manganefe; 4. by the yellow colour of its calx; 5. its alloys
with other metals; 6. its infolubility, at lead by a dired
method, with mineral acids; 7. its eafy folution in alkalis;
8. the emulfion it gives with water; 9. and by the blue co¬
lour it gives to acetous acid. We are not certain, however,
how far this opinion has been corroborated by later ex«
periments.
WOLFSPERG, a town of Germany, in Lower Carin-
thia, with a caftle, on which the diftrid about it depends,
which is 20 miles in length, and 10 in breadth. It is feat-
ed on the river Lavand, at the foot of a mountain covered
with wood, and full of wolves, from whence the town took
its name. It is 36 miles eaft of Clagenfurt. E. Lon«. ic
O. N. Lat. 46. t6.
. WOLGAST, a pretty confiderable town of Germany,
in the circle of Upper Saxony, and in Pomerania, capital of
a territory of the fame name, with a caftle, and one of the
belt and largeft harbours on the Baltic Sea. It is a well-
built place, fubjed to Sweden, and feated on the river Pfin.
E. Long. 14.4. N. Lat. ^4. r.
W OLLAS PON (William), defeended of an ancient
family in Stafford (hire, was born in 1659. He was in
1674 admitted a penfioner in Sidney college, Cambridge,
wheie, notwithftanding feveral difadvantages, he acquired a
great degree of reputation. In 1682, feeing no profped
o( preferment, he became affiftant to the head mafter of
Birmingham fchool. Some time after, he got a fmall lec¬
ture about two miles diftant, but did the duty the whole
Sunday ; which, together with the bufinefs of a great free-
Ichool for about four years, began to break his coaftitution.
During this fpace he likewife underwent a great deal of
trouble and uneafinefs, in order to extricate two oi his bro¬
thers from fome inconveniences, to which their own impru¬
dence had fubjedted them. In 1688 affairs took a new
turn. Fie found himfelf by a coufin’s will intitled to a very
ample eftate ; and came to London that fame year, where
he fettled; choofing a private, retired, and ftudious life.
Not long before his death, he publiffied his treatife, intitled
I he Religion of Nature Delineated ; a work for which f»
great a demand was made, that more than 10,000 were fold
in a very few years. He had fcarcely completed the publi¬
cation
Wolfey
I)
Wood.
WOO r 88
cation of it, when he unfortunately broke an arm ; and this
adding ftrength to diftempers that had been growing upon
him for fbme time, accelerated his death ; which happened
'upon the 2*5>th of Oftober 1724. He was a tender, hu-
inane, and in all refpefts worthy man ; but is reprefented
to have had fomethin?; of the irafcible in his conftitulion
and temperament. His Religion of Nature Delineated ex*
pofed him to fome cenfure, as if he had put a (light upon
Chriftianity by laying fo much ftrefs, as he does in this
work, upon the obligations of truth, reafon, and virtue ;
and by making no mention of revealed religion. But this
cenfure muft have been the offspring of ignorance or envy,
fmce it appears from the introduction to his work, that he
intended tcTtreatof revealed religion in a feccnd part, which
he lived not to fimlh.
WOLSEY ( Thomas), a famous cardinal and archbifhop
of York, is faid to have been the fon of a batcher at Ipf-
wich. He itudied at Magdalen college, Oxford, where he
became aoquainted with the learned Erafmus; and in the
year 1500 became reftor of Lymington in Somerfetfhire :
he was afterwards made chaplain to king Henry VIII. and
obtained feveral preferments. Having gradually acquired
an entire afcendency over the mind of Henry VIII. he fuc-
ceffively obtained feveral bifhoprics, and at length was made
archbifhop of York, lord high-chancellor of England, and
prime minifter ; and was for feveral years the arbiter of Eu¬
rope. Pope Leo X. created him cardinal in 1515, and
made him legate a latere ; and the emperor Charles V. and
the French king Francis I. loaded him with favours, in or¬
der to gain him over to their interdl: but after having firft
fided with the emperor, he deferted him to efpoufe the in-
tereft of France. As his revenues were immenfe. In's pride
and oftentation were carried to the greateft height. He
had 5co fervants; among whom were 9 or 10 lords, 15
knights, and 40 tfquires. His ambition to be pope, his
pride, his exa&ions, and his political delay of Henry’s di-
’vorce, occafioned his difgrace. In the earlier part of his
life he ftems to have been licentious in his manners ; for
there goes a ftory, that foon after his preferment to the li¬
ving ©f Lymington in Somerfetfhire, he was put into the
Rocks by Sir Amias Paulet, a neighbouring juflice of the
peace, for getting drunk and making a riot at a fair. I his
treatment Wolfey did not forget when he arrived at the
high Ration of lord-chancellor of England ; but fummoned
bis correftor up to London, and, after a fevere reprimand,
enjoined him fix years clofe confinement in the Temple.
Whatever may have been his faults, there can be no doubt
of their having been aggravated both by the zealous retor-
mers and by the creatures of Henry VIII. who was him-
felf neither Papift nor ProteRant; for there is every reafon
to believe that the cardinal was fincere in his religion ; and
fincerity, or at leafl confiflency, was then a crime.. Wolfey
was the patron of learned men ; a judge and munificent en-
courager of the polite arts ; and ought to be confidered as
the founder of ChriR-church college, Oxford; where, as
well as in other places, many remains of his magnificent
ideas in aichiteffure (fill exifi. Pie died in 1530.
WOLVERENE, in zoology. See Ursus.
WOLVES-teeth, of a horfe. See Farriery, $
XXXV.
WOMAN, the female of the human fpecies. See
Homo.
WOMB, or Uterus. See Anatomy, n° 108.
WOOD (Anthony), an eminent biographer and anti¬
quarian, was the fon of Thomas Wrood, bachelor of arts and
of the civil law, and was born at Oxford in 1632. He fiu-
died at Merton college, and in 1655 took the degree of
matter of arts. He wrote, 1. The Hiilory and Antiquities
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
1 ] woo
of the Univerfity of Oxford ; which wai afterwards tranda-. ’"r°oj- ,
ted into Latin by Mr Wafe and Mr Peers, under the title
of Hifioria iff Antiquitates UniverJjtatis OxorJen/u, 2 voh fo¬
lio. 2. Athena Oxonienfes ; or an exadt Account of all the
WYiters and Bifhops who have had their Education in the
Univerfity of Oxford, from the Year 1 ^oo to 1600, 2 vois
folio ; which was greatly enlarged in a fecond edition pub-
liihed in 1721 by bifiiop Tanner. Upon the firft publica¬
tion of this work the author was attacked by the univerfity,
in defence of Edward earl of Clarendon, lord high-chancellor
of England, and chancellor of the univerfity, and was like-
wife animadverted upon by bifhop Burnet; upon which he
publifhed a Vindication of the Hiftoriographer of the Uni¬
verfity of Oxford. He died at Oxford of a retention of
urine in 1695.
WrOOD,^ a fubfiance whereof the trunks and branches
of trees confift. It is compofed of a number of concentric
circles or zones, one of which is formed every year ; confe-
qnently their number correfponds to the age of the tree.
Thcfe zones vary in thicknefs according to the degree of
vegetation that took place the year of their formation.
They are alfo of different degrees of thicknefs in different
parts, that part of the tree which is moft expofed to the Inn
and bell fheltered growing fafteft; hence in this country that
part of the zone which looked towards the fouth while the
tree was growing is generally thickeft. The innermoft
circle or zone is the one which was firft formed, the outer-
moft-was formed the year berore the tree was cut down.
Thefe zones are at firft very foft and tender, and harden by
decrees as the tree becomes older; tins is the reafon that
the middle of a tree is fo often much better wood than the
outfide of it.
The proper ligneous part of the wood conlifts or longitu¬
dinal fibres, difpofed in fafciculi, and poffeffed ot confiderable
hardnefs. It is this longitudinal direction of the fibres that
renders it fo much eafier to cleave wood lengthwife than
acrofs the tree or in any other direftion. See Plant.
Chemifts have attempted to afeertain the ingredients
which enter into the compofition of wood. The talk,
however, is fo difficult, that they have by no means made
the fame progrefs that they have done in analyfing the vari¬
ous mineral produftions of nature. When wood is diftilled,
water comes over firft; foon after It begins to be impregna¬
ted with oil, then an empyreumatic oil comes over, then
carbonic acid gas, then hydrogen gas, and laftly carbonated
hydrogen gas: a coal remains behind, which is compofed of
charcoal, fixed alkali, various earths, and fometimes alfo of
leveral neutral falts and metallic fubftances. This was once
looked upon by chemifts as a perfeft analyfis, and it was fup-
pofed that all the various fubftances above-mentioned exilted
in plants in their proper form. But this is now known to be
a miftake; the aftion of the fire produces new combinations in
the ultimate ingredients of the plant, and thus produces new
fubftances; and it is only thefe that are obtained by the above
procefs. It is fufficient however to fhow, that wood is com¬
pofed in a great meafure of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen,
combined varioufly and in unknown proportions with one
another; as moft of the products of the dillillation can be
refolved into thefe jubftances.
There are many varieties of wood poffeffed of diftinguiffi-
ing properties, as cedar, box, ebony, &c. See thefe articles.
For the Method of Staining or Dyeing Wood, iee Turn¬
ing.
For more complete information concerning wood, fee
alfo Plant, Tree, Strength of Materials.
Fofil Wood. Foflil wood, or whole trees, or parts of
them, are very frequently found buried in the earth, and
that iu different itrata; fometimes in Rone, but more ufualiy
5 T in
Wood.
woo r 882
in earth ; and fometimts in fmall pieces loofe among graveL
Thefe, acccording to the time they have lain in the earth,
or the matter they have lain among, are found differently
altered from their original date j home of them having fuf-
fered very little change ; and others being fo highly im¬
pregnated with cryftalline, fparry, pyritical, or other ex¬
traneous matter, as to appear mere maffes of done, or
lumps of the common matter of the pyrites, &c. of the di-
menfions, and, more or lefs, of the internal figure of the ve¬
getable bodies into the pores of which they have made their
way.
The foffil woods which we find at this day are, accord¬
ing to thefe differences, arranged by Dr Hill into three
kinds; 1. The lefs altered: 2. The pyritical: and, 2. The
petrified.
. Of the trees, or parts of them, lefs altered from their ori¬
ginal Hate, the greateft ftoie is found in digging to fmall
depths in bogs, and among what is called peat or turf earthy
a fubftance ufed in many parts of the kingdom for fuel.
In digging among this, ui'ually very near the furface, im-
menfe quantities of vegetable matter of various kinds are
found buried ; in feme places there are whole trees fcarce
altered, except in colour; the oaks in particular being ufu-
aily turned to a jetty black ; the pines and firs, which are
alfo very frequent, are lefs altered, and are as inflammable as
ever, and often contain between the bark and wood a black
refin. Large parts of trees have alfo been not unfrequently
met with unaltered in beds of another kind, and at much
greater depths, as in the ftrata of clay and loam, among
gravel, and fometimes even in folid ftone.
Befide thefe harder parts of trees, there are frequently
found alfo in the peat earth vafl quantities of the leaves and
fruit and catkins of the hazel and fimilar trees: thefe are
ufually mixed with ftdge and roots of grafs, and are fcarce
at all altered from their ufual texture. The moft common
of thefe are hazel-nuts; but there are frequently found alfo
the twigs and leaves of the white poplar; and a little
deeper ufually tliere lies a cracked and fhattered wood, the"
crevices of which are full of a bituminous black matter: and
among this the ffones of plums and other ilone-fruits are
femetimes found, but more rarely.
In this Hate the fruits and larger parts of trees are ufu¬
ally found : what we find of them more altered, are iome-
times large and long, fometimes fmaller and fhorter branch¬
es of trees, fometimes fmall fragments of branches, and more
frequently fmall fhapelefs pieces of wood. The larger and
longer branches are ufually found bedded in the ffrata of
hone, and are more or lefs altered into the nature of the
ffratum they lie in. The fhorter and fmaller branches are
found in v?.ff variety in the ftrata of blue clay ufed for ma¬
king tiles in the neighbourhood of London. Thc-fe are
prodigioufly plentiful in all the clay-pits of this kind, and
ufually carry the whole external refemblance of what they
once were, but nothing of the inner ftru&ure ; their pores
being wholly fdled, arid undiflinguifnably clofed, by the
matter of the common pyrites, fo as to appear mere fimple
inaffes of that matter. Thefe fall to pieces on being long ex-
poied to moifture; and are fo impregnated with vitriol that
they are what is principally ufed for making the green
vitriol or copperas at Deptford and other places.
The irregular maffes or fragments of petrified wood are
principally of oak, apd are moft ufually found among gravel;
though fometimes in other ftrata. Thefe are varioiifly al¬
tered by the infinuation of cryftalline and ftony particles;
and make a very beautiful figure when cut and polifhed, as
they ufually keep the. regular grain of the wood,, and ftiow
exaftly the feveral circles which mark the different years
growth. Thefe, according to the different matter which
1
woo
WcoJ
has filled tnelr.pores, affume various colours, and the appear-
ance oghe "arums foffils that have impregnated them fame »
are perfedly white, and but moderately hard ; others of
““h-d mucl> harder; others"-"-'
of a reddifh black, others yellowifh, and others greyifh, and
Ja1.ftrIUgin°US Colo"r- They are of different weights
alfo and hardneffes, according to thi nature “id q^ntit? of
the ftony particles they contain : of thefe'feme Heces have
been found with every pore filled wieh pure pellucid cryftaf-
aud others in large maffes, part of which is wholly petrified
and feems mere ftdne, while the reft is crumbly and is unal¬
tered wood. That this alteration is made in wood, even at
this time, is alfo abundantly proved by the inftances of wood
being put into the hollows of mines, as props and fupports
to the roofs, which is found after a number of years as truly
petrified as that which is dug up from the natural ftrata of
the earth. In the pieces of petrified wood found in Ger¬
many, there are frequently veins of fpar or of pure cryfta],
iometinaes or earthy fubftances, and often of the matter of
the common pebbles: thefe fragments of wood fometimes
have the appearance of parts of the branches of trees in their
natural ftate, but more frequently they refemble pieces of
broken boards; thefe are ufually capable of a high and ele¬
gant polifh. 43
Many fubftances, it is certain, have been preferved in the
cabinets of colleftors, under the title of petrified 'wood,
wmch have very little right to that name. But where the
whole outer figure of the wood, the exa& lineaments of the
bark, or the fibrous and fiftular texture of the ftrke, and
the veftiges of the utriculi and tracheae orkur-veflels, are yet
remaining, and the feveral circles yet vifible which denoted
the feveral years growth of the tree, none can deny thde
iubftances to be real foffil wood. See Petrifaction.
Compojition for preferring Wood. See Chemistry, n9
021 and 700.
Wood (fylva), in geography, a multitude of trees ex¬
tended over a large continued track of land, and prooaga-
ted without culture. The generality of woods only eonfilt
of trees of one kind.—The ancient Saxons had iuch a vene¬
ration for woods, that they made them fanftuaries.—It is
ordained, that none fhall deftroy any wood, by turning it
into tillage or pafture, &c. where there are two acres or
more in quantity, on pain of forfeiting 40 s. an acre, by
35 Henry VIII. c. 17. All woods that are felled at 14
years growth, are to be preferved from deftru&ion for eight
years; and no cattle put into the ground till five years after
the felling thereof, &c. 13 Eliz. c. 25. The burning of
woods or underwood is declared to be felony; alfo thofe
penons that malicioufly cut or fpoil timber-trees, or any
fi uit-trees, &c. fhall be fent to the houfe of corredtion, there
to be kept thr^e months, and whipt once a month.
li ooD-Cock, in ornithology. See Scolopax.
IVooD-Goat. See Capra.
JVooD-Loufe. See Oniscus.
JVooD-Pecker. See Pi c 0 s.
WQODMOTE. See FoREsr-Courts.
WOODSTOCK, a town of Oxfordftiire, in England,
pleafantly feated on a nting ground, and on a rivulet; a well
compacted borough-town, and fends two members to par¬
liament ; but is chiefly noted for Blenheim-houfe, a fine pa¬
lace, built in memory of the vidlory obtained by the duke
of Marlborough over the French and Bavarians in Auguft
1704. ^ It was eredted at the public expence, and is one of
the nobleft feats in Europe. One of the paffages to it is
over a bridge with one arch, 190 feet in diameter, refem-
bling the Rialto at Venice. The gardens take up 100 acres
of ground ; and the offices, which are very grand, have
room enough to accommedate 300 people. The apart-
21 " meats
1
WOO [ 883 ] woo
^ward merits of tl\e palace are magnificently furniftied; and the
II ftaircafes, ftatues, paintings, and tapeilry, fttrprifmgly fine.
W»ol. rpijp town is about half a mile from the palace, having fe-
veral good inns; and a manufafture of fteel chains for
watches, and excellent gloves. It is 8 miles north of Ox¬
ford, and 60 weft-north-weft of London. W. Long. r. 15.
N. Lat. 51. q2.
WOODWARD (Dr John), was born in 1665, and
educated at a country fchool, where he learned the Latin
and Greek languages, and was afterwards fent to London,
where he is laid to have been put apprentice to a linen-
draper. He was not long in that liation, till he became
acquainted with Dr Peter Barwick, an eminent phyfician,
who took him under his tuition and into his family. Here
he profecuted with great vigour and fuccefs the ftudy of
philofophy, anatomy, and phyfic. In 1692, Dr Stilling-
fieet quitting the place of pvofeffor of phyfic in Grefham
college, our author was chofen to fucceed him, and the year
following was elcfted F. R. S. In 1695 he obtained the
' degree of M. D. by patent from archbilhop Tennifon ; and
the fame year he publilhed Ips Eflay toward a Natural Hi-
ftory of the Earth. He afterward wrote many other pieces,
which have been well received by the learned world. He
founded a le&ure in the univerfity of Cambridge, to be read
there upon his Effay, &c. and handfomeiy endowed it. He
died in 1728.
WOOF, among manufacturers, the threads which the
weavers fhoot acrofs with an inftrument called the Jhuttls.
ike Cloth.
WOOKEY or Okey Hole, a remarkable cavern two miles
from the city of Wells in Somerletfhire ; for an account of
which, fee the article Grotto.
WOOL, the covering of Iheep. See Ovis, and Sheep-.
Wool refembles hair in a great many particulars; but
befides its finenefs, which conftkutes an obvious difference,
there are other particulars which may ferye alfo to diftin-
Btt) vol. guilh them from one another. Wool, like the hair of horfes,
tviii.p. 57 cattle, and moft other animals, completes its growth in a
year, and then falls off as hair does, and is fucceeded by a
frefh crop. It differs from hair, however, in the uniformity
of its growth, and the regularity of its (bedding. Every
filament of w^ool feems to keep exad pace with another in
the fame part of the body of the animal; the whole crop
fprings up at once ; the whole advances uniformly together;
the whole loofens from the (kin nearly at the fame pe¬
riod, and thus falls off if not previoufly (horn, leaving the
animal covered with a (hort coat of young wool, which in
its turn undergoes the fame regular mutations.
Hairs are commonly of the fame thicknefs in every part;
hut wool conftantly varies in thicknels in different parts,
being generally thickeft at the points than at the roots.
That part of the fleece of flreep which grows during the
winter is finer than what grows in fummer. . This was.
firft obferved by Dr Anderfon, the editor of the Bee, and
publifhed in his Obfervations on the Means of exciting a Spirit
vf National Indnjlry,
While the (fcool remains in the (late it was firft (horn off
the (beep’s back, and not forted into its different kinds, it
is called fleece. Each fleece confifts of wool of divers qua¬
lities and degrees of finenefs, which the dealers therein take
care to feparate. The French and Englifli utually feparate
each fleece into three forts, uiz. x. Mother-wool, which is
that of the back and neck. 2. The wool of the tails and
legs. 3. That of the bread and under the belly. The
Spaniards make the like divifion into three forts, which
they call prime, fecornl, and third; and for the greater eafe,
denote each hale or pack with a capital letter, denoting the
fort. If the triage or reparation be well made, in 15 bales
there will be 12 marked R, that is, refine, or prime ; two
marked F, for fine, or fecond ; and one S, for thirds.
The wools moft efteemed are the Englifh, chiefly thofe
about Leominfter, Cotfwold, and the Ifle of Wight ; the
Spanilh, principally thofe about Segovia; and the French,
about Berry : which laft are faid to have this peculiar pro¬
perty, that they will knot or bind with any other iort ;
whereas the reft will only knot with their own kind.
Among the ancients, the wools of Attica, Megara, La-
odicea, Apulia, and efpecially thofe of i arentum, Parma,
and Altino, were the moft valued. Varro affures us, that the
people there ufed to clothe their (heep with (kins, to ftcure
the wool from being damaged.
Of 1 ite a great deal of attention has been paid to wool
in this country, as well as fcveral others. Several very
fpirited attempts have been made to improve it, by intro¬
ducing fuperior breeds of fheep, and better methods of ma¬
naging them. For this purpole has been formed the Z/ri-
tflh IVool Society.
Britijh Wool Society, an affociation formed for the pur-
pofe of pbtaining the beft breeds of fine-woolkd (heep,
with a view of alcertaining, by aftual experiments, how far
each (pecies or variety is calculated for the climate of Great
Britain ; the qualities of their wool re-pectively ; the ufea
to which each kind of wool could be moft profitably em¬
ployed in different manufa&ures ; and the comparative value
of each fpecies of (heep, fo far as the (ame can be deter¬
mined.
Attention had for fome time been paid by the Highland
Society to a famous breed of fine-wooded (heep in Shet¬
land ; but it- occurred to Sir John Sinclair ot Ulbfter, ba¬
ronet, and to Dr James Anderton, well known as the au¬
thor of many ufeful publications, that the improvement of
Britifh wool was a matter ot too much importance to be
entrufted to a fociety which is obliged to devote its atten¬
tion to fuch a variety of objedts as the general improvement
of the Highlands df Scotland. T. he latter of thefe gentle¬
men, therefore, in an Appendix to the Report o( the Com¬
mittee of the Highland Society of Scotland, for the year
1790, propofed the plan of a patriotic affociation for the im¬
provement of Britiflo wool; and the former, who was con¬
vener of the committee to whom the fubjedl of ohetland
wool had been referred, wrote circular letters, recommend¬
ing the plan. The coniequeuce of which was, that, on the
31ft of January 1791, feveral noblemen and gentlemen of
the higheft refpedtability met in Edinburgh, and confti-
tuted themlelves into a Society for the Improvement of Brit Jh
Wool. Of this fociety Sir John Sinclair was ele&ed preix-
dent; after which, in an excellent fpeech, he pointed out to
the members the objedts of the inftitution, the means by
which thofe objedfs could be attained, and the advantages
which would refult from their united labours. 1 his addrefs
was afterwards printed by order of the fociety.
The particular breeds of fheep to which the fociety pio-
pofed to diredl its attention, were (heep for the hilly parts
of Scotland ; (heep for the plains, or the Lowland breed ;
and (heep for the ((lands. They were to try experiments
alfo with (heeo from foreign countries, diftitiguiftied by any
particular property.
The principal objedfs which the members had in view,
during the firft year of their affociation, were, 1. I o col-
iedt fpecimens of the beft breeds which Great Britain at
that period afforded, in order to afeertain the degiee of
perfection to which (heep had already been brought in this
kingdom. 2. To procure from every country, diftinguilh-
ed for the quality of its (heep and wool, fpecimens of the
different breeds it poffeffed, in order to afeertain how far
the original breed, or a mixed breed from it and the native
5 T 2 fteep
Wool.
-V '
w o o
V/ookey. flieep ©f the country, could thrive in Scotland. 3.
" v~’™" perfe as much as peflible all thefe breeds, both foreign and
domeftic, over the whole kingdom, wherever proper per-
fons could be found to take charge of them, in order to try
experiments on a more extenfive tcale than the fociety itfelf
could do ; to fpread information, and to-excite a fpirit for
the improvemeEt of fheep and wool in every part of the
country.
Sir John Sinclair had previoufly collected a flock, con-
fifting of fheep of the Spanilh, Herefordfhire, Southdown,
Cheviot, Lomond hills, and Shetland breeds, and of a mix-
eo breed rrom tnefe difierent flieep. T'his flock amounted
to 110 rams, ewes, and lambs. M. D’Aubenton. in con-
fequence of a correfpondence with Sir John Sinclair, fent
over to the fociety ten rams and live ewes, of real Spanifh
breed, which had been originally intruited to his care by
the late king of branee : thefe, after encountering a num¬
ber of obftacles, and after being flopped and threatened to
be flaughtered at the cuftomhoufe of Brighthelmllone for
the ufe of the poor, arrived fafe at Leith. Lord Sheffield,
at the fame time, lent to the fociety four rams and fix ewes
of the Southdown ar.d Spanifh breeds. Mr Bifhton of
Kilfall, in Shropfhire, prefented them with three Hereford
rams, reckoned by many the beft breed in England; the
iociety at the fame time ordered 150 ewes of the fame
breed, and two ewes of the Long Mountain breed, reckon¬
ed the befl in Wales, to be lent ah. ng with them. They
purchafed 57 rams and 173 ewes of the Cheviot breed,
reckoned the beft in Scotland, for the hilly parts of the
country. Lord T)aer fent them 20 ewes of an excellent
breed, which exifted at Mochrum in Galloway. The late
«arl of Ox ovd fent them in a prefent three rams of the
Norfolk eroded by the Cape of Good Hope breed. Mr
Tfaac Grant junior of Leghorn, in conjunction with Mr
Sibbald merchant at X^eith, prefented them an Apulian ram
and ewe ; the ram arrived in fafety, but the ewe unfoitu-
iiately died on the paffage. Mr Baron Seton of Preflon,
in Linlithgowfhire, fent them a ram and two ewes of a
Bpanifh breed, which had been for lome time kept in Swe¬
den unmixed with any other. They purchafed too ewes of
a Irnall breed exifting in the parifh of Leuchars in Fife,
much refembnng the Shetland. f he Right Honourable
William Conynghame of Ireland fent them n Spanifh
rams, 7 Spanifh ewes, 1 ; three-fourth breed and 16 one-half
breed Spanifh and Irifh ewes. Lord Sheffield fent them
8 rams and 1 8 ewes j and his Majelty made them a prefent
of two rams.
r has, in the courfe of one year, the fociety acquired by
donation or piuchafe about 800 fheep of different forts and
ages, and many of them from foreign countries : about 500
of thefe were diftributed over different parts of Scotland,
the greater number of which were fold to gentlemen anxious
to promote the views of the fociety, and well qualified to
make experiments on the different breeds* which they had
obtained. The greatefl part of the remainder were taken
by different gentlemen who kept them for the fociety, and
according to their diredtions, without any expence.
It is impoffible to produce an inflance of fo much having
been accompliflied by a lociety of private individuals in fa
fhort a time. Nor was this all; the fame year Mr Andrew
Kerr, a very intelligent fheep-farmer on the borders of
England, was fent, at the expence of the fociety, to exa¬
mine the ftate of fheep-iarn ing along the eafl coaft of
Scotland and the interior parts’of the Highlands. His
tour was printed by order of the fociety, and contains the
firil intimation of the poffibility of the Cheviot breed thri¬
ving in the north of Scotland.
In the year 17^2, Meffis Redhead, Laing, and Marfhall,
[ 884 ] ' WOO
10 dif- were Tent by the fociety, to make a furvey of the ftate of Uroal{i,n
fheep-farming through fome of the principal counties of Woolwich.
England ; the refult ©f which was alfo publifhed by the fo- ^
ciety, and contains more information on the fubjedt of the
different breeds of England than any work hitherto pub-
liihed ; and in I794> John Naifmyth was fent on a tour
through the fouthern diflridts of Scotland, which completed
the circuit of almoit the whole kingdom. 1
Thus a few private individuals, unaided by the public
purfe, had boldnefs enough to undertake afeertaining the
comparative value of the different kinds of fheep in'their
own country, and to introduce iorne of the moil celebrated
breeds of other countries, and fucceeded in the fpirited at-
tempt. It is impoffible in this place to date more minute¬
ly the various other tranfadtions of the fociety j to enter
into any detail of the premiums given by this refpedtable
inftitution for the improvement of the celebrated Shetland
breed; or to explain how, as if it were by magic, in a coun¬
try where the manu'adture of wool was little known, arti¬
cles manufa&uted of that material were made, rivalling, and
in fi me cares furpaffing, the moft celebrated fabrics of other
countries. A war having unfortunately arifen, it became
impoffible to pay the fame attention, or to carry on with
the lame fuccefs, novel enterprizes; even old eftabhfhments
often fall a facrifice amidit the horrors of war. The ut-
moft that the Britifh Wool Society could expefl to do,
was to preferve the 'inftitution in fuch a ftate, that when
peace fhall oe happily reftored it mayr revive with double
enemy and fpirit.
WOOLS I ON (Thomas), an Englifh divine, was born
at Northampton in 1669, and educated at Cambridge. His
fiifr appeal ance in the learned world was in 1703, in a
Vork Entitled, T he old Apology for the Truth of the
Chriftian Religion, agamft the Jews and Gentiles, revived.
He afterward wrote many pieces : but what made the moft
noife, were his Six Difcourfes on the Miracles of Chrift ;
winch occahoned a great number of books and pamphlets
upon the fubjedl, and rafted a profecution asiainft him. At
his trial in Guildhall, before the lord ehief-juftice Raymond,
he fpoke feveral times himfelf; and urged, that “he thou Tit ^
it very hard that he fhould be tried by a fet of men who,
though otherwife very learned and worthy perfons, were no
more judges of the fubjedts on which he wrote, than himfelf
was a judge of the moft crabbed points of the raw.” He
was fentenced to a year’s imprifonment, and to pay a fine
or tool. He purchafed the liberty of the rules of the
King s-bench, where he continued after the expiration of
the year, being unable to pay the fine. The greateft ob-
ftrudtion to his deliverance from confinement was, the obli¬
gation of giving fecurity not to offend by any future wri¬
tings, he being refolved to write agajn as freely as before.
W hilft fome fuppofed that this author wrote with the fet,*
tied intention of fuWerting Chriftianity under the pretence
of defending it, others believed him difordered in his mind ;
and manyr circumftanccs concurred which gave countenance
to this opinion. Xle died, January 27. i732>-3, after an
illnels of four days ; and, a few minutes before his death,
uttered thefe words: “ This is a ftruggle which all men
mult go through, and which I bear not onlyT patiently, but
with willingnefs.” His body was interred in St George’s
church-yard, Southwark.
WOOLWICH, a town in Kent, with a market on Fri¬
days, but no fair. It is feated on the river Thames, and
of great note for its fine docks and yards, where men of
war are built; as aifo for its vaft magazines of great guns,
mortars, bombs, cannon-balls, powder, and other warlike
ftores. It has likevvife an academy, where the mathematics
are taught, and young officers inftrudted in the military art.
It
w o
Worcefte^ It Is nine miles eafl of London.
\VVrcefter-j.
R
[ 8R5 ]
W O R
E. Long. O. 10. N. Lat. a great deal of perry ; hops, and paflure. The hills are Word,
virif-li (lippn. the meadows with cattle. Hence or
fnire.
WORCESTER, in Latin Wigornia, the capital of a
county of England of the fame name, {lands on the river
Severn, but fo low that it can hardly be feen till one is
clofe upon it. It is fuppofed to be the Branonium of An¬
toninus, the Branogenium of Ptolemy, and to have been
built by the Romans to awe the Britons on the other fide
of the Severn. It was made an epifcopal fee about the year
680 by Sexulphus bifhop of the Mercians ; but the prefent
cathedral was begun by Wulfton in the year 1084. The
town hath been feveral times burnt down : firft, in 1041,
by Hardicanute, who alfo maffacred the citizens ; fecond-
ly, not long after William Rufus’s time ; and a third time,
when king Stephen befieged and took it. Here, in latter
times, was fought that battle, in which Charles II. with
his Scots army, was defeated by Cromwell. In a garden,
near the fouth gate of the city, where the aftion was hot-
teft, the bones of the {lain are often dug up. It had for¬
merly ftrong walls and a caftle ; but thefe have been demo-
IHhed long ago. It is now a large city', the ftreets bread
and well paved, and feme of them very regular and well
built, particularly Foregate-llreet ; fo that in general it is
a very agreeable place. The cathedral is a {lately edifice,
and among other monuments in it are thofe of king John,
of Arthur, elder brother to Henry VIII. and of the coun-
tefs of Salifbury,. who gave occafion to the inftitution of
the order of the Garter. There are feven or eight hofpi-
tals in and about the city; of which that built and endow¬
ed by Robert Berkley of Spetchley, Efq; is a very noble
one. There is a fchool founded by Henry VIII. three
other fchools, and fix charity-lchools. The Guildhall and
the workhoufe are {lately llrudlures. The churches, St
Nicholas and All-Saints, have been lately rebuilt, and are
very handfome edifices. The city carries on a great trade
for which it is chiefly indebted to its fituation upon the
Severn. A prodigious number of people are employed in
and about it in the manufadlure of broad-cloth and gloves.
The Welch inhabit a part of it, and fpeak their own lan¬
guage. Its market is well fupplied with provifions, corn,,
and cattle, and its quay is much frequented by fhips. By
a charter from James I. it is governed by a mayor, fix al¬
dermen, who are juftices of the peace, and chofen out of
24 capital citizens; a fheriff, the city being a county of it-
felf, a common council, confifiing of 48 other citizens, out
ef which two chamberlains are yearly chofen, a recorder,
town-clerk, two coroners, a fword-bearer, 13 conftables,
and four ferjeants at mace. Of the bifliops of this ice,,
there have been, it is faid, one pope, four laints, feven lord
high-chancellors, 11 archbilhops, two lord treafurers, one
chancellor to the queen, one lord preiident of Wales, and
one vice-prefident. The city at prefent gives title of earl
and marquis to the duke of Beaufort. W. Long. 1. 55*
N. Lat 52. 10.
Worcester, (earl of). See Ttptoft.
WORCESTERSHIRE, a county of England, bound¬
ed by Warwickfhire on the eatt, by Gloucelterfhire on the
fouth, by the counties of Hereford and Salop on the weft,
and on the north by Staffordflrire. According to Temple-
man, it is 36 miles in length, 28 in breadth, and about 130
in circumference, within which it contains feven hundreds,
and a part of two others, 11 market towns, of which three are
boroughs, one city, namely IVorcejier, 152 parilhes, about
540,000 acres, and 103,000 inhabitants.
This being an inland county, well cultivated, and free
from lakes, marfties, or ftagnant waters, the air is-very fweet
and wholefome all over it. The foil in general is very rich,
producing corn, fruit, efpecially pears, of which they make
covered with Iheep, and the meadows with cattle. __
they have wool, cloth, {luffs, butter, and cheefe in abun-
dance. They are alfo well fupplied with fuel, either wood
or coal, and fait from their brine pits and fait fprings. Of
the laft they have not only enough for themfelves, but ex¬
port large quantities by the Severn ; which noble river, to
the great convenience and emolument of the inhabitants,
runs from north to fouth through the very middle of the
country, enriching the foil, and yielding it plenty of fifti,
and an eafy expeditious conveyance ot goods to and from
it. The other rivers by which it is watered are the Stour,
Avon, Teme, Sec. It fends nine members to parliament,
viz. two for the county, two for the city of Worcefter,
two for Droitwich, two for Evefham, and one for Bewd-
ley ; and lies in the diocefe of Worceiler, and Oxford cir¬
cuit.
WORD, in language, an articulate found defigned to
reprefent fome idea or notion. See Grammar and Lan¬
guage. See alfo Ibocic, Part I. chap. 1.
WTrd, or Watch-Word, in military affairs, is fome pecu¬
liar word or ientence, by which the foklieis know and di-
ftinguifti one another in the night, &c. and by which fpies
and defigning perfons are difeovered. It is ufed alfo to pre¬
vent lurprifes. The word is given out in an army every
night to the lieutenant, or major-general of the day, who
gives it to the majors of the brigades, and they to the ad¬
jutants ; who give it firft to the field-officers, and afterwards
to a ferjeant of each company, who carry it to the lubal-
terns. In garrifons it is given after the gate is ftiut to the
town major, who gives it to the adjutants, and they to the
ferjeants.
Words of Command. See Exercise and Manual.
Signals by the Ilmm, made ufe of in exercfmg of the Army,,
infead of the Word of Command, viz.
Signals by the drum. Operations,
dJhort roll. To caution..
A flam. To perform any diftindl thing.
To form the line or battalion.
To advance, except when intended-
for a falute.
To advance quick.
To march and charge.
To retreat.
To halt.
To perform the flank firing.
To open the battalion.
To form the column.
To double divilions.
To form the fquare.
To reduce the fquare to the column.
To make ready and fire.
To ceafe firing..
To bring or lodge the colours.
WORK, in the manege. To work a horfe, is to exer-
cife him at pace, trot, or gallop, and ride him at the ma¬
nege. To work a horfe upon volts, or head and haunches
in or between two heels, is to paffage him, or make him go-
fidewife upon parallel lines.
To Work, in lea language, is to direct the movements of a
{hip, by adapting the fails to the force and direction of the
wind. See Seamanship.
Work, Carpenten, Clock,. Crown, Field, Fire, Fret, Gro¬
te fque, Horn, Mofaic. See the feveral articles, together with
Fortification and Pyrotechney.
Wo.RK-Houfe, a place v/here indigent, vagrant, and
idle people, are fet to work, and fupplied with food and
d0th“S- Work-
jo arms,
The march.
The quick march.
The point of war.
The retreat,
Drum ceafing,
Two Jhort rolls.
The dragoon march.
The grenadier march,
The troop,
The long roll.
The grenadier march,
The preparative,
The general
Two long tolls,
W'-rlr.
houlti.
W O R [ 8P6
Work-houfes are of two kinds, or at lead are employed
_ for two different purpofes. Some are ufed as prifons for
vagrants or fturdy beggars, who are there confined and
compelled to labour for the benefit of the fociety which
maintains them ; whilft others, fometimes called poor-houfa,
are charitable afylums for fuch indigent perfons as through
age or infirmity are unable to fupport themfelvcs by their
own labour. I he former kind of work houfe, when under
proper management, may be made to ferve the bell of pur-
poles ; of the latter we are acquainted with none which en¬
tirely commands our approbation.
to make confinement in a work-houfe operate to the cor¬
rection of vagrants and diforderly perfons (and if it produce
] W 0 R
mrer|10n€d by Lord K*mts Ia kis Sketches of the Tdifiory
0l i^an : *ij- num“er of thofe wretches were in Edinburgh
confined in a houfe of correction, on a daily allowance'of
threepence, o. winch part was embezzled by the fervants of
the houfe._ Pinching hunger did not reform their manners;
for being anfolutely idle, they encouraged each other in vice,
waiting impatiently for the hour of deliverance. Mr Stir¬
ling the fuperintendant, with theconfent of the ma niWes
removed them to a clean houfe; and inftead of money, ap¬
pointed for each a pound of oat-meal daily, with fait,
water, and fire for cooking. Relieved now from diftrefa,
they longed for comfort. \\ hat would they not give for
milk or ale ? Work (fays he) will procure you plenty. To
Work-
hcnife.
. . ~ . . ,, , r , ,1 r; ctv-• v» ^rays ne i win procure you plenty. To
not his.effea^t can hardly be confidered as a benehc.al feme who offered to fpin, he gave flax and wheels, engaging
inflitutioi,), the pnfoners fhould be fhut upm ieparate cells, to pay them half the price of their yarn, retaining the other
half for tne materials furnifhed. The Ipinners earned about
and compelled to labour for their own fubfiftence. A crew
of thieves and vagabonds affociating with each other is a
hell upon earth, in which every individual is hardened in his
crimes by the countenance and converfation of his compa¬
nions ; and wretches who, when at liberty, choofe to beg or
fleal rather than to earn a comfortable livelihood by honeft
induftry, will fubmit to any punifhment which a humane
overfeer can inflidfc- rather than work for the benefit of
others. No pur.ifhment indeed will compel a vagrant to
labour. Pie may aflume the appearance of it, but he will
make no progrefs ; and the pretext of ficknefs or weaknefs
is ever at hand for an excufe. Hence it is that thieves and
llrumpets are too often difmifled from work-houfes and
bridewells ten times more the children of the devil than
when they entered them.
To remedy thefe evils, we can think of no better method
than to confine each prifoner in a cell by himfelf, and to
furnifh him daily with fuch an allowance of bread and wa¬
ter as may preferve him from immediate death; for the only
compulfion to make fuch men work ferioufly is the fear of
want, and the only way to reform them is to leave them to
their own meditations on the confequences of their pail
conduct. There are furely very few perfons, if any, whole
averfion from labour would not be conquered by the pinch-
ings of hunger and the certain profpedt of perifliing by
famine ; and it is to be hoped that there are not many fo
totally divefted of every latent principle of virtue as not to
be brought by fuch folitude to a due fenfe of their former
wickeduefs. Should one or two, however, be occafionally
found lo very obdurate as to fuffer themfelves to perifh rather
than work, their deaths would prove a falutary beacon to
others, and their blood would be on their own heads ; for
we have the exprefs command of St Paul himfelf, that “ if
any will not work, neither fhould he eat.”
No doubt it would be proper that the meditations of
vagabonds confined in a work-houfe fhould be dire&ed by
the private admonitions of a pious and intelligent clergy¬
man ; but it is not every clergyman who is qualified to dif-
charge fuch a duty. If he be adfuated by a zeal not ac¬
cording to knowledge, or if he have not with equal care
ftudied human nature and the word of God, his admonitions
will be more likely to pro'voke the profane ridicule of his
auditor, and harden him in his wickednefs, than to excite in
his breaft fuch forrow for his fins as fhall “ bring forth
fruits meet for repentance.” To render the infiru&ion
of thieves and vagrants of any ufe, it muff be accurately
adapted to the cate of each individual; and however excel¬
lent it may be in itfelf, it will not be liftened to unlefs of¬
fered at feafons of uncommon ferioufnefs, which the inftruc-
tor fhould therefore carefully obferve.
That Inch wholefome feverity as this would often reform
the inhabitants of work-houfes, appears extremely probable
from the efFe&s of a fimilar treatment of common proltitutes
mnepenee
had before.
ipinners
weekly ; a comfortable addition to what they
i he reii undertook to fpin, one after another;
aud before the end of the firft quarter they were all of
them intent upon work. It was a branch of his plan to
fet free fuch-as merited that favour ; and forae of them ap¬
pealed to be fo thoroughly reformed as to be in no darmer
of a relapfe ” °
. ^ ork-houfes eredfed as charitable afylums appear to us,
in every view that we can take of them, as inflitutions which
can ferye no good purpofe. Economy is the great motive
winch inclines people to this mode of providing for the poor,
fhere is comparatively but a very fmall number of mankind
in any country fo aged and infirm as not to be able to con¬
tribute, in fome degree, to their fubfiftence by their own
laDour ; and in fuch houfes it is thought that proper work
may _ be provided for them, fo that the public fhall have
nothing to give in charity but what the poor are abfolute-
ly unable to procure for themfelves. It is imagined like-
wife, that numbers colledted at a common table, can be
maintained at leis expence than in feparate houfes ; and foot
foldiers are given for an example, who could not live on
their pay if they did net meis together. But the cafes are
not parallel. “ Soldiers having the mangement of their
pay, can club for a bit of meat; but as the inhabitants of
a poor-houfe are maintained by the public, the fame quan¬
tity of provifions muft be allotted to each. The confe-
quence is what might. be expeded : the bulk of them re-
ferve part of their victuals for purchaling ale or fpirits. It
is vain to expedt work from them : poor wretches void of
fhame will never work ferioufly, where the profit accrues to
the public, not to themfelves. Hunger is the only effec¬
tual means for compelling fuch perfons to work.*”
The poor, therefore, fhould be fupported in their own shubl
houfes ; and to fupport them properly, the firft thing to be
done is, to eftimate what each can earn by his own labour;
for as far only as that falls fliort of maintenance is there
room for charity. In repairing thofe evils which fociety
did not| or could not prevent, it 'ought to be carelul not
to counteradl the wile purpofes of nature, nor to do
more than to give the poor a fair chance to work for
themfelves. The prefent diftrefs muft be relieved, the lick
and the aged provided for ; but the children muft be in-
ftrudfed ; and labour, not alms, offered to thofe who have
fome ability to work, however fmall that ability may be.
1 hey will be as induftrious as poffible, becaufe they work
for themfelves; and a weekly fum of charity under their own
management will turn to better account than in a poor-
houfe under the diredtion of mercenaries. Not a penny of
it will be laid out on fermented liquors, unlefs perhaps as a
medicine in ficknels. Nor does fuch low fair call for
pity to thofe who can afford no better. Ale makes no
part of the maintenance of thofe wfeo, in many parts of
Scotland,
Karnes'
I
won [ 887 ] wo Pc
Wor’t- Scotland, live by the fwcat of their brows; and yet the
houfe. perfon who fhould baniih all from a charity work*houfe,
would be exclaimed againft as hard-hearted, and even void of
humanity.
That inch a mode of fupporting the poor in their own
houfes is practicable, will hardly admit of a difpute ; for it
has been aftually put in praftice in the city of Hamburgh
ever fince the year 1788. At that period fuch revenues as
had till then been expended in alms by the feveral church¬
wardens, and thofe of -which the adminiflration had been
connected with the workdioufe, were united under one ad-
miniltration with fuch lums as were collected from private
benevolence. The city was divided into fixty diftriCts, con¬
taining each an equal number of poor ; and over thefe 180
overfeers were appointed. ACtual relief was the firft ob-
jeCt; but at the very moment that this provifion was fe-
cu-ed, meafures were taken to prevent any man from re¬
ceiving a {hilling which he could have been able to earn for
himfelf. Ey methods, which our limits will not permit us
to (late, the overfeers were able to make a calculation tole¬
rably exaCt of what each pauper wanted for bare fubfiftence,
in adidtion to the fruits of his own labour. A flax-yarn-
fpiniring manufacture was eftablifhed, in which the yarn is
paid for, not by its weight, but by its meafure. The clean
flax is fold to the poor at a low price, and a certain meafure
of yarn again bought from them at 30 per cent, above the
ufual price ; fo that the overfeers are fare that all the yarn
fpun by the poor will be brought into their office. Every
pauper brings with him a book in which the quantity de¬
livered is carefully noted down, which furnifhes the overfeers
with a continual average of theilate of induftry among their
poor.
As foon as this inftitution was eftablifhed, the overfeers
went through their diftriCfs, and aflted, in all fuch manlrons
as could be fuppofed to harbour want, if" the inhabitants
itood in need of fupport ? I he queftion to all fuch poor as
v'ifhed for relief, and were able to fpin, was, Whether they
did earn by their work 1 s. 6d. a-week ? for experience had
taught the inhabitants of Hamburgh, that many poor live
upon that fum ; and they knew enough of their poor to
luppofe, that 1 s. 6 d. avowed earning w-as equal to fome-
thing more. If the anfwer was affirmative, the pauper {food
not in need of weekly affiftance. If it was negative, work
was given him, which, by being paid 30 per cent, above its
value, afforded him 1 s. 6d. a-week eafily, if he was even an
indifferent hand. The far more frequent cafes were partial
, inability by age, or weaknefs, or want of fkill. For poor
of the latter defcription a fchool was opened, and in three
months time the bufmefs was eafily learnt. During that
time, the pauper got firft 2 s. a-week, and every week after¬
wards 2 d. lets, till in the twelfth week he jot nothing at
all but his earnings, and was difmiffed, with a wheel and a
pound of flax gratis.
The quantity of work which difabled poor were capable:
of doing in a week w'as eafily and accurately afcertained
by a week’s trial in the fpinning-fchool. The refult was
produced weekly before appointed members of the com¬
mittee, and the fum which the poor could earn was noted
<iown in their imall books. The overfeer w-as direCted to
pay them weekly what their earnings fell fhort of 1 s. 6 d.
in every fuch week, when it appeared from their books
that they had earned to the known extent of their abilities.
From that moment applications became lefs frequent ; and
the committee had an infallible ftandard for diftinguifhfng
real want: for whenever the pauper, if in health (if not, he
vras peculiarly provided for), had not earned what he could,
then he had cither been lazy, or had found more lucrative
work ; in either cafe, he was not entitled to a relief for that Water-
week, whatever he might be for the following.
This mode of providing for the poor, which attra&ed the v
notice and obtained the eulogium of the minifter in the
Britifii houfe of commons, has for fix years been in Ham¬
burgh attended with the happieft confequences. In the
ftreets of that city a beggar is rarely to be feen, whilft thofe,
who ftand in need of the charitable contributions of the
rich, are much more comfortably, as well as at much lefs ex¬
pence, maintained at home, with their children about them,
than they could be in work-houfes, under the management
of mercenary overfeers. For a fuller account of this judi¬
cious inftitution, we muft refer the reader to Vought’s Ac¬
count of the Management of the Poor in Hamburgh, fince the
pear 1788, in a letter to fame friends of the poor in Gr. Britain.
Water-WORKS. Under this name may be comprehend¬
ed airnoft every hydraulic ftrudture or contrivance ; fuch as,
canals, conduits, locks, mills, water-engines, See. But they
may be conveniently arranged under two general heads,
\Jl, Works which have for their objedt the conducing, rai-
fing, or otherwife managing, of water; and, idly. Works
which derive their efficacy from the impulfe or other adlion
of water. The ffl clafs comprehends the methods of {im¬
ply condu&ing water in aquedudfs or in pipes for the fup-
ply of domeftic confumption or the working of machinery ;
It comprehends alio the methods of procuring the fupplies
neceffary for thefe purpofes, by means of pumps, water, or
fire engines. It alfo comprehends the fubfequent manage¬
ment of the water thus condudled, whether in order to make
the proper diftribution of it according to the demand, or to
employ it for the purpofe of navigation, by lockage, or
other contrivances—And in the profecution of thefe things
many fubordinate problems will occur, in which pradtice
will derive great advantages from a fcientific acquaintance
with the fubjedf. The fecond clafs of water-works is of
much greater variety, comprehending almoft every kind of
hydraulic machine ; and would of itfelf fill volumes. Many
of thefe have already occurred in various articles of this
Didfionary. In deferibing or treating them, we have tacitly
referred the difeuffion of their general principles, in
which they all refemble each other, to fome article where
they could be taken in a connedted body, fufceptible of ge¬
neral fcientific ditcuffion, independent of the circumftances
which of neceffity introduced the particular modifications
required by the ufes to which the ftructures were to be ap¬
plied. That part of the prefent article, therefore, which
embraces thefe common principles, will chiefly relate to the
theory of water-mills, or rather of water-wheels; becaufe,
when the neceffary motion is given to the axis of the water¬
wheel, this may be fet to the performance of any talk what¬
ever.
CLASS I.
1. Of the conducting of Water,
This is undoubtedly a bufinefs'of great importance, and
makes a principal part of the pradiice of the civil engineer :
It is alfo a bufinefs foi mperfedlly underftood, that we be¬
lieve that very few engineers can venture to fay, with
tolerable precifion, what will be the quantity of water
which his work will convey, or what plan and dimenfions of
conduit w ill convey the quantity which may be propofed.
For proof of this we (hall only refer our readers to the fadta
mentioned in the article Rivers, n° 27, Sec.
In that article we have given a fort of hiftory of the pro-
grefs of our knowledge in hydraulics, a branch of mechani¬
cal philofophy which feems to have been entirely unknown
to
Wafer-
works.
W o It [ 838
to the ancients. Even Archimedes, the author of almoft all
that we know in hydroftatics.feems to have been entirely igno¬
rant of any principles by which he could determine the mo¬
tion of water. The mechanical fcience of the ancients teems
to have reached no farther than the doftrme of equilibrium
among bodies at reft. Guglielmini firft ventured to confider
the motion of water in open canals and in rivers. Its motion
in pipes had been partially confidered in detached feraps by
others, but not to as to make a body of doctrine. Sir ITaac
Newton firft endeavoured to render hydraulics fufceptible
of mathematical demonftration : But his fundamental pro-
pofition has not yet been freed from very ferious objec¬
tions ; nor have the attempts of his fucceflbrs, Inch as the
Bernoulli's, Euler, D’Almbert, and others, been much more
fuccefsful: fo that hydraulics may ftill be confidered as very
imperfedt, and the general conclutions which we are ac-
cuftomed to receive as fundamental propofitions are not
much better than matters of obfervation, little fupported by
principle, and therefore requiring the moft fcrupulous cau¬
tion in the application of them to any hitherto untried cafe.
When experiments are multiplied fo as to include as great
a variety of cafes as poffible ; and when thefe are cleared of
extraneous circumftances, and properly arranged, we muft
receive the conclufions drawn from them as the general laws
of hydraulics. The experiments of the Abbe Boffut, nar¬
rated in his Hydrodynamlque, are of the greateft value, ha¬
ving been made in the cafes of moft general frequency, and
being made with great care. The greateft fervice, however,
has been done by the chevalier Buat, who faw the folly of
attempting to deduce an accurate theory from any princi¬
ples that wc have as yet learned, and the neceffity of ad¬
hering to fuch a theory as could be deduced from experi¬
ment alone, independent of any more general principles.
Such a theory muft be a juft one, if the experiments are
really general, unaffected by the particular circumftances of
the cate, and if the claffes of experiment are fufEciently com-
prehenfive to include all the cafes which occur in the moft
important practical queftions. Some principle was necef-
fary, however, for connecting thefe experiments. The fuf-
hciency of this principle was not eafily afeertained. M. Buat’s
way of eftablithing this was judicious. If the principle is
, ill-founded, the refults of its combination in cafes of actual
experiments muft be irregular ; but if experiments, feeming-
ly very unlike, and in a vaft variety of diffimilar cafes, give
a train of refults which is extremely regular and confiftent,
we may prefume that the principle, which in this manner
harmonizes and reconciles things fo unlike, is founded in
the nature of things ; and if this principle be fuch as is
agreeable to our cleareft notions of the internal mechanifra
of the motions of fluids, our prefumption approaches to
conviftion.
Proceeding in this way, the chevalier Buat has collected
a prodigious number of fadts, comprehending almoft every
cafe of the motion of fluids. He iirft claffed them accord-
1 w o R
ing to their refemblance in fome one particular, and obfer-
ved the. differences which accompanied their differences in
other circumftances; and by confidering what could pro-*
duce thelc differences, he obtained general rules, deduced
from raft, by which thefe differences could be made to fall
into a regular ieries. He then arranged all the experiments
under fome other circumftance of refemblance, and purfued
the fame method ; and by following this out, he has produ¬
ced a general propofttion, which applies to the whole of this
numerous lift of experiments with a precifton far exceeding
our utmoft hopes. This propofition is contained in n9 59.
of the article Rivers, and is there offered as one of the
moft valuable refults of modern fcience.
We muft, however, obferve, that of this lift of experiments
there is a very large clafs, which is not direft, hut requires
a good deal of reflection to enable us to draw a confident
conclulion ; and this is in cales which are very frequent
and important, v'i%. where the declivity is exceedingly
Imall, as in open canals and rivers. The experiments were
of the following forms : Two large cifterns were made to
communicate with each other by means of a pipe. The
furfaces of the water in thefe cifterns were made to differ
only by a fmall fra&ion of an inch: and it is fuppofed
that the motion in the communicating pipe will be the
fame as in a very long pipe, or an open* canal, having
this very minute declivity. We have no difficulty in admit¬
ting the conclufion; but we have feen it contefted, and
it is by no means intuitive. Wc had hopes that ere
now this important cafe would have been determined by
direft experiments, which the writer of this article was com-
miffioned to make by the Board for Encouraging Improve¬
ments and Manufadtures in Scotland: But this has been
prevented hitherto by his want of health ; and we cannot
expedt that it will be accompliffied before the clofe of this
Work. This, however, need not occafion any hefitation in
the adoption of M. Boat’s general propofition, becaufe the
experiments which we are now criticifing fall in precifely
with the general train of the reft, and fhow no general devi-
ation which would indicate a fallacy in principle.
We apprehend it to be quite unneceflary to add much to
what has been already delivered on the motion ef waters in
an open canal. Their general progrejjive motion, and confe-
quently the quantity delivered by an aquedudt of any flope
and dimenfion, are fufficiently determined ; and all that is
wanted is the tables which we promifed in n° 65. of the ar¬
ticle Rivers, by which any perfon who underftands com¬
mon arithmetic may, in five minutes time or lefs, compute
the quantity of water which will be delivered by the aque-
dudf, canal, conduit, or pipe ; for the theorem in n° 59. of
this article applies to them all without diftindh'on. We
therefore take this opportunity of inferring thefe tables,
which have been computed on purpofe for this Work with
great labour.
Watsr,
works.
Tabls
won
t es9 3
W O R
Table I. Logarithms of the Values of the Numerator of the FraBton —for every ? alue of the Hydraulic
*fs—Lv/f+i»6
mean Depth d.• Afo the Values of 0,3 (f d—o, 1).
d.
Log. of
o-3
X
307(V<'-°,i)(v^O)l)
0,1
2
0,4
b-5
jo,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
'V
1,2
I>3
1,4
1,6
!>7
1.8
l>9
2,0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2,fc
2.9
3»c
3.1
3.2
3.3
13,4
3,5
3>6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4,0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
1.82208
2.02786
2-13753
2-21343
2.27040
2.31618
2-35441
2.38719
2.4T 588
2.44138
2.46431
2.48518
2.50426
2.52185
2.53818
2-55345
2.56769
2.58112
2.59381
2.60580
2.61713
2.62803
2.63839
2.64827
2.65772
2,66681
2.67556
2.68395
2.69207
2.69989
2.70743
2.71472
2.72181
2.72866
2-73531
2.74178
2.74805
2-754I7
2.76009
2.76589
2-77 *53
2.77704
2.78240
2.78765
2.79277
2.79779
2.80269
2.80747
0,06
0,1
c,*3
G?1 6
0,18
0,2
0,22
0,24
0,25
0,27
0,2 8
°>3
0,31
0,32
o,34
o,35
0,36
o,37
0,38
o-39
0,4
0,41
0,42
0.44
o,45
o,45
0,46
o,47
0,48
o,49
°,5
0,51
0,52
°,53
°>53
o,54
o,55
0,56
0,56
0,57
0,58
o,59
o,59
0,6
0,6
0,61
0,62
0,63
4,9
5,o
5,J
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6,0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7,o
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8,0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
R *1
8,8
8.9
9,0
9.1
9.2
9*3
9,4
9*5
|9,6|
Log. of
$°7(\d d—0,1)
81216
81674
82125
82567
83000
83222
83840
84248
84648
85043
8543 1
85812
86185
86554
86916
87271
87622
87966
88306
88641
88971
89296
89614
89930
90241
90549
90851
91150
91445
91734
92022
92305
92584
92860
93133
93403
93670
93933
94192
94449
94703
94954
95202
95447
95690
9593°
,96167
,96402
■ o,3'
X j
4/ it—0,1)
0,63
0,63
0,65
0,65
0,66
0,67
0,67
0,68
0,68
0,69
0,69
o,7
0,7
0,71
0,72
o,73
o,73
0,74
0,75
o,75
0,76
0,76
o,77
o,77
0,78
0,78
o,79
o,79
0,8
0,8
0,81
0,82
0,82
0,83
0,83
0,84
0,84
0,85
0,85
0,86
0,86
0,87
0,87
0,88
0,88
0,89
0,89
0,9
Log. of
3°7( V^4-—O-1)
9.7
9.8
9.9
10,
11
12
13
14
'5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
2 3
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
+3
44
+5
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
0,3
X
(yV—c.t)
2.96634
2.96865
2.97093
2- 973I9
2.99454
3.01401
3.03189
3- 04843
3-06383
3.07820
3.09170
3.10441
3.11644
3.12783
3.13867
3.14899
3.15885
3.1682&
3-I7734
3.18601
3-19438
3.20243
3.21020
3.21770
3.22495
3.23196
3-23877
3-24537
3.25176
3-25799
3.26404
3-26993
3.27566
3.28125
3.28669
3.29201
3.29720
3.30227
3.30722
3.31207
3.31681
3-32145
3-32599
3-33043
3-3348o
3-339°8
3-34327
0,9
0,91
0,91
0,92
o,97
1,01
1,05
1,09
1.13
1,17
1,21
i,^4
1,28
I>3!
1,34
1,38
1,41
M4
i>47
1 >5
i.53
1,56
1,58
1,61
1,64
1,67
1,69
i,72
i,74
i,77
i,79
1,82
1,84
1,87
1,89
1,91
i,93
i,95
1,98
2,00
2,03
2,05
2,07
2,09
2,11
2.13
2,15
d.
Log. of
y07(\l7—o
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
8c
81
82
83
84
85
86
8?
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
3-34738
3.35I43
3-35539
3-35928
3-36312
3.36687
3-37057
3-37421
3-37778
3-38130
3-38477
3-38817
3-39I58
3-39483
3-39809
3.40130
3.40446
3.40758
3.41065
3-41369
3.41667
3.41062
3-42253
3-42540
3-42823
3-43i°3
3-4338o
3-43653
3-43923
3.44189
3-44452
3.44712
3,44968
3.45222
3-45473
3-4572i
3-45965
3.46208
3.46448
3.46685
3.46920
3-47152
3.47381
3.47608 •
3-47833'
3.48056
3.48277
0,3
X
J—o,x
2,17
2,19
2,21
2,23
2,25
2,2 7
2,3
2,31
2,33
2,35
2,37
2,39
2.41
2.42
2,44
2,46
2.48
2.49
2,51
2,53
2,55
2,J7
2,58
2,60
2.62
2.63
2,65
2,67
2,69
2,7
2,72
2.74
2.75
2.77
2.78
2.79
2,81
2,83
2.85
2.86
2,88
2,8,9
2,9.1
2>93
2,94
2>95
2,97
Vol. XVIII. Part II,
5 U
Table IT,
Table II.
W ° R [ S9o ] w © R-
LogaMm, of,b' Vatu,, of'h, Dmmlnator of ,bc FraXou for mry ya,u, tf (/j(
v'i
Log', of
-W7+
1,6
1,0
1,1
1,2
i»3
i >4
1.6
i>7
i»8
T’9
2,0
2,1
2,2
2.3
2.4
2-5
2.6
2>7
2,8
2,9
3’°
3’1
3’2
3»3
3»4
3>5
3.6
3’7
3.8
3’9
4,0
4>T
4.2
4.3
4J4
4»5
4.6
‘4»7
4.8
4.9
5»°
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5,8!
5.9
6,0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
<5,5
6,6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7,°
7,t
9.71784
9.74210
9.76388
9.78376
9.80202
^ 0 „
^.01882
9.83461
9*s493°
9.86314
9.87622
9.88857
9.90031
9'9l l53
9.92267
9-93247
9.94231
9-95173
9 96085
9 96942
9.97818
9 98632
9.99427
0.00200
0.00945
o.’oi669
0.02373
0.03064
0.03733
0'°4383
0.05015
0.05638
0.06245
0.06839
c.07412
0.07898
0.08533
0.09081
0.09615
0.10131
0.10644
o. 11147
0.11635
0.12108
0.12595
0.13061
o.i35i9
0.13970
o. 14410
0.14844
0.15274
o. 15697
0.16113
o. 16522
0.16927
0.17322
o 17713
0.18099
0.18477
0.18854
0.19229
0.19584
0.19886
0.20298
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8,0
8.1
8.2
8.3
3.4
8>j
8,6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9,0
9,1
9
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10
11
12
J3
14
15
16
I?
!i8
,I9
20
2\
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Log- of
\/J—'Lv^r-f-l ,6
O.2065T
O.20997
021674
0.22109
0.22335
o 22663
0.22982
0.23297
0.23611
0.23923
0.242 29
0.24532
0.24832
0.25 128
0.25422
0.25709
0.25995
0.26281
0.26560
0.26839
0.27116
0.27387
0.27656
0.27921
0.28186
0.28450
0.28709
0.31170
°-33425
0.35488
0.37420
°-39235
0.40926
0.42521
0.44028
c*45439
0.46776
0.48044 ■
0.49262
0-5°433
0.51548
0.5262 r
0.53656
0.54654
0.55606
0.56526
0.57415
0.58263
O,59095
0.59901
0.60692
0.61448
0.62180
0.62900
°'63 599
0.64276
°-64933
0-65571
0.66200
0.66811
0.67413
45
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
5 6
5"
58
5^
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74j
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
9T
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
110
120
130
14c
I5°
16c
Log. of
\/ j—Ly^
(5,557
68574
69135
69688
70226
70749
7126$
7*767
72262
72746
73223
73695
74155
74601
75043
75481
75906
76328
76745
77I51
78276
77945
78333
787-8
79092
79463
79824
80182
80536
80882
81231
81571
81908
82236
82562
82885
83206
83525
83835
84142
84442
84739
85034
85327
85618
85908
86189
86463
86741
87017
87286
87552
87818
88076
88338
88593
0.91014
0.93212
o 95236
0.97109
0.98843
1.00466
Log. of
V" j—L\/
1 /
180
190
,200
210
220
230
24O
25°
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
33
34°
350
260
370
3«
39°
400
4-10
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
53o
540
55°
560
S70
580
59°
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
710
720
73°
740
750
700
770
780
790
LoroS 3
1.03410
1.04751
1.06026
1.07237
1.08390
1.09489
1.10542
1,II553
I* I2523
I*I3453
I-I4345
1.15204
1.16035
1.16838
1.17612
1.18363
1.19092
1.19803
1.20490
1.21158
1.21806
I.2243J
1.23048
1.23647
1.24232
1.24805
1.25360
1-25903
1.26433
1.26951
1.27461
1.27957
1.28445
1.28923
1.29391
1.29851
1.30300
i-3°740
1.31172
i-3I597
1.32015
1.32426
1.32830
1.33226
i-336i4
J-33997
1-34373
1-34743
1-35108
1.35468
i-35823
1 ••36170
1'365 *3
1-36851
1-37185
,-375T3
1.37839
1-38157
1.38471
1.38782
1*39089
1*3939I
8oo
810
820
830
840
850
860
870
880
890
900
910
920
93°
940
950
960
970
98c
99
100c
I IOC
r 200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
210
2200
230c
2400
250c
260 c
2700
2800
290c
3ooc
3100
320
33°c
3400
3500:
3600
3700
3800
39 00
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
4500
4600
4700
4800
490c
5000
5100
Log. of
1.39690
1.39985
1.40277
1.40564
1.40678
1.41128
1.41408
1.41683
I,4I953
1.42220
1.42487
1.42746
1.43005
i*43263
1-43515
1.43464
1.44011
1.44254
!.44498
I-44737
!.44976
1.47223
1.49269
1.51148
1.52885
l-54497
1.56014
!.57416
i-58747
1.60004
1.61195
1.62325
1.63403
1.64432
1.65414
1.66358
1.67261
1.681 33
1.68971
1.69780
1.70558
,*7I313
1.72042
1.72750
1-73435
1.74099
1.74746
I-75373
1.75984
1.76578
I-77I59
1-77725
i.78277
1.78814
1.79339
I*79851
1.80352
1.80875
1.81321
1.81790
1.82249
1.82699
Log of
V i—L\/ j- -J- i
5200
5 3° 6
5400
55°o
5600
570
5800
5900
6000
6100
6200
6300
6400
6500
6600
6700
6800
6900
7000
7100
7200
73°
7400
7500
7600
7700
7800
79°°
8qoo
8100
8200
8300
8400
8500
8600
8700
8800
8900
9000
9100
9200
9300
9400
95 oo
9600
9700
9800
9900
10000
IIOOO
12000
13000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000
19000
20000
21000
22000
23OOO
24OOO
I.83 142
1-Sii 75’
1.84002
1-84421
1.84833
1.85237
1.85634
1.86022
1.86404
1.86778
1.87146
1.87507
1.87863
1.88213
1.88558
1.88898
1,89233
1.89564
1.89891
1.90214
1.90532
1.90845
1.9H54
1.91458
1.9x757
1.92052
1.92344,
1.92632
1 92916
1.93197
I*93475
1-93749
1.94020
1 94287
1-94551
1.94811
1.95069
i-95324
1.95576
1.95826
1.96073
1.96217
1.96559
1.96797
1- 97033
1.97267
1.97497
1.97726
1.97952
2.00099
2.02056
2.03855
2.05518
2.07065
2.08512
2.09869
2.11148
2,12357
2.12 503
2,14594
2.15633
2.16624
2- i7573
Water.
work*.
won r 891
I. confifts of three columns,1, entitled d,
contains the hydraulic mean depths of any conduit in inches.
This is fet down for every 10th of an inch in the fiHl 10
inches, that the anfwers may he more accurately obtained
for pipes, the mean depth of which feldom exceeds three or
four inches. The column is continued to 100 inches, which
is iully equal to the hydraulic mean depth of any canal.
Column 2, contains the logarithms of the values of
-r-Qji, multiplied by 307; that is, the logarithm of
. 307 f </d — 0,1)
rator of the fraftion'^
the numer
in n0 65.
We have d~—^ = l,2e inches.
4
2. We have s —
44
] won
Brought over
Subtraft the log. 103,/}.
Remains the log. of 228,8 pints
Example 2.
\/ s —— L \/ s 1,6
of the article Rivers.
Column 3. contains the products of the values of V^uf—0,1
'multiplied by 0,3.
Table II. confifts of two columns.—Column 1. entitled
s, contains the denominator of the fradb’on exprelfing the
{lope or declivity of any pipe or canal; that is, the quo¬
tient of its length divided by the elevation of one extremity
above the other. Thus, if a canal of one mile in length be
three feet higher at one end than the other, then s is
5280
—, = .760.
Column 2. contains the logarithms of the denominators
of the above mentioned fraftion, or of the different values of
the quantity _ L
Thefe quantities were computed true to the third deci¬
mal place. Notwithftanding this, the laft figure in about
a dozen of the firft logarithms of each table is not abfo-
lutely certain to the neareft unit. But this cannot produce
an error of 1 in 100,00O.
Examples of the Ufe of thefe Tables.
Example l. Water is brought into the city «f Edin¬
burgh in feveral mains. One of thefe is a pipe of five inches
diameter. The length of the pipe is 14,637 feet ; and the
refervoir at Comifton is 44 feet higher than the refervoir
into which it delivers the water on the Caftle Hill.
The number of Scotch pints which this pipe fhould deliver
in a mintite ?
4-3739+
2.01451
2.35943
The canal mentioned in the article Rivers,
n° 63. was 18 feet broad at the furface, and 7 feet at the
bottom. It was 4 feet deep, and had a declivity of 4 inches
in a mile. Query, i he mean velocity?
1. The flant fide of the canal, correfoonding to 4 feet
deep and 5^ projc&ion, is 6,8 feet; therefore the border
touched by the water is 6,84-7+6,8, =20,6. The
area is 4 X ——> = 5° ftluare feet*
Watir-
works
Therefote d
The logarithm* cor-
refponding to this d, being nearly the mean between the
logarithms correfponding to 1,2 and 1,3, is 2.49472.
14637
or 332,7. The logarithm cor¬
refponding to this in Table II. is had by taking propor¬
tional parts for the difference between the logarithms for
f =: 3 30 and s zz. 340, and is 1,18533.
3. From 2.49472
Take 1.18333
Remains 1.30939, the logarithm of 20,385 inches.
4. In column 3. of Table I. oppofxteto d zz: 1,2 and</=
1,3 are 0,3 and 0,31, of which the mean is 0,305 inches,
the corrediion for vifeidity.
5. Therefore the velocity in inches per fecond is 20,385
—- 0,305, or 20,08.
6. J’o obtain the Scotch pints per minute (each contain¬
ing 103,4 cubic inches), multiply the velocity by 60, and
this produdt by 5% and this by 0,7854 (the area of a
circle whofe diameter is 1), and divide by 103,4. Or, by
logarithms,
Add the log. of 2o}o8
log. of 60"
log. of 52 or 25
log. of 0,7854
Carry over
1.30276
1.77815
.39794
9-895q9
4.37394
£=2,427 feet, or 29,124 inches. The logarithm
correfponding to this in Table I. is 3.211 Ij, and the cor-
redfion for vifcidity from the third column of the fame
Table is 1,58.
2. The dope is one-third of a foot in a mile, or one foot
in three miles. Therefore s is 15,840. The logarithm cor-
refponding to this is 2.08280.
3. From 3.21113
Subtradl 2.08280
Remains 1.12833 1= log. of 13,438 inches.
Subtradt for vifcidity - 1.58
Velocity y>fr fecond - 11,858
This velocity is confiderably frnaller than what was ob*
ferved by Mr Watt. And indeed we. obferve, that in the
very fmall declivities of rivers and canals, the formula is a
little different. We have made feveral comparifons v/ith a
formula which is effentially the fame with Buat’s, and comes
nearer in thefe cafes. Inllead of taking the hyperbolic lo¬
garithm of >vA + 1,6, multiply its common logarithm by
25, or multiply it by 9, and divide the produdf by 4 ; and
this procefs is vaftly eafier than taking the hyperbolic lo¬
garithm.
We have not, however, prefumed to calculate tables
on the authority of our own obfervations, thinking too re-
fpedffully of this gentleman’s labours and obfervations.
But this fubjedl will, ere long, be fully eftablifhed on a le-
ries of obfervations on canals of various dimenfiens and de¬
clivities, made by feveVal eminent engineers during the exe¬
cution of them. Fortunately Mr Buat’s formula is chiefly
founded on obfervations on fmall canals ; and is therefore
moft accurate in fuch where it is moft neceffary, viz.
in mill courfes, and other derivations for working machi¬
nery.
We now proceed to take notice of a few circumftances
which deferve attention, in the conftruftion of canals, in ad¬
dition to thofe delivered in the article Rivers.
When a canal or aqueduct, is brought off from a bafon or
larger flream, it ought always to be widened at the entry,
if it is intended for drawing off a continued ftream of wa¬
ter: For iuch a canal has a flope; without which it can have
no current. Suppofe it filled to a dead level to the farther
end. Take away the bar, and the water immediately be¬
gins to flow off at that end. But it is fome time before any
motion is perceived at the head of the canal, during all
which time the motion of the water is augmenting in every
part of the canal; confequently the flope is increafing in
every part, this being the foie caufe of its ftream. When
the water at the entry begins to move, the flope is fcarcely
feniible there; but it fenfibly fteepehs every moment with
the increale of velocity, whicl# at laft attains its maximum
relative to the flope and dimenfions of the whole canal; and
this regulates the depth of water in every point down the
ftream. When all has attained a ftate of permanency, the
flope at the e^try remains much greater than in any other1
5 U 2 part
Water
Plate
BXLI.
W O R • [89
pirt of the canal : for this flope muff be fuch as will oro-
^ duce a velocity fuliiciuit for fupplying its train.
And it mail be remeirbered, that the velocity which
mult he produced greatly exceeds the rpean velocity corre-
fponding to the train of the canal. Suppofe that this is
25 inches. There mult be a velocity of 30 inches at the
furface, as appears by the Table in the "article Rivers,
rT 80. This muft be produced by a real fall at the en¬
try.
In every other part the Hope is fufiicient, if it merely
lerves to give the water (already in motion) force enough
for overcoming the fri&ion and other refiftances. But at
the entry the water is ftagnant, if in a bafon, or it is mo-
ving part.laterally, if the aquedutt is derived from a river;
and, having no velocity whatever in the direftion of the ca¬
nal, it muft derive it from its flope. The water therefore
which has acquired a permanent form in fuch an aqueduct,
murt neceflanly take that form which exadlly perforins the
offices requifite in its different portions. The furface re¬
mains horizontal in the bafon, as at KC (fig. 1.), till it
comes near the entry of the canal AB, and there it acquires
the form of an undulated curve CDE ; and then the furface
acquires an uniform Hope EF, in the lower part of the ca¬
nal, where the water is in train.
If this is a drain, the difeharge is much lefs than might
be produced by the fame bed if this hidden flope could be
avoided. If it is to be navigated, having only a very gentle
flope in its whole length* this fudden Hope is a very great
jmperfeftion, both by diminifhing the depth ofw'ater, which
might otherwife be obtained along the canal, and by ren¬
dering the paifage of boats into the bafon very difficult, and
the coming out very hazardous.
All this may be avoided, and the velocity at the entry
may be kept equal to that which forms the train of the ca¬
nal, by the Ample procefs of enlarging the entry. Suppoie
that the water could accelerate along the flopes of the
canal* as a heavy body would do on a finely polifhed plane.
it we now make the width of the entry in its different parts
inversely proportional to the fictitious velocities in thofe
parts, it is plain that the flope of the f'urface will be made
parallel to that of the canal which is in train. This will
require a form fomewhat like a bell or fpeaking-trumpet,
as may eafily be flrown by a^mathematical difeuffion. It
would, however, be fo much evafated at the bafon as to oc¬
cupy much room, and it would be very expenfive to make
Inch an excavation. L But we may, at a very moderate ex¬
pence of money and room, make the increafe of velocity at
the entry almoft infenfible. This ffiould always be done,
and it is not all expence: for if it fie not clone, the water
will undermine the banks on each fide, becaufe it is moving
very Iwiftly, and will make an excavation for itfelf, leaving
all the mud in the canal below. We may obferve this en¬
largement at the entry of all natural derivations from a ba-
loii or lake. It is a very inftrudtive experiment, to fill up
this enlargement, continuing the parallel fides of the drain
quite to the fide of the lake. We fhall immediately obferve
the water grow fhallower in the drain, and its performance
will djminifh. Suppofing the ditch carried on with parallel
fides quite to the fide of the bafon, if we build two walls
dr dykes from the extremities of thofe.fides, bending out¬
wards with a proper curvature (and this will often be lefs
coftly than, widening the drain), the difeharge will be great¬
ly in ere a fed. We have been inftances where it was nearly
doubled.
- ke enlargement at the mouths of rivers is generally ow¬
ing to the fame caufe. The tide of flood up the river pro¬
duces a fuperficial flope eppofite to that of the river, and
2 ] w o R
thjs widens the month. This is moft remarkable when the
tides are high, and the river has little Hope.
After this great fall at the entry of a canal, in which all
the filaments are much accelerated, and the inferior ones
rno.t of all, things take a contrary turn. The water, by-
rubbing on the bottom and the fides, is retarded: and there-
fore the fe&ion mutt, from being (hallow, become a bttfo
deeper, and the furface will be convex for fome difhnce
tnl all comes into tram. hen this is eftablifhed, the
filaments neareft the bottom and fide are moving floweft,
and the furface (in the middle efpecially) retains the great!
eft velocity, gliding over the reft, the velocity in the
canal, and the depth of the feCtion, adjufl themlelves in fuch
a manner that the diffetence between the furface of the ba¬
fon and the furface of the uniform fe&ion of the canal cor-
refponds exa&ly to the velocity, thus, if this be obferved
to be two feet in a fecond, the difference of height will be
-ryths of an inch.
All the practical queftions that are of confidcrable impor¬
tance refpe&ing the motion of water in aquedu&s, may be
eafily, though not elegantly, folved by means of the tables.
But it is to be remembered, that thefe tables relate only
to uniform motion, that is, to water that is in train,
and where the velocity fuffers no change by lengthening the
conduit, provided the flope remain the fame. It is much
moie difficult to determine what will be the vtlocitv, &c.
in a canal.of which nothing is given but the form, and flope,
and depth of the entry, without faying how deep the water-
runs in it. And it is here that the common dodtrines of'
hydraulics are nioft in fault, and unable to teach us how
deep the water will run in a canal, though the depth of the
bafon at the entry be penfeftly known. Between the
part of the canal which is in train and the bafon, there is an
interval where the water is in a fiate of acceleration, and is
afterwards retarded.
'I'he determination of the motions in this interval is ex¬
ceedingly difficult, even in a redlangular canal, h was one
great aim of Mr Boat's experiments to afeertaiu this by
meafuring accurately the depth of the water. But he found
that when the flope was but a very few inches in the whole
length of his canal, it was 'not in train for want of greater
length ; and when the flope was ftill lefs, the fmall fradhions
of an inch, by which he. was to judge of the variations of
depth, could not be meafiired. with fufficient accuracy. It
would be a mort definable point to determine the length of
a canal, whofe Hope and other dimenfions are given, which
will bring it into train ; and what is the ratio which will
then obtain between the depth at the entry and the depth
which will be maintained. Bill this be done, the engineer
cannot afeertain by a diredt procefs what quantity of water
will be drawn off from a refervoir by a given canal. But as
yet this is out of our reach. Experiments, however, are in
view which will promote the invefligation.
But this and fimilar queftions are of fuck importance,
that we cannot be find to have improved hydraulics, unlela
we can give a tolerably precife anfwer. This we can do
by a fort of retrograde procefs, proceeding on the princi¬
ples of uniform motion eftablifhed by the Chevalier Buat.
We may fuppofe a train maintained in the canal, and then
examine whether this train can be produced by any fall that
is poffible at the entry. If it can, we may be certain that
it is fo produced, and our problem is folved.
We fhall now point out the methods of anfwering fome
chief queftions of this kind.
Que/t- 1. Given the flope s and the breadth <w of % ca¬
nal, and the height H of the furface of the water in the
bafen above the bottom of the entry, to find the depth b
: and
TV O R
[ 89.? 1
WOR
Water- arid velocity V of the ftream, and the quantity of water
works. Q which is difchanred ?
-v  '[’he chief difficulty is to find the depth of the {b.-eanrx
where it is in train. For this end, we may iimplify the hy¬
draulic theorem of uniform motion in nJ 59. of the article
K iyer ; making V
*/ N g d
v/o
where g is the velocity (in
inches) acquired in a fecond by falling, d is the hydraulic
mean depth, and hands for . V'S-f-1,6. N is
a number to be fixed by expeiiment (fee River, n° 53.)
depending on the contraftion or obftruclion fultained at the
entry of the canal, and it may in moft common cafes be ta¬
ken = 244; fo that may be iomewhat lefs than
307. To find it, we may begin by taking for our depth
of flream a quantity h% fomewhat fmaher than FI the height
of the furface of the bafan above the bottom of the canal.
With this depth, and the known width n> oc the canal, wc
can find the hydraulic depth r/(River, iFqS). ihen with
V'W^d
a/J and the flope find V by theTable: make this V = —
TThis gives bf ^ —f l * Fins value of is iuflici-
ently exaft ; for a fmall error of depth haidly afiefts the
hydraulic mean depth.
After this preparation, the expreifion of the mean velo-
/ av h
_r,_ _ w ih. The height
a/S
N/ wh \
which will produce this velocity is Nuw
this is the flope at the entry of the canal which produces
the velocity that is afterwards maintained againft the ob-
ftrudtions by the flope of the canal. It is there!01 e
i_-(w(!gS+'
“FI — b. Hence we deduce h—_
,)_,h)
v/8H» + ( ® (2~GS + O-215)’
If there be
H — H : b, and b will be exceedingly near the truth. The
reafbn is obvious.
^9?. 2. Given the discharge for quantity to be furnifh-
ed in a fecond) the height IT of the bafon above the
bottom of the canal, and the flope, to find the dimcnfiona-
of the canal f
Let x and j be the depth and mean width. It is plain
that the equation A^ 2 G V'H — x will give a value
of 7 in terms of x. Compare tins withjthe value of y oh
O   v Ng
tained from the equation “ —
7;
This
9 _ 1
no contradlion at the entry, g ~ G and - ^
Having thus obtained the depth b of the ftream, wc
obtain the quantity o1 water by combining this with the
width w and the velocity V.
But as this was but an approximation, it is neceffary to
examine whether the velocity V be poffible. 1 his is very
eafy. It muft be produced by the fall IT — b. We thall
have no occafion for any correftion of our firfl a flump t ion,
if b has not been extravagantly erroneous, became a fma’l
mtftake in b produces almoit the fame variation in d. I he
teft of accuracy, however, is, that b, together with the
height which will produce the velocity V, mull make up
the whole height H. Afluming b too frr.all leaves IT —h
too great, and will give a fmall velocity V, which requires a
fmali value of IT — b. The error of H — h therefore is
always greater than the error we have committed in our
firfl aflumption. Therefore when this error of H—h is
but a trifle, fuch as one-fourth of an inch, we may reft: fa-
tisfied with our anfwer.
Perhaps the eafieft procefs may be the following : Sup-
poi'e the "whole ftream in train to have the depth H. The
velocity V obtained for this depth and flope by the Paole
requires a certain productive height v. Make y H :
ys ^ y +1 x
will give an equation containing only x and known quan¬
tities! But it will be very complicate4., and we muft;
have recouife to an approximation. This will be beft un-
detflood in the form of an example.
Suppofe the depth at the entry to be 18 inches, anA ,
the flope ToW Let 1200 cubic feet of water per mi¬
nute be the quantity of water to be drawn oft, for work¬
ing machinery or any other purpofe ; and let the canal b«
fuppoied of the beft form, recommended hi n0^. c>f the ar¬
ticle River, where the bafe of the Hoping tide is ^ds o»
the height.
V*
The flighted confideration wall fliow us that if be
taken for the height producing the velocity, it cannot ex¬
ceed 3 inches, nor be leis than x. Suppole it — 2, and
therefore the depth of the flream in the canal to be 16
inches; find the mean width of the canal by the equation
w = . , .. WS°7 ^\,inwhichOis20CU*
/, (v/</_ 0,i) — 0,3]
bic feet (the 60th part of 1200), \/S is — 2^>l53t
= a/ 1000 — L 7IOOO 4- 1,6, and h — 16. This gives
w —5,^2 feet. The feflion 0=27,36 feet, and V =
32,6 inches. This requires a fall of 1,52 inches inllead of
2 inches. Take this from 18, and there remains 16,qH,
which we {hall find not to differ Toth of an inch from the
exadt depth which the water will acquire and maintain.
We may therefore be fatisfied with affuming 5,36 feet as
the mean width, and 3,53 feet for the width at the bot¬
tom.
This approximation proceeds on this confideration, that
when the width diminifhes by a fmall quantity, and in the
fame proportion that the depth increales, the hydraulic mean
depth remains the fame, and therefore the velocity alio re¬
mains, and the quantity difeharged changes in the exadi
proportion of the fedtion. Any minute error which may
refult from this fuppoiition, may be corredled by increafing
the fall producing the velocity in the proportion of the firft
hydraulic mean depth to the mean depth correfponding to
the new' dimenfions found for the canal; It will now
become 1,3:3, and V will be 32,72, and the depth will
be 16,47. 1 he quantity difeharged being divided by V,
will give the fedlion — 7,335 feet, from which, and the new
depth, we obtain 5,344 for the width;
This and the foregoing are the mofl common queflionj
propofed to an engineer. We afierted with fome confidence
that few of the profefiion are able to anfwer them with to¬
lerable precifion. We cannot offend the profeflional gentle¬
men by this, when we inform them, that the Academy c!- Sci¬
ences at Paris were occupied duiing feveral months with an
examination of a plan propofed by M. Parcieux, for bring¬
ing the waters of the Yvette into Paris ; and after the moft
mature confideration,' gave in a report of the quantity of
^ water-
Vv'a' c?,
works,
W o R
war re which M. De Parcieux^s aquedufl would yield, and
_ that their report lias been found erroneous in the proportion
of at leak 3 to 5 : I7or the waters have been brought in,
and exceed the report in this proportion. Indeed long af¬
ter the giving in the report, M. Perronet, the rnoft celebra¬
ted engineer in France, affirmed that the dimenfions oropo-
ied were much greater than were necefiary, and laid, that
an aquedudt of 5^ teet wide, and 3^- deep, with a dope of
J5 inches in a thoutand fathoms, would have a velocity of
1 2 or 13 inches per fecond, which would bring in all the
water, furrilhed by the propofed fources. The great di¬
minution of expence occafioned by the alteration encoura¬
ged the community to undertake the work. It was accor¬
dingly begun, and a part executed. The water was found
to run with a velocity of near 19 inches when it was 3^
feet deep. . M. Perronet founded his computation on his
own experience alone, acknowledging that he had no theory
* f"0 him. 1 he work was carried no farther, it be¬
ing found that the city could be fupplied at a much fmaller
expence by Itcam engines ere&ed by Boulton and Watt.
But the faffs which occurred in the partial execution of the
aqueduA are very valuable. If M. Perronet’s aqueduA be
examined by our general formula, s will be found =
and d — 18,72, from which we deduce the velocity ~ 181,
agreeing with the obfervation wuth affonifhing precifion.
ihe expeiiments at Turin by Michaslotti on canals were
very numerous, but complicated with many circumftances
which would render the difeuffion too long for this place.
When cleared of thefe circumftances, which we have done
with fcrupulous care, they are alfo abundantly conformable
^o theory of the uniform motion of running waters.
But to return to our fubjeA :
Should it be required to bring off at once from the ba-
fon a mill courfe, having a determined velocity for driving
an under-fhot wheel, the problem becomes eafter. becaufe
the velocity and flope combined determine the hydraulic
mean depth at once ; and the depth of the ftream will be
-had by means of the height which muil be taken for the
whole depth at the entry, in order to produce the required
velocity. > n
In like manner, having given the quantity to be difehar-
' Sed> an<i the velocity and the depth at the entry, we can
•find the other dimenfions of the channel ; and the mean
depth being found, we can determine the flope.
When the flope of a canal is very fmall, fo that the depth
of the uniform ftream differs but a little from that at the en¬
try, the quantity difeharged is but fmall. But a great ve-
locity, requiring a great fall at the entry, produces a great
diminution of depth, and therefore it may net compenfate
for this diminution, and the quantity difeharged may be
fmaller. Improbable as this may appear, it is not demon-
ifrably falfe; and hence we may fee the propriety of the fol¬
lowing i
Quijtim 3. Given the depth H at the entry of a redan-
gular canal, and alfo its width <wy required the flope, depth
and velocity, which will produce the greateft poilible dii-
charge r
Let x be the unknown depth of the flream. H —- w is
the.produAiye fall, and the velocity is V^zG 's/H. x.
This multiplied by w x will give the quantity difeharged.
Therefore w x G vTl — * mull be made a maxU
mum. I he common procefs for this will give the equation
^ ^ ~~ 3 or * =: 4- 1 he mean velocity will be G
; the feAion will be y w H, and the difeharge ~
1V2 G w H and With thefe
C 894 ]
W O R
data the flope it cauly had by the formula for uniform ni<s-
tion.
.. ^ canal is of tne trapezoidal form, the inveftf.Tation
is more troubkfome, and requires the refojution of a^cubic
equation.
It may appear ftrange that increafmg the dope of a ca¬
nal beyond the quantity determined by this problem can di-
minilh the quantity of water conveyed. But one of
thefe two things mud happen ; either the motion will
not acquire uniformity in fuch a canal for want of length,
or the difeharge muft diminish. Suppofing, however,
that it could augment, we can judge how far this can
go. Let us take the extreme cafe, by making the canal
vertical. In this cale it becomes a ftmple weir or wafte-
board. Nkw the difeharge of a wafieboard is 4 V2G tv
—(i b)1- The maximum determined by the prece*-
ding problem is to that of the wafteboard of the fame di¬
menfions as H v'l'Hj H (x H)*, or as H -
^ - 5773 : 6465, nearly rr 9 : 10.
Haying given the dimenfions and flope of a canal, we
can difeover the relation between its expenditure and the
time ; or we can tell how much it will link the furface of a
pond in 24 hours, and the gradual progrefs of this effcA ;
and this might be made the fubjeA of a particular problem.
But it is complicated and difficult. In cafes where this is
an interelting objeA, we may folve the queftion with fuffi-
cient accuracy, by calculating the expenditure at the begin¬
ning, fuppofmg the bafonkept full. Then, from the known
area of the pond, we can tell in what time this expenditure
will link an inch ; do the fame on the iuppofition that the
water is one-third lower, and that it is two-thirds lower
(noticing the contraAion of the furface of the pond occa-
Honed by this abftraAion of its waters). Thus we fhall ob¬
tain three rates of diminution, from which we can eafily de¬
duce thedefired relation between the expenditure and the time.
-AqueduAs derived from a bafon or river are commonly
furnifhed with a fluice at the entry. This changes exceed¬
ingly the ftate of things. The flope of the canal may be
precifely fuch as will maintain the mean velocity of the wa¬
ter which paftes under the fluice ; in which cafe the depth
of the ftream is equal to that of the flmce, and the velocity
is produced at once by the head of water above it. But if
the Hope is lefs than this, the velocity of the iffiiing water is
diminifhed. and the water muft rife in the canal. This muft.
check the efflux at the fluice, and the water will be as it
were ftagnant above what comes through below it. It is
extremely difficult to determine at what precife flope the
water will begin to check the efflux. The contraAion at
the lower edge of the board hinders the water from attaia-
ing at once the whole depth which it acquires afterwards,
when its velocity dimicilhes by the obftruAions. While
the regorging which thele obftruAions occafion does not
reach back to the fluice, the efflux is not affeAed by it.—
Even when it does reach to the fluice, there v/ill be a lefs
depth immediately behind it than farther down the canal,
where it is in train ; becaule the fwift moving water which
is next the bottom drags with it the regorged water which
lies on it: but the canal muft be rapid to make this diffe¬
rence of depth fenfible. In ordinary canals, with moderate
flopes and velocities, the velocity at the fluice may be fafely
taken as if ic were that which correfponds to the difference of
depths above and below the fluice, where both are in train.
Let therefore H be the depth above the fluice, and /: the
depth in the canal. Let e be the elevation of the fluice
above the foie, and let b be its breadth. The difeharge
3 will
Wateiv
work,,
tV O R
Water*
work?.
will he ei V*H
won
~h V'z G for the lluice, and <w h
r jw i
^ to the ordinary furface of the water.
Ql
a/s
canal. Thefe mail; be the fame.
a/S
This gives the equation — h /zQ — tv h -y—
/   containing the folution of all the queilions
w -f- 2 A
which can be propofed. The only uncertainty is in the
quantity G, which exprefles the velocity competent to the
paflage of the water through the orifice, circumilanced as
it is, namely, fubjefted to contraction. This may be re¬
gulated by a proper form given to the entry into this ori¬
fice. 1 he contraction may be almoil annihilated by making
the mafonry of a cycloidal form on both fides, and alfo
at the lower edge of the lluice-board, fo as to give the ori¬
fice a form refembling fig. y. 1), in the article Rivers. If
the fluice is thin in the face of ti baton, the contraction will
reduce 2 G to 296. If the fluice be as wide as the canal,
2 G will be nearly 500.
Queflion 4. Given the head of water in the bafon H, the
breadth l, and elevation e of the fluice, and the breadth >w
and Hope s of the canal, to And the depth h of the ftream,
the velocity* and the difeharge ?
We mult (as in Quejlicm 2.) make a firft fuppofition for
h, in order to find the proper value of d. Then the equa-
V' No- - - G e 2 ^
Iron e
b /H. — h / 2 Q— w b
J
G e* b' sH
-4- . If this value
f. .  {hall
w 2 Nd ’ \w2N^rf>
differ confiderably from the one which we affirmed in order
to begin the computation, make ufe of it for obtaining a
new value of d, and repeat the operation. We (hall rarely
be obliged to perform a third operation.
The following is of frequent ufe :
Quejlion 5- Given the dimenfions and the flope, with the
velocity and difeharqe of a river in its ordinary ftate, re¬
quired the area or fe&ton of the fluice which will raife the
waters to a certain height, ftill allowing the fame quantity
of water to pafs through ? Such an operation may render
the river navigable for fmall craft or rafts above the fluice.
The problem is reduced to the determination of the fize
of orifice which will difeharge this water with a velocity
competent to the height to which the river is to be raifed
only we muff take into confideration the velocity of the wa¬
ter above the fluice, conlidering it as produced by a fall
which makes a part of the height produ&ive of the whole
velocity at the fluice. Therefore H, in our inveftigation,
mult confilt of the height to which we mean to raife the
waters, and the height which will produce the velocity with
which the waters approach the fluice : h, or the depth of
the ftream, is the ordinary depth of the river. Then (ufing
nv h */ N g d,
the former fymbols) we have e 0
Q-
/2G s (H —
V2 g (H — by
If the area ot the fluice is known, and we would learn
the height to which it will raife the river, we have H — h
cv2
Y(S~'e*ir* ^0r t^ie exPre^on the r^e the water
above its ordinary level. But from this we muft take the
height which would produce the velocity of the river ; fo
that if the fluice were as wide as the river, and were raifed
ziu which ex-
2 G e1 b1* v—
preffes the height that produces the velocity under the fluice,
muft be equal to the depth of the river, and H—h will be
22: o.
The performance of aqueduft drains is a very important
thing, and merits our attention in this place. While the
art of managing waters, and of conducing them fo as to
anfwer our demands, renders us very important fervice by
embellilhing our habitations, or promoting our commercial
intercourfe, the art of draining creates as it were new
riches, fertilizing trafts of bog or marlh, which was not
only ufelefs, but hurtful by its unwholefome exhalations,
and converting them into rich paftures and gay meadows.
A wild country, occnpied by marflies which are^ inacceflible
to herds or flocks, and ferve only for the haunts of water-
fowls, or the retreat of a few poor fifliennen, when once it is
freed from the waters in which it is drowned, opens its lap
to receive the moft precious feeds, is foon clothed in the
richeft garb, gives life and abundance to numerous herds,
and never fails to become the delight of the induft-
rious cultivator who has enfranchifed it, and is attached
to it by the labour which it coft him. In return, it pro¬
cures him abundance, and fupplies him with the means of
daily augmenting its fertility. No fpecies ot agriculture
exhibits fitch long, continued, and progreflive improvement.
New families flock to the fpot, and there multiply ; and
there nature feems the more eager to repay their labours,
in proportion as flie has been obliged, againft her will, to
keep her treafures locked up for a longer time, chilled by
the waters. The countries newly inhabited by the human
race, as is a great part of America, elpecially to the fouth-
ward, are ftill covered to a great extent with marfhes and
lakes ; and they would long remain in this condition, if po¬
pulation, daily making new advances, did not increafe in-
duftry, by multiplying the cultivating hands, at the fame
time that it increafes their wants. Tire Author of this
beautiful world has at the beginning formed the great maf-
fes of mountain, has feooped out the dales and floping'
hills, has traced out the courfes, and even formed the beds
of the rivers : but he has left to man the care of making;
his place of abode, and the field which muft feed him, dry
and comfortable. For this talk is not beyond his powers, .
as the others are. Nay, by having this given to him in
charge, he is richly repaid for his labour by the very ftate
in which he finds thofe countries into which he penetrates *
for the firft t ime. Being covered with lakes and forefts,
the juices of the foil are kept fer him as it were in referve.
The air, the burning heat of the fun, and the continual
wafhing of rains, would have combined to expend and dif-
fipate their vegetative powers, had the fields been expofed
in the fame degree to their a&ion as in the inhabited and
cultivated countries, the moft fertile moulds of which are
long fmee lodged in the bottom of the ocean. All this
would have been completely loft through the whole extent
of South America, had it not been protected by the fo-
refts which man muft cut down, by the rank herbage which
he muft burn, and by the rnarfh and bog which he muft
deftroy by draining. Let not ungrateful man complain ofT
this. It is his duty to take on hunfelf the talk of opening
up treafures, preferved on purpofe for him with fo much
judgment and care. If he has-difeernment and fenfibility,,.
he will even thank the Author of all good, who lias thus
hufbanded them lor his ufe. He will co-operate with hia
beneficent views, and will be careful not to proceed by
wantonly fnatching at prefent and partial good, and by
picking out what is moft eafily got. at, regardlefs of hina
whsa
Water-
work*.
W&f.iT
works
W 0 R
who is to come afterwards to uncover and extraft the re¬
maining riches of the ground. A wife adminiftration of
fuch a country wili think it their duty to leave a juft (hare
of this inheritance to their defeendants, wiio are entitled to
expeft it as the laft legatees. National plans of cultivation
(hould be formed on this principle, that the Heps taken by
the prefent cultivators for realizing part of the riches of the
infant country fhall not obftrucf the works which will af¬
terwards be neceftary for alio obtaining the remainder. This
is carefully attended to in Holland and in China. No man
is. allowed to condudt the drains, by which he recovers a
piece of marlh, in fuch a way as to render it much more
difficult tor.a neighbour, or even for his own fucceflpr, to
drain another piece, although it may at prefent be quite
inacccffible. There remains in the middle of the moft cul¬
tivated countries many marfties, which induftry has not yet
attempted to drain, and where the legiflature has not been
at pains to prevent many little abufes which have produced
elevations in the beds ol rivers, and rendered the complete
draining of fome fpots impofiible. Adminiftration firould
attend to fuch things, becaufe their cenfequences are great.
I he (ciences and arts, by which alone thefe difficult and
coilly jobs can be performed, fhould be prote&ed, encou-
raged, and cherifhed. It is only from fcience that we can
obtain principles to dire& thefe arts. The problem of drain-
ing canals is one of the moll important, and yet has hardly
ever occupied the attention- of the hydraulic fpcculatift.
dNe apprehend that Mr Bust’s theory will throw' great
light on k ; and regret that the very limited condition of
our prefent Work will hardly afford room for a flight Iketch
of what may be done on the fubjeft. We fhall, however,
attempt it by a general problem, which will involve moft
of the chief circumftances which occur in works of that
kind.
6. Let the hollow ground A (fig. 2.) be inun¬
dated by rains or fprings, and have no outlet but the ca¬
nal AB, by which it difeharges its water into the neigh¬
bouring river BCD Id, and that its furface is nearly on a
level with that of the river at B. It can only drain
when the river finks in the droughts of fummer ; and even
if it could then drain completely, the putrid marflr would
only be an infecting neighbour. It may be propofed to
drain it by one or more canals ; and it is required to deter¬
mine their lengths and other dimenfions, fo as to produce
the bed effedls?
It is evident that there are many circumftances to deter¬
mine the choice, and many conditions to be attended to.
If the canals AC, AD, AE, are refpedhvely equal to
the portions BC, BD, BE, of the river, and have the fame
flopes, they will have the fame difeharge : but they are not
for this reafon equivalent. The long canal AE may drain
the marfh completely, while the fhort one AC will only do
it in part; becaufe the difference of level between A and C
is but inconfiderable. Alfo the frefhes of the river may
totally obftruft the operation of AC, while the canal AE
cannot be hurt by them, E being fo much lower than
C. Therefore the canal muft be carried fo far down the
river, that no freflies there fhall ever raife the waters in the
canal fo high as to reduce the flope in the upper part of it
to fuch a level that the current fhall not be fufficient to
carry off the ordinary produce of water in the marfh.
Still the problem is indeterminate, admitting many folu-
tions. This requifite difeharge may be accomplifhed by a
Ihort but wide canal, or by a longer and narrower. Let
tis fir ft fee what folution can be made, fo as to accomplifh
cur purpofe in the moft economical manner, that is, by
means of the fmalleft equation,—We fhall give the folution
in the form of an example.
[ 896 ]
W O R
Suppofe that the daily produce of rains and fprings raifes
the water 14 Inchon an area of a fquare league, which oives
about 120,000 cubic fathoms of water. Let the bottom
or the bafon be three feet below the furface of the frefhes
in the river at B in winter. Alfo, that the flope of the
river is 2 inches in 100 fathoms, or TSV5dth, and that the
canal is to be 6 feet deep.
i he canal being fuppofed nearly parallel to the river, it
muft be at leaft 1800 fathoms long bdfore it can be admit¬
ted into the river, otherwife the bottom of the bog will be
lower than the mouth of the canal; and even then a hun¬
dred or two more fathoms added to this will give it fo
little flope, that an immenfe breadth will be neceffary to
make the difeharge with fo fmall a velocity. On the other
hand, if the flope of the canal be made nearly equal to that
ox the river, an extravagant length will be neceffary before
its admiffion into the river, and many obftacles may then
intervene. And even then it mull have a breadth of 13
feet, as may eafily be calculated by the general hydraulic
theoiem. By receding from each of thefe extremes, we
fliall diminifh the expence of excavation. Therefore,
Let x and y be the breadth and length, and t> the depth
(6 feet), of the canal. X,et q be the depth of the bog be¬
low the furface of the river, oppofite to the bafon, D the
difeharge in a fecond, and ~ the flope of the river. We
muff make h xy a minimum, or x y*\-y sc rr 0.
The general formula gives the velocity
^ n g {*/ d — A1)
°>3 d—0,1). This would
V =
v/s D \/ j-p 1,6
give x andy ; but the logarithmic term renders it very com¬
plicated. We may make ufe of the Ample form V = —
  S
making nearly 2 y 3. This will be fufficiently exa&
for all cafes which do not deviate far from this, becaufe
the velocities are very nearly in the fubduplicate ratio of the
flopes.
To introduce thefe data into the equation, recoiled th
v - ~x'' d = 7+17: As t0 s> reco]lca that the c7:
nal being fuppofed of nearly equal length with the river,
" will exprefs the whole difference of height, and - — n is
a '- a *
the difference of height for the canal. This quantity being
y 
Therefore
divided by y, gives the value of g =
the equation for the canal becomes
— 9
/y _  
^ / ^Hence we deducey = N£_^
v'Ni'y/:
TSgqh3 x
* + 2;6
—D1 («+ 2
3 Ngqhix'x
and y = N g h3 x
a
Ngqh*x*x (
3 N y 163 x2
 — D
')
If we fubftitute thefe.
values in the eqation y x x y =; o, and reduce it, we ob¬
tain finally,
<*d * —a*-8*’
u
Water.
works,
Water.
. works.
or
won [
If we refolve this equation by making = (296)
' 87616 inches; b — 72,- = and D = 518400, we
D
obtain x 392 inches, or 32 feet 8 inches, and or V
rr 18,36 inches. Now, putting thefe values in the exa?c
formula for the velocity, we obtain the (lope of the canal,
which is nearly 0,62 inches in 100 fathoms.
Let / be the length of the canal in fathoms.
ver has 2 inches fall in 100 fathoms, the whole fall is
0,62 /
As the ri
2 /
and that of the canal is 'T~ -. The difference of thefe two
100
muft be 3 feet, which is the difference between the river and
(2 — 0,62^ .
—ic.o— /
r= 36 inches. Hence l zz. 2604 fathoms ; and this multi¬
plied by the fe&ion of the canal gives 1417 7 cubic fathoms
of earth to be removed.
This may furely be done, in moft cafes, for eight (hil¬
lings each cubic fathom, which does not amount to 6000I.
a very moderate fum for completely draining of nine iquare
miles of country.
In order to judge of the importance of this problem, we
have added two other canals, one longer and the other
fhorter, having their widths and (lopes fo adjulted as to
enfure the fame performance.
Width. Velocity. Slope. Length. Excavation.
Feet. Inches.
42 14,28 Ti™ 2221 I5547
32T *8,36 -ns-g-g: 2604 I4I77
ii 28,57 ■jts't 73^1 25^33
We have confidered this important problem in its moft
fnnple (late. If the bafon is far from the river, fo that the
drains are not nearly parallel to it, and therefore have lefs
(lope attainable in their courfe, it is more difficult. Per¬
haps the belt method is to try two very extreme cafes and
a middle one, and then a fourth, nearer to that extreme
which differs lead from the middle one in the quantity of
excavation. This will point out on which fide the mini¬
mum of excavation lies, and alfo the law by which it di-
minifhes and afterwards increafes. Then draw a line, on
which fet off from one end the lengths of the canals. At
each length ere£t an ordinate reprefenting the excavation ;
and draw a regular curve through the extremities of the
ordinates. From that point of the curve which is neared
to the bafe line, draw another ordinate to the bafe. This
will point out the bed length of the canal with fufficient
accuracy. The length will determine the (lope, and this
will give the width, by means of the general theorem.
N. B. Thefe draining canals mud always come off from
the bafon with evafated entries. This will prevent the lofs
of much fall at the entry.
Two canals may fometimes be neceffary. In this cafe
expence may frequently be laved, by making one canal flow
into the other. This, however, mud be at fuch a didance
from the bafon, that the fwell produced in the other by
this addition may not reach back to the immediate neigh¬
bourhood of the bafon,.otherwife it would impede the per¬
formance of both. For this purpofe, recourfe mud be had
to the problem iii. in n° 104. of the article River. We
mud here obferve, that in this refpeft canals differ exceed¬
ingly from rivers : rivers enlarge their beds, fo as always
to convey every increafe of waters ; but a canal may be gor¬
ged through its whole length, and will then greatly dimi-
nidi its difeharge. In order that the lower extremity of a
canal may convey the waters of an equal canal admitted in-
Vol. XVIII. Fait II.
897 ] \V O R
to it, their jun&ion mud be fo far from the bafon, that the
fwell occafioned by raffing its waters nearly 4- more (viz.
in the fubduplicate ratio of 1 to 2) may not reach back to
the bafon.
This obfervation points out another method of econo¬
my. Indead of one wide canal, we may make a narrower
one of the whole length,, and another narrow one reaching
part of the way, and communicating with the long canal
at a proper didance from the bafon. But the lower extre¬
mity will now be too fhallow to convey the waters of both.
Therefore raife its banks by ufing the earth taken from its
bed, which mud at any rate be difpofed of. Thus the wa¬
ters will be conveyed, and the expence, even of the lower
part of the long canal, will fcarcely be increafed.
Thefe obfervations mud fuffice for an account of the ma¬
nagement of open canals; and we proceed to the confide-
ration of the conduit of water in pipes.
This is much more fimple and regular, and the general
theorem requires very trifling modifications for adapting
it to the cafes or quedions that occur in the pra&ice of the
civil engineer. Pipes are always made round, and there¬
fore d is always |th of the diameter. The velocity of water
307 d—0,1)
in a pipe which is in train, is = V, =
/307
--0,3 (v/^-egi) or = (4/J —0,1)
j + 1,6
°,3)-
Water¬
works.
The chief quedions are the following :
Quejl. 1. Given the height H of the refervoir above the
place of delivery, and the diameter and length of the pipe,
to find the quantity of water difeharged in a fecond ?
Let L be the length, and b the fall which would produce
the velocity with which the water enters the pipe, and
actually flows in it, after overcoming all obdruftions. This
V2
may be expreffed in terms of the velocity by —q, G de¬
noting the acceleration of gravity, correfponding to the
maimer of entry. When no methods are adopted !or faci¬
litating the entry of the water, by a bell fhaped tunnel or
otherwife, 2 G may be affumed as n= 500 inches, or 42
feet, according as we meafure the velocity in inches or feet.
V2
j     
The (lope is - >  2G which mud be put into the
s L
general formula. This would make it very complicated.
We may (implify it by the confideration that the velocity
is very (mail in comparifon of that arifing from the height
H : confequently b is very fmall. Alfo, in the fame pipe,
the refidances are nearly in the duplicate ratio of the ve¬
locities when thefe are fmall, and when they differ little
among themfelves. Therefore make b = taking b by
guefs, a very little lefs than H. Then compute the mean
velocity v correiponding to thefe data, or take it from the
table. If h + tt be — H, we have found the mean ve-
1 2 G
locity V — v. if not, make the following proportion ;
v2 V2 V2 . .
b: -7=7 = H — —77 : —77, which is the fame with this
2G 2G 2G
h -p
2 G *
u2 .= H : V2, and V2 is =
h +
2 G
H
2'G A -pn2, —
To
v2' 2 GH
<y 2 -p 2 G /.>
5 ^
If
won
Water¬
works.
If the pipe has any bendings, they wmft be calculated for
,in the manner mentioned in the article River, n° ioi ; and
the head of water necefTary for overcoming this additional
V*
refiftance being called —, the lafi: proportion mull be
C 898 ]
W O R
changed for
Quefl. 2d. Given the height of the refervoir, the length
of the pipe, and the quantity of water which is to be drawn
71 1 r\ O 4/=»/■*/"* ri H f- r\ t i n H * o rvi I-*3%*> *■ * ^ *11
off in a fecond, to find the diameter of the pipe which will
draw it off ?
Let d be confidered as = ^th of the diameter, and let
I : c reprefent the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its
circumference- The iection of the pipe is 4 c 2. Let the
quantity of water per fecond be Qj then
is the
4 c d1
mean velocity. Divide the length of the pipe by the height
of the refervoir above the place of delivery, diminilhed by a
very fmall quantity, and call the quotient S. Confider
this as the Hope of the conduit; the general formula now
becomes
Q 307 (yd—o,i)
4dz ~
V/ s — L -s/ r + 1,06
(dO? (^—0,0 . . .
°>3 0,1).
We
4cd2~ y^S
may negledl the lafi; term in every cafe of civil praftice,
and aifo the-fmall quantity 0,1. This gives the very fimple
formula r
’ _ Q. _ 3°7 a/-^
‘ 4 c d2 — ^/ S
from which we readily deduce
d — 8
jf__ Q \/ Sir
4^X307! 3858 1
This procefs gives the diameter fomewhat too fmall. But
we eafily redtify this error by computing the quantity de-
ivered by the pipe, which will differ a little from the quan¬
tity propoled. then obferving, by this equation, that two
pipes having the fame length and the fame Hope give quan-
uties of water,, of which the fquares are nearly as the 5th
powers of the diameter, we form a new diameter in this pro¬
portion, which will be almoft perfedlly exadl.
. It may be oblerved that the height affumed for determi¬
ning the.Hope in thefe two queftions will feldom differ more
than an inch or two from the whole height of the refervoir
above the place of delivery; for in conduits of a few bun¬
dled feet long the. velocity feldom exceeds four feet per fe¬
cond, which requires only a head of 3 inches.
As. no inconvenience worth minding refults from making
the pipes a tenth of an inch or fo wider than is barely fuffi-
oent, and as this generally is more than the error arifing
from even a very erroneous affumption of h, the anfwer firft
obtained may be augmented by one or two tenths of an
inch, and then we may be confident that our conduit will
craw off the intended quantity of water.
We prefume that every perfon who affumes the name of
engineer knows how to reduce the quantity of water mea¬
sured in gallons, pints, or other denominations, to cubic
inches, and can calculate the gallons, &c. furnifhed by a
pipe of known diameter, moving with a velocity that is
meafured in inches /er fecond. ' We farther fuppofe that
V aCari-S taken ln the conftru^°n of the conduit, to avoid
obfirudbons occafioned by lumps of folder hanging in the
infide of the pipes ; and, particularly, that all the cocks
by making the cocks too fmall, becaufe large cocks are very
coftly. But the employer fhould be fcrupuloufly attentive
to this; becaufe a fimple contra&ion of this kind may be
the tnrowing av/ay of many hundred pounds ia a wide pipe,
which yields no more water than can pafs through the fmall
cock.
The chief obfiru&ions arife from the depofition of fand
or mud in the lower parts of pipes, or the colleftion of air
in the upper parts of their bendings. The velocity being
always very moderate, fuch depofitions of heavy matters are
unavoidable. The utmoft care fhould therefore be taken to
have the water freed from all fuch things at its entry by
proper filtration ; and there ought to be cleanfing pings at
the lower parts of the bendings, or rather a very little way
beyond them. Wnen thefe are opened, the water iffues
with greater velocity, and carries the depofitions with it.
It is much more difficult to get rid of the air which,
choaks the pipes by lodging in their upper parts. This
is fometimes taken in along with the water at the refervoir,
when the entry of the pipe is too near the furface. This
fnould be caremlly avoided, and it cofts no trouble to do fo.
If the entry of the pipe is two feet under the furface, no air
can.ever, get in. Floats fhould be placed above the entries,
having lids hanging from them, which will ffiut the pipe be»
fore the water runs too low.
But air is alfo difengaged from fpring-water by merely
pafiing along the pipe. When pipes are fupplied by an en¬
gine, air is very often drawn in by the pumps in a difenga¬
ged ftate. It is alfo difengaged from its Hate of chemical
when the pumps have a fuftion-pipe of 1 o or 1 2
union.
and plugs, by the way have waterways equal to the fe&ion
c* thc PJPe. Undertakers are molt tempted to fail here,
feet, which is very common. In whatever way it is intro¬
duced, it collefts in all the upper part of bendings, and
choaks the paffage, fo that fometimes not a drop of wa¬
ter is delivered. Our cocks fhould be placed there, which
fhould be opened frequently by perfons who have this in
charge. Delaguliers deferibes a contrivance to be placed on
all Inch eminences, which does this of itfelf. It is a pipe
with a cock, terminating in a fmall ciftern. The key of
the cock has a hollow ball of copper at the end of a lever.
When there is no air in the main pipe, water comes out by
this diicharger, fills the ciftern, raifes the ball, and thus fhuts
the cock. But when the bend of the main contains air, it
rifes into the ciftern, and occupies the upper part of it.
Thus the floating ball falls down, the cock opens and lets
out the air, and the ciftern again filling with water, the ball
rifes, and the cock is again fhut.
A very neat contrivance for this purpofe was invented by
the late Profeffor Ruffel of Edinburgh. The cylindrical pipe
BCDE (fig. 3.), at the upper part of a bending of the main,
is ferewed on, the upper end of which is a flat plate per¬
forated with a fmall hole F. This pipe contains a hollow
copper cylinder G, to the upper part of which is faftened
a piece of foft leather H. When there is air in the pipe, it
comes out by the hole A, and occupies the difeharger, and
then efcapes through the hole F. The water follows, and,
riling in the difeharger, lifts up the hollow cylinder G,
cauflng the leather H to apply itfelf to the plate CD,
and fhut the hole. Thus the air is difeharged without the
fmalleft lofs of water.
It is of the mod material confequence that there be no
contraction in any part of a conduit. This is evident; but
it is alfo prudent to avoid all unneceffary enlargements. For
when the conduit is full of water moving along it, the velo¬
city in every fedtion is inverfely proportional to the area of
the fedtion : it is therefore diminiflied wherever the pipe ia
enlarged; but it mult again be increafed where the pipe
contradts. This cannot be without expending force in the
acceleration. This confumes part of the impelling power,
whether
Water*
work?. <
W O R [ §99 ] W O R
Wafer, whether th's he a head of water, or the force of an engine,
works. See what is faid on this iubjeft in the article Pumps, 83,
■“ &c. Nothing is gained by any enlargement; and every con¬
traction, by requiring an augmentation of velocity, empbya
a part of the impelling force precifely equal to the weight
of a column of water whofe bafe is the contracted paflage,
and whofe height is the fall which would produce a veloci¬
ty equal to this augmentation. This point feems to have
been quite overlooked by engineers of the hrft eminence,
and has in many inftances greatly dirainifhed the perform¬
ance of their beft Works. It is no lefs detrimental in open
canals; becaufe at every contraction a fmall fall is required
for reltoring the velocity loll in the enlargement of the ca¬
nal, by which the general dope and velocity are diminilhed.
Another point whichmuft be attended to in the conducting of
water is, that the motion Ihould not be fubfultory, but con¬
tinuous. When water is to be driven along a main by the
ftrokes of a reciprocating engine, it Ihould be forced into an
air-box, the Ipring of which may preferve it in motion along
the whole fubfequent main. If the water is brought to reft
at every fucceffive Itroke of the pifton, the m hole mafs muft
again be put in motion through the whole length of the
main. This requires the fame ufelefs expenditure of power
as to communicate this motion to as much dead matter; and
this is over and above the force which may be neceflary for
railing the water to a certain height; which is the only cir-
cumftance that enters into the calculation of the power of
the pump-engine.
An air-box removes this imperfe&ion, becaufe it keeps up
the motion during the returning itroke of the pifton. The
ccmpreffion of the air by the aCtive llroke of the pifton muft
be fuch as to continue the impulfe in oppolition to the con¬
trary preffure of the water (if it is to be raifed to fome
height), and in oppofition to the friftion or other refiftances
which arile from the motion that the water really acquires.
Indeed a very conliderable force is employed here alio in"
changing the motion of the water, which is forced out of the
capacious air-box into the narrow pipe ; and when this
change of motion is not judicioufiy managed, the expendi¬
ture of power may be as great as if all were brought to
teft and again put into motion. It may even be greater,
by caufrng the water to move in the oppolite direfti-on to its
former motion. Of fuch confequerice is it to have all theie
circumftances fcientifically conlidered. It is in fuch parti¬
culars, unheeded by the ordinary herd of engineers or pump-
tnakers, that the fuperiority of an intelligent practitioner is
to be feen.
Another material point in the conduit of water in pipes
is the diftribution of it to the different perlons wdio have
occafion for it. This is rarely done horn the riling main. It
is ufual to fend the whole into a ciftern, from which it is
afterwards conduced to different places in feparate pipes.
Till the dilcovery of the general theorem by the chevalret*
Buat, this has been done with great inaccuracy. Engi¬
neers think that the different purchafers from water-v/orks
receive in proportion to their refpedlive bargains when they
give them pipes whofe areas are proportional to thefe pay¬
ments. But we now fee, that when theie pipes are of any
confiderable length, the waters of a larger pipe run with a
greater velocity than thole of a fmaller pipe having the lame
Dope. A pipe of two inches diameter will give much more
water than four pipes of one inch diameter ; it will give as
much as hve and a half fuch pipes, ot more; becauie the
fquares of the difeharges are very nearly as the fifth powers
of the diameters. This point ought therefore to be care¬
fully confidered in the bargains made with the proprietors
of water-works, and the payments made in this proportion.
Perhaps the moft unexceptionable method would be to make
a double drftributlon, Let the water be firft let off in Its Water-
proper proportions into a fecond feries of fmall cillerns, and W0I^‘* ,
let each have a pipe which will convey the v/hole water that *
is difeharged into it. The firft diftribution may be made
entirely by pipes of one inch in diameter ; this would leave
nothing to the calculation of the diftributor, for every man
would pay in proportion to the number of fuch pipes which
run into his own ciftern.
In many cafes, however, water is diftributed by pipes de¬
rived from a main. And here another circumftance comes
into aftion. When water is pafiing along a pipe, its pref¬
fure on the Tides of the pipe is diminilhed by its velocity;
and if a pipe is now derived from it, the quantity drawn
off is alfo diminifhed in the fubduplicate ratio of the pref-
fures. If the preffure is reduced to 3th, £th, -^th, &c.
the difeharge from the lateral pipe is reduced to t, f d, |th,
&c.
It is therefore of great importance to determine, what
this diminution of preflure is which arifes from the motion
along the main.
It is plain, that if the water fuffered no refiftance in the
main, its velocity would be that with which it entered, and
it would pafs along without exerting any preffure. If the
pipe were Ihut at the end, the preffure on the fide* would
be the full preflure of the head of water. If the head of
water remain the fame, and the end of the tube be contrac¬
ted, but not Hopped entirely, the velocity in the pipe Is di¬
minilhed. If we would have the velocity in the pipe with
this contradled mouth augmented to what it v/as before the
contra&ion was made, we muft employ the preffure of a
pifton, or of a head of water. This is propagated through
the fluid, and thus a preffure is immediately excited on the /
fides of the pipe. New obltrudfions of any kind, arifing
from iridtion or any other caufe, produce a diminution of
velocity in the pipe. But when the natural velocity is
checked, the particles rea<!ft on what obftrudts their mo¬
tion ; and this atlion is uniformly propagated through a
perfect fluid in every diredfion. The refiftance therefore
which we thus aferibe to fridlion, produces the lame lateral
preffute which a contradion of the orifice, which equally
diminifties the velocity in the pipe, would do. Indeed this
is demonltrable from any diftind notions that we can form
of thefe obftrudions. They pioceed from the want of per-
fed fmoothne*fs, which obliges the particles next the Tides
to move in undulated lines. This excites tranfverfe forces
in the fame manner as any conftrained curvilineal motion.
A particle in its undulated path tends to efcape bom it,
and ads on the lateral particles in the fame manner that it
would do if moving fingly in a capillary tube having the
fame undulations; it would prefs on the concave fide of eve¬
ry fuch undulation. Thus a preffure is exerted among the
particles, which is propagated to the fides of the pipe ; or
the diminution of velocity may arile from a vifeidky or
want of perfed fluidity. This obliges the particle imme¬
diately preffed to drag along with it another particle which
is withheld by adheiion to the fides. This requires addi¬
tional, preffure from a pifton, or an additional head of water;
and this preffure alfo is propagated to the lides of the pipe.
Hence it Ihould follow, that the preffure which water
in motion exerts on the fides of its conduit is equal to
that which is competent to the head of water which impels
it into the pipe, diminilhed by the head of water competent
to the adual velocity with which it moves along the pipe.
Let H reprefent the head of water which impels it into the
entry of the pipe, and h the head which would produce the
adtual velocity ; then H—h is the column which would pro¬
duce the preffure exerted on its fides.
This is abundantly verified by very fimple experiments.
5X2 Let
w OR. [ goo ] WOR
Let an upright pipe be inferted into the fide of the main pipe.
When the water runs out by the mouth of the main, it will
rife in this branch till the weight of the ctflkmn balances
the prefTure that fupports it; and if we then afcertain the
velocity oi the ifluing water by means of the quantity dif-
charged, and compute the head or height necefiary for pro¬
ducing this velocity, and fubtraft this from the height of
water above the entry of the main, we fhall find the height
in the branch precilely equal to their difference. Our rea¬
ders may lee this by examining the experiments related by
Graveiande, and ftill better by confulting the experiments
narrated by Boffut, § crS, which are detailed with great
minutenefs ; the refults correfponded accurately with this
propolition. d he experiments indeed were not heights of
water fupported by this preffure, but water expelled by it
through the fame orifice. Indeed the truth of the propo-
fition appears in every way we can confider the motion of
water. And as it is of the firll importance in the pradlice
of conducting water (for reafons which will preiently ap¬
pear), it merits a particular attention. When an inclined
tube is in train, the accelerating power of the water (or its
weight diminifhed in the proportion of the length of the
oblique column to its vertical height, or its weight multi¬
plied by the fradion which expreffes the fiope), is in
equilibrio with the obftructions ; and therefore it exerts no
preffure on the pine but what arifes from its weight alone.
Any part of it would continue to Hide down the inclined
plane with a conftant velocity, though detached from what
follovrs it. It therefore derives no preffure from the head
of water which impelled it into the pipe. The fame muff
be faid of a horizontal pipe infinitely fmooth, or oppoling
no refiftance. The water would move in this pipe with the
full velocity due to the head of water which impels it into
the entry. But when the pipe oppofes an obffrinftion, the
head of water is greater than that which would impel it
into the pipe with the velocity that it aftually has in it ;
and this additional preffure is propagated along the pipe,
where it is balanced by the a&ua! refiftance, and therefore
excites a quaqua verfum preffure on the pipe. In fhort,
whatever part of the head of water in the refervoir, or of the
preffure which impels italong the tube, is not employed in pro¬
ducing velocity, is employed in adding againft fome obftruc-
tion, and excites (by the reaCUon of this obftruCtion) an equal
preffure on the tube. The rule therefore is general, but is
iubjedd to fome modifications which deferve our attention.
In the fimply iaclined pipe BC (fig- 4.), the preffure on
any point S is equal to that of the head AB of water
which impels the water into the pipe wanting ; or minus
that of the head of water which would communicate to it the
velocity with which it a&ually moves. This we fhall call
rc, and confider it as the weight of a column of water whole
length alio is r. In like manner H may be the column
AB, which impels the water into the pipe, and would
communicate a certain velocity ; and b may reprefent the
column which would communicate the adtual velocity. We
have therefore x — H — h.
In the pipe H1KL, the p-effure at the point I is AH
— 10, ~ H — h — 10 ; and the preffure at K - is
H — h 4- PK. 1
And in the pipe DEFG, the'preffure on E is = AR-—
h EM, n li — h — EM ; and the preffure at F is FI
—/_> + FN.
We muft carefully diftinguifh this preffure on any fquare
inch of the pipe from the obftru&ion or refiftance which
that inch actually exerts, and which is part of the caufe of
this preflure. I he preffure is (by the laws of hydroftatics)
the fame with that exerted oa the water by a iquate inch
5 ‘ ,
of the pifton or forcing head of water. This mufl ba- Wat;r,
lance the united obftruftions of the whole pipe, in as far Works- 1
as they are not balanced by the relative weight of the wa- “—^
ter in an inclofed pipe. Whatever be the inclination of a
pipe, and the velocity of the water in it, there is a certain
part of this refiftance which may not be balanced by the
tendency which the water has to Aide along it, provided
the pipe be long enough ; or if the pipe is'too fhort, the
tendency down the pipe may more than balance all the re¬
finances that obtain below. In the firft cafe, this overplus
muft be balanced by an additional head of water; and in
the latter cafe the pipe is not in train, and the water
will accelerate. There is fomething in the mechanifm of
thefe motions which makes a certain length of pipe necef-
fary for bringing it into train ; a certain portion of the
furface which a&s in concert in obftru6ting the motion, - 1
We do. not completely underftand this circumftance, but
we can form a pretty diftinft notion of its mode of ac¬
ting. ri he film of water contiguous to the pipe is with¬
held by the obftru&iqn, but glides along ; the film immedi¬
ately within this is withheld by the outer film, but glides
through it: and thus all the concentric films glide within
thofe around them, fomewhat like the Hiding tubes of a
fpy-glafs, when we draw it out by taking hold of the
end of the innermoft. Thus the fecond film paffes beyond
the firft or outermoft, and becomes the outermoft, and rubs
along the tube. The third does the fame in its turn ; and
thus the central filaments come at laft to the outfide, and all
fuftain their greateft poffible obftrudtion. When this is ac-
compliftied, the pipe is in train. This requires a certain
length, which we cannot determine by theory. We fee
however that pipes of greater diameter muft require a
greater length, and this in a proportion which is probably
that of the number of filaments, or the fquare ef'the dia¬
meter. Buat found this fuppofition agree well enough
with his experiments. A pipe of one inch in diameter
fuftained no change of velocity by gradually fhortening ft
till he reduced it to fix feet, and then it difeharged a little
more water. A pipe of two inches diameter gave a fenfible
augmentation of velocity when ftiortened to. 25 feet. He
therefore lays, that the fquare of the diameter in inches,
multiplied by 72, will exprefs (in inches) the length nectfi.
fary for putting any pipe in train.
1 herefiftar.ee exerted by a fquare inch of the pipe makes
but a fmall part of the preffure which the whole refiftances
occafion to be exerted there before they can be overcome.
d
The refiftance may be reprefented by —, when J is the hy¬
draulic depth (^th of the diameter), and s the kn ttfi of a
column whofe vertical height is one inch, and it is. the rtlaT
live weight of a column of water whofe bale is a fquare
inch, and height is d. For the refiftance of any length s
of pipe which is in train,, is equal to the tendency of the
water to Hide down (being balanced by it); that is, is equal
to the weight of this column multiplied by —. The mag¬
nitude of this column is had by multiplying its length by
its fe£Hon. The fedtion is the-produbt of the border b or
circumference, multiplied by the mean depth d, or it is bd.
This, multiplied by the length, is 6 <//; and this multiplied
by the Hope - is h d, the relative weight of the column
whofe length is s. The relative weight of one inch is there-
‘ bd   .
fore and this is in equilibrio wjth the refiftance of a
ring of the pipe one inch broad. This, when unfolded, is a
parallelogram b inches in length. One inch 'of this there¬
fore
W O R
[ 901 1
W O R
fore is - > relative weight of a column of water having
■'7/ for jts height and a fquare inch for its bafe. Suppofe the
pine four inches in diameter, and the dope i= 253, the
refcftance is one grain ; for an inch oi water weighs 253
grain's. . • • r
This knowledge of the preiTure of water rn motion is ot
great importance. In the management of nvers and canals
it in fir nits us concerning the damages which they produce
in their beds by tearing un the foil; it informs us ot the
ftrength which we muft give to the banks: but it is of more
conftquence in the management of clofe conduits. _ Ty this
we muft regulate the ftrength of our pipes; by tins alto we
rnuft afeertain the quantities of water which may be drawn
off by lateral branches from any main conduit.
With refpecl to the full of thefe objefts, where fecunty
is our foie concern, it is proper to confider the preffure m
the moft unfavourable circumftances, vi/.. when the end ot
the main is (hut. This cafe is not uufrequent. _ Nay, when
the water is in motion, its velocity in a conduit teldom ex-
ceils a very few feet in a fccond. El.ht feet/>er fecond
requires only one foot ot water to produce it. W e Ihoulu
therefore eftimate the ftrain on all conduits by the whole
height of the refervoir. . . .
In order to adjuft the ftrength of a pipe to the ftrain, we
may conceive it as conf.fting or two hair cyimders of iniu-
perable ftrength, joined along the two learns, where the
itren'o-th is the fame with the ordinary ftrength of the ma¬
terials of which it is made. The mhde preffure tends to
burft the pice by tearing open thefe feams, and each ot them
fuftainsi half of the ftrain. The ftrain on an inch o. thefe
two feams is equal to the weight of a co umn of water whofe
height is the deoth of the (earn below the furface of the re-
fervo’r and whofe bafe is an inch broad and a diameter of
the pipe in length. This follows trom the common principles
°f Suppofe the pipe to be of lead, one foot in diameter and
100 feet under the furface of the refervoir Water weighs
61 * pounds per foot. The bafe of our column is therefore
X th of a foot, and the tendency to burft the pipe is 100
’ , J v, i a, — <5 110, ~ C2I pounds nearly. I here ore
aniiich of one feamds drained by 26o| pounds. A rod of
lead one inch fquare is pulled a funder by 860 pounds (.ee
Str^gth of Matzah, ^ 40). Therefore, if the thicknefs
of the feam is = inches’ cr td„of a,n U.lch’ J
with ft and this ftrain. But wc muft make it much itonger
than this, efoecially if the pipe leads from an engine which
fends the water along it by Harts. Bebdor and Defaguihers
}iaVe given tables of the thicknefs and weights of pipes which
experience has found iufficient for the d.fterent materials and
depths. Defaguiliers fays, that a leaden pipe of ,ths of^an
inch in thicknefs is ftrong enough for a height ol 140
and diameter of 7 inches. From this we may calculate all
others. Belidor lavs, that a leaden pipe lU inches diameter
an4 60 feet deep fhpuld be half an inch thick: bm thefe
thinrs will be more properly computed by means of the lift
given in n° 40 of the article Strength oj Ma.eruvs.
The application which we are moft anxious to niaxe of
the knowledge of the preffure. of moving waters rs the deri¬
vation from a main conduit by lateral branches. I his oc¬
curs very frequently in the diftribution of waters among the
inhabitants of towns; and it is fo imperfoftly under flood by
the oreateft part of thofe who take the name of engineers,
SKS3. have no lecorlty that they (1,all get even one
half cf the water they bargain and pay for ; yet this may
be as accurately afeertained as any other probkmm. hydrau¬
lics by means of cur general theorem, ihe cale therefore
merits our particular attention.
It appears to be determined already, when we have after-
tained the preffuiesby which the water is impelled into thele
lateral pipes, efpecially after we have faid that the experi¬
ments of Boffut on the attual diftharges from a lateral pipe
fully con dint the theoretic?.! do&rine. But much remains
to be con fide red. We have feen that there is a vaft diffe¬
rence between the difeharge made through a hole, or even
through a fhort pipe, and the difeharge from the far end
of a pipe derived' from a main' conduit. And even when
this has been al'certained by our new theory, the difeharge
thus modified-will be found confiderably different from the
real ftate of things: For when water is flowing along a main
with a known velocity, and therefore exerting a known
preffure on the circle which we propoft for the entry of a
branch, if we infert a branch there water will go along it :
but this will generally make a confiderable change in the
motion along the main, and therefore in the preffure v, men
is to expel the water. It alfo makes a conftderable change
in the whole quantity which paffes along the antenoi pmt
of the main, and a ftill greater change on what moves along
that part of it which lies beyond the branch : it therefore
affedts the quantity nectffary for the whole fupply, the force
that is required for propelling it, and the quantity delivered
by other branches. This part therefore of the manage¬
ment of water in conduits is of confiderable importance and
intricacy. We can p’-opofe in this place nothing more than
a folution of fuch leading queftions as involve the c‘ue cir¬
cumftances, recommending to our readers thfc pemial of orr^
crinal works on this fubjed. M. Boffut’s experiments arc
fully competent to the eftablifhment of the fundamental prin¬
ciple. The hole through which the lateral diftharges were
made was but a few feet from the refervom. ihep'pe
was fucceffively lengthened, by which the refiftances. were
increafed, and the velocity diminifhed. But this did not
afled the lateral difeharges, except by afteding the piel-
fures ; and the difeharges from the end of the mam were
fuppoftd to be the fame as when the lateral pipe was not m-
ferted. Although this was not ftridly true, the diffeience
was infenfible, becaufe the lateral pipe had but about *he
18th part of the area ef the main. ...
Supoofe that the difeharge from the refervoir remains the
fame after the derivation of this branch, then the motion of
the water all the way to the infertion of the branch is the
fame as before ; but, beyond this, the.dffchargc is cimim.h-
ed by all that is difeharged by the branch, with the head .v
equivalent to the preffure on the fide. . The difeharge by
the lower end of the main being dimimihed, the velocity and
refiftance in it are alfo diminifhed.' Therefore the difference
between x and the head employed to overcome the mmtion
in this fecond cafe, would be a needkfs or immmient par
of the whole load at the entry, which is impoffible ; tor eve¬
ry force produces an effedt, or it is deftroyed by fome rc-
adion. The effed of the forcing head ot water is ta
oroduce the *reateft difeharge correfpondmg to the ob-
itrudions ; and thus the difeharge from the refervoir, or
the fupply to the main, muft be augmented by the infertion
of the branch, if the forcing head of water remains the
fame. A greater portion therefore of the forcing head was
employed in producing a greater difeharge at the entry of
the"main, and the remainder, lets than w, prooucee the pie -
fure on the tides. This head was the one competent to the
obftrudions refulting from the velocity beyond the mfertion
or the branch ; and this velocity, dimmifhed by the di.-
charge already m.ade, was-leis than that at t;.w entiy, ‘-n-
even than that of the main without a branca. - w’y;
aopear more diftindly by putting the cafe into the form or
an eouatton. Therefore let H--x be the height due to
the velocity at the entry, of which the effedabuuns omy
Water*
wi rks.
won
Iiorf^ontally, 1 he head x is the only one which afta on
the ildes of the tube, tending to produce the difcharge by
the branch, at the fame time that it muft overcome the ob-
itruft.ons beyond the branch. If the orifice did not exiil
and i the foree producing the velocity on a fltort tube be
reprefented by 2 G, and the fedion of the main by
the fup ply at the entry of the main would be A </TG
Vll — x ; and if the orifice had no influence on the value
t 902 H
W O R
of x, the discharge by the orifice would be X)
H’
D being its difc'harge by means of the head H, when the
end of the main is fhut; for the difcharges are in the fubdu-
pucate ratio of the heads of water by which they are ex¬
pelled ; and therefore a/H : \/x =1 D : D / ~ (
= 4
But we have feen that .v muft diminifh and we know
at f ob.eruptions are nearly as the fquare roots of the
ve ocitres, when thefe do not differ much among themfelves.
iherefore callings the preflure or head which balances the
reiiltances of the main without a branch, while .v is the head
ueceftary for the main with a branch, we may inftitute this
proportion y : H —y = x-. . and th;„ 4(h tei.m
Wi exprefs the head producing the velocity in the main
beyond the branch (as H —y would have done in a main
without a branch). _This velocity beyond the branch will
be V's G ^ ~——A and the difeharge at the end
will be A ■v/a G x - ^—■>')_
If to this we add the
difeharge °f the branch, the fum will be the whole difeharge
and therefore the whole iupply. Therefore we have thefolW-’
yx(H^)
Jng equation, A v'aG y'H—y — A
+d y ii.
v H
From this we deduce the value of x
z GHA*
(a ^ g y
H
y
, G \1 *
+ v'h) +
2 GA2
This value
y ' a/ H
of .V being fubftituted in the equation of the difeharge <T of
the branch, which was z= D ^will g;ve thc difchar.
ges required, and they will differ fo mnch the more from
l e difchaiges calculated according to the iimple theory, as
we 'f r,n 'l'fKa,er- Br f™P>= theory,
ve mean the fuppofition that the lateral difehargeb are fuch
he.Vhr f H P rllCed by the head H - /]’ wh^ H is the
vSy°L the mrr,r’ a”d " the hcad dUe the aa-‘
bv a ll^r apFearSthat the P'-oportion of the difeharge
i 7r up,pe J™ a ma,n that is fhut at the far end
and the difeharge from a main that is open, depends not
only on the preffures, but alto on the fize of the laLal pipe
and its diftance from the refervoir. When it is large Pit
greatly alters the train of the main, under the fame head
by altering the difcharge at its extremity, and the velocity
In 11 ^yond the branch ; and if it be near the rcLlot t
^ tr2ln, bCCriUfe the dim»nfhed velocity takes
place through a greater extent, and there is a greate'r dimi-
nution of the refinances.
When the branch is taken off at a confiderable difianoe
re^rV0l‘r’ the ProbItm becomes more complicated
and the head * is refolved into two parts; one of which ba>
lances the refiflance in the firfi part of the main, and the Water-
other balances the refiftances beyond the lateral pipe, with
a velocity dtmuufhed by the ditcharge from the branch—
F F1-3 t,he,end of the main produces very little change
in the train of the pipe. 7 »c
When the lateral difeharge is great, the train may be f#
al ered, that the remaining part of the main will not run
full, and then the branch will not yield the fame quantity
.he velocity m a very long horizontal tube may befo final!
(by a fmall head of water and great obftruftions in a very
long tube) that n will juft run full. An orifice made in its
upperhde will yteld nothing ; and yet a fmall tube interted
into it w,ft carry a column almoft as high as the refervoir.
bo that we cannot judge in all cafes of the preftUres by the
diicharges, and vice verfa. 7
If there be an inclined tube, having a head greater than
what is competent to the velocity, we may bring It into
br sn openmg on its upper fide near the refervoir.
in thcT ly'. n .,0,;'e wa,,:r: ^ velocity will diminiih
!he holf ^ ’• ‘n tram- If We 'hol,l<1 e"lal-gc
the hole, it will yield no more water than before.
And thus we have pointed out the chief circumftances
which affe& ^efe lateral difeharges. The difeharges are
afterwards modified by the conduits in which they are con-
veyed to their places of deftination. Thefe being generally
f .fma11 d*menfions, for the fake of economy, the veloci¬
ty is much d.mimfhetb But, at the fame time, it approach-
direftlt0 a?1 WJ11Ch-the fame conduit would bring
direftly from the refervoir, becadfe its fmall velocity wif
produce a lefs change m the train of the main conduiti
We ftiould now treat of jets of water, which ftill make
an ornament in the magnificent pleafure grounds of the
,Te t 7‘ , borne of thefe are indeed grand objefts, fuch as
the two at Peterhoff in Ru#ia, which fpout about b© feet
andV.r “T ° ,ncbeS diameter, which falls a2ain,
and (hakes the ground with its blow. Even a fpout of aa
inch or two inches diameter, lancing to the height of 1 co
feet, ,s a gay objeft, and greatly enlivens a pleafure-ground;
efpecially when the changes of a gentle breeze bend the jet
^hOIS k- kBl\7 haVC 1,9 r°0m Ieft ^ treating tU
1S °fl f°me mCety 5 and muft conclude this ar-
tick with a very (hort account of the management of water
as an aftive power for impelling machinery.
II. Of Mach nery drawn by Water.
eJ;:GSh,.Y;ry COf Pr*enfi,e art’cle, includiojv almoll
.ery poffiblefpeaesofmd1. It i, no lefv important, and
1l is thcreiorc matter of
the detail which it deferves. The mere definition oV The
ZuZs ZT/ff TfiS Tr1Ch ^ in general wouId filF
maW nf d / ^ fiC dePcnPt,on of their principles and
maxrms of conftru&ion would almoft form a complete body
a WorkTTT But dl'S is far bt>’ond the limits of
a Work hke ours. Many of thefe machines have been al¬
ready defenbed under their proper names, or under the ar
oitTtfmTr ::~^Tfaaures \and r
Wl.e« they are deferibed in minute detai!,0 The".!^
irinranv foho^vol" Dr’^ f' publifted at Faria
in many folro volumes, contains a defeription of the pecu.
” ‘"GVy ,a'’y.ra'IUi a"d ,he 'he in-
}dc Ct f hd",Ue' W ,lch P‘lrt'cula,iy relate to the mccha.
me a t, already contain many more. All tl.at we can do
Place !?> to conl1(lcr the chief circumltances that are
theTeffc'cv Thr ’ “o wl"'ch a“ “““ *riv=
en.cacy. I hefe circumftances are to be found in the
manner of employing water as an adiing p0wer, and moft of
them
W O R r 903 J w O R
tfe<rn arc comprehended In the conftru&ion of water-wheels,
worts- When we have explained the principles and the maxims of
—-v  conftrudtlon of a water-wheel, every reader converfant in
mechanics knows, that the axis of this wheel may be em¬
ployed to tranfmit the force iraprefled on it to any fpecies
©f machinery. Therefore nothing lubfequent to this can
with propriety be contidered as water-‘works.
Water-wheels are of two kinds, diftinguifhed by the man¬
ner in which water is made an impelling power, viz. by its
weight, or by its impulfe. This requires a very different
form and manner of adaptation ; and this forms an oflenlible
diftinftion, fufficiently obvious to give a name to each clais.
' When water is made to a£l by its weight, it is deli¬
vered from the fpout as high On the wheel as pofiible, that
it may continue long to prefs it down : but when it is made
to ftrike the wheel, it is delivered as low as poffible, that it
may have previouflj acquired a great velocity. And thus
the wheels are faid to be overshot or undershot.
Of Overjhet Wheels.
This is nothing but a frame of open buckets, fo difpo-
fed round the rim of a wheel as to receive the water deli¬
vered from a fpout; fo that one fide of the wheel is load¬
ed with water, while the other is empty. The confe-
quence muft be, that the loaded fide muft delcend. By this
motion the water runs out ©f the lower buckets, while the
empty buckets of the rifing fide of the wheel come under
the fpout in their turn, and are filled with water.
If it were poflible to conftrudl the buckets in fuch a man¬
ner as to remain completely filled with water till they come
to the very bottom of the wheel, the preffure with which
the water urges the wheel round its axis would be the lame
as if the extremity of the horizontal radius were continually
loaded with a quantify of water fufficient to fill a fquare
pipe, whofe fedfion is equal to that of the bucicet, and
whofe length is the diameter of the wheel. For let the
buckets BD and EF (fig. 5.) be compared together, the
arches DB and EF are equal. The mechanical energy of
the water contained in the bucket EF, or the preflure with
which its weight urges the wheel, is the fame as if all this
water were hung on that point T of the horizontal arm
CF, where it is cut by the vertical or plumb-line B F. T-his
is plain from the moft elementary principles of mechanics.
Therefore the effedt of the bucket BD is to that of the
bucket EF as CT to CF or CB. Draw the horizontal
lines PB l h, QD dd. It is plain, that if BD is taken very
fmsll, fo that it may be confidered as a ftraight line, BD :
BO = CB : BP, and EF :b d — CF : CT, and EF X CT
=zb dX. CF. Therefore if the prifm of water, whofe verti¬
cal fedlion is hhdd, were hung on at F, its force to urge the
wheel round would be the fame as that of the water lying
m the bucket BD. The fame may be faid of every bucket;
and the effedlive pfefiTuie ol the whole ring of water
A/HKFI, in its natural fituation, is the fame with the
pillar of water ahh a hung on at F. And the efifedt of any
portion BF of this ring is the fame with that of the corre-
fponding portion bYfj> oi the vertical pillar. We do not
take into account the fmall difference which arifes from the
deoth B or Ff becaufe we may fuppofe the circle de-
feribed through the centres of gravity of the buckets. And
in the farther profecution of this fubjedf, we (hall take fimi-
lar liberties, with the view of fimplifying the fubjedl, and fa¬
iring lime to the reader.
But'fuch a Rate of the wheel is impoffible. The bucket
at the very top of the wheel may be completely filled with
water ; but when it comes into the oblique pofition BD,
a part of the water muft run over the outer ddge s, and the
bucket will only retain the quantity ZBD ^; and if the
buckets are formed by partitions diredled to the axis of the Water-
wheel, the whole water muft be run out by the time that v/‘irkj'
they defeend to the level of the axis. To prevent this ma¬
ny contrivances have been adopted. The wheel has been
furrounded with a hoop or fweep, confifting of a circular
board, which comes almeft into cimtadl with the rim of the
wheel, and terminates at H, where the water is allowed to
run off. But unlefs the work is executed with uncommon
accuracy, the wheel made exactly round, and the fweep ex¬
actly fitting it, a great quantity of water efcapes between
them ; and there is a very fenfible obfxruction to the mo¬
tion of fuch a wheel, from fomething like friction between
the water and the fweep. Froft alfo effebtually flops the
motion of fuch a wheel. Sweeps have therefore been gene¬
rally laid afide, although there are fituations where they
might be ufed with good effeft.
Mill-wrights have turned their whole attention to the gi¬
ving a form to the buckets which ftiall enable them to re¬
tain the water along a great portion of the circumference of
the wheel. It would be endlefs to deferibe all thefe con¬
trivances ; and we ffiall therefore content ourfelves with one
or two of the moft approved. The intelligent reader will
readily fee that many of the circumftances which concur in
producing the ultimate effedl (fuch as the facility with which,
the water is received into the buckets, the place which it is-
to occupy during the progreft of the bucket from the top
to the bottom of the wheel, the readineis with which they
are evacuated, or the chance that the water has of being;
dragged beyond the bottom of the wheel by- its adhefion.
See. See.) are fuch as do not admit of precife calculation or
reafoning about their merits ; and that this or that foim can
feldom be evidently dernonftrated to be the very bell poflible.
But, at the fame time, he will fee the general reafons of pre¬
ference, and his attention will be diredled to circumftancts.-
which muft be attended to, in order to have a good bucket¬
ed wheel.
Fig. 6. is the outline of a wheel having 40 buckets.-
The ring of board contained between the concentric circles
QDS and PAR, making the ends of the buckets, is called
the shrouding, in the language of the art, and QP is cal¬
led the depth of Jhroud'ing. The inner circle PAR is cal¬
led the Sole of the wheel, and ufually confifts of boards
nailed to ftrorig wooden rings of compafs timber of confi-
derable fcanrling, firmly united with the arms or radii.
The partitions, which determiner the form of the buckets,
confift of three different planes or boards AB, BC, CD,
which are varioufly named by different artifts. We have
heard them named the Start or Shoulder, the Arm,
and tdie Wrest (probably for wrift, on account of a re-
femblance of tfte whole line to the human aim) ; B is alio
called the Elbow. Fig. 7. reprefents a fmall portion of
the fame bucketing on a larger Icale, that the proportions
of the parts may be more diflinftly feen. AG, the foie of
one bucket, is made about yth more than the depth GH
of the fhrouding. The ftart AB is 4 of AI. The plane
BC is fo inclined to AB that it would pafs through H j
but it is made to terminate in C, in fuch a mariner that
FC is ^ths of GH or AI. Then CD is fo placed that
HD is about -fth of IK.
By this conftruiftioR, it follows that the area FABC is
very nearly equal to DABC ; fo that the water which will
fill the fpace FABC will all be contained in the bucket
when it flrall come into fuch a pofition that AD is a hori¬
zontal line ; and the line A B will then make an angle of
nearly 350 with the vertical, or the bucket will be 3 f from
the perpendicular. If the bucket defeend fo much lower
that one half of the water runs out, the line AB will make
an angle of 23^, or 24" nearly, with the vertical. There-
W O R [ 904
fore the wheel, filled to the degree now mentioned, will
begin to lofe water at about |th of the diameter from the
bottom, and half of the ’water tw\ll be difchcirged from the
loweft bucket, about ^th of the diameter farther down.
Thefe fituations of the ditchar«ing bucket are marked at
r and V in fig. 6. Had a greater proportion of the buc¬
kets been filled with water when they were under the fpout,
the difcharge would have begun at a greater height from
the bottom, and we fhould lofe a greater portion of the whole
fall of water. ri he lots by the prefent eoriitruhtion is lefs
than th (luppofing the water to be delivered into the
wheel at the very top), and may be eftimated at about
iVth ; for the lofs is the verfed fine of the angle which
the radius of the bucket makes with the vertical. The
vetfed fine of 350 is nearly -fth of the radius (being o, t 8085 )>
or T’5th of the diameter. It is evident, that if only \ of
this water were lupplied to each bucket as it pafles the
fpout, it would have been retained for 10° more of a re¬
volution, and the lofs of fall would have been only about
I hefe obfervations ferve to (how, in general, that an ad¬
vantage is gamed by having the buckets to capacious that
the quantity of water which each can receive as it pafles
the fpout may not nearly fill it. This may be accomplilh-
ed by making them of a fufficient length, that is, by ma¬
king the wheel fufficiently broad between the two fhroud-
ings. Economy is the only objection to this pvaftice, and
it is generally very ill placed. When the work to be per¬
formed by the wheel is great, the addition of power gained
by a greater breadth will foon compenfate for the additional
txpence.
The third plane CD is not very frequent; and mill¬
wrights generally content themfelves with continuing the
board all the way from the elbow B to the out£r edge of
the wheel at H ; and AB is generally no more than |d of
the depth AI. But CD is a very evident improvement,
caufing the wheel to retain a very fenfible addition to the
wrater. Some indeed make this addition more confiderable,
by bringing EC more outward, fo as to meet the rim of
the wheel at H, for xnftance, and making HD coincide
with the rim. But this makes the entry of the water fome-
what more difficult during the very Ihort time that the
opening of the bucket palfes the fpout. To facilitate this
as much as poffible, the water fliould get a direftion from
the fpout, fuch as will fend it into the buckets in the moll
perfeft manner. This may be obtained by delivering the
water through an aperture that is divided by thin plates of
board or metal, placed in the proper pofition, as we have
reprefented in fig. 6. The form of bucket laft mentioned,
having the wrelt concentric with the rim, is unfavourable
to the ready admiffion of the water; whereas an oblique
wreft conducts the water which has miffed one bucket into
the next below.
The mechanical confideration of this fubjetl alfo fhows
us, that a deep ftirouding, in order to make a capacious
bucket, is not a good method : it does not make the buc¬
kets retain their water any longer; and it diminifhes the
effective fall of water : for the water received at the top of
the wheel immediately falls to the bottom of the bucket,
and thus ihortens the fictitious pillar of water, which we
fhowed to be the meafure of the effective or ufeful preffure
on the wheel: and this concurs with our former reafous for
recommending as great a breadth of the wheel, and length
of buckets, as economical confiderations will oermit.
A bucket-wheel has been executed lately by Mr Robert
Burns, at the cotton-mills of Houfton, Burns, and Co. at
Cartfide in Renfrewlhire, of a conftrudtion entirely new,
but founded en a good principle, which is fufceptible of
] W O R
great extenfion. It is reprefented in fig. 8. The bucket
confifts of a Hart AB, an arm BC, and a wreff CD, con-
centric with the rim. But the bucket is alfo divided by a
partition LM, concentric with the foie and rim, and fo
placed as to make the inner and outer portions of nearly
equa! capacity. It is evident, without any farther reafon-
ing about it, that this partition will enable the bucket to
retain its water much .longer. When they are filled -1 d
they retain the whole water at 1 8° from the bottom ; and
they retain 4- at x x°. They do not admit the water quite
fo freely as buckets of the common conftruaion ; but by
means of the contrivance mentioned a little ago for the
fpout (alio the invention of Mr Burns, and furnilhed with
a rack-work, which taifed or depreffed it as the fupply of
water varied, lo as at all times to employ the whole fall of
the water), iC is found, that a flow-moving wheel allows
one half of the water to get into the inner buckets, espe¬
cially if the partition do not altogether reach the radius
drawn through the lip D of the outer bucket.
This is a very great improvement of the bucket-wheel;
and when the wheel is made of a liberal breadth, fo that
the water may be very (hallow in the buckets, it feems to
carry the performance as fat as it can go. Mr Burns made
the firft trial on.a wheel of 24 feet diameter; and its per¬
formance is manifeftly fuperior to that of the wheel which
it replaced, and which was a very good one. It has alfo
another valuable property : When the fupply of water is
very fcanty, a proper adjuftment of the apparatus in the
fpout will direft almoft the whole of the water into the
outer buckets; which, by placing it at a greater diftance
from the axis, makes a very fenfible addition to its mecha¬
nical energy.
We faid that this principle is fufceptible of confiderable
extenfion ; and it is evident that two partitions will increafe
the effeft, and that it will increafe with the number of par¬
titions : fo that when the pra&ice now begun, of making
water-wheels of iron, fliall become general, and therefore
yery thin partitions are ufed, their number may be greatly
mcreafed without any inconvenience : and it is obvious, that
this feries of partitions mull greatly contribute, to the Itiff-
nefs and general firmnels of the whole wheel.
There frequently occurs a difficulty in the making of
bucket-wheels, when the half-taught mill wright attempts
to retain the water a long time in "the buckets. The water
gets into them with a difficulty which he cannot account
tor, .and fpills all about, even when the buckets are not
moving away from the fpout. This arifes from the air,
which mull find its way out to admit the water, but is
obltru&ed by the entering water, and occafions a great
fputtering at the entry. This may be entirely prevented
by making the fpout confiderably narrower than the wheel.
This will leave room at the two ends of the buckets for the
elcape of the air. I his obltnuSlion is vailly greater than
one would imagine; for the water drags along with it a
great quantity of air, as is evident in the Water-blajl de-
feribed by many authors.
There is another and very ferious obftvuftion to the mo¬
tion of an overfliot or bucketed wheel. When,it moves in
back-water, it is not only refilled by the water, when it
moves more flowly than the wheel, which is very frequently
the cale, but it lirts a great deal in the riling buckets. In
fome particular ftates of back-water, the defeending buc¬
ket fills itfelf completely with water ; and, in other cafes,
it contains a very confiderable quantity, and air of com¬
mon denfity ; while in lome rarer cafes it contains lets wa¬
ter, with air in a condenfed Itate. In the firft cate, the
riling bucket mull come up filled with water, which it can¬
not drop till its mouth get out ot the water. In the fe-
cond
Water.
works.
I
W O R
[ 905 ]
W O R
work«.
cond eaft, part of the water goes out before this 5 but the
air rarefies,Vnd therefore there is ftill feme water dragged or
lifted up by the wheel, by faction as it is ufually called. In the
lad cafe there is no fuch back load on the rifing fide of the
wheel, but (which is as detrimental to its performance) the
defcending fide is employed in condenfing air; and although
this air aids the afcent of the rifing fide, it does not aid it
fo much as it impedes the defcending fide, being (by the
form of the bucket) nearer to the vertical line drawn thro’
the axis.
All this may be completely prevented by a few holes
made in the fturt of each bucket. Air being at leaft 800
times rarer than water, will efcape through a hole almoft
30 times fafter with the fame prefl'ure. Very moderate
holes will therefore fuffice for this purpofet and the (mall
quantity of water which thefe holes difcharge during the
defcent of the buckets, produces a lofs which is altogether
infignificant. The water v/hich runs out of one runs into
another, fo that there is only the lofs of one bucket. We
have feen a wheel of only 14 feet diameter working in near¬
ly three feet of back-water. It laboured prodigioufly, and
brought up a great load of water, which fell from it in a-
brupt dafhes, which rendered the motion very hobbling.
When three holes of an inch diameter were made in each
bucket ( i 2 feet long), the wheel laboured no more, there was
no more plunging of water from its rifing fide, and its
power on the machinery was increaied more than ^tln
Thefe pradlical obfervations may contain information that
is new even to feveral experienced mill-wrights. To per-
fons lefs inforpjed they cannot fail of being ufeful. We
now proceed to confider the a<Sti®n of water thus lying in
the buckets of a wheel; and to afcertain its energy as it
may be modified by different circurnftances of fall, velo¬
city, &c.
With refpeA to variations in the fall, there can be little
room for difcuffion. Since the aftive preffure is meafured by
the pillar of water reaching from the horizontal plane where
it is delivered on the wheel, to the horizontal plane where
it is fpilkd bf the wheel, it is evident that it muff be pro¬
portional to this pillar, and therefore we mull deliver it
as high and retain it as long as poffible.
This maxim obliges us, in the firft place, to ufe a wheel
whofe diameter is equal to the whole fall. We fhall not
gain any thing by employing a larger wheel; for although
we fhould gain by ufmg only that part of the circumference
where the weight will aft more perpendicularly to the ra¬
dius, we fhall lofe more by the neceflity of difcharging the
water at a greater height from the bottom : For we muft
fuppofe the buckets of both the wheels equally well-con-
ftrufted; in which cafe, the heights above the bottom,
where they will difcharge the water, will increafe in the
proportion of the diameter of the wheel. Now, that we
fhall lofe more by this than we gain by a more direft ap¬
plication of the weight, is plain, without any further rea-
foning, by taking the extreme cafe, and fuppofing our
wheel enlarged to fuch a fize, that the ufelefs part below is
equal to our whole fall. In this cafe the water will be
fpdled from the buckets as foon as it is delivered into them.
All intermediate cafes, therefore, partake ol the imperfec¬
tion of this.
When our fall is exceedingly great, a wheel of an equal
diameter becomes enormoufly big and expenfive, and is of
itielf an unmanageable load. We have ieen wheels of 58
feet diameter, however, which worked extremely well ; but
they are of very difficult conftruftion, and extremely apt
to warp and go out of lhape by their weight. In cafes
like this, where we are unwilling to lofe any part of the
force of a fmall ftream, the bell form of a bucket-wheel is
Vox.. XVIII. Fart II.
an inverted chain-pump. Inflead of employing a chain-
pump of the beft conftruftion, ABCDEA (fig. 9-) t0 _
raile water through the upright pipe CB, by means of a
force applied to the upper wheel A, let the water be de¬
livered from a fpout F, into the upper part of the pipe BC,
and it will prefs down the plugs in the lower and narrower
bored part of it with the full weight of the column, and
efcape at ihe dead level of C. This weight will urge round
the wheel A without any defalcation : and this is the moft
powerful manner that any fall of water whatever can be ap¬
plied, and exceeds the moft perfeft overfhot wheel. But
though it excels all chains of buckets in economy and in
effeft, it has all the other imperfeftions of this kind of ma-
chinerv. Though the chain of plugs be of great ftrength,
it has fo much motion in its joints that it needs frequent re¬
pairs ; and when it.breaks, it is generally in the neighbour¬
hood of A, on the loaded fide, and all comes down with a
great cralh. There is all'o a lofs of power by th& immer-
fion of fo many plugs and chains in the water ; for there
can be no doubt but that if the plugs were big enough
and light enough, they would buoy and even draw up the
plugs in the narrow part at C. They muft therefore dimi-
niih, in all other cafes, the force with which this plug is
preffed down.
The velocity of an overfhot wheel is a matter of very
great nicety ; and authors, both fpeculative and praftical,
have entertained different, nay oppofite, opinions on the
fubjeft. Mr Beledor, whom the engineers of Europe have
long been accuftomed to regard as facred authority, main¬
tains, that there is a certain velocity related to that ob¬
tainable by the whole fall, which will procure to an over¬
fhot wheel the greateft performance. T)efaguilliers, Smea-
ton, Lambert, Des Parcieux, and others, maintain, that
there is no fuch relation, and that the performance of an
overflrot-wheel will be the greater, as it moves more flowly
by an increafe of its load of work. Beledor maintains,
that the aftive power of water lying in a bucket-wheel of
any diameter is equal to that of the impulfe or the fame
water on the floats of an underfhot wheel, when the water
iffues from a fluice in the bottom of the dam. The other
writers whom we have named affert, that the energy of
an underfhot-wheel is but one-half of that of an overfhot*
aftuated by the fame quantity of water falling from the
fame height.
To a manufacturing country like ours, which derives
aftoniffiing fuperiority, by which it more than compenfates
for the impediments of heavy taxes and luxurious living
chiefly from its machinery, in which it leaves all Em ope fas'
behind, the decifion of this queftion, in fuch a manner as
fhall leave no doubt or mifconception in the mind even of
an unlettered artift, muft be confidered as a material lervice;
and we think that this is eafily attainable.
When any machine moves uniformly, the accelerating
force or preffure aftually exerted on the impelled point of
the machine is in equilibrio with all the refiftances which
are exerted at the working point with thofe ariiing from
friftion, and thofe that are excited in different parts
of the machine by their mutual aftions. This is an
inconteftable truth ; and though little attended to by the
mechanicians, is the foundation of all pvaftical knowledge
of machines. Therefore, when an overfliot-wheel moves
uniformly, with any ’velocity whatever, the water is aftmg
with its whole weight : for gravity would accelerate its de¬
fcent, if not completely balanced by fome reaftion ; and in
this balance gravity and the reafting part of the machine
exert equal and oppofite preffures, and thus produce the
uniform motion of the machine. We are thus particular
on this point, became we obftrve mechanicians of the firft
r y name
Watar-
work*.
W 0 R [9
llorkl" name emPI°yin2‘ a mo^e reafoning on the queftion now
s' before us which is fpecious, and appears to prove the con-
clufion which they draw; but is neverthelefs contrary to
true mechanical principles. They aflert, that the flower
a heavy body is descending (fuppofe in a foale fufpended
from an axis in peritrochea), the more does it orefs on the
fcale, and the more does it urge the machine round : and
therefore the flower an oyerfhot wheel turns, the greater is
the force with which the water urges it round, and the
more work will be done. It is very true that the machine
is more rorcibly impelled, and that more work is done : but
this is Mot becaufe a pound of water prefles more ftrongly,
but becaufe there is more water prefimg on the wheel ; for
the fpout fupplies at the fame rate, and each bucket re¬
ceives more water as it paffes by it.
Let ps therefore examine this queftion by the unqueftion-
able principles of mechanics.
Let the overfhot-wheel A/H (fig. 9.) receive the wa¬
ter from a fpout at the very too of the wheel; and, in or-
der that the wheel may not be retarded by dragging into
motion the water limply laid into the upuermoft bucket at
, % ‘ A, let it be received at B, with the velocity (dwe&ed in a
tangent to the wheel) acquired by the head of water AP.
This velocity, therefore, muft be eqifal to that of the rim
ef the wheel. Let this be v, or let the wheel and the
water move over v inches in a f'econd. Let the buckets
be of fuch dimenfions, that all the water which each receives
a_s it pafi'es the fpaut is retained till it comes to the pofi-
tion R, where it is dilcharged at once, it is plain that,
in place of the feparate quantities of water lying in each
bucket, we may fubftitute a continued ring of water, equal
to their fum, and uniformly diftributed in the fpace BERp//?.
This conliitutes a ring of uniform thicknefs. * Let the area
of its crofs fe&ion B or F/ be called a. We have al
ready demonftrated, that the mechanical energy with which
this water on the circumference of the wheel urges it round,
is the fame with what would be exerted by the’pillar 6rr6
prefling on F/, or aiting by the lever CF. The weight
of this pillar may be exprefled by a X6r, or a X PS ; and
if we call the radius CF of the wheel R, the momentum
or mechanical energy of this weight will be reprefented bv
CXPSXR. 7
Now, let us fuppofe that this wheel is employed to raife
a weight W, which is fufpended by a rope wound round
the axis of the. wheel. Let r be the radius of this axle.
'1 hen W X r is the momentum of the work. Let the
weight rife with the velocity u when the rim of the wheel
turns with the velocity v, that is, let it rife u inches in a
fecond.
Since a perfeeff equilibrium obtains between the power
and the work when the motion is uniform, we muft have
W X r ~ « X PS X R.. But it is evident that R : r =: d ;
Therefore W Xu = a Xv X PS.
Now the performance of the machine is undoubtedly
measured by the weight and the height to which it is rai-
[ed in a fecond, or by W X u. Therefore the machine is
in its belt ppffible ftate when a X *u X PS is a maximum.
But it is plain that a X “f is an invariable quantity ; for it
is the cubic inches of water which the fpout fupplies in a
iecond. If the wheel moves faft, little water lies in each
bucket, and a is fmall. When v is fmall, a is great, for
the oppofite reafon ; but aXv remains the fame. There¬
fore we muft make PS a maximum, that is, v^e muft de¬
liver the water as high up as pofiible. Bui this diminifties
AP, and this diminifties the velocity of the wheel: and as
this has no limit, the propofition is demonftrated; and an
Overftiot wheel does the more work as it moves floweft.
- Convincing as this difeuflion muft be to any mechanician,
>6 ] w o R
we are anxious to imprefs the fame maxim on the minds Water,
o practical men, unaccuftomed to mathematical reafonin? workj,
of any kind. We therefore beg indulgence for addins a  ^
popular viAv of the queftion, which requires no fuch inVef- '
tigation.
We may reafon in this way : Suppofe a wheel having 10
buckets, and that fix cubic feet of water are delivered in a
iecond on the top of the wheel, and difeharged without
any lofs by the way at a certain height from the bottom
of the wheel. Let this be the cafe, whatever is the rate
or the wheel’s motion ; the buckets being of a fufficient ca¬
pacity to hold all the water which falls into them. Let
this wheel be employed to raife a weight of any kind, fun*
pole water in a chain of 30 buckets, to the fame height,
and with the fame velocity. ' Suppofe, farther, that when
the load on the riling iide of the machine is one-half of that
on the wheel, the wheel makes four times in a minute, or
one turn in 15 feconds. During this time 90 cubic feet
of water have flowed into the 30 buckets, and each has
received three cubic feet. Then each of the riling buckets
contains if feet; and 45 cubic feet are delivered’into the
upper ciftenyduring one turn of the wheel, and a 80 cubic
feet in one minute.
Now, iuppofe the machine fo loaded, by making the ri-
fing buckets more capacious, that it makes only two turns
in a minute, or one turn in 30 feconds. Then each de-
fcending bucket muft contain fix cubic feet of water. If
each bucket of the fifing fide contained three cubic feet,
the. motion of. the machine would be the fame as before!
lliis is a point which no mechanician will controvert.
When two pounds are fufpended to one end of a firing
which pafles over a pulley, and one pound to the other end;
the defeent of the two pound will be the fame with that
of a four pounds weight, which is employed in the fame
manner to draw up two pounds. Our machine would
therefore continue to. make four turns in the minute, and
would deliver 90 cubic feet during each turn, and 360 in
a minute. But,, by fuppofition, it is making but two turns
in a minute: this muft proceed from a greater Lad than
three cubic feet of water in each rifing bucket. The ma*
chine muft therefore be railing more than 90 feet of water
during one turn of the wheel, and more than 180 in the
minute.
I Hus it appears, that if the machine is turning twice as
flow as berore, there is more than twice the former quantity in
the riling buckets, and more will be railed in a minute by
the lame expenditure of power. In like manner, if the ma¬
chine go three times as flow, there muft be more than three
times the former quantity of water in the rifing buckets,
and more work will be done.
But we may .go farther, and aflert, that the more we
retard the machine, by loading it with more work of a
fimilar kind, the greater wall be its performance. This
does not immediately appear from the prefent difeufiion ;
But let us call the firft quantity of water in the rifing hue*
ket A ; the water raifed by four turns in a minute will
be 4 X 30 X A, = 120 A. The. quantity in this bucket,
wrhen the machine goes twice as flow, has been ftiown to be
greater than 2 A (call k 2 A + x) ; the water raifed by
two turns in a minute will be 2 X 30 X 2~A -fA rr 120 A
+ 60 .v. Now, let the machine go four times as flow, ma¬
king but one turn in a minute, the riling bucket muft
now contain more than twice 2 A + -v, or more than 4 A
-j- 1 ^ ; call it 4 A -j- 2 x -\-y. The wrork done by one
turn in a minute will now be 30 X 4 A + 2 x -py = 120 A
-f- 60 x -j- y.
By fuch an indu&ion of the work, done with any rates
of motion we clioofe, it is evident that the performance of
1 the
Water¬
works.
W O R [ ^ 907 ] W O R
the machine increafes with every diminution of its veloaty It is but of late years that mills have been conflrufted
that is produced by the mere addition of a limilar load of or attended to with that accuracy and fcientific fkill which
work, or that it does the more work the flower it goes. are neceifary for deducing confidential conclufions from any
We have fuppofed the machine to be in its ftate of per- experiments that can be made‘with them ; and it is there-
manent uniform motion. If we confider it only in the be- fore no.matter of wonder that the opinions of mill-vvrights
pinning of its motion, the rcfult is Hill more in favour of have been fo different on this fubjett. I here is a natural
flow motion : For, at the firft addion of the movin * power, wifh to fee a machine moving brifldy ; it has the appear-
the inertia of the machine itfelf confumes part of it, and it
acquires its permanent fpeed by degrees ; during which, the
refiftances arifing from the work, friction, &c. increafe, till
they exactly balance the prefinre of the water ; and after
this the machine accelerates no more. Now the greater
the power and the refiftan.ce ariiing from the work are, in
proportion to the inertia of the machine, the fooner will all
arrive at its ftate of permanent velocity.
There is another circumftance which impairs the perfor¬
mance of an overfhot-wheel moving with ?. great velocity,
•viz. the effefts of the centrifugal force on the water in the
buckets. Our mill-wrights know well enough, that too
great velocity will throw the water out of the buckets; but
few, if any, know exaftly the diminution of power produ¬
ced by this caufe. The following very fimple conflruclion
will determine this: Let AOB (fig. 10.) be an overfhot
wheel, of which AB is the upright diameter, and C is the
centre. Make CF the length of a pendulum,* which will
make tw'o vibrations during one turn of the wheel. Draw
FE to the elbow of any of the buckets. The water in this
bucket, inftead of having its furface horizontal, as NO,
will have it in the direction n O perpendicular to FE very
nearly.
For the time of falling along half of EC is to that of
two vibrations of this pendulum, or to the time of a revo¬
lution of the wheel as the radius of a circle is to its cir¬
cumference : and it is well known, that the time of moving
along half of AC, by the uniform adtion of the centrifugal
force, is to that of a revolution as the radius of a circle to
its circumference. Therefore the time of deferibing f of
AC by the centrifugal force, is equal to the time of del'cri-
bing f of EC by gravity. Thele fpaces, being fimilarly
deferibed in equal times, are proportional to the accelera¬
ting forces. Therefore EC : \ AC, or FC : AC — gra¬
vity : centrifugal force. Complete the parallelogram FCEK.
A particle at E is urged by its weight in the direction
KE, with a force which may be exprelfed by EC or KE ;
and it is urged by the centrifugal force in the diredtion
CE, with a force = AC or CE. By their combined ac¬
tion it is urged in the dire&ion FE. Therefore, as the
flirface of ftanding water is always at right angles to the
adlion of gravity, that is, to the plum-line, fo the furface
of the water in the revolving bucket is perpendicular to the
adtion of the combined force FE.
Let NEO be the pofition of the bucket, which juft holds
all the water which it received as it paffed the fpout when
not affedled by the centrifugal force ; and let NDO be its
pofition when it would be empty. Let the vertical lines
through D and E cut the circle deferibed round C with
the radius CF in the points H and I.. Draw HC,; IC,
cutting the circle AOB in L and M. Make the arch d'&
equal to AL, and the arch A equal to AM : Then C ^
and C 5 will be the pofitions of the bucket on the revolving
wheel, correfponding to CDO and CEO on the wheel at
reft. Water will begin to run out at f, and it will be all
gone at L—The demonftration is evident.
The force which now urges the wheel is ftill the weight
really in the buckets : For though the water is urged in the
diredtion and with the force FE, one of its conftituents,
CE, has no tendency to impel the wheel; and KE is the
only impelling force.
ance of adlivity : but a very flow motion always looks as tf
the machine were overloaded. For this realon mill-wrights
have always yielded flowly, and with fome reludtance, to
the repeated advices of the mathematicians : but they have
yielded ; and we fee them adopting maxims of conftrudlion
more agreeable to found theory ; making their wheels of
great breadth, and loading them with a great deal of work.
Mr Euler fays, that the performance of the bell mill can¬
not exceed that of the worft above yth : but we have feen
a ftream of water completely expended in driving a Imall
flax mill, which now drives a cotton mill of 4000 fpindles,
with all its carding, roving, and drawing machinery, be-
lides the lathes and other engines of the fmith and carpen¬
ters workfhops, exerting a force not Ids than ten times
what fufficed for the flax-mill.
The above difeuffion only demonftrates in general the
advantage of flow motion; but does not point out in any de¬
gree the relation between the rate of motion and the work
performed, nor even the principles on which it depends.
Yet this is a fubjedl fit for a mathematical inveftigation; and
we would profecute it in this place, if it were neceflary for
the improvement of praftical mechanics. But we have feen
that there is not, in the nature of things, a maximum of
performance attached to any particular rate of motion which,
ihould therefore be preferred. For this reafon we omit
this difeuflion of mere fpeculative curiofity. It is very in¬
tricate : For we mull not now exprefs the preflure on the
wheel by a conjlant pillar of water incumbent on the extre¬
mity of the horizontal arm, as we did before when we fup¬
pofed the buckets completely filled; nor by a Imaller co«-
Jlant pillar, correfponding to a fmaller but equal quantity ly¬
ing in every bucket. Each different velocity puts a different
quantity of water into the bucket as it paffes the fpout ; and
this occafions a difference in the place where the difeharge
is begun and completed. This circumftance is fome obftacle
to the advantages of very flow motions, becaufe it brings on
the difeharge fooner. All this may indeed be expreffed by
a fimple equation of eafy management ; but the whole pro-
cefs of the mechanical difeuflion is both intricate and te¬
dious, and the refults are fo much diverfifitd by the forms
of the buckets, that they do not afford any rule of fuffi-
cient generality to reward our trouble, d he curious reader
may fee a very full inveftigation of this fubjedl in two dif-
lertations by Elvius in the bwedifti i ranfailions, and in
the Hydrodynamique of Proleffor Karltner of G-ottingen; who
has abridged thefe Differtations of Elvius, and confiderably
improved the whole inveftigation, and has added fome com-
parifons of his deductions with the a&ual performance of
iome great works. Thefe comparifons, however, are not
very fatistaftory- There is alfo a valuable paper on this
fubjeCl by Mr Lambert, in the Memoirs of the Acade¬
my of Berlin for the year 1775. From thefe differtations,
and from the Hydrodynamique of the Abbe Boffut, the reader
will get all that theory can teach of the relation between
the preffures of the power and work on the machine and
the rates of its motion. The praClical reader may reft with
confidence en the fimple demonftration we have given, that
the performance is improved by diminifhing the velocity.
All we-have to do, therefore, is to load the machine,
and thus to diminilh its fpeed, unlefs other phyfical circttm-
ftances throw obftacles in the. way; but there are fuch ob-
5 Y 2 ftacles.
Water¬
works.
won
Wafer-
works.
flacles. In all machines there are little inequalities of ac
^ tion that are unavoidable. In the aftion of a wheel and
pinion, though made with the utmoft judgment and care,
there are fuch inequalities. Thefe increafe by the changes
of form occasioned by the wearing of the machine—much
greater irregularities arife from the fubfultory motions of
cranks, dampers, and other parts which move unequally or
reciprocally. A machine may be fo loaded as jutt to be
in equilibrio with its work, in the favourable pofkion of its
parts. When this changes into one lefs favourable, the ma¬
chine may flop ; if not, it at leaft flaggers, hobbles, or
works unequally. The rubbing parts bear long on each
other, with enormous prefiures, and cut deep, and increafe
fridlion. Such flow motions muft therefore be avoided.
A little more velocity enables the machine to get over thofe
jncreafed refiftances by its inertia, or the great quantity of
motion inherent in it. Great machines poflefs this advan¬
tage in a luperior degree, and will therefore work fleadily
with a fmaller velocity. Thefe circumftancesare hardly fu-
fceptible of mathematical difeuflion, and our bell reliance is
on well dire&ed experience.
For this purpofe, the reader will do well to perufe with
care the excellent paper by Mr Smeaton in the Phiiofophi-
cal franfadiions for 1759- his diflertation contains a
numerous lift of experiments, moll judicioufly contrived by
him, and executed with the accuracy and attention, to the
mod important circumflances, which is to be obferved in all
that gentleman’s performances.
It is true, thefe experiments were made with fmall mo¬
dels ; and we mull not, without great caution, transfer the
refults of fuch experiments to large works. But we may
fafely transfer the laws of variation which refult from a va¬
riation of circumflances, although we mufl not adopt the
abfolute quantities of the variations themfelves. Mr Smea¬
ton was fully aware of the limitations to which conclufions
drawn from experiments on models are fubjedt, and has made
the applications with his ufual fagacity.
His general inference is, that, in fmaller works, the rim
of the overfhot-wheel fhould not have a greater velocity than
three feet in a fecond; but that larger mills may be alloAed
a greater velocity than this. When every thing is execu¬
ted in the bell manner, he fays that the work performed*
will amount to fully two-thirds of the power expended ; that
is, that three cubic feet of wrater defeending from any
height will raife two to the fame height. See iome farther
account of this differtation under the word Mechanics,
fedl. 5.
It is not. very eafy to compare thefe dedu&ions with ob-
iervations on large works; becaufe there are few cafes where
we have good meafures of the refiftances oppofed by the
work pei formed by the machine. Mills employed for
pumping water afford the bell opportunities. But the in¬
ertia of their working gear diminifhes their ufeful perform¬
ance very ienfibly ; becaufe their great beams, pump-rods,
&c. have a reciprocating motion, which muft be deftroyed,
and produced anew in every ftroke. We have examined
fome machines of. this kind which are efteemed good ones ;
and we find few. of them whole performance exceeds one
half of the power expended.
By comparing other mills with thefe, we get the beft in¬
formation of their rehilances. The comparifon with mills
worked by Watt and Boulton’s fleam-engines is perhaps a
better meafure of the refiftances oppofed by different kinds
of work, becaufe their power is very diftinflly known. We
have been informed by one of the moil eminent engineers,
that a ton and half of water per minute falling one foot will
grind and drefs one bufhel of wheat per hour. This is equi¬
valent to 9 tons failing' to feet.
[ 90S ]
won
If an overfhot-wheel oppofed no refiftance, and only one
bucket were filled, the wlieel would acquire the velocity
due to a fall through the whole height. But when it is m'
this fate of accelerated motion, if another bucket of water
is delivered into it, its motion muft be checked at the firft,
by the neceffity of dragging forward this water. If the
buckets fill in lucceffion as they pafs the fpout, the velocity
acquired by an unrefifting wheel is but half of that which one
bucket would give.. In all cafes, therefore, the velocity ia
dummfhed by the inertia of the entering water when it is
fimply laid into the upper buckets. The performance will
therefore be improved by delivering the water on the wheel
with that velocity with which the wheel is really moving.
And as we cannot give the direction of a tangent to the
wheel, the velocity with which it is delivered on the wheel
muft be fo much greater than the intended velocity of the
nm, that it fhall be precifely equal to it when it is eltima-
ted in the diredlion of the tangent. Three or four inches
of fall are fufficient for this purpofe ; and it fhould never be
negledled, for it has a very fenfible influence on the perform¬
ance. But it is highly improper to give it more than this,
with the view of impelling the wheel by its ftroke. For
even although it were proper to employ part of the fall it*
this way (which we fhall prefently fee to be very impro¬
per), we cannot procure this impuli'e ; becaufe the water falls
among other water, or it ftrikes the boards of the wheel
with iuch obliquity that it cannot produce any fenfible ef-
fed.
It is a much debated queftion among millwrights, Whe*
ther the diameter of the wheel ihould be fuch as that the wa¬
ter will be delivered at the top of the wheel ? or larger, fo
that the water is received at fome diftance from the top,
where it wall ad more perpendicularly to the arm ? We ap!
prehend that the obfervations formerly made will decide in
favour of the firft pradice. The fpace below, where the
vyater is difeharged from the wheel, being proportional to
the diameter of the wheel, there is an undoubted lofs of fall
attending a large wheel \ and this is not compenfated by de-
live ring the water at a greater diftance from the perpendi¬
cular. We fhould therefore recommend the ute of the
whole defeending fide, and make the diameter of the wheel
no greater than the fall, till it is fo much reduced that
the Centrifugal force begins to produce a fenfible effed.
bince the rim can hardly have a fmallcr velocity than three
feet per fecond, it is evident that a fmall wheel muft revoke,
more rapidly. This made it ptoper to infert the determi¬
nation that we have given, of the lofs of power produced by
tne centrifugal force. But even with this in view, we fhould
employ much fmaller wheels than are generally done on
fmall falls. Indeed the lofs of water at the bottom may be
diminifhtd, by nicely fitting the arch which furrounds the
wheel, fo as not to allow the water to efcape by the fides or
bottom. While this improvement remains in good order,,
and the wheel entire, it produces a veiy fenfible effed ; but
the paffage widens continually by the wearing of the wheel.
A bit of flick or flone falling in about the wheel-tears off
part of the fhrouding or bucket, and frofly weather fre¬
quently binds all raft. It therefore feldom anfwers expec¬
tations. We have nothing to add on this cafe to what we
have already extraded from Mr Smeaton’s Differtation on,
the Subjed of Breaft or half Overlhot Wheels,
There is another form of wheel by which water is made
to ad on a machine by its weight, which merits confidera-
tion. i his is known in this country by the name of Bar¬
ker's mill, and has been deferibed by Defaguilliers, vol. ii. p»
460. It confiftsof an upright pipe or trunk AB (fig. 11.),
communicating with two horizontal branches BC, B r,
which have a hole C c near their ends, opening in oppofite
direc-
Watce-
Wafer-
works.
W O R [
dlreftions, at right angle# to their lengths. Suppofe water
to be poured in at the top from the i'pout F, it will run
out by the holes C and c with the velocity correfponding to
the depth of thefe holes under the furface. The confe-
qucnce of this mull be, that the arms will be preffed back¬
wards ; for there is no folid furface at the hole C, on
which the lateral preffure of the water can be exerted, while
it afts with its full force on the oppofue fide of the arm.
This unbalanced prdfure is equal to the weight of a column
having the orifice for its bale, and twice the depth under the
kirface of the water in the trunk for its height. This mea-
fure of the height may feem odd, becaufe if the orifice were
{hut, the preffure on it is the weight of a column reaching
from the furface. But when it is open, the water iffues
with nearly the velocity acquired by falling from the fur-
face, and the quantity of motion produced is that ot a co¬
lumn of twice this length, moving with this velocity. This
is actually produced by the prellure of the fluid, and muft
therefore be accompanied by an equal rea&ion.
Now fuppofe this apparatus fet on the pivot E, and to
have a fpindle AD above the trunk, furnifhed with a cy¬
lindrical bobbin D, having a lope wound round it, and paf-
ling over a pulley G A weight W may be fufpended
there, which may balance this backward preflfure. If the
weight be too Imall for this purpofe, the retrograde motion
of the arms will wind up the cord, and raife the weight; and
thus we obtain an adfing machine, employing the preffare
of the water, and applicable to any purpofe. A runner
millftone may be put on the top of the fpinJle ; and we
fhould then produce a flour mill of the utmoft limplicity,
having neither wheel nor pinion, and iubjed to hardly any
wear. It is fomewhat furprifmg, that although this was
invented at the beginning of this century, and appears to
have fuch advantage in point of fimplicity, it has not come
into uie. So little hai Dr Defaguilliers’s account been at¬
tended to (although it is mentioned by him as an excellent
machine, and as highly inltruftive to the hydrauliik), that
the fame invention was again brought forward by a Ger¬
man profeffor (Segner) as his own, and has been honoured
bv a feries of elaborate diiquifitions concerning its theory
and performance by Euler and by John Bernoulli. Eu¬
ler’s Difiertations are to be found in the Memoiis of the
Academy of Beilin* 1751, &c. and in the Nov. Comment..
PetropoL tom. vi. Bernoulli’s are at the end of his Hy¬
draulics. Both thefe authors agree in faying, that this ma-
chine excels all other methods of employing the force of
water. Simple as it appears, its true theory, and the beft
form of conftruaion, are mod abllrufe and delicate fubjeds;
and it is not eafy to give fuch an account of its principles
as will be underifood by an ordinary reader.
We fee, in general, that the machine muft prefs back¬
wards; and little inveftigation fuffices for underftanding
the intenfity of this preffure, when the machine is at reft.
But when it is allowed to run backwards, withdrawing it-
felf from the preffure, the intenfity of it is diminilhed ; and
if no other circumftances intervened, it might not be diffi¬
cult to fay what particular preflure correlponded to any rate
of motion- Accordingly, Delaguilliers, prefuming on the
fimphcity of the machine, affirms the piefiure to be the
weight of a column, which would produce a velocity oi ef-
fiux equal to the difference of the velocity of tire fluid and
«i the machine ; and hence he deduces, that its performance
will be the greateft poffible, when its retrograde velocity is
one-third of the velocity acquired by falling from the iur-
face, in which cafe, it will raile tViIis of the water expended
to the iame height, which is double of the performance of a
mill a«Sted on by the impulle of water.
But this is a very imperfect account of the operation,
Q09 ] won
When the machine (conftru&ed exa&ly as we have defert-
bed) moves round, the water which iffues defeends in the
vertical trunk, and then, moving along the horizontal arms,
partakes of this circular motion. This excites a centrifugal
force, which is exerted againft the ends of the arms by the
intervention of the fluid. The whole fluid is fubjefted to
this preffure (inereafmg for every fe&ion acrofs the arm in
the proportion of its diftance from the axis), and every par¬
ticle is preffed with the accumulated centrifugal forces of
all the fe&ions that are nearer to the axis. Every fetlion
therefore fuftains an a&ual preffure proportional to the
fquare of its diftance from the axis. This increafes the ve¬
locity of efflux, and this increafes the velocity of revolution ;
and this mutual co-ooeration would feem to terminate in an
infinite velocity of both motions. But, on the other hand,
this circular motion muft be given anew to every particle of
water as it enters the horizontal arm. This can be done
only bv the motion already in the arm, and at its expence.
Thus there muft be a velocity which cannot be overpaffed
even by an unloaded machine. But it is alfo plain, that by
making the horizontal arm very capacious, the motion of
the water from the axis to the jet may be made very flow,
and much of this diminution of circular motion prevented.
Accordingly, Euler has recommended a form by which this
is done in the moft eminent degree. His machine confifts
of a hollow conoidal ring, of wdrich fig. 12. is a feftion.
The part AH ha is a fort of funnel baton, which receives
the water from the fpout F; not in the direffion pointing
towards the axis, but in the direftion, and with the precife
velocity, of its motion. This prevents any retardation by
dragging forward the water. The water then paffes down
between the outer conoid ACca and the inner conoid
HGg h along fpiral channels formed by partitions foldered
to both conoids. The curves of thefe channels are deter¬
mined by a theory which aims at the annihilation of all un-
neceffary and improper motions of the water, but which is
too abftrufe to find a place here. The water thus conduc¬
ted arrives at the bottom CG, eg. On the outer circum¬
ference of this bottom are arranged a number of fpouts
(one for each channel), which are all dire&ed one way in
tangents to the circumference.
Adopting the common theory of the reaftton of fluids,
this fhould be a very powerful machine, and fhould raiie jTths
of the water expended. But if we admit the reaftion to be
equal to the force of the iffuing fluid (and we do not fee
how this can be refufed), the machine muft be nearly twice
as powerful. We therefore repeat our wonder, that it has
not been brought into ufe. But it appears that no trial has
been made even of a model; fo that we have no experiments
to encourage an engineer to repeat the trial. Even the late
author Profeffor Segner has not related any thing of this kind
in hmExercitationes Pydraulic#he particularly delcnbcs
the machine. This remiffnefs probably has proceeded from
fixing the attention on Euler’s improved conftruftion. It is
plain that this muft be a moft cumbrous mafs, even in a fmail
fize, requiring a prodigious veffel, and carrying an unwieldy
load. If we examine the theory which recommends this con-
ftrufticn, we find that the advantages, tho’ real and fenfible,
bear but a fmail proportion to the whole performance of
the fimple machine as invented by Dr Barker. It is there-
Water..
works.
Plate
DXLl!»
fore to be regretted, that engineers have not attempted to
realite the firft project. We beg leave to recommend it,
with an additional argument taken from an addition made
to it by Mr Mathon de la Cour, in Rozier’s Journal de
Phyjique, January and Auguft 1775. This gentleman
brings down a large pipe FEH (fig. 13.) from a refervoir,
bends it upward at H, and introduces it into two horizontal
arms JDA, DBj which have an upright fpindk DIv, carry-
ing
.Water-
avosks.
inof
91
W O R £
I3_a mi 11 ft one in the ftyle of Dr Barker’s mill. The in-
ffemous mechanician will have no difficulty of contriving a
method of joining thefe pipes, fo as to permit a free circu¬
lar motion without lofing much water, the operation of
the machine in this form is evident. The water, preffed by
the column FG, flows out at the holes A and B, and the
unbalanced preffure on the oppofite ikies of the arms forces
them round. The compendioufnefs and other advantages
of thl‘s conftm&ion are moft ftriking, allowing us to m^ke
■ufe of the greateft tall without any increafe of the fize of the
machine. It undoubtedly enables us to employ a ftream of
water too^fcanty to be employed in any other form. The
author gives the dimenfions of an engine which he had feen
at Bourg Argental, A B is 92 inches, and its diameter 3
inches ; the diameter of each orifice is ; FG is 21
feet; the pipe D was fitted into C by grinding; and the
internal diameter of D is 2 inches.
When the machine was performing no work, or was un¬
loaded, and emitted water by fine hole only, it made lie
turns in a minute. This gives a velocity of 46 feet per
fecond for the hole. This is a curious fad : For the water
would iffiie from this hole at reft with the velocity of 37^.
This great velocity (which was much lefs than the velocity
with which the water a&ually quitted the pipe) was un¬
doubtedly produced bj the prodigious centrifugal force,
which was nearly 17 times the weight of the water in the
orifice.
The empty machine weighed 80 pounds, and its weight
was half fupported by the upper preffure of the water, fo
that the fridion of the pivots was much diminifhed. It'is a
pity that the author has given no account of any work done *
by the machine. Indeed it was only working ventilators
for a large hall. His theory by no means embraces all its
principles, nor is it well-founded.
We think that the free motion round the neck of the
feeding-pipe, without any lofs of water or any confiderable
fndion, may be obtained in the following manner: AB
•Cf’S" I4-) reprefents a portion ©f the revolving horizontal
pipe, and CE^ c part of the feeding pipe. The neck of
the firft is turned truly cylindrical, fo as to turn ealily, but
without fiiake, in the collar C c of the feeding-pipe, and
each has a fiioulder which may fupport the other. That
the fridion of this joint may not be great, and the pipes
deftroy each other by wearing, the horizontal pipe has an
iron fpindle EF, fixed exadly in the axis of the joint, and
refting with its pivot F in a ftep of hard fteel, fixed to the
iron bar GH, which goes acrofs the feeding.pipe, and is
firmly fupported in it. This pipe is made bell-ffiaped, wi¬
dening below. A collar or hofe of thin leather is fitted to
the in fide of this pipe, and is reprefented (in fedion) by
EKM m hi.' 1 his is kept in its place by means of a metal
or wooden ring N fr, thin at the upper edge, and taper ftia-
ped. This, is drawn in above the leather, and ftretches it,
and caufes it to apply to the fide of the pipe all around.
There can be no leakage at this joint, becaufe the water
will preis the leather to the fmooth metal pipe ; nor can
there be any fenfible fridion, becaule the water gets at the
«dge of the leather, and the whole unbalanced preffure is at
the fmall crevice, between the fwo metal ftroulders. Thefe
fhouldeis need not touch, fo that the fridion muft be in-
ienfible. We imagine that this method of tightening a
turning joint may be uled with great advantage in many
„ We have only further to obferve on this engine, that any
imperfedion by which the paffage of the water is diminifh¬
ed or obflruded produces a faving of water which is in ex-
ad proportion to the diminution of effed. The only inac-
° 1 won
curacy that ig not thus compenfated is when the jets are
not at right angles to the arms.
We repeat our wifhes, that engineers would endeavour to
bring this machine into ufe, feeing many fituations where it
may be employed to great advantage. Suppofe, for inftance,
a fmall fupply of water from a great height aoplied in this
manner to a centrifugal pump, or to a hair belt paffing over
a pulley, and dipping in the water of a deep well. 6This
womd be a hydraulic machine exceeding all others in fimnli-
dty and durability, though inferior in effed to fome ether
conftrudions.
2. Of Underfhot Wheels.
All wheels go by this name where the motion of the wa«
er is quicker than that of the partitions or boards of the
wheel, and it therefore impels them. Thefe are called the
f oat-boards, ox floats, of an underfhot wheel. The water
running in a mill-row, with a velocity derived from a head
of water, or xrom a declivity of channel, ftrikes on thefc
floats, and occafions, by its defledions fidewife and upwards
a preffure on the floats fufficient for impelling the wheel.
here are few points of pradical mechanics that have
been more confidered than the adion of water on the floats
o a wheel; hardly a book of mechanics being filent on the
fubjed But the generality of them, at leaft fuch as are
intelligible to perfons who are not very much converfant in
dynamical and mathematical difeuffion, have hardly done
any thing more than copied the earlieft dedudions from
the Ample theory of the refiftance of fluids. The confe-
quence has been, that our pradical knowledge is very im¬
peded; and it is ftill chiefly from experience that we muft
learn the performance of underfhot wheels. Unfortunately
this flops their improvement; becaufe thofe who have the
only opportunities of making the experiments are not fuf-
ficiently acquainted with the principles of hydraulics, and
are apt to alcnbe differences m their performance to trifling
noftrums in their conftrudion, or in the manner of applying
the impulfe of the water. 1 a
_ We have laid f© much on the imperfedion of our theories
o tlie imPu^e fluids in the article Resistance of Fluids
that we need not repeat here the defeds of the common
explanations of the motions of underfhot wheels. The
part of this theory of the impulfe of fluids which agrees belt
with obfervation is, that the impulfe is in the duplicate propor¬
tion oj the velocity with which the water Jlrikes the float. That
is, if n be the velocity of the ftream, and a the velocity of
the float, we fhall have F, the impulfe on the float when
leld faff to its impulfey on the float moving with the velo¬
city u, as vz to -u—z/2, an(i/= p x <7’ ~~ u" .
. . “u2
I lus is the preffure ading on the float, and urging the
wheel round its axis. The wheel muft yield to this motion,
it the refiftance of the work does not exert a fuperior pref-
lure on the float in the oppofite diredion. By yielding, the
float withdraws from the impulfe, and this is therefore di-
mimfhed.. The wheel accelerates, the refiftances increafe,
and the impulfes dimmifh, till they become an exad balance
for the refiftances. . I he motion now remains uniform, and
the momentum of impulfe is equal to that o? refiftance.
ihe performance of the mill therefore is determined by this;
and, whatever be the conftrudion of the mill, its perform-
ance is heft when the momentum of impulfe is greateft.
This.is had by multiplying the preffure on the float by its
velocity, i herefore the momentum will be expreffed by
FX——Xtf. But fince F and v1 are conftant quanti-
Water.
work«.
ties,
W O ; R
ties, the momentum will be p*oportionnl to « X u — «*.
Let x reprefent the relative velocity. Then v — x will be
— u, and the momentum will be proportional to v — x
X x2, and will be a maximum when i> — x X x2 is a ma¬
ximum,, or when v x- — xi is a maximum. This will be dif-
covered by making its fluxion = o. That is,
2 v x x — $ x2 x —o.
and 2 v x — 3 x2 ~ o
or 2 v — 3 x — 0
and 2 x) ~ 3 x, and x =r f xj; and therefore v — x, or
«, rr y That is, the velocity of the float miift be one
third of the velocity of the ftream. It only remains to fay
what is the abfolute prefiure on the float thus circumftanced.
Let the velocity x> be fuppofed to arife from the preffure of
a head of water h. The common theory teaches that the
impulfe on a given furface S at reft is equal to the weight
of a column b S ; put this in place of F, and ^ v2 in place of
•v — u2 and y for u. This gives us S £ X ~r x> for the mo¬
mentum. Now the power expended is S A x>, or the column
S b moving with the velocity x\ Therefore the greatefl per¬
formance of an underfhot wheel is equivalent to railing T4T
of the water that drives it to the fame,height. , '
But this is too fmall an eftimation ; for the preffure exert¬
ed on a plane furface, fituated as the float of a mill-wheel,
xs confiderably greater than the weight of the column S h.
This is nearly the preffure on a furface wholly immerfed in
the fluid. But when a fmall vein ftrikes a larger plane, fo
as to be deflefted on all fldes in a thin fheet, the impulfe is
almoft double of this. This is in fome meafure the cafe in
a mill wheel. When the ftream ftrikes it, it is heaped up
along its face, and falls back again—and during this mo¬
tion it is afting with a hydroftatic preffure on it. When the
wheel dips into an open river, this accumulation is lefs re¬
markable, becaufe much efcapes laterally'. But in a mill
courfe it may be cotjfiderable.
We have confidered only the aftion on one float, but
feveral generally aft at once. The impulfe on molt of them
miift be oblique, and is therefore lefs than when the fame
ftream impinges perpendicularly .; and this diminution of im¬
pulfe is, by the common theory, in the proportion of the
fine of the obliquity. For this reafon it is maintained, that
the impulfe of the whole ftream on the lov/eft float board,
which is perpendicular ro the ftream, is equal to the fum of
the impulfes made on all the floats which then dip into the
water ; or that the impulfe on any oblique float is precifely
equal to the impulfe which that part of the ftream would
have made on the ioweft floatboard had it not been interrupt¬
ed. Therefore it has been recommended to make fuch a
number of floatboards, that when one of them is at the bot¬
tom of the wheel, and perpendicular to the ftream, the next
in fucceffion fhould be juft entering into the water. But
fince the impulfe on a float by no means annihilates all the
motion of the water, and it bends round it and hits the one
behind with its remaining force, there mull be fome advan¬
tage gained by employing a greater number ©f floats than this
rule wrill permit. This is abundantly confirmed by the ex¬
periments of Smeaton and Boffut. Mr Boflut formed three
or four fuppofitions of the number of floats, and calculated the
impulfe on each ; according to the obfervations made in a
eourfe of experiments made by the Academy of Sciences, and
inferted by us in the article Resistance of Fluids; and w'hen
he fummed them up and compared the refults wuth his expe¬
riments, he found the agreement very fatisfaftory.. He de¬
duces a general rule, that if the velocity of the wheel is yd of
that of the ftream, and if 72 degrees of the circumference
are immerfed in the ftream, the wheel fhould have 36 floats.
Each will dip yth of the radius. The velocity being ftill
911 ] w o R
fuppofed the fame, there fhould be more or fewer floats ac¬
cording as the arch is lefs or greater than 72 degrees. . • ^
Such is the theory, and fuch are the circumftances wThich
it leaves undetermined. The accumulation of the water on a
floatboard, and the force with which it may ftill ttrike ano¬
ther, are too intricate to be affigned with any tolerable pre-
cifion : For fuch reafons. we mult acknowledge that the
theory of underfhot wheels is Hill very imperfeft, and that
recourfe muft be had to experience for their improvement,.
We therefore llrongly recommend the perufal of Mr Smca-
ton’s experiments on 11 nderfnot-wheels, contained in the
fame diflertation with thofe w^e have quoted on overlhot-
wheels. We have only to obferve, that to an ordinary
reader the experiments will appear too much in favour of
underfhot-wheels. His aim is partly to eltablifh a theory,
which wall ftate the relation between their performance
and the velocity of the ftream, and partly to ftate the rela¬
tion between the power expended and the work done. The
velocity in his experiments is always confiderably below that
which a body would acquire by falling from the lurface of
the head of water ; or it is the velocity acquired by a fhorter
fall. Therefore if we eftimate the power expended by the
quantity of water multiplied by this diminifhed fall, we
fliall make it too fmall; and the difference in fome cafes is
very great: yet, even with thefe conceflions, it appears that
the utmoft performance of an underfhot wheel does not
Water-
works.
furpafs the railing yd of the expended water to the placs
from which it came. It is therefore far inferior to an over-
fhot wheel expending the fame power*; and Mr Belidor has led
engineers into very miftaken maxims of conftruftion, by fay¬
ing that overfhot wheels fhould be given up, even in the cala
of great falls, and that we fhould always bring on the wa-
ter from a fluice in the very bottom of the dam, and bring
it to the wheel with as great velocity as poffible. Mr
Smeaton alfe fays, that the maximum take's place when the
velocity of the wheel is j-ths of that of the ftream, inftead of
§-ths according to the theory ; and this agrees with the ex¬
periments of Boffut. But he meafured the velocity by
means of the quantity of water which run pall. This muft
give a velocity fomewhat too fmall ; as will appear by at¬
tending to Buat’s obfeivations on the fuperficial, the mean,,
and the bottom velocities.
The reft of his obfervations, of which we have given am
abftradl in Mechanics, Se£l. V. are moil judicious, and
well adapted to the inftru&ion of praftitioners. We hava
only to add to them the obiervations of Deparceux and Bof¬
fut, who have evinced, by very good experiments, that thera
is a very fenfible advantage gained by inclining the float-
boards to the fadius of the wheel about 20 degrees, io that
the lowed floatboard fhall not be perpendicular, but have,
its point turned up the ftream about 20 degrees. This in¬
clination caufes the water to heap up along the floatboard,
and aft by its weight. The floats fhould therefore be made
much broader than the vein of water interrupted by them is
deep.
Some engineers, obferving the great fuperiority of overfhot
wheels above underfhot wheels driven by the fame expence of
power, have propofed to bring the water home to the bottom
of the wheel on an even bottom, and to make the floatboard
no deeper than the aperture of the fluice, which would per¬
mit the water to run out. The wheel is to be fitted with
a clofe foie andfides, exaftly fitted to the end of this trough,,
fo that if the wheel is at reft, the water may be dammed up
by the foie and floatboavd. It will therefore prefs foreward
the floatboard wfith the whole force of the head of water.
But this cannot anfwer ; for if we fuppofe no floatboards,
the water will flow' out at tke bottom, pjopelled in the man¬
ner thofe pcifons fuppofe ; and it will be fupplied from be-
hind,,
W 0 R [ ,
tHe water comingy&w^ from all parts of the trough
-J‘- * to hole below the wheel. But now add the floats, and
fuppofe the wheel in motion with the velocity that is ex¬
pected. The other floats muft drag into motion all the
water which ties between them, giving to the greateft part
ot it a motion vallly greater than it would have taken in
confequence of the preffure of the water behind it ; and the
water out of the reach of the floats will remain Hill, which
it vvoilld not have done independent of the floatboards above
it, becaufe it_would have contributed to the expence of the
hole. . i he motion therefore which the wheel will acquire
by this conftruClion mull be fo different from what is ex-
peCled, that we can hardfy fay what it will be.
We are therefore perfuaded, that the befl way of deliver¬
ing the water on an underfhot-wheel in a dole mill-courfe
is, to let it Aide down a very fmooth channel, without touch-
mg the wheel till near the bottom, where the wheel fhould
be exadly fitted to the courfe,9; or, to make the floats ex¬
ceedingly broader than the depth of the vein of water which
glides down the courfe, and allow it to be partly intercept¬
ed by the fidt floats, and heap up along them, a Cling by its
weight, after its impulle has been expended. If the bot¬
tom of the courfe be an arch of a circle defcribed with a
radius much 'greater than that of the wheel, the water which
Aides down will be thus gradually intercepted by the floats.
Attempts have been made to conftruft water-wheels
which receive the impulfe obliquely, like the fails of a com¬
mon wind-mill. This would, in many Atuations, be a very
great acquihtion. A very flow but deep river could in
this manner be made to drive our mills ; and although much
power is loft by the obliquity of the impulfe, the remainder
may be very great. It is to be regretted, that thefe at¬
tempts have not been more zealoufly profecuted ; for we
have no doubt of their fuccefs in a very ferviceable decree.
Engineers have been deterred, becaufe when fuch wheels
are plunged in an open ftream, their lateral motion is too
much impeded by the motion of the ftream. We have
feen one, however, which was very powerful: It was a
long cylindrical frame, having a plate ftanding out fmm it
about a foot broad, and furrounding it with a very oblique
fpiral like a cork-fcrew. i'his was plunged about ^th ©f
its diameter (which was about 12 feet), having its axis in
the diredion of the ftream. By the work which it was
performing, it feemed more powerful than a common wheel
which occupied the fame breadth of the river. Its length
was not lefs than 20 feet : it might have been twice as
much, which would have doubled its power, without oc-
cupying more of the water-way. Perhaps fuch a fpiral,
continued to the very axis, and moving in a hollow canal
wholly filled by the ftream, might be a very advantageous
way of employing a deep and flow ftream.
. ■But miUs with oblique floats are moft ufeful for employ-
mg {mall ft reams, which can be delivered from a {pout with
a great velocity. Mr Boflut has confidered thefe with due
attention, and afcertained the belt modes of conftrudlion.
1 here are two which have nearly equal perrormances : j.
J. he vanes being placed like thofe of a wind-mill, round the
rim of a horizontal or vertical wheel, and being made much
broader than the vein of water which is to ftrike them, kt
tue ipout be fo direfted that the vein may ftrike them per-
pendicukrly. Bj this meafure it will be fpread about on
the vane in a thin fheet, and exert a preffure nearly equal
to twice the weight of a column whole bafe is the orifice
of the fpout, and whofe height is the fall producing the
velocity. 3
M^ls of this kind are much in ufe in the fouth of Eu-
ruPe' .„;Fhe whed ]"S horfzont^ and the vertical axis carries
millnone j fo that the mill is of the utmoft fimplicity :
>2 ] W O R
and Utis is its chief recommendation ; for its power k great- Wafer,
ly inferior to that of a wheel conftrucled in the ufual manner. w°As
2. iae vanes may be arranged round the rim of the ^
V(. '"eT JK)i' 1^ce feils of a wind-mill, but in planes in-1 , , W'
c ined to the radii, but parallel to the axis, or to the planes
palTing through the axis. They may either ftand on a foie,
like the oblique floats recommended by De Parceux, as above
mentioned ; or they may ftand on the fide of the rim, not
pointing to the axis, but aflde from it.
, This difpofit-ion will admit the fpout to be more conve¬
niently tiifpofed either for a horizontal or a vertical wheel.
r \rC concfe^e ^is article by ddcribing a contrivance
of Mr Burns, the inventor of the double bucketed wheel,
for hxmg the arms of a water-wheel. It is well known to
mill-wnghts that the method of fixing them by making
them to pafs through the axle, weakens it exceedingly, and
by lodging water in the joint, foon caufes it to rot and fail.
iey have, there ore, of late years put caft-iron fianches on
the axis, to which each arm is bolted : or the flanches are
lo fafluoned as to form boxes, ferving as mortifes to receive
the ends of the arms. Thefe anfwer the purpofe complete¬
ly, but are very expenfive ; and it is found that arms of fir,
bolted into flanches of iron, are apt to work loofe. Mr Burns
has made wooden flanches of a very curious conflrudlion,
W aw-316 eclua^y ^rm> andcoft much lefs than the iron ones.
1 his flanch confifts of eight pieces, four of which com-
pofe the ring reprefented in fig. 15. meeting i8 the joints
a bt ab, ab, a 6, dire&ed to the centre O. The other
four are covered by thefe, and their joints are reprefented
, y t ic c.oted lines a /3, «a #, a g. T hefe two rings break
joint in fuch a manner that an arm MN is contained be¬
tween the two neareft joints a! b< of the one, and d ft of the
other. The tenon formed on the end of the arm A, &c. is
of a particular fhape : one fide ; GF, is dire&ed to the cen¬
tre O ; the other fide, BCDE, has a fmall fhoulder BC •
then a long fide CD directed to the centre O ; and then
a third pait DE parallel to Gf, or rather diverging a little
from it, fo as to make up at E the thicknefs of the fhoul-
BC ; that is, a line from 13 to E would be parallel to
CD. This fide of the tenon fits exaflly to the correfpond-
mg fide of the. mortife ; but the mortife is wider on the
other fide, leaving a fpace GFK^ a little narrower at FK
than at G h. Thefe tenons and mortifes are made extreme-
ly true to the fquare; the pieces are put round the axle,
with a few blocks or wedges of foft wood put between
them and the axle, leaving the fpace empty oppofite to the
place of each arm, and firmly bolted together by bolts be¬
tween the arm-maitifes. The arms are then put in, and
each is preffed home to the fide CDE, and a wedge HF
of hard wood is then put into the empty part of the mor¬
tife and driven home. When it comes through the flanch
and touches the axle, the part which has come through is cut
off with a thin child, and the wedge is driven better home.
T he fpaces under the ends of the arms are now filled with
wedges, which are driven home from oppofite fides, till the
circle ot the arms ftands quite perpendicular on the axle, and
all is fall.. It needs no hoops to keep it together, for the
wedging it up round the axle makes the two half rings
draw clofe on the arms, and it cannot flart at its own joints
tui it crufhes the arms. Hoops, however, can do no harm,
when all is once wedged up, but it would be improper to
put them on before this be done. For the account of ano¬
ther very curious hydraulic machine, fee Zurich.
yVDRLD, the affemblage of parts which compofe the
globe of the earth. See Geography and Astronomy.
WORM, in gunnery, a fcrew of iron, to be fixed on
the end of a rammer, to pull out the wad of a firelock, cara-
bine, or piflol, being the fame with the wad-hook, only the
one
WAT K II W’O H l\ S •
r i fitc i) x l ti.
* /'/ft. / V.
/ 3.
\
/
I
*
t
f
won [91
Wornt one is more proper for fmall arms, and the other for can-
11 non. < .
VVorinip. Worm, in chemiilry, is a long', winding pipe, placed
;n a tub of water, to cool and condenfe the vapours in the
diftillation of fpirits.
fflitid-WoRMy or SJoiu-Worm. See Anguis, n° 2.
Earth-lVoRM. See Lumbricus.
GIoiv-IVorm. See Lampyris
Silk-WoRM. See Silk, n° 5.
. WORMS, Vermes, in natural hiftory. See Zoology.
Worms, in the human body. See Medicine, nv 407.
Worms, in horfes. See Farriery, fe£t. 19.
Worms, in dogs. See Dog, art. 4.
Worms for bait. See Fishing, vol. 7. p. 271.
Worms, an ancient, large, and famous city of Germany,
in the palatinate of the Rhine, with a bilhop’s fee, whofe bi-
fhop is a fovereign and prince of the empire. It is a free
and imperial city, and the inhabitants are Proteftants. In
the wrar of 1689 it was taken by the French, who almoft re¬
duced it to afhes.—The bifhop afterwards built a n?w pa¬
lace in 'it; and it is famous for a diet held here in 1521,
at which Luther affifted in perfon. The Proteftants have
lately built a handfome church, where Luther is reprefented
as appearing at the diet. It is noted for the excellent
wine that grows in the neighbourhood, which they call
our Lady's milk. In the campaign of 174L king Geo. II.
took up his quarters in this city, and lodged at the bi-
fhop’s palace after the battle of Dettingen. It is feated
on the weftern bank of the Rhine, 14 miles north-weft of
Heidelburg, 20 fouth eaft of Mentz, and 32 feuth-weft of
Francfort. E. Long. 8. 29. N. Lat. 49. 32.
WORMING OF DOGS. All fpaniels have certain firings
under their tongues, by moft called a nvorm ; thi* muft be
taken out when they are about two months old, with the
help of a fharp knife to flit it, and a fhoemaker’s awl to
raife it up ; you muft be careful to take all out, or elfe
your pains is tp little purpoie ; for till then he will be
hardly ever fat and right, in regard the worm or filing
will grow foul and troublefome, and hinder his reft and
eating This operation is generally recommended as a pre¬
ventative of madnefs in dogs, or at leaft as difabling them,
if mad, from biting in that condition.
WORMtUS. (Olaue), a- learned Danifh phyfician, born
in 1588 at Arhufen in Jutland. After beginning jus ftu-
dies at home, he ftudied at feveral foreign univerfities, and
travelled to various parts of Europe for improvement. He
returned to his native country in 1613, and was made
profeffor of the belles lettres in the univerfity of Copen¬
hagen. In 1615, he was tranflated to the chair of the
Greek profeflbr ; and in 1624 to the profcfforfhip of phy-
fjc, which he held to his death. Thefe occupations did
not hinder him from pra&ifing in his profeffion, and from
being the fafhionable phyfician: the king and court of Den¬
mark always employed him; and Chriftian IV. as a re-
tompenfe for his fervices, conferred on him a canonry ot
Lunden. He publifhed fome pieces on fubjedts relating to
his profeflion, feveral works in defence of Ariftotle’s phi-
Ipfophy, and feveral concerning the antiquities of Denmark
end Norway ; for which latter he is principally regarded,
3s they are very learned, and contain many curious parti-
Qulars. He died in 1654.
WORMWOOD, in botany. See Artemisia.
WORSHIP of God (cultus Dei), amounts to the fame
with what we otherwife call religion This worfhip confifts
ip paying a due refpeft, veneration, and homage to the
Deity, under a certain expedlation of reward. And this
internal refpedl, &c. is to be fhown and teftifkd by exter¬
nal a£ls ; as prayers, facrifices, thankfgivings, &c.
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
5 ] won
The Quietifts, and fome other myftic divines, fet afide Warfli'P-
not only all ufe of external worfhip, but even the confidera-' urr*“v
tion of rewards and punilhments. . Yet even the heathens
had a notion that God did not require-us to ferve him for
■nought : “ Dii quamobrem colendi ftnt (fays Cicero), non
intelligo, nullo nec acccpto ab illis nec fperato bono.”
The fchool-divines divide worfhip into divers kinds, r/z.
latria, that rendered to God ; and idololatria, that rendered
to idols or images. To which the Romanifts add, dulia%
that rendered to faints; and hyperdidia, that to the Virgin.
Some theological writers have obferved, that the Greek
word; wporxuvti, to nvorjhip; is not deferiptive only of the
honour which is appropriated to God, but is indifferently
ufed to fignify the honour and refpeft which are paid to
fuperiors of all kinds in heaven or on earth. Accord¬
ingly, they have diftinguifhed between civil and religious
worfhip.
That it is the duty of man to worfhip. his Maker, has
been fufficiently proved under other articles (fee Prayer }
and Theology, n° 40—45-). It is not indeed eafily to
be conceived how any one who has tolerably juft notions
of the attributes and providence of God, can poffibly ne¬
glect the duty of private worfbip ; and though we have
admitted in Fhe laft of the two articles referred to, that
pullic worfhip does not feem to be enjoined in that fyftem
which is called the religion of nature, yet it is moft ex-
prefsly commanded by the religion of Christ, and will
be regularly performed by every one who refle&s on its
great utility.
As the illiterate vulgar cannot form to themfelves cor¬
rect notions of the divine providence and attributes, it is
obvious, that without the inflitution of public werfhip,
they would never think of worfhipping God at all, unlefs
perhaps occafianally, when under the preffure of fome fe-
vere calamity ; but occafional worlhip, the offspring of
compulfton, could have little of the refigned fpirit of true
devotion. Ignorant, however, as the loweft of the vulgar
are, and neceffarily muft be, it cannot be denied, that in
moft Chriftian countries, perhaps in all, they are more ac¬
curately accquainted with the firft principles of religion,
and the laws of morality, than even the leaders of barba¬
rous nations. This fuperiority is doubtlefs owing in fome
meafure to their accefs to the Sacred Scriptures, but much
more, we are perfuaded, to the inftrudlion which they re¬
ceive in the affemblies which they frequent for public wor¬
fhip. If this be admitted, public worfhip may be eafily
proved to be the duty of every individual of the commu¬
nity : For were thofe, who may be fuppofed to fland in
no need either of the contagion of focitty to kindle their
own devotion, or. of the preaching of a clergyman to in-
ftruft them in the do&rines and precepts of the gofpel, to
“ forfake, on thefe accounts, the affembling themfelves to¬
gether, as the manner of fome is,” religious affemblies and
public worfhip would very quickly fall into univerfal dif-
ule. Man is an animal prone to imitation ; and every or¬
der in fociety is ambitious of treading in the iootfteps of
the order immediately above it. Were the wife and the
good, therefore, permitted to abfent themfelves from the af¬
femblies inftituted for the public worfhip of the Creator and
Redeemer ®f the world, others would quickly follow their
'example ; impelled to it not only by this univerfal propen-
fity, but by the additional motive of wifhing to appear both,
to the world and to themfelves as wife and as good as their
privileged neighbours. The coniequence is obvious: one
man would ftay from church with the ierious intention per¬
haps of employing the Lofd’s-day in private devotion and
religious ftudy ; another, following his example, would ab¬
fent himfelf upon the fame pretepce, but would in reality
5 Z wafte
WOT [ 9I4
wifle the day in dozing, indolence or in fecret fenfuality.
1’or thefe and other reai'ons which might be eafily afligntd,
no fin cere Chriftian will think himfelf at liberty to difpute
a practice enjoined by the inipired preachers of his reli-
,t ion, coeval with the inilitution, and retained by every led
into which it has fince been unhappily divided.
1 w o T
agamft his life. Some months after be went back to Flo¬
rence ; but king James coming to the pofTcffion of the
crown or England, Mr Wotttm returned home, was knight¬
ed by his majeity, and fent ambaffador to the republic o£
enice ; and afterwards was employed in many other em-
a f'.i -n- n- * lr': , baliies to that and other courts: but the o'-lv" rew-irrl
As Lhnitian worfiup con ifts of oravers and nraiiea it f arc- , ■ , . ° v 'ewaia ne
bee,, . ^eeof ,Le deb,te ^ E™ ^Wd hi
J:,e:J>:PArmcd byp’rncert'.d fo.'ms.or - by he kept ,ai hie dei., which happened^" ,6,,?’
extemporaneous addrelTes to the Almighty. Loth theie
modes have their advantages and disadvantages ; and by the
lacred writers neither of them is. preferibed in oppofition to
the other.
't he advantages of a liturgy are, that it prevents abfurd,
extravagant, or impious addreffes to God, which the folly
or enthufiafm of individuals mult always be in danger of
producing ; it gives the cangregation an opportunity of
joining in the prayers which are put up for them, which
they cannot poiubly do m a feiuea of extemporaneous peti-
lions, fince before they can affent to any one of thefe and
make it their own,1 their attention is neceffariSv called a-
Way to thatwhich fucceeds it ; and it relieves’ the clergy¬
man fiom the laoour oi compofition, which ieems incom-
that fervour which conflitutes the ipirit of
patible with
devotion.
The difad vantages, of a fixed liturgy, which are the re¬
commendations of extemporary prayer, arc principally two.
The forms, compofed in one age muft, by the unavoidable
change or language, circumflances, and ooinions, become
in feme degree unfit for another ; and the* perpetual repe¬
tition or the fame fotm of words is very apt to produce in¬
attentive laffiiu.de in the congregation. Would the clergy
of the church of England take that liberty which is allow¬
ed them in the bidding prayer before fern on, perhaps the
ter vice of that church would unite in itfelf all the advan¬
tages both of liturgic and extemporary worfhip. We have
only to a ’d on this luhjedf, that public prayers, whether
precompoted or not, ought to be compendious that they
ought to exprefs juft conceptions of the Divine attributes ;
recite fuel: wants as the congregation are likely to fed and
no other ; that they ought to contain as few controverted
propofitiens as pofiible ; and that, if it can be done with¬
out offence, the pompous ftyle of t6e Jiate fhould be laid
affde in our prayers for the king and all that are in autho¬
rity ; becaufe in every aft which carries the mind to God,
human greatnefs muft be annihilated.
WORT, the infufion of malt, of which beei* is made.
The ufes of this infufion in common affairs are well known.
By Dr M‘Bride it has lately been found to have a ftrong
antifeptic virtue, and to be ufeful in preventing the feurvy
and other difeafes to which faiiors are liable ^ which was
confirmed by captain Cook in his kte voyages. See Ahans
of Prtf r’vitijJ tlx Health of Ssamen.
WOTTON (Sir Henry), an eminent writer, was the
fen of Thomas Wotton, Efq; and was born in 1568. He
ftudied for fome time at New-college, Oxford, whence he
removed to Qareen’s-college, where he made a great pro-
grefs in logic and phrlofophy ; wrote a tragedy for the ufe
»f that college, called Hancredo ; and afterwards received
the degree of matter of arts. After this, leaving the uni-
verfity, he travelled into France, Germany, and Italy ; and
having fpent about nine years abroad, he returned to Eng¬
land, and became fecretary to Robert earl of Effex, with
whom he continued till that earl was apprehended far high,
treafon. He then retired to Florence, where he became
known to the grand duke of Tufcany, who fent him pri¬
vately with letters to James VI. king of Scotland, under
the name of OdaWio Baldly to infoim that king of a defign
-/
his deceafe fome of his manuferipts and printed trad!3.
were publilhed together in a volume, intiiled, Rdiquia Wot.
tonion*.
Wotton (Dr William), a very learned divine and wri¬
ter, was the fon o* Mr Henry Wotton, B. D. redder of
Vv re .tham, in Suffolk, where he was born in 1666. He
was educated by his father, a gentleman well {killed in the
learned languages ; under- whom he made fuch amazing pro¬
ficiency, that at five years of arje it is laid he could render
feveral chapters in the gofpeJs cut of Latin and Creek, and
many plalms in Hebrew, into Iris mother tongue. When he
was very young, he remembered the whole of almoft every,
difeourfe he had heard, and often iurprifed a preacher by
repeating his fermonto him. He was admitted into Catha-
nne hall in Cambridge feme months before he was ten years
old ; when the progrefs he made in.learning m that uni-
verhty engaged Dr Duport, then mailer of Magdalen col-
aijc^ ^ean Peterborough, to write an eleo'ant cony
of Latin verbs in his praife. In 1679 he took the degree
01 bacnelor of arts wlien he was but twelve years and five
months old; and the winter following he was invited to
London by Dr Gilbert Burnet, then preacher at the Rolls,
who introduced him to molt of the learned- men in that
city, and particularly to Dr William Lloyd, bifhop of St
Afaph ; to whom he recommended himfelf by repeating to
him one of his ferreons, as Dr Burnet had engaged' he
fhould. In 1691 he commenced bachelor of divinity? The
fame year bifhop Lloyd gave him the figure of Eland-
nho, in Denbighfhire, He was afterwards made chaplain
to the earl of Nottingham, then lecretary of ftate, who pre-
fented him to the rectory of Middleton Keynes, in Bucks,
and to whom he dedicated his Reffe&ions upon Ancient and1
Modern Learning. In 1705, bifhop Burnet -gave him a-
prebend in the church of Saiifbury : and in 1707, archbi-
fliop Tern fon p relented him with the degree of do&or of
divinity; but in 17 141, the difficulties he laboured under with
relpeCt^to his private fortune, obliged him to retire into
South Wales, where he. was treated with great kindnds
and humanity by the gentlemen of that country ; and wrote
there the “ Memoirs of the Cathedral Churches of St Da¬
vid s and Landaff,” and his “ Mifcellaneous Difcourfes
relating to the I raditions and Ufages of the Scribes and
Pharafees which were afterwards printed. He died in
1786.. 1 his great man was remarkable for his humanity
and friendlinefs of temper ; tlie narrownefs of a party ipirit
never broke in upon any of bis friendfhips ; and his time-
and abilities were at the fervice of any perfon who was ma¬
king advances in real learning. He wrote, befides the a-
hove works, 1. A Hiftory of Rome. 2. A Defence of his-
Refieftions upon Ancient and Modern Learning. 4. A
Difeourfe concerning the Languages of Babel: .4? Advice
to a young Student, with a Method of Study for the firft
four Years; and other learned pieces.
WOUNDS. See Surgery, chap. ii.
Wounds, in farriery. See there,, $ xxvii.
WRASSE, or old wife, in ichthyology. See Labrus,,
WREA i H, in heraldry, a roll of fine linen or fills,
(like that of a i urkifh turban), confifting of the colours
born in the efcutcneonj placed 11: an atchievenient between?
the
W R E
[ 9i5 1
W R E
%?Vedk. the helmet and the crefl, and immediately fupporting the
•“*v crelt.
WRECK, or Shipwreck, the ddlru&ion of a (hip by
rocks or (hallows at lea.
By the ancient common law, where any fhio was loll at
fea, and the goods or cargo were thrown upon the land,
thefe goods, fo wrecked, were judged to belong to the
king : for it wms held, that, by the lofs of the fhio, all
property was gone out of the original owner. But this
was undoubtedly adding forrov/ to forrow, and was confo-
nant neither to reaion nor humanity. Wherefore it was
Bril ordained by king Henry 1. that if any perfon eicaped
alive out of the fhip, it fhould be no wreck ; and afterwards
king Henry II. by his charter, declared, that if on the
eoafts of either England, Poidtou, Oleron, or Gafcony, any
ihip fhould be diftreffed, and either man or beaft ihould el-
rape or be found therein alive, the goods Ihould remain to
the owners, if they claimed them within three months; but
othervvife fhould be efteemed a wreck, and fhould belong
to the king, or other lord of the franchiie. This was a-
gain confirmed with improvements by king Richard I. ;
who, in the fecond year of his reign, not only eltablifhed
thefe concefiions, by ordaining that the owner, if he was
ihio wrecked and efcaped, cmnes res fuas libera.^ et quiet os
habtrety but alfo, that if he perifhed, his children, or in
default of them, his brethern and filters, fhould retain the
property ; and in default of brother or filler, then the
goods ihould remain to the king (a), ^nd the law', as
laid down by Bratton in the reign of Henry III. feems
flill to have improved in its equity. For then, if not only
a dog (for inftance) efcaped, by which the owner might be
tlifcovered, but if any certain mark w'ere let on the goods,
by which they might be known again, it was held to be
no wreck. And this is certainly moft agreeable to reafon ;
the rational claim of the king being only founded upon
this, that the tiue owner cannot be afcertained. After¬
wards, in the fitfl flatute of Weltminfter, the time of
limitation of claims, given by the charter of Henry II. is
extended to a year and a day, accoiding to the ufage of
Normandy : and it enadts, that if any man, a dog, or a
cat, efcape alive, the veffel (hall not be adjudged a wreck.
Thefe animals, as in Bradlon, are only put tor examples ;
for it is now held, that not only it any live thing elcape,
but if proof can be made of the property of any of the
goods or lading which come to fhore, they fhall not be for¬
feited as wreck. The ftatute further ordains, that the
the riff of the county fhall be bound to keep the goods a
year and a day (as in, France for one year, agreeable to
the maritime laws of Oleron, and in Holland for a year and
a half), that if any man can prove a property in them, ei¬
ther in his own right or by right of representation, they
fhall be rtftored to him without delay ; but it no fuch pro
perty be proved within that time, they then lhall be the
king’s. If the goods are of a perifhable nature, the fheriff
may fell them, and tt’e money iball be liable in their Head.
This revenue of wrecks is fiequently granted out to lords
of manors as a royal franchife ; arid if tiny one be thus in-
titled to wrecks in his own land, and the king’s goods are
wrecked thereon, the king may claim them at any time,
even atter the year ami day.
It is to be obferved, that, in ofder to confiitute a legal
wreck, the goods mult come to knd. If they continue at
fea, the law diftinguimes them by the barbarous and un¬
couth appellations of jet/tim, jboifarr, and ligan. Jetfam
where goods are cad into the fea, and there fink and re¬
main under water: flotfam is where they continue fwrra*
ming on the furface of the waves : ligan is where they are
funk in the fea, but tied to a cork or buoy, in order to be
found again. Thefe are alfo the king’s, if no owner ap¬
pears to claim them ; but if any owner appears, he is iry
titled to recover the poffefiion. For even if they be call
overboard, without any mark or buoy, in order to lighten
the fiiip, the owner is not by this aft of necefiity condrued
to have renounced his property ; much Ids can things ligsrirt
be fuppofed to be abandoned, fince the owner has done all
in his power to affert and retain his property. I’hele three
are therefore accounted fo far a diftinft thing from the for¬
mer, that by the king’s grant to a man of wrecks, things
jetiam, flotfam, and ligan, will not pafs.
Wrecks, in their legal acceptation, are at prefent not ve¬
ry frequent : for if any goods come to land, it rarely hap¬
pens, fince the improvement of commerce, navigation, and
correfpondence, that the owner is not able to affert his pro¬
perty within the year and day limited by law. And in or¬
der to preferve this property entire for him, and if pollible
to prevent wrecks at all, our laws have made many very hu¬
mane regulations ; in a fpirit quite oppofite to thofe lavage
lawn which formerly prevailed in all the northern regions ot
Europe, and a few years aiio were Hill faid to fubfift. on the
coafls of the Baltic Sea, permitting the inhabitants to feize
on whatever they could get as lawful prize; or, as an author
of their own exprefies it, “ in naufragorum miferia et calami-
tate tanqvarn vultures adpftfdam currere.” For by the ftatute
27 Edw. III. c. 13. if any fhip be loft on the fhore, and the
goods come to land (which cannot, fays the ftatute, be call¬
ed wreck), they fhall be prelently delivered to the mer¬
chants, payinor only a reafonable reward to thofe that faved
and preferved them, which is intitled Jalvage Alfo by the
common law, if any perions (other than the fheriff) take
any ooods fo call on fhore, which are not legal wreck, thfr
owners might have a commiflion to inquire and find them
out, and compel them to make reflitution. And by r z
Ann. ft. 2. c. 18. confirmed by 4 Geo. I. c. 12- in order
to affift the diftreffed, and prevent the fcandalous illegal
praftices on fome of our lea coafls (too fimilar to thofe on
the Baltic), it is enafte J, that aU head-officers and others of
towns near the fea, fliall, upon application made to them,
fummon as many hands as are necelfary, and fend them to
fhe relief of any fhip in dillreis, on forfeiture of L. 100; and
in cafe of aflSftance given, falvage fhall be paid by the own¬
ers, to be affeffed by three neighbouring juftices. All per*
fens that fecrete any goods fhall forfeit their treble valued
and if they wilfully do any aft whereby the fhip is loft or
deftroyed, by making holes in her, Healing her pumps, or
etherwife, they are guilty of felony without benefit of cler-
gv. Laftly, by the Hatute 26 Geo II. c. 19. plundering
any veffel, either in diftrefs or wrecked, and whether any li¬
ving creature be on board or not (for whether wreck of
Otherwife, it is clearly not the property of the populace),
fuch plundering or preventing the efcape of any perfon
that endeavours to lave his life, or wounding him with in¬
tent to deftroy him, or putting out falle lights in order to
bring any veffel into danger, are all declared to be capital
felonies ; in like manner as the deHroying of trees, fteeples,
5 Z 2 or
WrfcV,
(a) In like manner Conftantine the Great, finding that by the imperial law the revenue of wrecks was given to the
prince’s treafnry or fifeus, reflrmned it by an edift (Cod. 11. 5. 1.) and ordered them to remain to the owners ; ad¬
ding this humane expoliulation-; Quod enim jus habet f feus in rliena calamitate, ut de re tam luftuoia compendi¬
um feftetur
Wren,
Wrcftliitg
W RE [ 916
ey other ftated fea-mavks, is punilhed by the ftatute 8 Eliz.
c. ) 3. with a forfeiture of L. 100 or outlawry. Moreover,
by the ftatute of Geo. If. pilfering any goods call afliore is
declared to be petty larceny ; and many other falutary regu¬
lations are made, for the more effedtuaily preferving ftn'ps of
any nation in diftrefs.
By tne civil law,, to deftroy perfons fhipwrecked, or pre¬
vent their laving the fhip, is capital. And to fteal even a
plank from a veftel in diftrefs or wrecked, makes the party
liable to anfwer for the whole fhip and cargo. The laws al¬
io of the Wlfigoths, and the moll early Neapolitan confti-
tutions, punifhed with the utmoft feveiity all thole who ne¬
glected to afiift any fhip in diftrefs, or plundered any goods
call on fhore.
WREN, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
"Wren (Sir Chriftopher), a great philofopher, and one
of the molt learned and molt eminent architects of his age,
was the fon of Chriftopher Wren dean ofWindfor, and was
born in 1632. He ftudied at Wadham college in Oxford;
where he took the degree of mailer of arts in 1-653, and
was chofen fellow of All Souls college. When very young
he difcovered a furpriling genius for the mathematics ;
in which fcience he made great advances before he was
iixteen years old. In 1657, he was made profeflbr of
aftronomy at Grefham college, London ; which he religned
1660, on his being chofen to the Savilian profefforfhip of
in
aftronomy in Oxford : he was the next year created doCtor
of laws, and in 1663 was eledted fellow of the Royal So¬
ciety. He was one of the commiflioners for the reparation
©f St Paul’s ; and in 1665 travelled into France, to exa¬
mine the molt beautiful edifices there, when he made many
curious obfervations. At his return to England, he drew a
noble plan for rebuilding the city of London after the fire,
which he pretented to parliament; and upon the deceafe of
Sir John Denham in 1 668, was made furveyor-general of
his majefty’s works ; and from that time had the direction
of a great number of public edifices, by which he acquired
the highell reputation. He built the magnificent theatre at
Oxford, St Paul’s cathedral, the churches of St Stephen
Walbrook, and St Mary-le-Bow, the Monument, the mo¬
dern part of the palace of Hampton Court, Chelfea College,
one of the wings oi Greenwich Hofpital, and many other
beautiful edifices. He was prefident of the Royal Society,
one of the commiflioners of Chelfea College, and twice mem¬
ber of parliament ; firft for Plymouth in Devonfhire, and
then for Melcomb Regis in the fame county ; but in 1718
was removed from his place of furveyor-general. He died
in 1723, and was interred in the vault under St Paul’s.
This great man alfo diftinguilhed himfelf by many curious
inventions and difcoveries in natural philofophy; and, among
many others, contrived an inftrument for meafuring the
quantity of rain that falls on any fpace of land for a year ;
he invented many ways of making aftronomical obfervacions
more accurate and eafy ; and was the firft author of the
anatomical experiment of injeCting liquors into the veins of
animals, &c. He tranflated into Latin Mr Oughtred’s
Horologiog raphica Geometric a ; and wrote a Survey of the
cathedral church of Salifbury, and other pieces. After his
death his pofthumous works and draughts were publifhed
by his fon.
WRESTLING, a kind of combat or engagement be¬
tween two perfons unarmed, body to body, to prove their
lirength and dexterity, and try which can throw his oppo¬
nent to the ground.
Wrefiling is an exercife of very great antiquity and fame.
It was in ufe in the heroic age; witnefs Hercules, who
wreftled with Antaeus.
It continued a long time in the higheft repute, and had
] W R I
confiderable rewards and honours affigned to it at the Olympic
games. It was the cuftom for the Athletic to anoint their
bodies with oil, to give the lefs hold to their antagonifts.
Lycurgus ordered the Spartan maids to wreftle in public
quite naked, in order, as it is obferved, to break them of their
too much delicacy and nicenefs, to make them appear more
robuft, and to familiarize the people, &c. to fuch nudities
WRIST, in Anatomy. See there, n°53.
WRIT, in law, fignifies, in general, the king’s precept
in writing under feal, ifiuing out of fome court,- dire&ed to
the fheriff or other officer, and commanding fomething to
be done in relation to a fuit or action, or giving commiffion
to have the fame done. And, according to Fitzherbert, a
writ is laid to be a formal letter of the king ia parchment,
fealed with his feal, and dire&ed to fome judge, officer, or
minifter. See. at the fuit of a fubjedt, for the caufe briefly
expreffed, which is to be determined in the proper court ac¬
cording to law.
Wans, in civil actions, are either original or judicial;
original, are fnch as are iflued out of the court of chancery
for the fummoning of a defendant to appear, and are grant¬
ed before the fuit is commenced, in order to begin the fame;
and judicial writs iftue out of the court where the original
is returned, after the fuit is begun. See Process.
The original writ is the foundation of the fuit. See
Suit.
When a perfon hath received an injury, and thinks it
worth his while to demand a fatisfadtion for it, he is to con.
fider with himfelf, or take advice, what redrefs the law has
given for that injury ; and thereupon is to make application
or fuit to the crown, the fountain of all juftice, for that
particular fpecific remedy which he is determined or advifed
to purfue. As for money due on bond, an adtion of debt;
for goods detained without force, an adtion of detinue or tro-
ver; or, if taken with force, an adtion of trejpafs vi et armis;
or, to try the tide of lands, a writ of entry or adtion of
trefpafs in ejtdlment ; or for any confequential injury re¬
ceived, a fpecial adtion on the cafe. To this end he is to
lue out, or purchafe by paying the dated fees, an original or
original writ, from the court of chancery, which is the 0///-
cina jujiithz, the fhop or mint of juftice, wherein all the king’s
writs are framed. It is a mandatory letter from the king
in parchment, fealed with his great leal, and diredted to the
fheriff of the county wherein the injury is committed, or
luppofed fo to be, requiring him to command the wrong¬
doer or party accufed, either to do juftice to the complain-,,
ant, or elfe to appear in court, and'anfwer the acculation *
againft him. Whatever the fheriff does in purfuance of this
writ, he muft return or certify to the court of common-pleas^
together with the writ itfelf: which is the foundation of
the jurifdidtion of that court, being the king’s warrant for
the judges to proceed to the determination of the caufe.
For it was a maxim introduced by the Normans, that there
fhould be no proceedings in common-pleas before the king’s
juftices without his original writ ; becaufe they held it un¬
fit that thofe juftices, being only the fubftitutes of the crown,
ftiould take cognizance of any thing but what was thus cx-
prefsly referred to their judgment. However, in fmall ac¬
tions, below the value of forty (hillings, . which are brought
in the court-baron or county-court, no royal writ is necef-
fary ; but the foundation of fuch fuits continue to be (as in
the times of the Saxons), not by original writ, but by plaint j
that is, by a private memorial tendered in open court to the
judge, wherein the party injured fets forth his caufe of ac¬
tion : and the judge is bound of common right to admini-
fter juftice therein, without any fpecial mandate from the
king. Now indeed even the royal writs are held to be de*
mandable of common right, on paying the ufual fee*: fo?
any
Wrifti
Writ.
W R I [ 91
Wrif*. aay delay in the granting them, or fitting an unufual or ex-
Writing. orbitant price upon them, would be a breach ot magna
v charta, c. 79. “ nulli vendemus, null! negabimus, aut difTe-
remus jutlitiam vel reAurn.”
Original writs are either optional or peremptory ; or, in
the language of our law, they are either a pracipt, or a fi te
fecerit fecur-um. The pretape is in the alternative, command¬
ing the defendant to do the thing required, or fhow the rea-
fon wherefore he hath not done it. The ule of this writ is
where fomething certain is demanded by the plaintiff, which
is in the power of the defendant himtell to perform ; as, to
reftore the poffeffion of land, to pay a certain liquidated
debt, to perform a fpecilic covenant, to render an account,
and the like ; in all which cafes the writ is drawn up in the
form of a pracipe or command, to do thus, or fhow came to
the contrary ; giving the defendant his choice to redrefs the
injury or Hand the fuit. The other fpecies of original writs
is called a ft fecerit te fecurum> from the words of the writ j
which direfts the fheriff to caufe the defendant to appear
in court, without any option given him, provided the plain¬
tiff gives the fhei iff fecurity effectually to profecute his claim.
This writ is in uie where nothing is fpecifically demanded,
but only a fatisfaCtion in general; to obtain which, and mi-
nifter complete redrefs, the intervention of fome judicature
is neceffary. Such are writs of trefpafs, or on the cafe,
wherein no debt or other fpeciiic thing is iued for in cer¬
tain, but only damages to be affeffed by a jury. For this
end the defendant is immediately called upon to appear in
court, provided the plaintiff gives good fecurity of profecu-
ting his claim. Both fpccies of writs are tefted, or witnef-
fed, in the king’s own name ; “ witnefs onrfelf at W eilmin-
fler,” or wherever the chancery may be held.
The fecurity here fpoken of, to be given by the plaintiff
for prolecuting his claim, is common to both writs, though
it gives denomination only to the latter. The whole of it is
at prefent become a mere matter of form ; and John Doe
and Richard Roe are always returned as the Handing
pledges for this purpofe.—The ancient ufe of them was to
anfwer for the plaintiff, who in cafe he brought an adtion
without caufe, or failed in the profecution of it when
brought, was liable to an amercement from the crown for
raifing a falfe accufation ; and fo the form of the judgment
ftill is. In like manner, as by the Gothic conftitutions no
perfon was permitted to lay a complaint againft another,
ntji fub Jcriplura aut [pecificatione trium teftium, quod aSionem
vellet perjeqni: and, as by the laws of Sancho I. king of
Portugal, damages were given againft. a plaintiff who profe-
cuted a groundkfs action.
The day on which the defendant is ordered to appear in
court, and on which the fheriff is to bring in the writ, and
report how far he has obeyed it, is called the return of the
writ; it being then returned by him to the king’s juftices
at Weftminfter.. And it is always made returnable at the
diftance of at lead 15 days from the date or tell, that the
defendant may have time to come up to Weftminfter, even
from the moft remote parts of the kingdom; and upon fome
day in one of the four terms, in which the court fits for the
difpatch of bufinefs.
WRITING, the art or a£t of fignifying and conveying
our ideas to others, by letters or chara&ers vifible to the eye.
See Composition, Grammar, and Language.
The moft ancient remains of writing, which have been
tranfmitted to us, are upon hard fubftances, fuck as ftones
and metals, which were ufed by the ancients for edids and
matters of public notoriety ; the decalogue was written on
two tables of ftone ; but this pradice was not peculiar to
the Jews, for it was ufed by moft of the eaftern nations, as
well as by the Greeks and Romans} and therefore the ri-
7 7 W R I
dicule which-Voltaire attempts to call upon that part of WT- ^
the book of Genefis, where the people are commanded to *v ’"T
write the law on ftones, is abfurd ; for what is there laid by
no means implies, that other materials might not be ufed on.
common occ&trons. I he laws penal, civil, and ceremom u,
among the Greeks, were engraven on tables of brafs which
were called Cyrbes.
We find that wood was alfo ufed for writing on in diffe¬
rent countries. In the Sloaman library (NJ 4852.) are
fpecimens of Kirfic writing, on boards about two feet in
length, and fix inches in depth. The Chinefe, before the
invention of paoer, wrote or engraved with an iron tool up¬
on thin boards or on bamboo. Pliny fays, that taole books-
of wood were in ufe before the time of Homer. Ihtte
table books were called by the Romans pugiUares. I he
wood was cut into thin dices, and finely plained and poll li¬
ed. The writing was at fir ft upon the bare wood, with an
iron inftrurnent called a Jlyle. In later times thefe tables
were ufually waxed over, and written upon with that inftru-
ment. The matter written upon the tables which were
thus waxed over was eafily effaced, and by imoothing the
wax new matter might be fubftituted in the place of what
had been written before. T. he Greeks and Romans conti¬
nued the ufe of waxed table-books long after the ufe of pa¬
pyrus, leaves, and fkins, became common, becaufe they were
io convenient for correcting extemporary compoiitions.
Table books of ivory are ftill ufed for memorandums, but
they are commonly written upon with black lead pencils^
The practice of writing on table-books covered with wax
was m t entirely laid aiide till the commencement of the 14th.
century.
The bark of trees was alfo ufed for writing by the an¬
cients, and is lo ftill in feveral parts of Afia. The fame-
thing may be faid of the leaves of trees. It is needlefs to
obferve the ufe of parchment and vellum, papyrus and pa¬
per, for writing ; it is too well known. 1 he method of fa¬
bricating tbefe tubftances has been already delcribed as they
occurred in the order o' the alphabet.
It is obvious, that when men wrote, or rather engraved,,
on hard fubftances, inftruments of metal were neceffary,
fuch as the chifel and the ffylus ; but the latter was chiefly
uied for writing upon boards, waxed tablets, or on bark.
When the ancients wrote on fofter materials than wood
or metal, other inftruments were ufed for writing with, of
which reeds and canes feem to have been the firlt. Reeds
and canes are ftill ufed as inftruments for writing with by
the Tartars, the Indians, the Perfians, the 1’urks, and the
Greeks. Pencils made of hair are ufed by the Chinele for
their writing : they firft liquify their ink, and dip their pen¬
cils into it. Hair-pencils have likewife been ufed for writing in
Europe. Large capital letters were made with them from
the time of the Roman emperors till the 16th century. Af¬
ter the invention of printing they were drawn by the illumi¬
nators. Quills of geefe, fwans, peacocks, crows, and other
birds, have been uied in thefe vveftern parts for writing with,
but how long is not eafy to afeertain. St Ifidore of Seville,.,
who lived about the middle or thq 7th century, deferibes a. \
pen made of a quill as ufed in his time.
Method of rejloring decayed Writ mas. In the 77 th voU
of the Phil. Tranf. there is a paper on this fubjedt by Sir
Charles Blagden One of the beft methods he found upon ex*
periment to be, covering the letters with phlogifticated or
pruffic alkali, with the addition of a diluted mineral acid; upon
the application of which, the letters changeu very fpeedily to
a deep blue colour, of great beauty and intenfity. To pre¬
vent the fpreading of the colour, which, by blotting the
parchment, detrafts greatly from the legibility, the alkali
Ihould be put on firft, and the diluted acid added upon it*
The
Writings
it
Wurtetr-
berg.
\V U R [ g
i lie method found to anfwcr beft has been, to fpread the
alkali thin with a feather over the traces of the letters, and
then to touch it gently, as ready upon or over the letters
- as can be done with the diluted acid, by means of a feather
or a bit of flick cut to a blunt point. * Though the alkali
fhonld occafion no fenfible change of colour, yet the mo¬
ment the acid comes upon it, every trace of a letter turns
at once to a fine blue, which loon acquires its full intenfity,
and is beyond companion llronger than the colour of the
original ^trace had been. If, then, the corner of a bit of
blotting paper be carefully and dexteroufly applied near the
letters, fo as to imbibe the fuperfluous liquor, the flainingof
the parchment may be in a great meal’ure avoided ; for it is
this fuperflnoixs liquor which, abforbing part of the colour¬
ing matter from the letters, becomes a dye to whatever it
touches. Care mull be taken not to bring the blotting pa¬
per, in contact with the letters, becaufe the colouring1 mat¬
ter is foft whilfl wet, and may eafily be rubbed off. The
acid chiefly employed was the marine ; but both the vitrio¬
lic and nitrous fuccetd very well. They fhould be fo far
diluted as not to be in danger of corroding the parchment,
after which the degree of ftrength does not feem to be a
matter of much nicety.
Method of Copying Writings. The ingenious Mr Watt,
about 16 years ago, invented a method of copying writings
very fpeedily, and without the poflibihty of committing mi-
ftakes. A piece of thin unfized paper is to be taken ex-
a&ly of the fize of the paper to be* copied ; it is to be moif-
tened with water, or, what is etter, with the following li¬
quid : Take of diftilled vinegar two pounds weight,
aiifiolve it in one ounce of boracic acid ; then take four
ounces of oyfter-fhells calcined to whitenefs, and carefully
freed from their brown crufl ; put them into the vinegar,
fhake the mixture frequently for 24 hours, then let it
ffand until it depofils its fediment; filter the clear part
through tmfized paper into a glafs veffel ; then add two
ounces of the beft blue Aleppo galls bruifed, and place the
liquor in a warm place, fhakjng it frequently for 24 hours ;
then filter the liquor again through unfized paper, and add
«o it aiter filtration one quart, ale meafure, or pure water.
It mufl then (land 24 hours, and be filtered again if it fhows
a difpofition to depofit any fediment, which it generally
does. When the paper has fceen wet with this liquid, put
it between two thick unfized papers to abforb the fuperflu¬
ous moifture ; then lay it over the writing to be copied,
and put a piece of clean writing paper above it. Put the
whole on the board of a rolling prefs, and prefs them thro*
the rolls, as is done m printing copperplates, and a copy of
the writing fhall appear on both lides of the thin moiftened
paper ; on one fide in a reverfed order and dire&ion, ftuit on
the other fide in the natural order and direction of the
lines.
WRITTEN mountains. See Mountains.
WRY-NFC k, in ornithology. See Jynx.
^ WU R f EM BURG, or W IR.TEN3 URG, a fovereign duchy
of Germany, in Suabia ; bounded on the north by Franco¬
nia,. the archbifhopric of Mentz, and the palatinate of the
Rnine ; on the eaft by the county of Oeting, the marqui-
fate of Burgau, and the territory of Ulm ; on the fouth'by
the principality of Hoen-Zollern, Furftenburg, and the mar-
quiiate of Hohenburg; and on the weft by the palatinate of
the. Rhine, the marquifate of Baden, and the Black Foreft.
It is 65 miles in length, and as much in breadth, and the
river Neckar runs almoft through the middle of it from
fouth to north. i hough there are many mountains and
woods, yet it is one of the moft populous and fertile coun¬
tries in Germany, producing plenty of grafs, corn, fruits,
and a great deal of wine towards the confines of the palati-
18] W Y C
nate. 'There arc alfo mines, and alt fprings, with plenty
of game and fifh. It contains 645 villages,' 88 towns, and u W
26 cities, of which Stutgard is the capital.  
I'V UR I SBURG, a large bifliopric in Germany, com¬
prehending the principal part of Franconia. It is bound¬
ed by the county of Henneburg, the duchy of Coburg,
the abbey of Fuld, the atchblfhopric of Mentz, the mar¬
quifate of Anfpach, • the biihopric of Bamberg, and the
county of Wcrtheim ; being about 65 miles in length,
and 5o in breadth, and divided into <fO bailiwicks. The
foil is very fertile, and produces more corn and wine than
the inhabittans confume. 1 he territories of the bifhop
comprehend above 400 towns and villages, of which lie i»
Sovereign, being one of the greateft ecclefiaftical princes of
the empire.
WUR I ZBURG, a large and'handfome city of Germa¬
ny, and one of the principal in the circle of Franconia. It
is defended with good fortifications, and has a magnificent
palace. There is a handfonie hofpital, in which are gene¬
rally 4C0 poor men and women. The caftle is at a fmail
diftajice from the city, and commands it, as it ftands upon
an eminence. It communicates with the city by a ftone-
bridge, on which are 12 ftatues, reprefenting ns many faints.
I he arlenal and the cellars of tfie bifhop deferve the atten.
tion of the curious. There is alio an univerfity, founded in
1403. It is feated on the river Maine, in E. Long. 10. 2.
N. Lat. 49. 40. -
\V\CHERLEY (William), an eminent Englifh comic
poet, was born about 1640. A little before the reftoratios
of King Charles II. he became a gentleman commoner of
Queen's college Oxford, where he was reconciled by Dr
Barlow to the Proteftant religion, which he had a little be¬
fore abandoned in his travels. He afterward entered him-
fdf in the Middle-temple, but foon quitted the ftudy of the
law for purfuits more agreeable to his own genius, as well
as to the tafte of the age. Upon writing his firit play, iu-
titled, Love in a Wood, or St James’s Paik, which waft
ailed in 1672, he became acquainted with feveral of the
celebrated wits both of the court and town, and likewiie
with the duchels of Cleveland. Some time after appeared
his comedies, called The Gentleman-Dancing-Mafter, the
Plain Dealer, and the Country Wife ; all which were adted
with applaule. George duke of Buckingham had a very
high eftcern fur him, and bellowed on him feveral advanta¬
geous polls. King Charles alto (bowed him fignal marks
ot favour; and once gave him a proof of his efteem, which
perhaps never any foverei n prince before had given to it
private gentlemen. Mr Wycherley being ill of a fever, at
his.lodgings in Bow-flreet, the king did him the honour of
a vifit. Finding him extremely weakened, he commanded
him to take a journey to the fouth ot France, and aflured
him, at the tame time, that he would order him 500 1. to
defray the charges or the journey. Mr Wycherley accord¬
ingly went into France; and having foent the winter there,
returned to England entirely reftored to his former vigour.
The king, fliortly after his arrival, told him, that he had a
fon, who he was rdolved fhould be educated like the ton of
a kmg, and that he could not choofe a more proper man for
his governor than Mr Wycherley; for which iervice 1 102 1.
per annum fhould be fettled upon him.
Immediately after this offer he went down to Tunbridge,
where walking one day upon the Well’s-walk with his
friend Mr Fairbeard of Gray’s Iim, juft as he came up to
the bookseller’s (hop, the countefs pi Drogheda-, a young
widow, rich, noble, and beautiful, came there to enquire
for The Plain Dealer; “ Madam,” fays Mr Fairbeard,
“ frnce you are for the Plain Dealer, there he is for you
puffing Mr Wycherley towards her. “ Yes,” fays Mr
Wycherley#
X A N [ g
Vycksrfty-Wycherley-, M this lady can bear plain-dealing; for (he
appears to be fo accomplifhed, that what would be a com¬
pliment to others, would be plain dealing to her.” “ No,
truly, Sir”, faid the countefs, “ I am not without my faults,
any more than the ref! of my fex; and yet, notwithflanding,
I love plain-dealing, and am never more fond of it than
when it tells rue of them.” “ Then, madam,” fays Mr
Fairbeard, “ you and the Plain-Dealer feem defigned by
Heaven tor each other.”—lln fliort, Mr Wycherley walked
a turn or two with the counteis, waited upon her home,
vifited her daily while fne ftaid at Tunbridge, and married
her foon after without acquainting the king. By this ftep,
which was looked upon as a contempt of his rnajefty’s orders,
he forfeited the royal favour. 1 he countefs of Drogheda
fettled her whole fortune upon him ; but his title being dif-
puted after her death, he was (o reduced by the expences
of the law and other incumbrances, as to be unable to fatisfy
the impat ience of his creditors, who threw him into prifon;
and the Lookieller v/h® printed his Plain-Dealer, by which
he got almofl as much money as the other gained reputa¬
tion, was fo ungratefil as to refuie to lend him 20 1 in hi?
extreme neceffity. In that confinement he hnguifhed'feverr
years; but at length king James going to (ee the above
play, was fo charmed with it, that he gave immediate orders
for the payment o+ his debts, and even granted him a pen-
fi'en of 2DO 1. p\r anmtm. But that prince’s bountiful, inten¬
tions were in a great meafure defeated merely through Mr;
Wycherley’s modefty ; he being afhamed to tell the earl of
Mulgrave, whom the king had fent to demand it, a true
ffate of his debts. He laboured under the weight of thefe
difficulties till his father died, who left him 6oo 1 a year.
But this efiate was under uneafy limitations, he being only
a tenant for life, and not being allowed to raiie any money
for the payment of his debts. However, he took a rne-
ihod of doing it which few iufpedted to be his choice ; and
19 ] X E B
this was making a jointure. He had often declared, that Wyndlnm
he was reiolved to die married, though he could not bear
the thoughts o* living in that (late again : accordingly, juft. B.. 1
at the eve of his death, he married a young gentlewoman
with 1500I. fortune, part of which he applied to the ufes
he wanted it for. Eleven days after the celebration of thefe
nuptials, in December 1715, he died, and was interred in
the vault of Covcnt-garden church.
Befides his plays above-mentioned, he publifhed a volume
of poems in folio. In 17-28 his pofthumous works in profe
and verfe were ptibliftied by Mr Theobald.
WYNDHAM (Sir William), defeended of an ancient
family, was born about the year 1687, and fucceeded young
to the title and eftate of his father. On his return from
his travels, he was chofen member for the county of Somer-
fet ; in which ftation he ferved in the three laft parliaments
of Queen Anne, and as long as he lived: after the change ot
the mini dry in 1710, he was appointed fecretary at war;
and in 1713 was raifed to be chancellor of the exchequer.
Upon the breach between the earl of Oxford and lord Bo-
lingbroke, be adhered to the interefts of the latter. Pie
was removed from, his employment on the acceflion of
George I. and falling under fufpicion on the breaking out
of the rebellion in 1715, was apprehended. Pie made his
efcape ; a- reward Was publifhed for apprehending him ; lie
furrendered, was committed to the Tower, but never brought1
to a trial. After he regained His liberty, he continued in op-
pofition to the leveral admiuiftrations under which he lived;
and died in 1740.
WYKEHAM (William of). See William.
WYE, a river of Wales; which riling on the confines of
CardBanfhire, and running fouth-eaft, divides the counties*
of Radnor and Brecknock ; then crofling Herefbrdfhire, it!
runs fouth and falls mti the mouth of the Severn at Chep.-
flow.
AT or x, is the 22d letter or our alphabet, and a double
AA) confer ant. it was not ufed by the Hebrews or
ancient Greeks ; for as it is a compound letter, the an¬
cients, who ufed great (implicity in their writings, ex-
prefted this letter by its component letters cj. Neither
have the Italians this letter, but expiefs it byjfl X begins
no word in our language but (uch-a» are of Greek original;
and is in few others but what are of Latin derivation ;
ns perp/rx, reflexion, djlvxiun, &c. We often exprefs this
found by (ingle letters, as chs, in backs, necks; by is, in boohs,
break's; by «, in accefs, accident; by ct, in atllon, unbiion, &t.
The Enghfh and French pronounce it like cs or is ; the
iVpaniards like c before a, viz. Alecandro, as if it were Ale-
candio. In numerals it expreffeth 10, wher.ee in old Roman
manufciipts it is ufed for denarius : and as luch feenis to be
made of twro V’s placed one over the other. When a dafh
is added over it, thus x, it fi rnifies 10,00a.
XANTHIUM, m botany; a genus of jilants of the clafs
moncecia, order pentandria, and arranged in the natural clari¬
fication under the 49th order, compofita. The male flowers
are compofite, common calyx imbricated ; corollulas mono-
petalous, tubular, quinquefid. Female : calyx involucrum
of two leaves, containing two flowers; corolla o; drup?..
dry, prickly; nucleus bilocular. There are five fpecles, onIyXamSmtTs.
one of which is a native of Britain, theJitumurium or lefs ium/
burdock. P'he fiem of this plant is a foot and a half high, Xebees.
thick, often {potted; leaves heart-fhaped, lobed, on long foot- —v *
(talk?. Flowers, male and female-, many together, in the
aim of the leaves. 'The leaves are bitter and aftringent. A
dtcod ion ot the whole plant affords a fhowy y ellow colour,
but it is better it only the flowers are uted, Florfes and!
goats eat it; cows, flieeiv, and fwine refute it.
XAN.THOXYDUM. See ZaNTH oxy lvm;
XEBEC, or Xebec, a fmall three-mafted vedel, navigated
in the Mediterranean Sea, and on the coafts of Spain, Pbr-
tu.ial, and Barbary. See Plate CCCCLII, fig 10.
The-fails of tire xebec are in general fimilar to tfiofe of
the polcacre, but the hull is extremely different'from that
and almoft every other veffel. It is furnifhed with a (fcrong
prow: and the extremity of the (fern, which is nothing more
tharr a fort of railed platform, or gallery, projects farther be¬
hind the counter and buttock than that of any European
{hip.
Being generally equipped as a corfair, the xebec is ecn -
fiunited with a narrow floor, to be more fwiit in purniit of
the enemy ; and.of a great breadth, to enable her to carry
X E N [ 920 ] -X E N
Xenocra- a great force of fail for this purpofe without danger of over-
, turning. As thele veflels are ulually very low built, their
decks are formed with a great convexity from the middle of
their breadth towards the fides, in order to carry off the wa¬
ter which falls aboard more readily by their fcuppers. .But
as this extreme convexity would render it very difficult to
walk thereon at fea, particularly w-hen the veffel rocks by
the agitation of the waves, there is a platform of grating
extending along the deck from the fides of the veffel to¬
wards the middle, wliereon the crew may walk dry-footed
vvhilft the water is conveyed through the grating to the
fcuppers.
d The xebecs, which are generally armed as veffels of war
by the Algerine?, mount from 16 to 24 cannon, and carry
from 300 to 450 men, two-thirds of whom are generally
foldiers.
By the very complicated and inconvenient method of
working thefe veffels, what one of their captains of Algiers
told Mr Falconer will be readily believed, viz. that every
xebec requires at leaft the labour of three fquare-rigged
ftnps, wherein the Handing fails are calculated to anfwer
every fituation of the wind.
XENOCRATES, a celebrated ancient Grecian philo-
fopher, was born at Cha.lcedon in the 95th Olympiad. At
firlt he attached himfelf to JEfchines, but afterwards be¬
came a difciple of Plato, who took much pains in cultiva¬
ting his genius, which was naturally heavy. His temper
was gloomy, his afpedt fevere, and his manners little tinc¬
tured with urbanity. Thefe material defedfs his mailer
took great pains to corredt; frequently advilrng him to
facrifice to the Graces : and the pupil was patient of in-
flrudlion, and knew how to value the kindnefs of his prcep-
tor. As long as Plato lived, Xenocrates was one of his
mod elleemed dilciples ; after his death he clofely adhered
to his dodlrine ; and, in the fecond year of the 1 10th
Olympiad, he took the chair in the academy, as the fucceffor
©f Speufippus.
Xenocrates was celebrated among the Athenians, not
only fordiis wifdom, but for his virtues. So eminent was
his reputation for integrity, that when he was called upon
to give evidence in a judicial tranfadlion, in which an oath
was ufually required, the judges unanimoufly agreed, that
his irmple affeveration fhould be taken, as a public teftimony
to his merit. Even Philip ©f Macedon found it impoffible
to corrupt him. So abftemious was he with refpedl to food,
that his provilion was frequently ipoiled before it was con¬
firmed. His chaftity was-' invincible. Phryne, a cele¬
brated Athenian courtezan, attempted without fuccefs to
feduce him. Of his humanity the following pathetic in¬
cident is a fufficient proof: A fparrow, which was pur-
fued by a hawk, flew into his bofom ; he afforded it pro-
tedlion till its enemy was out of fight, and then let it go,
ErJltUs faying, that he would never betray a fuppliant. He was
Hijl. of fond °f retirement, and was feldom feen in the city. He
EbilofnpJjy, was difcreet in the ufe of his time, and carefully allotted a
vol. ii. certain portion of each day to its proper bufmefs. One of
thele he employed in filent meditation. He was an admi¬
rer of the mathematical fciences; and was fo fully cenvinced
of their utility, that when a young man, who was unac¬
quainted with geometry and ailronomy, defired admiffion
into the academy, he refufed his requeft, faying, that he
was not yet pofl’effed of the handles of philofophy. In
fine, Xenocrates was eminent both for the purity of his
morals and for his acquaintance with fcience, and fupported
the credit of the Platonic fchool, by his le&ures, his
writings, and his condudl. He lived to the fiift year of
the 116th Olympiad, or the S2 of his age, when he
loft his life by accidentally falling, in the dark, into a Xeaopfo,
refervoir of water. ,les*
XENOPHANES, the founder of the Eleaic fed of :°^
philofophy among the Greeks, was born at Colophon pro¬
bably about the 65th Olympiad. From fame caufe or
other he left his country early, and took refuge in Sicily,
where he fupported himfelf by reciting, in the court ot
Hiero, elegiac and iambic verfes, which he had written in
reprehenfion of the theogonies of Hefiod and Homer.
From Sicily he paffed over into Magna Grsecia, where he
took up the profeffion of philofophy, and became a cele¬
brated preceptor in the Pythagorean fchool. Indulging,
however, a greater freedom of thought than was ufual
among the difciples of Pythagoras, he ventured to introduce
new opinions of his own, and in many particulars to oppofe
the dodtrines of Epimenides, Thales, and Pythagoras.
Xenophanes pofftffed the Pythagorean chair of philofophy
about feventy years, and lived to the extreme age of an
hundred years, that is, according to Eufebius, till the Sift
Olympiad. The dodlrine of Xenophanes concerning na¬
ture is fo imperfedlly prefer ved, and obfeurely expreffed,
that it is no wonder that it has been differently reprefented
by different writers. Perhaps the truth is, that he held
the univerfe to be one in nature and fubftance, but diftin-
guifhed in his conception between the matter of v/hich all
things confift, and that latent divine force which, though
not a diftindl fubftance but an attribute, is neeeffarily in¬
herent in the univerie, and is the caufe of all its perfedtion.
XENOPHON, an iiluftrious philofopher, general, and
hiftorian, was born at Athens in the 3d year of the Bad
Olympiad. When he was a youth, Socrates, ftruck with
his external appearance, determined to admit him into the
number of his pupils. Meeting him by accident in a
narrow paffage, the philofopher put his ftaff acrois the
path, and (lopping him, alked, where thofe things were to
be purchafed which are neceffary to human life ? Xeno¬
phon appearing at a lofs for a reply to this unexpedled fa-
lutation, Socrates proceeded to afk him, where honed and
good men were to be found ? Xenophon ftill hefiating, So¬
crates faid to him, “ Follow me, and learn.” From that
time Xenophon became a difciple of Socrates, and made a
rapid progrefs in that moral wifdom for which his mailer
was fo eminent. Xenophon accompanied Socrates in the
Peloponnefian war, and fought courageoufly in defence of
his country. Fie afterwards entered into the army of Cy¬
rus as a private volunteer in his expedition againft his • .1
brother. This enterprize proving unfortunate, Xenophon,
after the death of Cyrus, advifed his fellow foldiers to at¬
tempt a retreat into their, own country. They liftened to'
his advice ; and having had many proofs of his wifdom as
well as courai-e, they gave him the command of the army,
in the room of Proxenus who had fallen in battle. In this
command he acquired great glory by the prudence and
firmnefs with which he conducted them back, through the
midil of innumerable dangers, into their own country. The
particulars of this memorable adventure are related by Xeno--
phon himfelf in his Retreat of the Ten Thoufand. After
his return into Greece, he joined Agefilaus, king of Sparta,
and fought with him again ft the Thebans in the celebrated
battle of Chieronea. ' The Athenians, difpleafed at this al¬
liance, brought a public accufation againll him for his for¬
mer conduct in engaging in the fervice of Cyras, and con¬
demned him to exile. The Spartans, upon this, took
Xenophon, as an injured man, under their protedtion, and
provided him a comfortable retreat at Scilluntes in Elea.
Here, with his wife and two children, he remained leveral
years, and paffed his time in the lociety of his friends, and
4
.X I M r 9** ] X I M
30n<v'1ion itl venting tTiofc hiftorical works which hate hindered his
II name immortal. A war at length arofe between the Spar-
^iniell<c' tans ar.d Eleans; and Xenophon was obliged to retire to
LCp,eus> where his eldeft fon had fettled. He afterwards
removed, with his whole family, to Corinth, where, in the
firft year of the hundred and fifth Olympiad, he fmifhed
his days.
Xenophon the Younger, a Greek writer, fo called to di-
ftinguifh him from the Celebrated Xenophon, was born at
Ephefus, and lived, according to fome authors, before He.
Jiodorus, that is, about the beginning of the 4th century.
He is only known by his Ephefiaca, a Greek romance in
five books, which is efteemed, and contains the amours or
adventures of Abracotties and Anthia. This romance was
printed at London, in Greek and Latin, in 1724, 4to.
XERXES I. the fifth king of Perfia, memorable for the
• vail army he is faid to have carried into the field againft
Leonidas king of Sparta ; confiding, according to fome hi-
itorians, of 800,000 men, while others make it amount to
3,000,000, exclufive of attendants. The fleet that attended
this prodigious land force is likewife made to coniift of 2000
fail; and all the fuccefs they met with was the taking and
burning the city of Athens ; for the army was' fhamefully
repulfed near the flraits of Thermopybe by Leonidas, and
the fleet was difperfed and partly deftroyed by Themiifocles
at the ftraits of Salarr is, who had only 380 fail under
his command. Xerxes was affaffinated by Anabases, chief
captain of his guards, and his diftinguifiied favourite. See
Sparta.
XIMENES (Francis), ajuftly celebrated cardinal, bi-
fhop of Toledo, and prime minifter of Spain, was born at
Torrelaguna, in Old Caltile, in 1437, and ftudied at Alcola
and Salamanca. He then went to Rome ; and being rob¬
bed on the road, brought nothing back but a bull for ob¬
taining the firft vacant prebend: but the archbifhop of To¬
ledo refufed it him, and threw him in priton. Being at
k-ngth restored to liberty, he obtained a benefice in the dio-
eefe of Siguenga, where cardinal Gonzales de Mendoza,
who was the bifhop, made him his grand vicar. Ximenes
fome time after entered among the Francifcans of Toledo ;
but being there troubled with vifits, he retired to a folitude
named Cajiand, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of divinity
and the oriental tongues. At his return to Toledo, queen
Ifabtlla of Catlile chofe him for her confefTor, and afterwards
nominated him archbifhop of Toledo; which, next to the
papacy, is the richett dignity in the church of Rome.
“ This honour (fays Dr Robertfon) he declined with a firm-
refs which nothing but the authoritative injun&ion of the
pope was able to overcome. Nor did this height of promotion
change his manners. Though obliged to difplay in public that
magnificence which became his ffation, he himfelf retained
his monadic feverity. Under his pontifical robes he con-
flantly 'wore the coarfe frock of St Francis, the rents of
V'hich he ufed to patch with his own hands. He at no time
ufed linen, but was commonly clad in hair-cloth. He
flept always in his habit ; moft frequently on the floor or
on boards, and rarely in a bed. He did not tafte any of
the delicacies which appeared at his table, but fatiahed him-
fdr with that limole diet which the rule of his order pre-
feribed. Notwithftanding thefe peculiarities, fo oppofite
to the manners of the world, he pofleffed a thorough know¬
ledge of its affairs, and difeovered talents lor bufinefs
which rendered the fame of his wifdom equal to that of his
fanftity.” His firfl: care was to provide for the necefiities
of the poor ; to vifit the churches and holpitals ; to purge
his diocefe of ufurers and places of debauchery ; to degrade
corrupt judges, and place in their room perfons whom he
knew to be diftinguifbed by their probity and drlinterelied-
Von. XVill. Part IT.
nefs. He cre&ed a famous univerfity at Alcala ; and in yimenes.
1499 founded the college of St Ildephonfo. Three years
after he undertook the Polyglot Bible ; and for that pur-
pofe lent for many learned men to come to him at Toledo,
purchafed feven copies in Hebrew for 4000 crowns, and
gave a great price for Latin and Greek manuferipts. At
this Bible they laboured above 12 years. It contains the
Hebrew text of tire Bible ; the verfion of the Septuagint,
with a literal tranflation ; that of St Jerom, and the Chaldee
paraphrafes of Oakelos ; and Ximenes added to it a dic¬
tionary of the Hebrew and Chaldee words contained in the
Bible. This work is called Xime.nes’s Polyglot. In 1 507
pope Julius II. gave him the cardinal’s hat, and king Fer¬
dinand the Catholic entrufted him with the adminiftration .
of affairs. Cardinal Ximenes was from this moment the
foul of every thing that paffed in Spain. He diftinguifhed
himfelf at the beginning of his miniftry by difeharging the
people from the burdenfome tax called acavale, which had
been continued on account of the war againll Granada;
and laboured with fuch zeal and fuccefs in the converfion of
the Mahometans, that he made 3000 converts, among whom:
was a prince of the blood of the kings of Granada. In
1509 cardinal Xiinenes extended the dominions of Ferdi¬
nand, by taking the city of Oran in the kingdom of Algiers.
He undertook this conquett at his own expence, and marched
in perfon at the head of the Spanifh army cloathed in his pon¬
tifical ornaments, and accompanied by a great number of
ecclefiaftics and monks. Some time after, forefeeing an ex¬
traordinary fcarcity, he ere&ed public granaries -at Toledo,
Alcala, and Torrelaguna, and had them filled with corn at
his own expence; which gained the people’s hearts to fuch
a degree, that to preferve the memory of this noble a£Hon
they had an eulogium upon it cut on marble, in the hall of
the fenate-hodfe at Toledo, and in the market-place. King
Ferdinand dying in 1516, left cardinal Ximenes regent of
his dominions ; and the archduke Charles, who was after¬
wards the emperor Charles V. confirmed that nomination.
The cardinal immediately made a reform of the officers of
the fupreme council and of the court, and put a flop to the
oppreffion of the grandees. He vindicated the rights of
the people againft the nobility ; and as by the feudal con-
ilitution the military power was lodged in the hands of the
nobles, and men of inferior condition were called into the
field only as their vaflals, a king with fcanty revenues de¬
pended on them in all his operations. From this ftate Xi*
menes refolved to deliver the crown ; and iffued a proclama¬
tion, commanding every city in Caftile to inrol a certain
number of its bnrgeffes, and teach them military dilcipline ;
he himfelf .engaging to provide officers to command them at
the public expence. This was vigoroufly oppofed by the
nobles ; but by his intreoidity and fuperior ’addrefs he car=
ried his point. He then endeavoured to diminifh the pof-
feffions of the nobility, by reclaiming all the crown-lands,
and putting a flop to the penfions granted by the late king
Ferdinand. This addition made to the revenues enabled*
him to difeharge all the debts of Ferdinand, and to eftabliih
magazines of warlike (lores. The nobles, alarmed at thefe
repeated attacks, uttered loud complaints ; but before they
proceeded to extremities, appointed fome grandees of the
firfl: rank to examine the powers in corsfequence of winch
he exercifed a£ts of fuch high authority. Ximenes received
them with cold civility ; produced the teflament of Ferdi¬
nand, by which he was appointed regent, together with the .
ratification of that deed by Charles. To both thefe they
obje&ed ; and he endeavoured to eftablifh their validity.
As the converfation grew warm, he led them infenfibly to a
balcony, from which they had a view of a large body of
troops.under arms, and .of a formidable train of artillery.
ti A “ Behold
X I P l 022 ] X Y L
Jiimenes, «< Behold (fays he, pointing to thefe, and ratfinc^ his voice)
. X|phias- the powers which I have received from his Catholic ma-
jefty ! With thefe I govern Caftile ; and with thefe I will
govern it, till the king, your ir.after and mine, takes pof-
faflion of his kingdom !” A declaration fo hold and haugh¬
ty fdenced them, and aftonilhed their affociates. They
faw that he was prepared for his defence, and laid afide all
thoughts of a general confederacy againft his adminittration.
At length, from the repeated intreaties of Ximenes, and
the impatient murmurs of the Spanifh miniftry, Charles V.
embarked, and landed in Spain, accompanied by his favourites.
Ximenes was advancing to the coaft to meet him, but at
Bos Equillos was leized with a violent diforder, which his
followers confidered as the effects of poifon. This accident
obliging Ximenes to flop, he wrote to the king, and with
his ufual boldnefs advifed him to difmifs all the ftrangers in
his train, whofe number and credit already gave offence to
the Spaniards, and earneftly defired to have an interview
with him, that he might inform him of the flate of the na¬
tion, and the temper of his fubjefts. To prevent this, not
only the Flemings, but the Spanifh grandees, employed all
their addrefs to keep Charles at a didance from Aranda, the
place to which the cardinal had removed. His advice was
now flighted and defpifed. Ximenes, confcious of his own
integrity and merit, expe&ed a more grateful return from a
prince to whom he delivered a kingdom more flourifhing
than it had been in any former age, and a more extenfive
authority than the moft illuiirious of his anceftors had ever
poffefled ; and lamented the fate of his country, about to
be ruined by the rapaoioufnefs and infolence of foreign fa¬
vourites. While his mind was agitated by thefe paffions,
he received a letter from the king j in which, after a few
cold and formal exprtfiions of regard, he was allowed to re¬
tire to his diocefe ; and he expired a few hours after reading
it in i 517, in the 8 i if year of his age.
This famous cardinal ought not to be confounded with
Roderic XiMfiNF.s, archbifhop of Toledo, in the 13th
century, who wrote a Hiftory of Spain in nine books; nor
with feveral other Spanifh writers of the name of Ximenes.
XIPHIAS, in zoology, the Sword fish ; a genus of
fifhes belonging to the order of abodes. The upoer jaw
terminates in a long fword-lhaped rofirum, from which it is
called the ftvord-fjh : there are no teeth in the mouth ; the
gill-membrane has eight rays; and the body is lomewhat
cylindrical. There is but one fpecies, ‘unx. the gladiusy
found in the European ocean. This tifh fometimes fre¬
quents our coalls, but is much more common in the Me¬
diterranean Sea, efpecially in the part that feparates Italy
from Sicily, which has been long celebrated for it : the
promontory Pelorus, now Capo di Faro, was a place noted
for the refort of the xiphias, and poffibly the ftation of-the
ipeculatores, or the perfons who watched and gave notice of
the approach of the fifh.
The ancient method of taking them is particularly de-
feribed by Strabo, and agrees exaftly with that prabfifed
by the moderns. A man afeends one of the cliffs that
overhangs the (e»: as foon as he fpies the fifh, he gives no¬
tice, either by his voice ©r by figns, of the courfe it takes.
Another, that is Rationed in a boat, climbs up the maft,
and on feeing the fword-fifh, diredfs the rowers towards it.
As foon as he thinks they are got within reach, he defeends,
and taking a fpear in his hand, ftrikes it into the filh ;
which, after wearying itfelf with its agitation, is feized and
drawn into the boat. It is much efteemed by the Sicilians,
who buy it up eagerly, and at its firfi coming into feafon
give about fixpence bnglifh per pound. 1 he' feafon lafts
irom May till Auguft. The ancients ufed to cut this fifh
into pieces and fait it j whence it was called Tomus Tburi-
anusy from Thurii, a town in the bay of Tarentum, where Xylo alett,
it was taken and cured. ——
The fword-fifh is faid to be very voracious, and that it is
a great enemy to the tunny, who (according to Belon) are
as much terrified at it as fheep are at the fight of a wolf.
It is a great enemy to the whales, and frequently deflroys
them. See Balzena.
XYLO-ALOES, or Aloe-wood, in the materia medi-
ca, is the produdl of a tree growing in China and lome of
the Indian i(lands. See Exczecaria.
This drug is diftinguifhed into three forts ; the calam-
bac or tambac, the common lignum aloes, and calambour.
The calambac, or fined aloes-wood. called by authors lig¬
num aloesprtrjlantifflmum, and by the Qhintfz jukhiangy is the
mod refinous of all the woods we are acquainted with : it ig
ot a light fpongy texture, very porous, and its pores fo fill¬
ed up with a foftrand fragrant refin, that the whole may be
preded and dented by the fingers like wax, or moulded
about by chewing in the mouth, in the manner of madich.
'Phis kind, laid on the fire, melts in great'parts like refin,
and burns away in a few moments with a bright flame and
perfumed fmell. Its feent, while in the mais, is very fra¬
grant and agreeable ; and its tade acrid and bittcrifh, but
very aromatic and agreeable. It is fo variable in its colour,
that fome have divided it into three kinds ; the one varie¬
gated with black and purple ; the fecond, with the fame
black, but with yellovvifh indead of purple ; and the third,
yellow alone like the yolk of an egg : this lad is the lead
feented of the three. The variation, however, is owing to
the trunk of the tree being itfelf of three different colours ;
and the heart of it is the valuable fort ftrd deferibed. The
two following are fuppofed to be the other parts of the
trunk ; though this feems doubtful, eipecially in regard to
the lad fort, from the circumdance mentioned of its being
found in large logs entire, and fometimes only the hearty
which, as above noticed, conditutes the calambac.
The lignum aloes vulgare is the fecond in value. This
is of a more denfe and compaft texture, and confequently
lefs refinous than the other ; there is fome of it, however,
that is fpongy, and has the holes filled up with the right
refinous matter ; and all of it, when good, has veins of the
fame refin in it. We meet with it infmall fragments, which
have been cut and fplit from larger: thefe are of a toler¬
ably denfe texture in the more folid pieces, and of a dufky
brown colour, variegated with refinous black veins. It is
in this date very heavy, and lefs fragrant than in thofe
pieces which (how a multitude of little holes, filled up with
the fame blackifh matter that forms the veins in others.
The woody part of thefe lad pieces is fomewhat darker
than the other, and is not unfrequently purplilh, or even
blackilh. The Imell of the common aloe-wood is very
agreeable, but not io drongly perfumed as the former. Ii&
taife is fomewhat bitter and acrid, but very aromatic.
The calambour, called alio agailocbum Jylve/ire, and lignum
aloes mexicanumy is light and triable, of a dufky and often
mottled colour, between a du(ky gteen black and a deep
brown. Its Imell is fragrant and agreeable, but much lefs
fweet than that of either of the others ; and its tade bit-
terifn, but not fo much acrid or aromatic as either of the
two former. This is laid to be met with very frequently, and
in large logs ; and thefe fometimes entire, fometimes only
the heart of the tree. This is the aloe-wrood ufed by the
cabinet-makers and inlayers.
This drug is edeemed a cordial taken inwardly ; and is
fometimes given in diforders of the domach and bowels, and
to dtdroy the worms. A very fragrant oil may be procu¬
red from it by didillation ; which is recommended in pa¬
ralytic cafes from five to fifteen drops. It is at prefent,
6 however,
Xyftarcha,
' Y A R [ 923 1
however, but little ufed ; and would fcarce be met with any- the xyftus,
where in the Ihops, but that it is an ingredient in fome of
the old compofitions.
XYNOECIA, in Grecian antiquity, an anniverfary
feafi obferved by the Athenians in honour of Minerva, upon
the fixteenthof Hecatombaeon, to commemorate their leaving,
by the ptrfualion of i'hefus, their country-feats, in which
they lay diiperfed here and there in Attica, and uniting to¬
gether in one body.
XYSTARCHA, in antiquity, the mailer or director of
Y A R
In the Greek gymnafium, the xyftarcha was ^
the fecond officer, and the gymnafiarcha the firft ; the for¬
mer was his lieutenant, and prefided over the two xyili, and
all exercifes of the athletse therein.
XYSTUS, among the Greeks, was a long portico, open
or covered at the top, where the athletse pradtifed wreftling
and running: the gladiators, who pradtifed therein, were
called xyjiict. Among the Romans, the xyilus was only an
alley, or double row of trees, meeting like an arbour, and
forming a {hade to walk under.
Xyftn*-
Y or y, the 23d letter of our alphabet : its found is
r || JL » formed by expreffing the breath with a fudden ex-
’ Yard. panfion of the lips from that configuration by which we ex-
Y—■— prefs the vowel u. It is one of the ambigenial letters, being
a confonant in the beginning of words, and placed before all
vowels, as in yard, yield, young. See. but before no confonant.
At the end of words it is a vowel, and is fubilituted for the
found of i, as in try, defery, &c. In the middle of words it
is not ufed fo frequently as i is, unlefs in words derived from
the Greek, as in chyle, empyreal. See. though it is admitted
into the middle of fome pure Englifh words, as in dying,
flying. Sec. The Romans had no capital of this letter, but
ufed the fmall one in the middle and laft fyllables of words,
as in coryambus, onyx, martyr. Y is alfo a numeral, fignify-
ing 150, or, according to Baronius 159 ; and with a dalh
a-top, as Y, it fignified 150,000.
YACHT, or yatch, a vefiel of ftate, ufually employed
to convey princes, ambafladors, or other great perfonages,
from one kingdom to another.
As the principal deiign of a yacht is to accommodate
the paffengers, it is ufually fitted with a variety of conve¬
nient apartments, with fuitable furniture, according to the
quality or number of the perfons contained therein.
The royal yachts are commonly rigged as ketches, ex¬
cept the principal one referved for the fovereign, which is
equipped with three malts like a {hip. T. hey are in gene¬
ral elegantly furniflied, and richly ornamented with fculptiue;
and always commanded by captains in his majefty’s navy.
Befides thefe, there are many other yachts of a fmaller
kind, employed by the commiffioners of the excife, navy,
and cuftoms ; or ufed as pleafure-boats by private gentle¬
men.
YAMS. See Dioscorea.
YAMBOO. See Eugenia.
YARD of a Ship, a long piece of timber fufpended
upon the mails of a ffiip, to extend the fails to the wind.
See Mast and Sail.
All yards are either fquare or lateen ; the former 01 which
are fufpended acrofs the mails at right angles, and the lat¬
ter obliquely. See Plate CCCCXLIV. fig. 1.
The fquare yards are nearly of a cylindrical furface.
They taper from the middle, which is called the flings, to¬
wards the extremities, which arc termed the yard-arms ; aqd
the dillancc between the flings and the yard-arms on each
fide is by the artificers divided into quarters, which are
dillinguilhed into the firft, fecond, third quarters, and
yard-arms. The- middle quarters are formed into eight
Squares, and each of" the end parts is figured like the fiu-
ftum of a cone. All the yards of a fhip are fquare except
that of the mizen.
The proportions for the length of yards, according to
the different clafles of Ihips in the Britilh navy, are as fol«
lows :
Guns.
ftdoO f100
i main-yard fig 1. j QO g0
I 559 - I pi. CCCLXIV.— ! y
j 57° : 1 ZYele, the tivure ! 7°
] 576: f reprefents the ! OO
j eye : j yard and fails of | 50
[561 !j ,alhiPof 74 guns. L44
f 880: ) „ , 510090 80
1874 : j fore-yard- l all the reft
To apply this rule to practice, fuppofe the gun-deck 144
feet. The proportion for this length is as toco is to 575*
fo is 144 to 83 ; which will be the length of the main-yard
in feet, and fo of all the reft.
Guns.
100 90 80 60 44
70
4
Yard.
1000 : ’gun-deck:
1000 : main-yard :
xoco main-yard:
1 coo; main-yard
1000 : fere-yard :
1000 : main topfail-yard
xooo fore copfail-yard:: ^5^
1000: fore topfail yard:: ^
| mizen-yard
| main topfail-yard
J fore topfail-yard
^allthe reft.
C 70,
J 24
l all the reft
main top gall, yard all the rates.
C fore top-gallon- C 1°
l yard. ' £ all the reft.
I mizen topfail-yard £ all reft>
Crofs-jack and fprit-fail yards equal to the fore topfail-
yard.
Sprit-topfail-yard equal to the fore top-gallant-yard.
The diameters of yards are in the following proportions
to their length.
The main and fore yards five-fevenths of an inch to one
yard. The topfail, crofs-jack, and fprit-fail yards, nine-
fourteenths of an inch to one yard. The top-gallant, mizen
top-fail, and fprit-fail topfail yards, eight-thirteenths of an
inch to one yard.
The mizen-yard five-ninths of an inch to one yard.
All ftudding-fail booms and yards half an inch to one yard
in length.
The lifts of the main-yard are exhibited in the above
figure by gg; the horfes and their ftirrups by h, i ; the reef-
tackles and their pendents by k, l; and the braces and
brace-pendents by m, n.
The lateen-yards evidently derive their names from ha-
6 A 2 . ving
YAW
ving been peculiar ro the ancient Romans,
ly compofed of feveral pieces fattened together by woold-
ings, which alfo ferve as fteps whereby the failors climb to
the peek or upper extremity, in order to furl or call loofe
the fail.
1 he mizen-yard of a ttn’p, and the main-yard of a bilan¬
der, aie hung obliquely on the matt, almott in the fame man¬
ner as the lateen-yard of a xebec, fettee, or polacre.
\ARD’ a uieafure of length ufed in Britain and Spain,
confiding of three feet, chiefly to meafore cloth, ftuft's, &c.
^ TARD-slnn is that half of the yard that is on either hde
of the matt, when it lies athwart the ttiip.
Yards aho denotes places belonging to the navy, where
the fnips of war, fee. are laid-up in harbour.—There are
belonging to his majefty’s navy flx great yards, ws. Cha¬
tham, Deptford, Woolwich, Portfmouth, Sheeniefs, and Ply¬
mouth ; thefe yards are fitted with feveral docks, wharfs,
Janches, and graving places, for the building, repairingj
and cleaning of his majefty’s drips ; and therein are lodged
great quantities of timber, mails, planks, anchors, and other
materials : there are alfo convenient dore-houfes in each
yard, in which are laid up vafl cpiantities of cables, rigging,
fails, blocks, and all other forts of ftores needful for the
royal navy.
\ ARE, among failors, implies ready or quick : as, be
yare at the helm ; tliat is, be quick, ready, and expeditious
at the helm. It is fometimes alfo nfed "for bright by lea-
men : as, to keep his arms yare ; that is, to keep them
clean and bright.
Yare, a river of Norfolk, which runs from weft to eafl
through that county, palling by Norwich, and falling into
the German fea at Yarmouth.
YARMOUTH, a fea-port town of Norfolk, with a
market*on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and a fair on Fri¬
day and Satuioay in Eaftef-week for petty chapmen. It is
feated on the river Yare, where it falls into the fea ; and is
a place of great ftrength, both by art and nature, being al-
moft furrounded with water ; and there is a draw-bridge ever
the river. It is efteemed the key of this coaft, and is a
C 924 1 YEA
Tucy are ufual- retained for feme time and rarifed ; and then reftoring the
nmfcles to their natural ftate. Hence the effedt of yawn- '
mg is to move, accelerate, and equally diftribute ail the
humours through all the veffels of the body, and confe-
quently to qualify the mufcles and organs of fenfation for
their various funftions.
San&orius obferves, that a great deal is iirfenfibly dif-
charged, when nature end, avours to get rid of the retained
perfpirable matter, by yawning and ttretching of the limbs.
I o thefe a perfon is moil inclined juft alter fjeep, becaufe
a greater quantity going off by the pores of the fkin than
at other times, whenfoever a perfon wakes, the increafing
contraction that then happens clofes a gieat deal of the
perfpirable matter in the cutaneous paftages, which will
continually give fuch irritations ns excite yawning and
ttretching ; and fuch motions, by lhaking the membranes
of the whole body, and fhifting the contatfs of their fibres,
and the inclofed matter, by degrees throw it off. Hence
we fee the icafon why healthful ftrong people are moft
inclined to fuch motions, becaufe they perlpire moft in
time of fleep, and therefore have more of the perfpirable
matter to lodge in the pores, and greater irritations there¬
unto. The advantages of feme little exercife juft after
waking m a morning are confiderable, as it throws off all
the perfpirable matter that is ready for its exit out of the
body. W hen yawning is troublefome, Hippocrates fays
that long deep refpiration or drawing in the air at long
intervals cures it. 0
YEAR, in aftronemy and chronology. See Astrono-
MY^n° 347* P- 520. and Kalendar.
I he ancient Roman year was the lunar year, which, as
nrft fettled by Romulus, confitted only of ten months ; viz.
1. March, containing 31 days. 2. April, 30. 3. May,
3r. 4- June, 30. 5. Quintilis, 31. 6. Sextilis, 40. 7.
September, 30. 8. October, 31. 9. November, 30. lOi.
December, 30. in all 304 days; which came fhort of the
true lunar year by 50 days, and of the folar, by 61 days-
iNuma Pompihus corrected this irregular conftitution of
the year, and compofed two new months, January and Fe-
Yar
Mecheir. 7. Phame-
10. Pauni. ix. Epi*
1
{t^ 1. tit-d ^ ^- ^
52. 43.
Yarmouth, a town of the Ifle of Wight, in Hampfhire
with a market on Fridays, and one fair on July 2cth for
toys. It is feated on the wtftern part of the ifland, on the
fea-lhore, and is encompaffed with water; for, not many
years ago a channel was cut through the peninfula, over
which there is a draw-bridge, and it is defended by a ftrong
caftle on the quay. It is a handfome place, whofe houfes
aie chiefly built with ftone, and covered with flate; and it
fends two members to parliament. The market is now dif-
ufed. W. Long. 1. 28. N. Lat. 50. 40.
YARN, wool or flax fpun into thread, of which they
weave cloth. See Cloth. j
YARROW, in botany. See Achillzea,
YAWNING, an involuntary opening of the mouth, ge¬
nerally produced by .wearinefs or an inclination to fleep
Yawning, according to Boerhaave, is performed by expand-
infra!* rm p n rrrl i-V» o /V« ^ . i ^ ' *
3. Athyr. 4. Chojac. 5. Tybi. 6
noth. 8. Pharmuthi. 9. Pachon.
phi- 1 2. Mefori; befide the r/u.ipxi (Trxyofxuai
i he ancient Greek year was lunar ; confiding of . *
months, which at firft had 30 days apiece, then alternately
30 and 29 days, computed ftom the firft appearance of the
new moon , with the addition of an embolilmic month of
30 days every 3d, 5th, 8tfi, nth, 14th, 16th, and 19th
year of a cycle of 19 years ; in order to keep the new and
iu.i moons to the fame terms or feafons of the year. Their
^ *hat new moon, the full moon of
which comes next after the fummer folftice. The order,
&c. of their months was thus: 1.containing
29 days. a. 30. 3. 2<). 4. m*^**™.
P^,30. 5. rivavi^iuv, ig. 6- HW^v, 30. J. Vx^xrsy, i9. 8-.
AvflffrfitJV, 30. 9. 3o. 10. 30. II.
yvAfOfVj 2p, 12. '^Kip'if'Opixv,
ing at one and the fame time all the mufeta 7aoahle"of mnTi”e f°CleIlt Jg1*1 >‘'ar is a lunar year, confifting com.
”d Srai!U% a”d ^ ^ ^en yearfot^an^r^ri'2
ties
YEA [
ties of the months {land thus : i. Nifan, or Abib, 30 days.
2. liar, or Zius, 29. 3. Siban, or Siwan, 30. 4. Thammuz,
orTammuz, 29. Ab, 30. 6. Elal, 29. 7. Tifri, or
Ethanim, 30. 8. Marckefvam, or Bui, 29, 9. Cifleu, 30.
jo. Tebeth, 29. 11. Sabat, or Schebeth, 30. 12. Adar,
in the embolifmic year, 30. Adar, in the.common year, was
but 29. Note, in the defetlive year, Cifleu was only 29
days ; and in the redundant year, Marchefvam was 30.
The Perfian year is a iolar year of about 3^5 days; con¬
fiding of 12 months of 30 days each, with 5 intercalary
days added at the end.
The Arabic, Mahometan, and Turkifh years, cailed alio
the year of the Hegira^ is a lunar year, equal to 354 dar sc8
hours and 48 minutes, and coniifls of 12 months, which
contain alternately 30 and 29 days.
The Hindoo year differs from all thefe, and is indeed dif¬
ferent in different provinces of India. I he beft account that
we have ot it is by Mr Cavendlih, in the Phil. 1 rani, of the
Royal Society of London for the year 1792. “ Before I
fpeak of the civil year of the Hindoos (fays this eminent
philofopher), it will be proper to fay a few words of the
altronomieal year, by which it is regulated..
“ The a'ironomicai year begins at the inftant when the
fun comes to the firff point of the Hindoo zodiac. In the
year 1792, it began on April 9^> 22af(er rnid-
• night of their firft meridian, which is about 41 of time well
of Calcutta ; but, according to Mr Gentil’s account of the
Indian aftronomy, it began 3 b. 24'earlier. As this year,
however, is longer than ours, its commencement falls, conti¬
nually later, in refpeft of the Julian year, by 30' 26 ' in four
years. This year is divided into 12 months, each of which
correfponds to the time of the fun’s flay in feme fign ; fo
■ that they are of different lengths, and feldoin begin at the
beginning of a day. , . . <r ,
‘‘ The civil day in all parts of India begins at funrife, ana
is divided into 60 parts called dandas, which are again di¬
vided into 6d palas. In thofe parts of India in which the
Benares almanac, or as it is there calledis uied, the
civil year is lunifolar, confiding of 12 lunar months, with an
intercalary month inferted between them occalionally. ft
beoins at the day after the new moon next before the.be¬
ginning of the folar year. The lunar month is divided into
poparts called teethees; thele are not ftridtly of the fame
length, but are equal to the time in which the moon’s true
motion from the fun is 12°. From the new moon till the
moon arrives at i 2° diftance from the fun is cahed the lint
teethes ; from thence till it comes to 24T is called the iecond
teethes ; and fo on till the full moon, alter which the teethees
return in the fame order as betore. r ,
“ The civil day is conftantly called by the number of that
teethee which expires during the courfe of the day; and
as the teethee is fometimes longer than one day, a day lome-
times occurs in which no teethee ends. When this is the
cafe, the day is called by the fame number as the following
day ; fo that two fuccelfive days go by the fame name. It
oftener happens, however, that two tethees end on the lame
day ; in which cafe the number of the fuff of them gives
name to the day, and there is no day called by the number
of the laft, fo that a gap is made in the order of the days.
In the latter part of the month the days are counted rom
the full moon, in the fame manner as in the former part they
are counted from the new moon; only the lalt day, or that on
which the new moon happens, is called the 30th, inflead ox
the 1 uh. It appears, therefore, that each half 01 the month
conftantly begins on the day after that on which the new
or full moon falls; only fometimes the half month- begins
with the fecond day, the firft being wanting.
925 ] YEA'
“ This manner of counting the days is fufficiently intricate;
but that of counting the months is ftill more fo.
“ The civil year, as was before laid, begins at the day after
the new moon ; and, moreover, in the years which have an
intercalary month, this month begins at the day after the
new moon ; but notwithftanding this, the ordinary civil
month begins at the day after the full moon. To make their
method more intelligible, we will call the time, from new
moon to new moon the natural month. The civil month
Vifakha, the firff in the Hindoo kalender, which extends
from the 9th of our April to the 10th of May, begins at
the dav after that full moon which is neareft to the inftant
at which the fun enters Media, the firft in order.of the In¬
dian iigns, whether betore or after ; however, it is not al¬
ways accurately the neareft.
“ A confequence of this way of counting the months is,
that the firft half of Chitra, the laft month in the Indian
kalender, extending from March the icth to April the 9tfi»
falls in one year, and the latter half in the following year ;
and whenever the iun enters no lign during a natural month,
this month is intercalary. The number ot days in the
month varies from 29 to 32. Indeed the Plindoo months,
both folar and lunar, confift neither of a determinate num¬
ber of days, nor are regulated by any' cycle, but depend
folely on the motions of the fun and moon ; fo that a Hin¬
doo has no way of knowing what day of the month it is
but by confulting his almanac; and what is more, the
month ought tometimes to begin on different days, in diffe¬
rent places, on account of the difference in latitude and lon¬
gitude, not to mention the difference which may arife from
errors in computation. This mode ot computing time muff
be attended with many inconvenience* ; but in the tranfac-
tions of civil life the Hindoos do not much regard it. A
difagreement, however,-in the computation of the teethee*
which fometimes alfo happens, occalions no fmall perplexity
becaule by the teethees or lunar days are regulated mod of
their religious feftivals. Every Brahmin in charge of a
temple, or whofe duty it is to announce the times for the
obfervance of religious ceremonies, is therefoie lurmflied.
with one of their almanacs; and if he be an aftronomer, he
makes inch corrections in it as the difference of latitude and
longitude render nectffary.”
New 2'ear’s Gift. See Gift.
YEAST, or Yest, a head or feum rifmg upon beer or
ale while working or fermenting in the vat. See Brew-
inG*
It is ufed for a leaven or ferment in the baking of bread,
as ferving to fwell or puff it up very conftderably in a little
time, and to make it much lighter, fofter, and more delicate-
See Baking, Barm, and Bread.
Mr Henry has publifhed a method of preparing artificial
yeafi, by which good bread may be made without the aftift-
ance of any other ferment. The method is this : Boil flour
and water together to the confiftence of treacle, and when
the mixture is cold faturate it with fixed air. Pour the
mixture thus faturated into one or more large bottles or
narrow-mouthed jars ; cover it over loofely with paper, and
upon that lay a Hate or board with a weight to keep it
Heady. Place the veffel in a fit nation where the thermo*
meter will ftand from 70° to 8o°, and ftir up. the mixture
two or three times in 24 liour*. In about two days fuch a
degree of fermentation will have taken place, as to give tha
mixture the apnearance ot yeaft. With the yeaft in this
Hate, and before it has acquired a thoroughly vinous fmell,
mix the quantity of flour intended for bread, in the propor¬
tion of fix pounds of flour to a quart of the yeaft, and a iuf-
ficient portion of warm water. Knead them well together
* in
5
Y E L
in a proper veflel, and covering it with a cloth, let the dough
hand for I 2 hours, or till it appears to be fufliciently fer¬
mented in the fore mentioned degree of warmth. It is then
to be formed into loaves and baked. Mr Henry adds, that
perhaps the yeaft would be more perfeft, it a deco&ion of
malt were ufed inrtead of fimple water.
It has lately been dilcovered, that a decoftion of malt
alone, without any addition, will produce a yeaft proper
enough for the purpofe of brewing. This difeovery was
made by Jofeph Senyor, fervant of the reverand Mr Mafon
of Alton near Rotheram ; and he received for it a reward of
H. 20 from the Society ior promoting Arts, Manufactures,
and Commerce. The procefs is as follows ; Procure three
earthen or wooden veffels of different fizes and apertures,
one capable of holding two quarts, the other three or four,
and the third five or fix : boil a quarter of a peck of malt
for about eight or ten minutes in three pints of water ; and
when a quart is poured off from the grains, let it Hand in the
fxrft or finaller veffel in a cool place till not quite cold, but
retaining that degree of heat which the brewers ufually find
to be proper when they begin to work their liquor. Then
remove the vefi'el into fome warm fituation near a fire, where
the thermometer Hands between 70 and 80 degrees Fahren¬
heit, and there let it remain till the fermentation begins,
which will be plainly perceived -within 30 hours : add then
two quarts more of a like decoftion o! malt, when cool, as
the firft was ; and mix the whole in the fecond or larger
veffel, and ftir it well in, which muff be repeated in the ufual
way, as it rifes in a common vat: then add a Hill greater
quantity of the fame decoCIion, to be worked in the largeft
veffel, which will produce yeaft enough for a brewing of 40
gallons.
Common ale yeaft may be kept frefh and fit for ufe feve-
ral months by the following method : Put a quantity of it
into a clofe canvas bag, and gently fqueeze out the moif-
ture in a ferew-prels till the remaining matter be as firm and
ft iff as clay. In this ftate it may be clofe packed ud in a
tight cafk for fecuring it from the air ; and will keep frefh,
found, and fit for ufe, for a long time. This is a fecret that
might be of great ufe to the brewers and diftillers, who,
though they employ very large quantities of yeaft, feem to
know no method of preferving. it, or railing nurferies of it;
tor want of which they luftain a very confiderable lofs;
whereas the brewers in Flanders make a very great advan¬
tage of fupplying the malt-diftillers of Holland with yeaft,
which is rendered lalting and fit for carriage by this eafy
expedient.
YELL, one of the Hands of Shetland, lying north-eaft
from the main land, and divided from it by an arm of the
fea, called Tell-Sound. By fome it is thought to have been
the Thule of the ancients. In the old ddcriptions it is faid
to b£ 20 miles long and 8 broad. It is very mountainous
and full of mofs ; but there are pretty confiderable paftures
in which they feed a great many fheep ; and it alfo affords
plenty of peat. It has eight large harbours, which would
not .be thought defpicable in other countries. Anciently
it feems to have been pretty -populous, fince there are in it
three churches, twenty chapels, and many brughs or Pidifh
forts.
YELLOW., one of the original colours of light.
YKLLOir-Colour for Houje-painting. See Chemistry,
n° 699.
. Naples Yellow, a beautiful colour much ufed by painters,
formerly thought to be prepared from arfenic, but now dif-
•covered to have lead for its bafis.
YF.LLOW-Hammcr, in ornithology. See Fringjlla.
Yellow Fever, See Medicine, n° 168.
C 926 ]
Y O L
\ EMF.N, a province of Arabia, ftretching along the
Red Sea and Indian Ocean, and forming a part of the
country once known by the name of Arabia Felix.
LOMAN, the firft or higheft degree among the ple¬
beians of England, next in order to the gentry.
The yeomen are properly freeholders, who having land of
their own, live on good hufbandry.
Yeomen is alfo a title of office in the king’s houfehold,
of a^middle place or rank between an ufher and a groom.
Yeoman of the Guard were anciently 250 men of the bed
rank uyder gentry, and of larger ftature than ordinary, each
being required to be fix feet high. At prefent there are
but 100 yeomen in conftant duty, and 70 more not in duty}
and as any of the 100 dies, his place is fupplied out of the
70. They go dreffed after the manner of King Hen. VIIl.’s
timej Fhey formerly had diet as well as wages when in
waiting ; but this was taken off in the reign of Queen Anne.
YEST, or Yeast. See Yeast.
YEW, in botany. See Taxus.
YNCA, an appellation anciently given to the kings of
Pei u, and the princes of their blood ; the word literally fig-
nifying, lord, king, emperor, and royal blood.
YOAK, or \ oke, in agriculture, a frame of wood fitted
over the necks of oxen, whereby they are coupled together,
and harneffed to the plough.
7 oak of Land, in our ancient cuftoms, was the fpace
which a yoke of oxen, that is, two oxen, may plow in one
day.
YOLK, the yellow part in the middle of an egg (fee
Egg ). It contains a lymphatic fubftance mixed with a cer¬
tain quantity of mild oil, which, on account of this mixture,
is foluble in water. When expofed to heat, it affurnes a con-
fiftence not fo hard as the white of the egg; and when bruifed
gives out the oil which it contains. This oil has been ufed
externally as a liniment.
\ ONNE, a river in France, which riling in Burgundy,
and running north through Nivernois and Champaign, falls
into the Seyneat Monterau furYonne.
10RK, in Latin Eboracum, the capital of Yorkffiire in
England. This city is fo ancient that the origin of it is
uncertain. In the time of the Romans a legion was ftation-
ed here, it being then the capital of the Brigantes; and here
died the emperor Sever us, and Flavius Valerius Conftantius
Chlorus, father of Conflantine the Great. There was then
alio a temple of Bellona here, and no lefs than three milita¬
ry ways went from hence. In the time of the Saxons it
was erefted into an archbifhopnc by Pope Honorius, to
which are now fubjedl the bifhoprics of Chefter, Durham,
Carlifle, and the Ifie of Man ; though anciently 12 bifhop¬
rics in England, and all Scotland, were. A horn is ftill
kept in the minifter, by which Ulphius, one of the Saxon
princes, bellowed all his lands and revenues upon the
church.
1 his city luffered very much during the ravages of the
Danes ; but, after the conqueft, it began to flourifh again.
S he cathedral, which coft a long time and a great deal of
money in building, is a moft ftately Gothic pile. Its chap-
ter-houfe is particularly admired for its painted glafs, its fine
marble flails, its pillars of alabafter, and curious contrivance.
In it is the following line in gold letters:
Ut Epfa,Jlos Jlorum^Jic ejl Domus \Jla Domorum.
The choir is remarkable for its fine carvings, particularly
the ftatues of all the Englifh monarchs ; and the windows
are exquifitely painted with the hiflory of the Bible. The
lanthorn fteeple is 70 feet fquare, and 1S8 high, and the
windows are 45. At the fouth end is a circular light, call¬
ed
Y ° R [ 927 ] Y ° R
Yorlf, cd the mangold •window from the colour of its (jlafs; and denfhire, Hallanfhire, Craven, Cleveland, Maryland, Hcl- Nerr ' ^
lYorltfhire. at north end is a very large one, whofe painting repre- dernefs, &c.
 fents embroidery. ' As the foil and face of the country vary greatly, fo does
This city is generally reckoned the fecond city in Eng- the air. In the hilly parts the air is good, but the foil verv
land ; but though it (lands upon more ground, it is inferior indifferent ; of the lower fome are marlhy, others drier, and
in trade, wealth, and number of people, to Briftol. The the foil of both rich ; but the air of the former is more
inhabitants are reckoned at 12,784. It is fituate in a fine foggy and unhealthy than that of the latter. The mamr-
plain, in the middle of the (hire, on both (ides the Oufe, failures of this country are cutlery and hard-wares ; parti-
walled and divided into four wards, containing 28 parifhes. cularly knives, bits, and (purs ; but the principal are ftock-
It enjoys large privileges and immunities, conferred upon it ings and woollen cloth, with which it iupplies in a great
bv a fucceflion of kings from Henry II. and its chief ma- meafure Germany and the North. As to the produce, it
giftrate has the title oi lord mayor, which is an honour pecu- abounds in corn, cattle, horles, lead, and iron, coal, wood,
liar to it and London. Richard II. made it a county of it- lime, liquorice, alum, jet, &e. It lies wholly in the north-
felf. The confervancy of mod of the rivers of the county, ern circuit, and much the greater part of it in the dioceie or
within certain limits, belongs to the lord mayor and aldermen, 'iork; that only which is called Richmopdfhire belonging to
The middle arch of the bridge here over the Oufe is thought the diocefe of Chefter. I he members it fends to parlia-
to equal the Rialto at Venice in architefture, height, and ment are 30 ; of which two are for the (hire and 2b for the
breadth, the diameter being 81 feet, and the height 51. towns.
Though this city is 60 miles diftant from the fea, yet drips Ncw-Tork, one of the United States of America, is
of 70 tons burden come up the river to it. The town-houle bounded towards the fouth-eaft by the Atlantic Ocean ;
or Guild-hall (lands upon the bridge, and is fuperior in ail ead by Connefticut, Maffachufets, and Vermont ; north by
refpedts to that of London. In the Popifh times there were the 4 vth degree of latitude, which divides it from Canada ;
nine abbeys here, and a vaft number of churches ; but of north wed wardly by the river Iroquois or St Lawrence, and
the latter there are only 17 now. The (leeple of that of the lakes Ontario and Erie; fouthweil and fouth by Penn-
Allhallows is reckoned the fined in England. The archbi- (ylvania and New Jerfey. The whole date contains about
{hop has a fine palace ; and the affembly-room, defigned by 44,000 fquare miles, equal to 28,160,000 acres,
the earl of Burlington, is very noble. Here are plays, af- The fettlementfr already made in this date are chiefly up-
femblies, concerts, and the like entertainments, at fome on two narrow oblongs, extending from the city of New
houfe or other, almod every night in the week. In the York ead and north. The one ead is Long Ifiand, which
old cadle, built originally by William the Conqueror, and is 140 miles long, and narrow, and furrounded by the fea.
repaired in 1701, the affizes are kept. It ferves alio for The one extending north is about 40 miles in breadth, and
the county-gaol, which is the neated and pleafanted in Eng- bifefted by Hudfon’s river. And fuch is the inierfedtiou
land, with an area larger than that of the King’s-bench, of the whole date by the branches of the Hudfon, the I)e-
and it has a handfome chapel in it, with a good allowance for lawate, the Sufquehannah, add other large rivers, that there
a preacher. This city has long given the title of duke to are few places throughout its whole extent which are more
fome branch of the royal family! than 15 or 20 miles from fome navigable dream. There are
The plenty and cheapnefs of provifions induces many per- few fiih in the rivers, but in the brooks are plenty of trout ;
fons of (mall fortune, or that would live frugally, to take and on the lakes yellow perch, fun-fifh, (almon-trout, cat-
up their abode here ; and the venerable remains of Roman fifh, and a variety of others-
antiquities, and thofe of a later date, as abbeys, churches, The State, to fpeak generally, abounds with lakes, fome
and cadks, procure this city a vifit from every curious tra- of fait and others of freih water. It is interfered by ridges
veller. Many Roman altars, urns, coins, inferiptions, &c. of mountains running in a north-ead and fouth welt direc-
have been found ; and Saxon coins are dill extant that have tioa. Beyond the Allegany mountains, however, the coun-
been druck here. The members for this city have prcce- try is a dead level, of a fine rich foil, covered, in its natural
dence of all others, except thofe of London, in the houfe of date, with maple, beach, birch, cherry, black-walnut, locuii,
commons. An infirmary, after the manner of thofe of Bath, hickory, and fome mulberry trees. On the banks of lak«
Bridol, &c. hath been eredled in it ; and a cotton manufac- Erie are a few chefnut and oak ridges. Hemlock fwamps
ture edablifhed and brought to great perfeftion. Betides are interfperfed thinly through the country.. All the creeks
four weekly markets, it has a great many fairs; one, in par- that empty into lake Erie have falls, which afford many
ticular, every other Thurfday for cattle and (keep. W. excellent mill feats. Ead of the Allegany mountains, the
Long. 1. 1. N. I.at. 53. 39. * country is broken into hills with rich intervening valleys.
" YORKSHIRE, the larged county of England, bound- The hills are clothed thick with timber, and when cleared
ed on the fouth by Derbyfhire, Nottinghamlhire, and Lin- afford fine padure ; the valleys, when cultivated, produce
colnffiire; on the north by Durham and Wedmoreland; on wheat, hemp, flax, peafe, grais, oats, Indian corn. Ot the^
the ead by the German Ocean ; and on the wed by Lam commodities produced from culture, wheat is the daple; of
cadrire and a part of Chefhire.— It is upwards of 80 miles which immenie quantities are railed and exported. Indian,
in length from ead to weft, nearly as much in breadth, and corn and peak are hkewife railed for expoitation ; and
about 360 in circumference, containing*, in the whole, 26 oats, barley, &c* for home confumption.^ In fowe parts ot
hundreds or wapentakes, 49 market-towns, 563 parifhes,. the State excellent dairies aie kept, which furnifh for the
- 242 vicarages, with many chapels of eafe, and 2330 villa- market butter and cheefe.
ges. Its area is computed by fome at 4684 fquare miles. The fituation of New York, with refpeft to foreign mar-
by others at 3,770,000 acres, and its inhabitants at up- kets, has decidedly the preference to any other of the Uni-
wards of 330,000. It is divided into three parts or ridings, ted States. It has at all feafons of the year a (hort and eaiy
viz. the Weft, Eaft, and North; fo denominated from their accefs to the ocean. Its exports to the Y\ eft Indies are,
fituation, in relped of the city of York. Each of thefe is bifeuit, peafe, Indian corn, apples, onions, boards, (laves,
* as large, if not larger, than any ordinary county. There horfes, flreep, butter, cheefe, pickkd oyfters, bee., and pork.
are other divifions, as Richmondfhire, Alkrtonfhire, How- But wheat is the daple commodity of the State, of v.mch
7 nos
YOU [ 9a
^ Tit* 3efs tkan 6)7>700 bufhels were exported ?n the year
1775> befides 2555 tons of bread and 2828 tons of flour.
Infpedtors of flour are appointed to prevent impofitions, and
to fee that none is exported but that which is deemed by
Inem merchantable. Befides the above-mentioned articles,
■are exported flax-feed, cotton wool, farfaparilla, coffee, in-
dispj, rice, pig-iron, bar-iron, pot-afli, pearl-afh, furs, deer-
ikins, logwood, fuftick, mahogany, bees wax, oil, Madeira
wine, rum, tar, pitch, turpentine, whale fins, fifh, fugars,
molaffes, fait, tobacco, lard, &c. but moft of thefe articles
are imported for re-exportation. In the year 1774, there
were employed, in the trade of this State, 1075 vedfels, whofe
tonnage amounted to 40,812.
Since the revolution the literature of the State has enga¬
ged the attention of the legiflature. In one of their earliefi:
feffions an aft paffed, conflituting 21 gentlemen (of whom
the governor and lieutenant-governor for the time being are
members ex cjjiciis) a body corporate and politic, by the
name and flyle of “ The regents of the um’verfity of the
otate o^ New York.” They are intruded with the care of
literature in general in the State, and have power to grant
charters of incorporation for erefting colleges and academies
throughout the ffate—are to vifit thefe inflitutions as often
as they fhall think proper, and report their ftate to the le-
giflature once a-year. All degrees above that of matter of
arts are to be conferred by the regents. A univerfal tole¬
ration is granted in religion.
The fupreme legiflative powers of the State are vetted in
tV'O brandies, a fenate and affembly. I he members of the
fenate are elefted by the freeholders of the State, who pof-
fefs freehold ettates to the value of L. 100 clear of debts.
For the purpofe of elefting fenators, the State is divided
into four great diftrifts, each of which choofes a certain
number.
I he affembly of the State is compofed of reprefentatives
from the feveral counties, chofen annually in May. Every
male inhabitant of full age, who has refitted in the State fix
months preceding the day of eleftion, and poffefiing a free¬
hold to the value of L. 20, in the county where he is to
give his vote ; or has rented a tenement therein off the year¬
ly value of forty (hillings, and has been rated and aftually
paid taxes is intitled to vote for reprefentatives in aflembly.
The number of reprefentatives is limited to 300.
The fupreme executive power of the State is vetted in a
governor chofen once in three years by the freemen of the
State. The lieutenant governor is, by his office, prefident
of the fenate; and, upon an equal divifion of voices, has a
catting vote; but has no voice on other occafions. The
governor has not a feat in the legiflature; but as a member
of the council of revifion and council of appointment, fee
has a vaft influence in the State. The council of revifion is
compofed of the chancellor, the judges of the fupreme
court, or any of them, and the governor. In the year 1790
the number of inhabitants in this State was 340,120; of
whom 21,324 were negroes.
New-ToRKy a city of North America, capital of the State
.jf the fame name. It is fituated at the fouth-weft point of
an ifland, tit the confluence of Hudfon and Eaft rivers, and
is about four miles in circumference. The lituation is both
liea.lthy and pleafant. Surrounded on all fides by water, it
is refrefhed by cool breezes in fummer, and the air in win¬
ter is more temperate than in other places under the fame
parallel. York liland is 15 miles in length, and hardly one
in breadth. . It is joined to the main by a bridge called
King’s Bridge. The channels between Long and Staten
Iflands, and between Long and York Iflands, are fo narrow
as to occafion an uaufual rapidity of the tides, which is in-
si YOU
creafed by the confluence of the waters of Hudfon and Eaft
rivers. Ibis rapidity, in general, prevents the obttruftion
ot the channel by ice. There is no bafon or bay for the
reception of (hips, but the road where they lie in Eaft river
is defended from the violence of the fea by the iffands which
interlock with each other ; fo that, except that of Rhode
Ifland, the harbour of New York, which admits (hips of any
burden, is the beft of the United States. The number of
inhabitants in 1786 was 23,614. New York is 97 miles
north-eatt of Philadelphia. W. Long. 74. 5. W. Lat 40
43U
YOUNG (Dr Edward), was the fon of a clergyman of
the fame name, and was born about the year 1679. When
Efficiently qualified, he was matriculated into All.Souls
college, Oxford ; and defigning to follow the civil law, he
took a degree in that profeffion. In this fituation he wrote
his poems called The Laft Day, pubhfhed in 1704 ; which
coming from a layman gave univerfal fatisfaftion : this was
foon after followed by another, intitled The Force of Religion t
or l' anquifoed Love. Thefe produftions gained him a re*
fpeftable acquaintance ; he was intimate with Addifon, and
thus became one of the writers of the Speftator : but the
turn of his mind leading him to the church, he took orders,
was made one of the king’s chaplains, and obtained the li¬
ving of Welwyn in Hartfordfhire, worth about L. 500 per
annum, but he never rofe to higher preferment- For fome
years before the death of the late prince of Wales, Dr
Young attended his court pretty conftantly ; but upon his
deceafe all his hopes of church preferment vanifhed ; how¬
ever, upon the death of Dr Hales, he was taken into the
fervice of the princefs-dowager of Wales, and fucceeded him
as her privy chaplain. When pretty far advanced in life, he
married the lady Elizabeth Lee, daughter of the late earl
of Litchfield. This lady was a widow, and had an amiable
fon and daughter, who both died young. What he felt for
their lofs, as well as for that of his wife, is finely expreffed
in his Night Thoughts, in which the young lady is charac-
terifed under the name of Narciffa; her brother by that of
Philander; and his wife, though namelefs, is frequently
mentioned; and he thus, in an apottrophe to death, deplores
the iofs of all the three.
Infatiate archer, could not once fuffice!
Thy (haft flew thrice, and thrice my peace was (lain.
And thrice ere thrice yon moon renew’d her horn.
He wrote three tragedies, The Revenge, Bufirh, and The
Brothers. His fatires, called Love of Fame the tiniverfal
Pqjfwn, are by many efteemed his principal performance ;
though Swift (aid the poet ihould have been either more
angry or more merry : they have been charafterifed as a
ttring of epigrams written on one fubjeft, that tire the read¬
er before he gets through them. His Complaint, or Night
Thoughts, exhibit him as a moral and melancholy poet, and
are efteemed his mafterpiece. They form a fpecies of poe¬
try peculiarly his own, and in which he has been unrival¬
led by all thofe who attempted to write in this manner.
They -were written under the recent preffure of his forrow
for the lofs of his wife, daughter, and fon-in law ; they
are addreffed to Lorenzo, a man of pleafure and the
world, and who, as it is irtfinuated by fome, is his Own
fon, but then labouring under his father’s difpleafure. As
a profe-writer, he arraigned the prevailing manners of his
time, in a work called The Centaur not Fabulous ; and when
he was above 80 years of age, publifhed ■Conjedurts on Origi¬
nal Compnjition. He publifhed fome other pieces ; and the
whole of his works are collefted in 4 and 5 vols 1 2mo. Dr
Young’s turn of mind was naturally folemn; and he ufually,
when
YOU r 929 ] Y U N
Ymun?. when at home in the country, fpent many hours of the day
walking in his own church-yard among the tombs. His
conversation, his writings, had all a reference to the liie af¬
ter this ; and this turn of difpofxtion mixed itfelf even with
his improvements in gardening. He had, for inltance, an ah
fcove with a bench, fo painted near his houfe, that at a dii-
tance it looked as a real one which the fpe&ator was then
approaching. Upon coming up near it, however, the de¬
ception was perceived, and this motto appeared, Invi/ibilia non
deciptum, “.The things unfeen do not deceive us.” Yet,
notwithftanding this gloomirtefs of temper, he was fond of
innocent fports and amufement ; he inftituted an affembly
and a bowling-green in the parilh of which he was re&or,
and often promoted the. gaiety of the company in perfon.
His wic was generally poignant, and ever levelled at thofe
who tellified any contempt for decency and religion. His
epigram, fpoken extempore upon Voltaire, is well known ;
who happening in his company to ridicule Milton, and the
allegorical perfonages of Death and Sin, Young thus ad-
drelled him :
Thou art fo witty, profligate, and thin,
You feem a Milton with his Death and Sin.
One Sunday preaching in office at St James’s, he found,
that though he itrove to make his audience attentive he
could not prevail. Upon which his pity for their folly got
the better of all decorums, and he fat back in the pulpit
-and burit into a flood of tears Towards the latter part of
life he knew his own infirmities, and tuffered himfelf to be
in pupilage to his houfe-keeper ; for he confidered that, at
a certain time of lite, the fecond childhood of age demand¬
ed its wonted protection. His fon, whofe boyiih follies were
long obnoxious to paternal feverity, was at lafl forgiven in Ycnit'a
his will; and our poet died regretted by all, having per-
formed all that man could do to fill his poll with dignity. 1 r.._.
His death happened in I7t>5.
YOUTH, that ftate of man in which he approaches to¬
wards his greatefl: perfection of body.
YPRES, a handfome, large, and populous town of the
Aultrian Netherlands, with a bifhop’s fee. It has a eonfi- .
derable manufactory in cloth and ferges, and every year in
Dent there is a confiderable fair. It is one of the barrier
towns, but was befieged and taken by the French in 1744..
It is feated on a fertile plain on the river Ypre, in E. Long.
2. 48. N. Lat. 50. 51.
YUCCA, Adam’s Needt.e, in botany; a genus of plants
of the clafs hexandna and order monogynia. The corolla Js
campanulate and patent, there is no ftyle, the capfule is tri-
locular. There are four fpecies, none of which are natives
of Britain. All of them are exceedingly curious in their
growth, and are therefore much cultivated in gardens. The
Indians make a kind of bread from the roots of this
plant.
YULE, Yoot, or /«/. See Iul.
YUNX, in zoology, a genus of birds of the order pic*.
The bill is fhort, roundiih, and pointed ; the noftrils con¬
cave and naked; the tongue very long and cylindrical;
there are two fore and two hind claws. There is only one
fpecies, the torquilia, wry-neck, which is a native of Europe,
Afia, and Africa, and is often ieen in Britain. It is afh-
coloured above, with light black and brown ftrokes. Be¬
neath light brown, with black fpots. Tail alb-colour, with
four black bars. Weight oz. Irides hazel. Length 7
inches. Migrates.
Z*
gr >yT or z,-the 24th and laft letter, and the 19th confonant
Zaara. of our alphabet ; the found of which is formed by a
motion of the tongue from the palate downwards and up¬
wards to it again, with a (hutting and opening of the teeth
at the fame time. This letter has been reputed a double
confonant, having the found ds ; but fome think with very
little reafon : and, as if we thought otherwife, we often
double it, as In puzzle, muzzle. See. Among the ancients,
Z was a numeral letter, lignifying 2000 ; and with a dafh
added a-top, Z fignified 2000 times 2000, or 4,000,000.
In abbreviations this letter formerly Hood as a mark for
feveral forts of weights; fometimes it fignified an ounce and
a half; and very frequently it Hood for half an ounce ;
fometimes for the eighth part of an ounce, ar a dram Troy
Weight; and it has in earlier times been ufed to exprefs the
third part of an ounce or eight fcruples. ZZ were ufed by
fome of the ancient phyficians to exprefs myrrh, and at pre-
fent they are often ufed to fignify zinziber or ginger.
Z AARA, zApA*.A, SAHARA, or tie Defert, a valt coun¬
try of Africa, bounded on the north by Barbary, on the
call by Fezzan and Calhna, on the fouth by Tombu&oo,
and on the well by the Atlantic Ocean. Zaara contains a
variety of wandering nations, all proceeding from Arabs,
Moors, and fugitive Portuguefe, who took refuge there
when the family of the Sherifs made themfelves mailers of
the three kingdoms ©f Barbary. All thefe people bear in-
difcriminately the names of NarSy Moors, or Arabs. They
Von. XVHI. Fart II.
are fubdivided into various nations, of Which the mod con- Zzars,
fiderable are the Mongearts, Trafars, and Bracnars. The Zabulou.
Mongearts lead a wandering life, and lire chiefly on theV“■(
milk of their flocks, with a little barley-meal, and fome
dates. The poorer fort go naked, except the females, who
commonly wrap a clout about their middle, and wear a kind
of bonnet on their head ; but the wealthier fort have a kind
of looTe gown, made of blue callicoe, with large fleeves, that
is brought them from Negro-land. When they move from
one place to another for frdh pafture, water, or prey, raoft
of them ride on camels, which have generally a fort of fad-
dle between the bunch and the neck, with a firing or ftrap
run through their noftrils, which ferves for a bridle} and
inftead of fpuis they ufe a fharp bodkin. Their tents or
huts are covered with a coarfe fluff, made of camel’s hair,
and a kind of wool or mofs that grows on the palm trees.
Thefe Arabs live here under the government of their fbeiks
or cheyks; as in Arabia, Egypt, and other places. The
other two tribes are rather more civilifed. They are all
Mahometans.
ZABULON (anc. geOg.), one of the twelve tribes;
bounded on the north by the tribes of A (her and Naph-
thali; on theeaft by the fea of Galilee; on the fouth by the
tribe of Iflachar or the brook Cifon, which ran between
both; on the weft by the Mediterranean ; fo that it touched
two ftas, or was bimarous.
Zabulon (anc. geog.), a very ftrong town in the tribe
6 B of
Z A L [ ,
Sacynthu? of that name, on the Mediterranean, firnaroed of men, near
„ , H Ptolemais : its vicinity to which makes it probable that it
Zaieucus -- -- - • « > • r
was alfo Chabulon, unlefs either name is a faulty reading in
Jofephus; diftant about 60 ftadia* from Ptolemais.
ZACYNTHUS (anc. geog.), an ifland to tlie fouth of
Cephalenia Co ftadia, but nearer to Peloponnefus, in the I-
onian Sea, formerly fuhjeft to Ulyftes, in compafs above
j6o ftadia, woody and fruitful, with a confiderable cogno-
minal town and a port. The iftand lies over againft Tlis>
having a colony of Achaeans from Peloponnefus, over againlt
the Corinthian Gulf. Both ifland and town are now called
'/.ante.
ZAFFRE, is the oxyd of cobalt, employed for painting
pottery ware and porcelain of a blue colour. The method
of preparing it is as follows : ’i he cobalt taken out of the
mine is broken with hammers into pieces about the fize of
an hen’s egg; and the ftony involucrum, with fuch other
heterogeneous matters as are diftinguifliable by the eye, are
Magellan's feparated as much as poflible. The chofen mineral is then
Cronfedt's pounded in ftamping mills, and lifted through brafs wire
Mineralogy. f,eveg> The lighter parts are wafhed off by water, and it is
afterwards put into a large flat-bottomed arched furnace, re-
fembling a baking oven, where the flame of the wood rever¬
berates upon the ore; which is occafionally ftirred and
turned with long handled iron hooks or rakes; and the
procefs is continued till it ceafes to emit any fumes. The
oven or furnace is terminated by a long horizontal gallery,
which ferves for a chimney ; in which the arfenic, naturally
mixed with the ore, fublimes. If the ore contains a little
bifmuth, as this femimetal is very fufible, it is collected at the
bottom of the furnace. The cobalt remains in the flate of a
dark grey oxyd, and is called %ajfre. One hundred pounds of
the cobalt ore lofe 20 and even 30 per cent, during this ope¬
ration, which is continued 4 or even 9 hours, according to
the quality of the ore. The roafted ore being taken out
from the furnace, fuch parts as are concreted into lumps
are pounded and lifted afrefh. Zaffre, in commerce, is
never pure, being mixed with two or rather three parts of
powdered flints. A proper quantity of the beft fort of
thefe, after being ignited in a furnace, are thrown into wa¬
ter to render them triable, and more eaffly reduced to pow¬
der; which, being ftfted, is mixed with the zaffre, accord¬
ing to the before-mentioned dofe ; and the mixture is put
into calks, after being moiftened with water. This oxyd,
fufed with three parts of fand and one of pot-afh, forms a
blue glafs} which, when pounded, fifted, and afterwards
ground in mills, included in large calks, formsywa//.
The blue of zaffre is the moft folid and fixed of all the
colours that can be employed in vitrification. It fuffers no
change from the moft violent fire. It is fuccefsfully em¬
ployed to give fliades of blue to enamels, and to the cryftal-
glaffes made in imitation of fome opaque and tranfparent
precious ftones, as the lapis lazuli, the turquois, the fap-
phire, and others of this kind.
ZALEUCUS, a famous legiflator of the Locrians, and
the difciple of Pythagoras, flourilhed 500 years B. C. He
made a law, by which he punilhed adulterers with the lois
of both their eyes; and his for. oftending, was not abfolved
from this punilhment: yet, to {how the father as well as the
juft lawgiver, he put out his own right, and his fon’s left
eye. This example of juftice and feverity made fo ftrong
an itnprefiion on the minds of his fubje&s, that no inftance
was found of the commilTion of that vice during the reign
of that legillator. It is added, that Zaieucus forbad any
wine being given to the fick on pain of death, unlefs it was
preferibed by the phyficians ; and that he was fo jealous ©f
his laws, that he ordered, that whoever was defirous of
changing than, fhould be obliged, wiieii he made the pro*
930 ] Z A M
pofal, to have a cord about his neck, in order that he might
be immediately llrangled, if thofe alterations were efteemed v
no better than the laws already eflablifhed. Diodorus Si¬
culus attributes the fame thing to Charondas legiflator of
the Sybarites.
ZAMA (anc. geog.), a town of Chamane, a diftnd of
Cappadocia, of unknown fltuation.— Another Zama, of
Mefopotamia, on the Saocoras, to the fouth of Niiibis. A
third, of Numidia, diftant five days journey to the weft of
Carthage : it was the othei royal refidence of the kings of
Numidia, hence called Zama Regia. It ftood in a plain j
was ftronger by art than nature ; richly fupplied with every
neceflary; and abounding in men, and every weapon both
of defence and annoyance.
The laft of thefe is remarkable for the decifive battle
fought between the two greateil commanders in the world,
Hannibal the Carthaginian and Scipio Africanus. Of this
engagement,themoft important perhaps that ever was fought,
Mr Hooke gives us the following account.
“ Scipio drew up his army after the Roman manner, ex¬
cept that he placed the cohorts of the Principes diredly be¬
hind thofe of the Haftati, fo as to leave fufficient (pace for
the enemy’s elephants to pafs through from front to rear.
C. LeeIius was polled on the left wing with the Italian horfe,
and Mafiniffa with his Numidians on the right. The in¬
tervals of the firft line Scipio filled up with his Velites, or
light-armed troops, ordering them, upon a fignal given, to
begin the battle ; and in cafe they were repulfed, or broke
by the elephants,to run back through the lanes before men¬
tioned, and continue on their flight till they were got be¬
hind the Triarii. Thofe that were wounded, or in danger
of being overtaken, were to turn off to the right and left
through the fpaces between the lines, and that way efcape
to the rear.
“ The array thus drawn up, Scipio went from rank to
rank, urging his foldiers to confider the confequences of a
defeat and the rewards of victory : on the ©ne hand, cer¬
tain death or llavery (for they had no town, in Africa ftrong-
enough to proteft them) ; on the other, not only a lafting
fuperiority over Carthage, but the empire of the reft of the
world. V
“■ Hannibal ranged all his elephants, to the number of
above 80, in one front. Behind thefe he placed his merce¬
naries, confiHing of 12,000 men, Ligurians, Gauls, Balearcs, ,
and Mauritanians.
“ The new levies of Carthaginians and other Africans,,
together with 4000 Macedonians, under a general named
Sqpater, compofed the lecond line. And in the rear of all,,
at the diftance of about a furlong, he polled his Italian
troops, in whom he chiefly confided. The Carthaginian
horfe formed his right wing, the Numidians his left.
“ He ordered their feveral leaders to exhort their troops-
not to be difeouraged by their own weaknefs, but to place
the hope of vifilory in him and his Italian army ; and parti¬
cularly" dire&ed the captains of the Catthaginians to repre>-
fent to them what would be the fate of their wives and chil¬
dren if the event of this battle fhould not prove fuccefsful.
The general himfelf, walking through the ranks of his Ita¬
lian troops, called upon them to be mindful of the 17 cam¬
paigns in which they had been fellow-foldiers with him; and
of that conftant feries of vi&ories by which they had extin.
guilhed in the Romans all hope of ever being conquerors.
He urged them to remember, above all, the battles of Tre-
bia, Thrafy menus, and Cannse ; with any of which the ap¬
proaching battle was in no wife to be compared, either
with refpedl to the bravery or the number of the enemy,
« The Romans were yet unfoiled, and in the height of their
ftrength, when you fitft met them in the field j neverthelefiv
  ... you
Zama.
Zi A M
you vanquished them. The Soldiers
ther the children of the vanquilhed, or the remains or thole
whom you have often put to flight in Italy. Maintain
theretore your general’s glory and your own, and euablah
to yourielves the name of invincible, by which you are be¬
come famous throughout the world.’
“ When the Numidians of the two armies had flurmifh-
ed a while, Hannibal ordered the managers of the elephants
to drive them upon the enemy. Some of the ceaifs, fright¬
ened at the noife of the trumpets and other inftrumcnts
of war which founded on all lides, immediately ran back
amongft the Numidians of the Carthaginian lett wing, and
put them into confufion ; which MafinilTa taking advantage
of, entirely routed them. Great dettruftion was made, of
the Vtdites by the rell of the elephants, till thefe alfo being
terrified, fome of them ran through the void fpaces or^the
Roman army which Scipio had left for that purpofe; otners
falling in among the cavalry of the enemy’s right wing, gave
Laslius the fame opportunity againft the Carthaginiaij hone,
as had been given to Mafiniffa againft the Numidian, and of
which the Roman did net fail to make the fame ufe. Af¬
ter this the infantry of the foremoft lines joined battle.
Hannibal’s mercenaries had the advantage in the beginning
of the confliA; but the Roman Haftati, followed and en¬
couraged by the Frincfpes, who exhorted them to fight
manfully, and ftrowed themfelves ready to affift them, brave¬
ly fuftained the attack, and at length gained ground upon
the enemy. The mercenaries not being feafonably fupport-
ed by their fecond line, and therefore thinking themfelves
betrayed, they in their retreat fell furioufly upon the Afii-
cans; Co that thefe, the Haftati coming up, were obliged to
fight for fome time both againft their own mercenaries and
the enemy. . When the two Carthaginian lines had ceafed
their mutual rage, they joined their ftrength ; and though
now but a mere throng of men, broke the Haftati: but
then the Principes advancing to the afiiltance of the latter,
rettored the battle ; and molt of the Africans and mercena-
ues weie here cut off. Hlannihal did not advance to their
relief, the Roman Triarit not having yet engaged, and the
Pt rneipes being ftill in good order; and left the routed A-
fricans and mercenaries (hould break the ranks of his Italian
foldiers, he commanded thefe to prefent their fpears at thofe
who fled to them for protection, which obliged the runa¬
ways to move off to the light and left.
“ The ground over which the Romans muft march be¬
fore they could attack Hannibal being ftrewed with heaps
of dead bodies and weapons, and being flippery with blood,
Scipio feared that the order of his battalions would be
broke, fhould he pafs it haftily. To avoid this milchief, he
commanded the Haftati to give over the purfuit, and halt
where they were, oppoirte to the enemy’s centre : after
which, having fent all his wounded to the rear, he advanced
leifurely with the Principes arvd i rrani, and placed them
on tire wings of the Haftati. rl hen followed a lharp en¬
gagement, in which vifftory was long and eagerly dilputed.
It would feem that the Romans, though fuperior in num¬
ber, were or.ee upon the point of lofing the day ; for Poly¬
bius tells us, that Mafiniffa and Lad ins came very featon-
?.bly, and as if fent from heaven, to their affiftance. 1 befe
generals being returned from the purfuit of the cavalry', fell
luddenly upon the rear of Hannibal’s men, moft of whom
were cut off in their ranks ; and of thofe that fled, very
few efcaped the hotte, the country all around being a
plain.
“ There died of the Carthaginians in the fight above
20,000, and almoft the like number were taken prifoners.
The lofs on the fide of the Romans amounted to about
2000 men, Hannibal efcaped with a few horfe to A dm-
[ 93i 1 Z .A N
now tefore us are cl. metura, having performed every thing in the engagement Zan-uetat
which could be expedfed from a great general, rirs army Zaute>
(fays Polybius) could not have been more flcilfully drawn iS
up. For as the order of the Roman battalions makes it
extremely difficult to break them, the Carthaginian wifely
placed his elephants in the front, that they might put the
enemy in coufufion before the armies fhould engage. In
his firft line he placed the mercenaries ; men bold and ac¬
tive, but not well difeiplined, that by their impetuofity he
might give a check to the ardour of the Romans, 'ihe
Africans and Carthaginians, whofe courage he doubted,
he polled in the middle between the mercenaries and his
Italian foldiers, that they might be forced to fight, or at
kaft that the Romans, by flaughtering them, mu»bt fatigue
themtelves and blunt their weapons. Laft of all, he drew
up the troops he had diictplined himfelt, and in whom he
chiefly confided, at a good dtftance from the fecond line,
that the might not be broken by the route of the Africans
and mercenaries, and kept them in referve for a vigorous at¬
tack upon a tired and weakened enemy.”
ZANGUEBAR, a country in Africa, lying on the
eaftern coaft, between three degrees of north latitude, and
18 fouth. It includes feveral petty kingdoms, in which
the Portuguefe have various fettlements. I he inhabitants,
except thole converted by the Portugueie, are all Mahome¬
tans or idolaters ; and the latter much the more numerous.
'I he names'of the principal territories are Momba%at La-
many Melinda, Shiiola, and Mofambique. The Portuguefe
have built feveral forts in Mombaza and Mofambique, and
have fettled feveral colonies there. They trade with the
negroes for flaves, ivory, gold, oftrichTeathcrs, wax, and
drugs. The produ£lions are much the fame as in other
parts of Africa between the tropics.
ZANONIA, in botany ; the name of a genus of plants
of the order dicecia, clafs pentandria. The charafters are
thefe : it produces feparate male and female flowers ; in the
male flower the cup is a perianthium, compofed of three
leaves of an oval figure, expanding every way, and ftrorter
than the flower; the flower is monopetalous, but divided
into five fegments, and has an open mouth ; the fegments
are jagged, and are equal in fize, and bend backwards ; the
ftamina are five filaments of the length of the cup, {landing
open at their ends, and terminated by fimple apices ; the fe¬
male flowers grow on feparate plants, and have the cup and
flower the lame as in the male, only that the cup ftands
upon the germen of the piftil; this germen is oblong, and
from it are propagated three reflex conic ftyles ; the ftig-
mata are bifid and curled ; the fruit is a long and very large
berry, truncated at the end, and very fmall at the bafe; it
contains three cells, and has a curled future near the apex ;
the feeds are two ; they are of an oblong figure, and flat.
There is one fpecies, the indi a.
ZANTE, an ifland of the Mediterranean, near the coaft
of the Morea, 19 miles louth eaft of the ifland of Cephalonia,
belonging to the Venetians. It is about 24 miles in length
and 12 in breadth, and very pleafant and fertile; but its
principal riches confift in currants, with which it greatly
abounds, "ihey are cultivated in a very large plain, under
the flielter of mountains on the fhore of this ifland ; for
which reafon the fun has greater power to bring them to
perfect maturity. The town called Zante may contain near
20,oco inhabitants; the whole ifland contains about 40,000-
The houfes are low, on account of the frequent earthquakes,
for Icarce a year pafles without one ; however, they do. no
great damage. The natives fpeak both Greek and Italian,
There are very few Roman Catholics among them ; but
they have a brfhop as well as the Greeks. I his place hai
no fortifications, but there is a fortreis upon an eminence
6 B 2 planted
Z E A
P^ante<^ cannon- 1° one part of this ifland is a place
U|l which {hakes when trod upon like a quagmire ; and a fpring
Zea. which throws out a great deal of bitumen, efpecially at the
U—y-—j time of an earthquake. It ferves inftead of pitch to pay
the bottoms of the (hips, and about ico barrels in a year
are ufed for this purpofe. There are about 50 villages in
the ifland; but no other large town beflde Zante. It is
feated on the eaftern fide of the ifland, and has a good har¬
bour. The Knglifh and Dutch have dach a factory and
conful here. E. Long. 21. 3. N. Lat. 37. 53.
ZANTHOXYLUM, the toothach-tree, in botany ;
a genus of plants of the clafs of d'tacia, and order of pen-
tandria; and in the natural fyflem arranged under the 46th
or&zr, Hederacc*. The talyx is quinquepartite; there is
no corolla ; the female flower has five pillils and as many
monofpermons capfuks. There are two fpecies, the clava
her cults t and the trifoliaium ; neither of which are natives
of Britain.
ZAPATA, a kind of fcaft or ceremony held in Italy,
in the courts of certain princes, on St Nicholas’s day ;
wherein people hide prefents in the fhoes or flippers of
thofe they would do honour to, in fuch a manner as may
furprife them on the morrow when they come to drefs;
being done in imitation of the pra&ice of St Nicholas, who
ufed in the night-time to throw purfes of money in at the
windows to marry poor maids withal.
ZEA, Indian Corn, in botany; a genus of plants of
the clals moTicecia^ order triandria. The male-flowers are
placed on diltinft fpikes ; the calyx is a biflorous, beardlefs
glume; the corolla a beardlefs glume ; the female calyx is
a bivalve glume, as is the corolla. There is one filiform,
pendulous ityle ; the feeds are folitary and buried in an
oblong receptacle. There is only one fpecies, the Mays,
maize. The Indians in New England, and many other
parts of America, had no other vegetable but maize or In¬
dian corn for making their bread. They call it tueachtn ;
and in the United States of America there is much of the
bread of the country made of this grain, not of the Eu¬
ropean corn. In Italy and Germany alfo there is a fpecies
of maize which is the food of the poor inhabitants.
The ear of the maize yields a much greater quantity of
grain than any of our corn ears. There are commonly
about eight rows of grain in the ear, often more, if the
ground be good. Each of thefe rows contains at lealt 30
grains, and each of thefe gives much more flour than a
grain of any of our corn. The grains are ufually either
white oryeliowifli; but fometimes they are red, bluiih, green-
ifh, or olive-coloured, and fometimes ftriped and variega¬
ted. This fort of grain, though fo effentially neceflary to
the natives of the place, is yet liable to many accidents,
it does not ripen till the end of September; fo that the
rains often fall heavy upon it while on the llalk, and the
birds in general peck it when it is foft and unripe. Na¬
ture has, to defend it from thefe accidents, covered it with
a thick hufle, which keeps olf flight rains very well; but
the birds, if not frighted away, often eat thr ough it, and
devour great quantity of the grain.
There are three or four varieties of maize in different
parts of America. That of Virginia is very tall and robuft,
growing to feven or eight feet high ; that of New England
is fhorter and lower. And the Indians farther up in the
country have a yet fmaller kind in common ufe. The
llaik of the maize is joined like the fugar-cane; it is very
loft and juicy, and the juice is fo fweet and faccharine, that
a fyrup, as fweet as that of fugar, has been often made of it;
and things fweetened with it have been found not dittin-
guifhable from thofe done with fugar. It has not been
t 93* 1 ZEA
tried yet whether it will cryftallize into fugar; but in all
probability it will.
. ^ ,^e Americans plant this corn any time from the be¬
ginning of March to the beginning of June ; but the belt
feafon is the middle of April. The favage Indians, who
knew nothing of our account of months, ufed to guide
themfelves in the feed-time of this ufeful plant bv the bud¬
ding of fome particular trees of that country, and by the
coming up of a fort of fifh into their rivers which they call
the aloufe. I hele things were both fo regular, that they
were in no danger of miftaking the time.
I he manner of planting maize is in rows, at equal dif-
tances, every way about five or fix feet. They open the
earth with a hoe, taking away the furface to three or four
inches deep, and of the breadth of the hoe; they then throw
in a little of the finer earth, fo as to leave the hoe four
inches deep or thereabouts, and in each of thefe holes they
place four or five grains at a little dillance from one ano¬
ther. If two or three of thefe grow up, it is very wrell;
lome of them are ufually deltroyed either by the birds or
other animals.
When the young plants appear, they hoe up the weeds
from time to time; and when the ftalk gathers fome ftrength,
they raiie the earth a little about it, and continue this at
every hoeing till it begins to put forth the ears; then they
enlarge the hill of earth) round the root, to the lize of 3
hop-hill, and after this they leave it till the time of harveft,
without any farther care. When they gather the ears, they
either ^immediately ftrip off the corn, or elfe hang up the
ears, tied, in traces at diftances from one another; for if
they are laid near together, they will heat and rot or elfe
fprout and grow ; but kept cool and feparate, they will re¬
main good all the winter. The bell method is to threfh
out the corn as foon as the harveft: is over, to dry it well
on mats in the fun, and then lay it up in holes of the
ground, well lined with mats, grafs, or the like, and after¬
wards covered at top with more earth. The moft careful
among the Indians ufe this method, and this fort of fubter-
ranean granary always proves good.
r ( Ehe ufes of this plant among the Indians are very many.
I he great article is the making their bread of it; but be-
fides this, the ftalks, when cut up before they are too much
dried, are an excellent winter food for cattle; but they
ufually leave them on the ground for the cattle to feed
on. I he hulks about the ear are ufually feparated from
the reft, and make a particular fort of fodder, not inferior
to our hay. I he Indian women have a way of flitting them
into narrow parts, and they then weave them artificially
into bafleets and many otfier toys. The original way of
eating the grain among the Indians was this : they boiled
it whole in water till it fwelled and became tender, and then
they fed on it either alone or eat it with their filh and ve-
nifon inftead of bread. After this, they found the way of
boiling it into a fort of pudding, after bruifing it in a mor¬
tar; but the way ©f reducing it to flour is the beft of all.
They do this by parching it carefully in the fire, without
burning, and then beating it in mortars and fifting it. This
flour they lay up in bags as their conftant provifion, and
take it out with .them when they go to war, eating it either
dry or with water. The Engiifh have contrived, by mix¬
ing it into a ftiff paile, either by itfidf or with rye or
wheat-meal, fermenting it with leaven or yeaft, and baking
it in a hot oven, to make good bread of it. They have
likewife found out a method of making good beer, either
of the bread or by malting the grain.
ZEAL, paffionate ardour for any perfon or caufe. It is
moft frequently ufed to denote a ftrong and warm attach¬
ment
Z E L
[ 933 ]
ZEN
Zealand ment to the diftingaifhing doarines or worfhlp of fome par-
, |! ticular fed of Chriftians. Thus we fay, a_ zealous Ca/vmif?,
Zell. yJnninian, or Pap'ift ; though we may likewife with the great-
eft propriety fay of an upright and benevolent man, that he
is zealous of good works.
ZEALAND, the chief of the Danifh iflands, is fituated
at the entrance of the Baltic Sea, bounded by the Schag-
gerrac Sea on the north ; by the Sound, which feparates it
trOm Schonen, on the call; by the Baltic Sea on the fouth;
and by the hr ait called the Great Belty which feparates it
from the ifland of Funen, on the weft } being of a round
figure, near 200 miles in circumference : the chief town is
Copenhagen.
Zealand, is alfo a province of the United Netherlands,
confifting of eight iflands, which lie in the mouth of the
river Scheld, bounded by the province of Holland, from
which they are feparated by a narrow channel on the north;
by Brabant on the eaft; by Flanders, from which they are
feparated by one of the branches of the Scheld, on the
fouth ; and by the G erman Ocean on the weft.
New Zealand, a country of Afia, in the South Pacific
Ocean, firft difcovered by li'afman, the Dutch navigator,
in the year 1642, who gave it the name of Staten Land,
though it has been generally diftinguilhed in our maps and
charts by the name of New Zealand, and was fuppofed to
be part of a fouthern continent: but it is now known, from
the late difcoveries of Captain Cook who failed round it,
to confift of two large iilands, divided from each other by
a ftrsit four or five leagues broad. They are fttuated be¬
tween the latitudes of 34 and 48 degrees fouth, and be¬
tween the longitudes of 166 and 180 degrees eaft from
Greenwich. One of thefe iflands is for the moft part
mountainous, rather barren, and but thinly inhabited ; but
the other is much more fertile, and of a better appearance.
In the opinion of Sir Jofeph Banks and Dr Solander,
every kind of European fruits, grain, and plants, would
flourifh here in the utmoft luxuriance. From the vegeta¬
bles found here, it is fuppofed that the winters are milder
than thofe in England, and the fummers not hotter, though
more equally warm ; fo that it is imagined, that if this
country were fettled by people from Europe, they would,
with moderate induftry, be foon fupplied, not only with
the neceffaries, but the luxuries of life, in great abundance.
Here are forefts of vaft extent, filled with very large tim¬
ber trees; and near 400 plants were found here that had
not been defcnbed by the naturalifts. The inhabitants of
New Zealand are float and robuft, and equal in {future to
the largeft Europeans. Their colour in general is brown,
but in few deeper than that of the Spaniard who has been
expo fed to the fun, and in many not fo deep ; and both
iexes have good features. Their drefs is. very uncouth,
and they mark their bodies in a manner fimilar to the inha¬
bitants of Otaheite, and which is called tattowing. Their
principal weapons are lances, darts, and a kind of battle-
axes ; and they have generally fhown themfelves very hoftile
to the Europeans who have vdited them.
ZEALOTS, an ancient fed of the jews, fo called from
their pretended zeal for God’s law and the honour of re¬
ligion.
ZEBRA, in zoology. See Equus,
ZEBU, in zoology ; a name given by M. de Buffon to
the bos indicus of Linnaeus. See Bos, vi.
ZECHARIAH, a canonical book of the Old Teftament.
See Scripture, r>° 80.
ZECHIN, or Zecchino. See Seqjjin,
ZEDOARY, in the materia medica. See KjempferiA.
ZELL, a city of Germany in the circle of Lower Sa¬
xony, capital of the duchies of Zell and Lunenburg, fituated
at the confluence of the rivers After and Fuhfe, 30 miles
north of Hanover, and 40 fouth of Lunenburg, E. Long.
10. 1 2. N. Lat. 52. 49.
ZEMBLA Nova, a very large ifland, lying in the
Northern Ocean, to the north of Uuftia, from which it is
feparated by the ftrait of Waigate. It has no inhabitants
except wild beafts, particularly white foxes and bears. In
J595 a Dutch veffel was call away on the coaft, and the
fhip’s company were obliged to winter here ; but they did
not fee the fun from the fourth of November to the begin¬
ning of February, and had great difficulty to keep themfeivea
from being frozen to death.
ZEMINDAR. See Hindostan, Vol. VUE page
585.
ZEND, or Zsndavhsta, a book ascribed to Zoroaster*
and containing his pretended revelations; which the ancient
Magicians and modem Perfees, called alfo Gaurs, obferve and
reverence in the fame manner as the Chriftians do the
Bible, and the Mahometam, the Koran, making it the loie
rule both of their faith and manners- I he word, it is faid,
originally fignifies any inftrument for kindling fire, and is ap¬
plied to this book to denote its aptitude for kindling the
flame of religion in the hearts of thofe who read ic.
The Zend contains a reformed fyflem of Magianifm ;
teaching that there is a Supreme Being, eternal, leli-exift-
ent, and independent, who created both light and darknefs,
out of which he made all other things ; that fheie are in a
ftate of conflict, which will continue till the end of the
world ; that then there fhall be a general refurre&ioa and
judgment; and that juft retribution fhall be rendered unto
men according to their works; that the angel of darknefs
with his followers (hall be configned to a place of everlaftiag
darknefs and punifhment, and the angel of light with his
difciples introduced into a ftate of eveiiafting light and hap-
pinefs ; after which light anddarkneis fhall no more interfere
with each other. The Zend alfo enjoins the coaftant main¬
tenance of facred fires and fire-temples for religious worfhip;
the diflindlion of clean and unclean beafts; the payment et
tithes to priefts, which are to be of one family or tribe ; a
multitude of wafhings and purifications, refembling thofe of
the Jewifh law ; and a variety of rules and exhortations for
the exercile of benevolence and charity.
In this book there are many paflages evidently taken out
of the Scriptures of the Old Teftament, particularly out^of
the Pfalms of David : The author reprefents Adam and Eve
as the firft parents of all mankind, gives in fubftance the
fame account of the creation and deluge with Mofcs, differ¬
ing indeed with regard to the former, by converting the fix
days of the Mofaic account into fix times, comprehending
in the whole 365 days; and fpeaks alfo of Abraham, Jo¬
feph, Mofes, and Solomon. Moreover, Dr Biumgarten
afferts, that this work contains doftrines, opinions, and fa&s,
aftually borrowed from the Jews, Chriftians, and Mahome¬
tans ; whence, and from other circusiftances, he concludes
that both the hiftory and writings of this prophet were pro¬
bably invented in the later ages, when the fire-worfliippers
under the Mahometan government thought fit to vindicate
their religion from the fufpicion of idolatry.
At whatever period the Zend may have been written,
we are allured by Dr Hyde that it is in. the pure old I er-
fian language, and in the charafter called Peplavi. Some
parts of it contain the original text, and others Zoroafler s
fecond thoughts fubjoined, for explaining more fully his
doctrine. Thefe were occafioned by the oppofition of ad-
verfarles, and unforefeen circumftances which occurred du-
Zembla
n
Zend.
ring the fabrication of the impefturs
About 3CTO years
J^er’th,
Zeno.
Fjwfield'1 s
JrJiJlery <-/
J?bil(ifo£ly.
ZEN r 91
ago, when the oldPerhan language had become antiquated and
little underflood, one of the deftours or high-priefls among
the Perfees compofcd the SaJdj, which is a compendium in
the vulgar or modern Perfic tongue, of tliofe parts of theZend
that relate to religion, or a kind of code of canons and pre¬
cepts, drawn from the theological writings of Zoroaller,
ferving as an authoritative rule of faith and practice for his
followers. 1 his Sadda is written in a low kind of Perfic
verfe, and, as Dr Hyde informs us, it is bnnorum & mala-
rum farrago, having many good and pious things, and others
very fuperftitious and trifling. See Per sees and Zoroas¬
ter.
ZENITH, in aflronomy, thg vertical point, or a point
in the heavens diredlly over our heads.
ZENO E leate3, an eminent Grecian philofopher, was
born at Elea about 504 years before Chrift. He was a
zealous friend of civil liberty, and is celebrated for his cou¬
rageous and fuccefsful oppofition to tyrants ; but the ificon-
fiilency of the ftories related by different writers concerning
him in a great meafure deftroys their credit. He chofe to
refide in his fmall native city of Elea rather than at Athens,
becaufe it afforded freer fcope to his indeoendent and gene¬
rous fpirit, which could not eafily fubmit to the reflraints
of authority. It is related, that he vindicated the warmth
with which he refented reproach, by faying, “ If I were
indifferent to cenfure, I fhould alfo be indifferent to praife.”
flhe invention of the dialectic art has been improperly
aferibed to Zeno ; but there can be no doubt that this phi¬
lofopher, and other metaphyfical difputants in the Eleatic
feci, employed much ingenuity and fubtlety in exhibiting
examples of moft of the logical arts, which were afterwards
reduced to rule by Ariftotle and others.
According to Ariflotle, he taught, that nothing can be
produced either from that which is (imilar or diffimilar; that
there is only one being, God ; who is eternal, homogene¬
ous, and fpherical, neither finite nor infinite, neither quief-
cent nor moveable ; that there are many worlds ; that there
is in nature no vacuum ; that all bodies are compofed cf
four elements, heat and moifiure, cold and drynefs ; and that
the body of man is from the earth, and his foul an equal
mixture of tfiefe four elements. He argued with great fub¬
tlety a^ainfl the poffibiiity of motion. If Seneca’s account
of this philofopher deferves credit, he reached the highefl
point of fcepticifm, and denied the real exiflence of external
objects The truth is, that after all that has been advanced
by different writers, it is impoffible to determine whether
Zeno uhderflood the term One, metaphyfically, logically, or
phyfically ; or whether he admitted or denied a nature pro¬
perly divine, ,
Zeno, the founder of the fed of the Stoicsr was born
about 300 years before Chi ill, st Citium in the ifiand of
Cyprus. This place having been originally peopled by a
colony of Phoenicians, Zeno is fometimes called a Phoeni¬
cian. Plis father was by profefiion a merchant, but difeo-
vering in the youth a ilrong propenfity towards learning,
he early devoted him to philofophy. In his mercantile ca¬
pacity he had frequent occafion to vifit Athens, where he
pure ha fed for his fon feveral of the writings of the mofl emi¬
nent Socratic philofophers. Phefe he read with great avidity;
and when he was about 30 years of age, he determined to take
a voyage to a city which was fo celebrated both as a mart of
trade and of fcience. If it be true, as fome writers relate,
that he brought with him a valuable cargo of Phoenician
purple, which was loft by fhipwreck upon 'the coafl of Pi-
■m'.is, this circnmflance will account for the facility with
which he at firfl attached hirafelf to a fed whofe leading prin¬
ciple was the contempt of riches. Upon.his firfl arrival in A-
thens, going accidentally into the fhop of a bookfeller, he
* ] Z : E N
took up a volume of the Commentaries of Xenophon ; and Zeno,
after reading a few pafiages, was fo much delighted with
the work, and formed fo high an idea of the author, that
he afked the bookfeller where he might meet with fuch men.
Crates the Cynic plnlofopher happening at that inftant to
be pa fling by, the bookfcller pointed to him, and faid, “ Fol¬
low that man.” Zeno attended upon the inflrudions of
Crates, and was fo well pleafed with his dodrine that he
became one of his difciples. But though he admired the
general principles of the Cynic fchool, he could not eafily
reconcile himftlf to their peculiar manners. Befides, his
inquifitive turn of mind would not allow him to adopt that
indifference to every fcientific enquiry which was one of the
charaderiflic diflindions of the fed. He therefore attended
upon other matters, who profeffed to inflrud their difeiplea
in the nature and caufes of things. When Crates, difplea-
fed at his following other philofophers, attempted to drag
him by force out of the fchool of Stilpo, Zeno faid to him,
“ You may feize my body, but Stilpo has laid hold of my
mind.” After continuing to attend upon the ledures of
Stilpo fevcral years, he paffed over to other fchools, parti¬
cularly to thofe of Xenocrates and Diodorus Cronus. By the
latter he was inllruded in dialedics. He was fo much de¬
lighted with this branch of fludy, that he prefented to his
maker a large pecuniary gratuity, in return for his free com¬
munication of fome of his ingenious fubtleties. At lail, af¬
ter attending almofl every other mailer, he offered himfelf
as a difcfple of Polemo. This philofopher appears to have
been aware, that Zeno’s intention in thus removing from
one fchool to another, was to colled materials from vari¬
ous quarters for a new fyflem of his own ; for, when he
came into Pokmo’a fchool, he faid to him, “ I am no llran-
ger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts ; I perceive that your
defign is to creep flyly into my garden, and fteal away my
fruit.” Polemo was not miftaken in his opinion. Havin;>*
made himfelf rnafler of the tenets of others, Zeno determi¬
ned to become the founder of a new fed. The place which
he made choice of for his fchool was a public portico,
adorned wfith the pidures of Polygnotus, and other eminent
painters. It was the mofl famous portieo in Athens, and
called, by way of eminence, “ the Porch.” It wa:$
from this circumflance that the followers of Zeno were called
Stoics.
In his perfon Zeno was tall and {lender ; his afped wai
fevere, and his brew con traded. ' His conftitution was
feeble, but he preferved his health by great abflemiouf-
nefs. The fupplies of his table con filled of figs, bread, and
honey ; notwithflanding which, he was frequently honoured
with the company of great men. In public company, to
avoid every appearance of an afluming temper, he commonly
took the lowell place. Indeed fo great was his modefly,
that he feldorn chofe to mingle with a crowd, or wifhed for
the company of mote than two or ihree fiiends at once.
He paid more attention to neatnefs and decorum in external
appearance than the Cynic philofophers. In his drefa in¬
deed he was plain, and in all his expences frugal ; but this
is not to be imputed to avarice, but a contempt of external
magnificence. He fhowed as much tefped to the poor as
to the rich ; and converfed freely with perfons of the meaneft
occupations. He had only, one fervant, or, according to
Seneca, none.
Zeno lived to the extreme age of 98 ; and at lad, in con-
frquence of an accident, voluntarily put an end to his life.
As he was walking out of his fchool he fell down, and in
the fall broke one of his fingers ; upon which he was fo af-
fe<2ed with a confcioufnefs of infiimity, that, flriking the
earth, he faid, “ Why am I thus importuned ? I obey thy
fummonsand immediately went home and firangled him-
fdfr
Z E U
geno
II
Zeus.
felf. He tiled in the firft year of the 129th Olympiad.
The Athenians, at the requeft of Antigonus, erefted a mo¬
nument to his memory in the Ccramicum.
We ought not to confound the two Zenos already men-
ti©ned with
Zeno, a celebrated Epicurean philofopher, born at Si-
don, who had Cicero and Poinponius Atticus for his difci-
ples, and who wrote a book agair.ft the mathematics, which,
as well as that of Poffidonius’a refutation of it, is lofl; nor
with feveral other Zenos mentioned in hiftory.
ZENOBIA, queen of Palmyra. See Palmyra.
ZEOLITE. See Clay, Vol. V. page and Mine¬
ralogy, Vol. XII. page 88.
ZEPHANIAH, a canonical book of the Old Tefla-
ment. See Scripture, n° 79.
ZEPPIYR, the IVEST-WinJ, or that which blows from
the caidinal point of the horizon oppofite to the eafl.
ZEPPIYRUS, ene of the Pagan deities, was reprefent-
cd as the fon of Aurora, and the lover of the nymph Chlo-
ris, according to the Greeks, or of Flora according to the
Romans ; anti as prefidtng over the growth of fruits and
flowers. He is delcribed as giving a refrefhing coolneis to
the ah by his foft and agreeable breath, and as moderating
the heat of fummer by fanning the air with his filken wings.
He is depidhired under the form of a youth, with a very
tender air, with wings refembling thofe of the butterfly,
and with his head crowned with a variety of flowers. As
the T>oets of Greece and Rome lived in a warm climate,
they are lavifh in their praife of this beneficent deity, and
under his name defcribe the pleafure and advantage they re¬
ceived from the weftern breezes.
ZERDA. See Can is, Sp. xiv.
ZERTA, the Zerte, a fifh caught in the rivers of Ita¬
ly and feme other places, of the figure of the chub, and
called by authors capita anadromus, and the b/ike. It feldom
grows to more than two pounds weight, and at times lives
in rivers, at times in the fea ; and is efteemed a. very well
faded fifh, Specially a little before the feafon of its fpawn-
ing. The zerte is that fpecies of cyprinus deferibed by
Gefner and others under the name ef capita anodromus.
ZEST, the woody thick fkin quartering the kernel of a
walnut; preferibed by forr.e phyficians, when dried and taken
with white-wine, as a remedy againd the gravel.
[ 935 1
Z E U
for the honour of having been the fifii out of whofe mouth Zcuxia..
St Peter took the tribute-money, leaving on its fides thole
incontcdible proofs of the identity of the fifh., the marks of
Iris finger and thumb. It is rather difficult at this time to
determine on which part to decide the dispute; for the do-
ree likewife afferts an origin of its fpots of a fimilar na¬
ture, but of a later date than tire former. St Chriilo-
pher, in wading through an arm of the fca, having caught
a fifh of this kind en pajfant, as an eternal memorial of the
fa<fi, left the imprefilons on its tides to be tranfinitted to all
poderity. In our own country it was very long before this
fifh attra&ed our notice, at lead as an edible one. We are
indebted to the late Mr Quin for adding a mod delicious
fifh to our table, who, overcoming all the vulgar prejudices
on account of its deformity, has effectually edablifhed its re¬
putation. This fifh was fuppoled to be found only in the
fouthern feas of this kingdom, but it has been difeovered like¬
wife on the coad of Anglefey. Thofe ox the greatell fize
are taken in the Bay of Bifcay, off the Fiench coads ; they
are alio very common in the Mediterranean : Ovid muft
therefore have dyled it rams filler, on account of its excel¬
lency, not its fcarcity.
ZEUXIS, a celebrated painter of antiquity, flourifhed
about 400 years before Chrilt. Pie was born at PIcraclea ;
but as there have been many cities of that name, it cannot
be certainly determined which of them had the honour of
his birth. Some learned men, however, conje&ure, that it
was the Heraclea near Crotona in Italy. He carried paint¬
ing to a much higher degree of perfection than Apollodo-
rus had left it; difeovered the art of properly difpofrng of
lights and fhades, and particularly excelled in colonring.
He amaffed imrnenfe riches; and then refolved to fell no
more of his pictures, but gave them away;, faying very
frankly, “ That he could not fet a price on them equal to
their value.” Before this time he made people pay for fee¬
ing them ; and nobody was admitted to fee his Helena with¬
out ready money, which occafioned the wags calling' his
picture Helen the Courtezan. It is not known whether this
Helen of Zeuxis was the fame with that which was at
Rome in Pliny’s time, or that which he painted for the in¬
habitants of Crotona to be hung up in the temple of Juno :
this laft he painted from five beautiful girls of that city,
copying from each her greatell excellencies. Pliny obferves.
th wmte-wme, as a lemcuy agauui. me giow.. —r-   ^ . -
Zeft is alia ufed for a chio of orange or lemon peel; fuch that this admirable painter, ditputing for the prize of pamt-
..r.-u., /Lr- fn crive it a flavour: in? with Parrhafius, painted fwme grapes fo naturally, that
as is ufually fqueezed into ale, wine, &c. to give it a flavour;
©r the fine oil which fpurts out of that peel on fquee-
zing it.
ZEUGMA, a figure in grammar, whereby an adjeftive
©r verb which agrees with a nearer word, is alfo, by way of
fupplement, referred to another more remote.
ZEUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties of the order of
thoraeici. The head is compreffed, and declines, the up¬
per lip being vaulted over by a tranfverfe membrane ; the
tongue is fubulated; there are feven rays in the gill mem¬
brane ; and the body is comprefled.— 1 he fpecie* are eight;
©f which the molt remarkable is the faber or doree. It is
of a hideous form, its body is oval, and greatly compreffed
©n the fides ; the head large ; the fnout vaftly projecting ;
the mouth very wide ; the teeth very fmall; tne eyes great,
the irides yellow ; the lateral line oddly dill or ted, finking at
each end, and rifmg near the back in the middle ; beneath
ing with Parrhafius, painted fwme grapes fo naturally, that
the birds flew down to peck them. Parrhafius, on the
other hand, painted a curtain fo very artfully, that /Leuxis
miftakingit for a real one that hid his rival’s work, ordered
the curtain to be drawn afide, to ftiow what Parrliafius had
done; but having found his miftake, he ingenuoufly con-
feffed him felf vanquished, fince he had only impofed upon
birds, while Parrhaiius had deceived even a mailer of the
art. Another time he painted a boy loaded with grapes ;
when the birds alfo flew to this picture, at which he was
vexed ; and confeffed, that this work was not fufficiently
finished, fince had he painted the boy as perfedly as the
grapes, the buds would have been afraid of him. Arche-
laus, king of Macedon, made ufe of Zeuxis’s pencil for the
embellishment of his palace. One of this painter’s nneSl
pieces was a PJercules ft tangling feme ferpents in his cradle,
in the prefence of his affrighted mother : but be htmfelf
it o„ taoh fUe is .“round black fpot. The tall is round at. chiefly clteemcd h,s Athkta, or Champ,on, under winch he
the end antf conliAs of 15 yellow rays. The colour of the placed a Greek verfe that afterwards became very famous,.
Me. is dive, varied with light blue aid white, and while li- and in which he fays, “ ^ -    
ving is very refplendent, and as if gilt; for which reamn it
is called the doree. The largeft fifh we have heard of weigh¬
ed i'2 pounds. • ,
Superltition hath made the doree rival to the haddock,
That it was eafier to criticile than
to imitate the picture.” He made a prefent of his /vlcme-
na to the Agrigentines. Zeuxis did not value himfelf on
fpeedily finishing his pictures ; but knowing that Agatnar-
chus gloried in his being able to paint with cafe and in a
fitiK
  Z I N [ 93
little time, he faid, “ That for his part he, on the contrary,
Zinc. gloried in his ilownefs; and if he was long in painting, it
—was becaufe he painted for eternity.,, Verrius Flaccus fays,
that Zeuxis having painted an old woman, he laughed fo
very heartily at the fight of this picture, that he died : but
-as no other of the ancients have mentioned this particular,
there is the greateil reafon to believe it fabulous. Carlo
Uati has compofed in Italian the Life of Zeuxis, with thofe
of Parrhafius, Apelles, and Protogenes. This work was
■printed at Florence in 1667.
ZICLAG, or ZiKtAO (anc. grog.), a town of the tribe
■of Simeon, on the borders of the Philiftines (Jofhua xv. and
.xix.), but in the hands of the Philiflines till David's time
( 1 Sam. xxvii. and xxx.)
ZIVTB, in natural hiilory. See Ethiopia, n° it.
ZIMENT-water, Copper -water, in natural hiflory,
the name by which fome have called water found in places
where there are copper-mines, and lightly impregnated with
particles of that metal.
The raoft famous fpring of this kind is about a mile di-
ilant from Newfol in Plungary, in the great copper-mine
called by the Germans hirrn grundt. The water in this
mine is found at different depths, and is received into ba-
fons, for the purpofe of feparating the copper from it: in
fome of thefe it is much more fated with this metal than in
others, and will make the fuppofed change of iron into that
metal muen fooner. The moft common pieces of iron ufed
in the experiments are horfe-fhoe*, nails, and the like ; and
they are found very little altered in fhape, after the opera¬
tion, except that their furfaces are more raifed. The water
appears greenifh in the hafon, where it Hands; but if a
giafs of it be taken up, it laoka clear as cryltal: it has no
fmell, but a flrong vitriolic ailringent tafte, infomuch that
the lips and tongue are bliftered and fcorched upon tailing
sit.
ZIN (anc. geog.), a wildernefs encampaffing Idumea,
at leaft on the fouth and weft, as far as PaJefline or Canaan;
but according to Wells, on the eaft of Edom, to the north
of Ezion-gaber.
ZINC, a femimetal. For a defeription of the ores of
this metal, the method of extra&ing it from thefe ores, and
for its properties, fee Calamine; Chemistv-/Wav ; Mine-
ralogv, Vol. XII. page 128; Metallurgy, Part II.
xii.
Zinc, befides its medical qualities (for which fee Phar-
MACY-iWex), is of great ufe in the arts: united with copper
in different proportions, it forms brafs and pinchbeck ; and
united with tin, it forms a kind of pewter.
Brafs is formed by mixing two parts cf copper with one
of zinc ; pinchbeck by mixing three or four parts of copper
to one ol zinc: when the metals are mixed in equal cpiantities
they form a very exaft imitation of gold. Its inflammable
property renders zinc a ufeful ingredient in fire-works.
It has been propofed to lubftitme this femimetal inftead
of tin in the lining of copper veffels ; the latter being thought
infufficient to prevent the dangerous effedts of the copper.
Mr Malouin, who has made ssany experiments on the lining
of veffels in this manner, afferts that it fpreade more evenly
an the copper than tin itielf; that it is much harder and
lefs fufible, and confequcntly more durable than tin. Mr
Macquer owns thefe advantages; but thinks it dangerous to
be ui'ed in culinary veffels, as it is foluble in vegetable acids,
and the combination of it with the vitriolic acid is known
to be a ftrong emetic. Gaubius alfo mentions a celebrated
remedy for convuliive d borders, named /uno fxeta lude-
maunic which Macquer affirms to be ftrongly emetic in very
imall doles. But, nsay it not be prefuaied (fays Foucroy),
S-iat properties .which are applicable only to the vitriol and
6 ] z 1 s
flower zinc, cannot be applied to the femimetal itfelf, nor even, Zirtu;
without farther experiments, to the falts formed by its combi- Ij '* •,
nation with the vegetable acids.” Mr de la Plandie, doftor in Zl!c^ '
medicineofthe faculty of Paris,has changed tin’s prelumption
into certainty by experiments made with great care on him-
lie took the falts of zinc, formed by its combination
with vegetable acids, in a much ftronger dole than the all-
meets pi spared in copper covered with zinc can poflibly
contain them, and found no dangerous effedts to. follow.
However, fince objefts which relate to the health and live*
of mankind cannot be treated with too much circumfpe&ion,
it appears to be prudent, and even neceffary, not to decide*
on the iubjeft till after a great number of experiments, and
that the adlion of zinc combined with the vegetable acids
ufed in cookery have been fully afeertained. The flowers
of zinc have been ufed as an antifpafmodic, and are an ar¬
ticle of our prelent materia medica ; but it does not clearly ’
appear what fuccefs may be expefted from them.
ZINNIA, in botany ; a genus of plants of the clafs
fyngenefta, order polygamia fupurjlua ; and in the natural
fyffem arranged under the 49th order, Compofita. The re¬
ceptacle is paleaceous, the pappus confifts of two ereft awns,
the calyx is ovato-cylindrical and imbricated; the rays con-
fift of five perfifting entire florets. There are twx> fpecies,
thzpaucifiora and multifora, neither of which is a native of
Britain.
ZiNZENDGRFF (Nicholas Lewis), count, was the
noted founder of the German religious fedt called Moraviantf
or Herrnhuters, or, as they pretend, the reftorer of that
focicty. From his own narrative it appears, that when
he came of age in 1721, his thoughts were wdiolly bent
on gathering together a little fociety of believers, a-
mong whom he might live, and who fhouid entirely em¬
ploy themfelves in exercifes of devotion under him.' He
accordingly purchafed an eftatc at Bertholfdorff in Upper
Lufatia, where being joined by fome followers, he gave the
curacy of the village to a man of his own complexion ; and
Bertholidorff foon became talked of for a new mode of piety.
One Chriftian David, a carpenter, brought a few' prolelytes
from Moraviai they began a new town about half a league
from the village, where count Zinzendorff fixed his refidence
among them, and where great numbers of Moravians flock¬
ed and eftabliihed themfelves under his protection : fo that
in 1732 their number amounted to 600.' An adjacent hill,
called the Huthberg, gave occafion to thefe coloniffs to call
their new fettlemeirt^Aw/^ des Herrn, and afterward Htrrn-
huth; which may be interpreted “ The guard or protec¬
tion of the Lord :” and from this the wdiole fedt have taken
their name. The count fpared neither pains nor art to pro¬
pagate his opinions ; he went himielf all over Europe, and
at leaft twice to America ; and fent his miflionaries through¬
out the wmrld. Count Zinzendorff died in 1760. Thofe
who vrilh to know more of the Moravian tenets may confult
Rimius's account of them, tranflated in 1753. Uni¬
ted Brethren.
ZISCA (John), a famous general of the forces of the
Huffites, in the 15th century, was a gentleman educated at
the court of Bohemia, in the reign of Wencefiaus. He
entered very young into the army, and after diftinguiffcing
himfelf on feveral occafions, loft an eye in a battle, whence
he was called Zi/ca or One-eyed, At length the Reforma¬
tion, begun by John Hufs, fpreadiog through almoft all
Bohemia, Zifca placed himfelf at the head of the Hufiltes,
and had foon under his command a body of 40,000 men.
W ith this army he gained feveral victories over thofe of the
Romifii religion, who carried on a kind of crufade againft
them, and built a town in an advantageous fituation, to
which he gave the name of Tabor; whence the Huffites
were
Z I It [ C17 ] Z O N
'^inzitCF
II
yjrchmt-
£er-fee.
we^e afterwards called 'Taborttrs. Zifca loft bis other eye
by an arrow at the fiege of the city of Rubi; but this did
not prevent his continuing the war, his fighting battles, and
gaining feveral great victories, among which was that of
i\ufig on the Elbe, in which 9000 of the enemy were left
efead on the field. The emperor Sigifmund, alarmed at his
progrefs, caufed very advantageous propofals to be offered
to him ; which he readily accepted, and fet out to meet
SJgifmund, but died on the road. He ordered that his body
fhould be left a prey to the birds and wild beads ; and that
a drum (hould be made of his fkin, being perfuaded that
the enemy would fly as foon as they heard the found. It
is added, that the Hufiites executed his will; and that the
news ol this order made fuch an imprefhon on the didur-
bed imaginations of the German Papifts, that in many battles
they a£hially fled at the beat of the drum with the utmoft
precipitation, leaving their bagpage and artillery behind them.
ZINZIBER, or Zingiber, in botany. See Amomum
and Ginger.
ZION, or Sion (anc. geog.), a very famous mountain,
{landing on the north fide of the city of Jerufalem, (Pfal,
xlvii. 2.); containing the upper city, built by King David;
and where flood the royal palace, (Jofephus). A part of
Zion, fituated at its extremity, was called of, or in the
city of David, (2 Chron. xxxii. 5.) Modern travellers, who
have been upon the fpot, fay, that Zion is the whole of the
mountain, on which Jerufalem (lands at this day, though not
to the extent in which it anciently (food on the fame moun¬
tain, as appears Pfal. ix. 12. ry. Ixv. 1, Ixxxvii. 2, 3. If.
Ixih I. It is fwelkd into feveral eminences or tops; as Moriah,
Acra Bezetha, and Zion a particular eminence of mount
and Zion Proper, &c. encompaffed on three fides, eaft, weft,
and fouth, with one continued very deep and fleep valley; by
means of which it was impregnable on thefe three fides, and
always attacked and taken, according to Jofephus, by the
enemy on the north fide, where mount Zion becomes level,
and the vales of Gihon and Jehofophat gradually lofe them-
felves. This deep and fteep valley inconte'libly conftitutcs
the compafs of the old Jerufalem on thofe three fides, as
plainly appears to any perfon who has been upon the fpot.
On that particular top of the mount called Zion ftood the
fortrefs of the Jebufites ; which being afterwards taken
by David, came to be called the City of Davids where he
had his royal refidence and kept his court. That part of
the valley which lay to the eaft was called jfehofophads, ha¬
ving mount Olivet lying beyond it; that to the fouth, Gr-
hinnon; and that to the weft, Gihon, from cognominal
mountains lying beyond them. At the weft end of Gihon,
without the city, ftood Golgotha or Calvary. 1 he pretend¬
ed Golgotha, (iiown at this day within the walls, is the
fpurious brat of interefted and fraudulent monks, (Kortc).
There is another Zion, the fame with Hermon.
Zion, or Sion Colitge. See London, n° 76.
ZIPH, or Siph (anc. geog.), the name of a wildernefs
or defert in the tribe of Judah, where David was a fugitive;
lying to the fouth-eaft of Hebron ; fo called from Ziph or
Siph, a twofold town in this tribe ; the one more to the
fouth towards Idumea, on the confines of Eleutheropolis,
(Jerome) ; the other eight miles to the eaft of Hebron, to¬
wards the Dead Sea, inclining fouthwards, becaufe near
mount Carmel. Here was a mountain, mentioned 1 Sam.
xxiii. 14. in which David abode, faid by Jerome to be rug¬
ged, difmal, and always overcaft. Ziphrm, Ziphxiy or Ziphen-
fes, the inhabitants of Ziph, ver. 19.
ZIRCHNITZER-see, otherwife called the Lale of
CzirknUz., in Carniola, is about erne German Or four Englifh
miles in length, and half as much in breadth, contains three
beautiful ifiands, and is encoropafled at fome diftance with
Vot. XVIII. Part II.
mountains and forefts. But what is moft remarkable is, Zirefrit-
that it dilappears generally once a-year, about St John’s or zu' eC
St James’s day, running off through holes or pits in the 2;ori,ac„
bottom ; fometimes it will difappear twice or thrice a-year, y—«.
and fometimes even in winter if the weather be dry. On
the other hand, it has been known to continue two or three
years without running off. Of the holes or pits, there are
five much larger than the reft, each of which fr.ccefiively,
when the water rtms off, Hands empty five days ; fo that
the whole lake becomes dry in 2 e. As foon as the begin¬
ning of the ebb is obferved, the fifhfng in the pits begins*
which belongs to five feigniories. The filh, which are carp,
tench, pike, eels, and two other forts called fh/eien and
ruten, are caught by laying nets over the holes. Mr Keyfler
tells us, that upon the ringing of a bell at Zirknitz, when
the waters begin to fall, the peafants, both men and women,
run to the pools quite naked, notwithftanding both the
clergy and magiftrates have ufed their utmoft endeavours to
fupprefs fo indecent a cuftom. When the water runs off
early in the year, in about three weeks after it is gone there
is good grafs on the bottom, which is mowed down, and
the bottom afterw ards ploughed and fowed with millet. If.
the water runs rot off early, nothing can be fowm ; and if
it returns foon. the feed is loft. With refpeft to its return,
the water at firft burfts out of fome pits on the fouth fide
wnth great violence, a little rain always falling at the fame
time ; but afterwards (when the rain fails heavier, and it
thunders at the fame time f@ loud as to (hake the earth) it
breaks out through all the apertures with great force, info-
much that the lake is filled in 1 8 or 24 hours, at which
time it is in a manner covered wnth wild fowd; fuch as geefe,
ducks, &c. After the millet-harveft, all manner of game is
hunted, caught, or killed in it. On the fouth fide are two
caverns, out of which, when it thunders, water iffues with
aftonifhing violence ; and if it happens in harveft, a great
many naked, black, and blind, but fat ducklings, are brought
up with the w'ater, which in 14 days receive their fight,
and are covered with feathers.
ZIZANIA, in botany ; a genus of plants or the’clafs mo-
ncecia, order hexandria ,• and in the natural fyftem arranged
underthe 4th order, Gramina. There is no male calyx ; P t
corolla is a bivalved, beardlefs glume, intermixed with tke
female flowers ; there is no female calyx, the corolla is an
univalved, cucullated, and ariftated glume ; the ftyle is bipar¬
tite, and theie is one feed covered with tire plaited corolla.
There are three fpcr.ies; the aquatica, the puluftris, and
terreftris, none of which are natives of Britain.
ZODIAC, in aftronomy, abroad circle, vvhofe middle is
the ecliptic, and its extremes two circles parallel thereto, at
fuch a diftance from it as t© bound or comprehend the ex-
curlions of the fun and planets, (fee Astronomy). It is a
curious enough faft, that the folar divifion of the Indian
zodiac is the fame in fubftance with that of the Greeks,
and yet that k has not been borrowed eithe from the
Greeks or the Arabians. The identity, or at lead linking
fimilartty, of the divifion, is cniverfalty known ; and M.
Montucla has endeavoured to prove, that the Bramins re¬
ceived it from the Arabs. His opinion, we believe, has been
very generally admitted ; but in the fecond volume of the
Aliatic Refearches, the accomplifhed prefident ‘Sir William
Jones has proved unanfwerably, that neither of thofe nations
borrowed that divifion from the other ; that it has been
known among the Hindoos from time immemorial ; and that
it was probably invented by the firft progenitors of that
race, wrhom he confiders as the moft ancient of mankind,
before their difperfion. The queftion is not of importance
fufficiently general, ftraitened as w^e are by the limits prefert-
bed us, for our entering into the difpute ; but wre think it
6 C our
2 0 0 [ 9-
Zonf’ °Ur duty mentl’on it; that our aftronomical readers, if
  ^ _ they think it worth their while, may have recourie to the
original writers for further imformation.
ZOi^GEA, in botany ; a genus of plants of the clafs
fyngenejia, and order polygamia frujlranea. T’he receptacle is
briftly ; the pappus fetaceous ; the corollula; of the radius
iigulated ; the calyx imbricated. There are two fpecies,
the capenfis and the leptaurea, neither of which are natives
of Britain.
ZONE, in geography and adronomy, a divifion of the
«.eriaqueous globe with refpetd to the different degrees of
he. t found in the different parts thereof. The 4ones aie
8 ] ZOO
denominated torrid, frigid, and temperate. The torrid zone
is a band, furrounding the terraqueous globe, and termina¬
ted by the two tropics. Its breadth is 46°. 58'. The equa.
tor, running through the middle of it, divides it into two
equal parts, each containing 23". 29'. The ancients imagin.
ed the torrid zone uninhabitable. The temperate zones are
contained between the tropics and the polar circles. The
breadth of each is 43. 2. The frigid zones are fegmenta
of the furface of the earth, terminated, one by the antar&Jc
and the other by the artic circle. The breadth of each is
46. 58.
Zone,
ZOOLOGY,
In order to abridge the fludy of zoology, many methods
of reducing animals toclaffes, genera, and fpecies, have been
invented : But as that of Linnaeus is undoubtedly the belt,
the moft extenfrve, and the molt generally adopted, we fhall
give a brief account of it.
^ Linnaeus divides the whole animal kingdom into fix claffes.
I he characters of thele fix claifes are taken from the inter¬
nal Itrudture of animals, in the following manner:
CtAss I, MAMMALIA, includes all animals that
fuckle their young. The characters of this clafs
are thefe :—rI he heart has two ventricles and two
auricles ; the blood is red and warm ; and the ani¬
mals belonging to it are viviparous.
Class II. AY Lb, cr Birds, i he characters are
the fame with thofe of Clafs I. excepting that the
animals belonging to it are oviparous. See Bird,
and Ornithology.
Class III. AMPHIBIA, or Amphibious Ani¬
mals. 1 he heart has but one ventricle and one au¬
ric/e ; the blood is red and cold ; and the animals
belonging to this clafs have the command of their
hangs^ fo that the intervals between infpiration and
expiration are in fame meafure voluntary. See Am¬
phibious.
Class 1Yt. PISCES, or Fishes. The heart has
the fame ftructure, and the blood the fame qualities,
with thole of the slmpbibia; but the animals belong¬
ing to this clafs are eaiily diflinguifhed from the
Amphibia, by having no fuch voluntary command
of their lungs, and by having external branchht or
gills. See Fish, and Ichthyology.
6lass V. INSECTA, or Insects. The heart has
one ventncie, but no auricle; the blood is cold and
white ; and the animals are furnifhed with antennee
or jet Ur s. See Insect.
Class Vi. YTERMES, or Worms. The charac¬
ters are the. fame with thofe of Clafs V. only the
animals have no antennas,, and are furnifhed with
itntacula.
1 he Firj Clafs, MAMMALIA, is fubdivided into
feven Orders ; the characters of which are taken from the
iiumber, ftructure, and fituation of the Teeth.
Order i,. rIhe Primates have four incifores, or
fore-teeth, in each jaw, and one dog-tooth N. B.
By one dog-tooth, Linnaeus means one on each fide
of the fore-teeth in both jaws.—This order includes
four genera, viz. Homo, Simla, Lemur, Yefpeitiiio.
Order II. The Bruta have wo fore-teeth in either Mammal's
jaw. This order includes feven genera, viz. Rhino- Av«.
ceros, Elephas, Trichechus, Bradypus, Myrmeco-
phaga, Mayis, Dafypus.
Order III. the Ferze have, for the moft part, fix
conical fore-teeth in each jaw. This order includes
jo genera, viz.. Phoca, Cam's, Ftlisj Viverra, Mu-
ftela, Urfus, Didelphis, Talpa, Sorex, Prinaceus,
Order IV. The Glires have two fore teeth in
each jaw, and no dog-teeth.— This order includes 10
genera, wan-Hyftrix, Lepus, Caftor, Mus, Sciurus,
Myoxus, Cavia, Arotomys, Dypus, Hyrox.
Order V. The Pecora, have no fore-teeth in the up¬
per jaw, but 6 or 8 in the under-jaw,—This order
includes 8 genera, viz. Camelus, Mofchus, Giraffa,
Cervus, Antilope, Capra, Ovis, I3es.
Order VI. 1 he Bellum, have oltufe fore teeth in
each jaw.—This order includes 4 genera, viz. Equ-
us Hippopotamus, Sus, Tapir.
Order VII. The Cetf, or whale hind, have no
uniform character in their teeth, being veiy diffe¬
rent ia the different genera; but are fufficiently
diftinguifhed from the other orders of Mammalia, by
living in the ocean, having peCloial fins, and a fiftu-
la or fpiraculum upon the head.—This order in¬
cludes 4 genera; v z. Monodon, Balesna, Phyfeter,
Delphinus. See Cetaceous.
The generic charaffers of the Mammalia are, like thofe of
the orders, almoft entirely taken from .the Teeth, except¬
ing the Vefpertilio, which, befides the character of the
order derived fiom the teeth, has this farther mark, that
there is a merr.brance attached to the feet and Bides, by
means of which the creature is enabled to fly :—the Hyftrix,
whofe body is covered with fliarp fpines:—and the whole
order of Pecora, whofe genera, befides the chamders taken
from the teeth, are diftinguifhed into thofe which have horns,
thofe which have no horns, and by peculiarities in the horns
themfelves.
The jptc jic characters are very various, being taken from
any part of the body which pofTeffes a peculiar uniform
mark of diffindion. As examples of thefe charaders are
to be found under the proper name of each genus, it is
unneceffary to fay any thing further concerning thorn in
this place.
The Second Clafs, AVES, is fubdivided into fix Orders;.
the charaders of which are taken chief! 51 from the ftrudure
of the bill.
Order I. The Accipitres, have a hooked bill-,
the fuperior mandibule, near the bafe, being extended
on each fide beyond the inferior j and in fome it i*
armed
Aves>
Amphibia.
Z O O L
armed with teeth.—This order includes four fpecies,
•viz.. Vultur, Falco, Strix, Lanius.
Ojldeb. II. 1'he Pic^e, have a convex, comprefled
bill, refembling a knife.—This order contains 23
genera, viz. Trochilus, Certhia, Upupa, Glaucoois,
jhiphaga, Sitta, Oriolus, Coracias, Gracula, Corvus,
Paradifea, Ratnphallos, T rogon, Pfittacus, Croto-
phaga, Picus, Yunx, Cuculus, Bucco, Boceros, Al-
cedo, Merops, Tod us,
rder III. The Anseres, have a fmooth eill,
broadeft at the point, covered with a fmooth fkin,
and furnifiied with teeth : The tongue is fiefhy ; and
the toes are palmated or webbed—This order in¬
cludes 13 genera, viz. Anas, Mergus, Phaeton, Plo-
tus, Rhyncops, Diomedea, Aptenodyta, Aka, Pro-
cellaria, Pelecanus, Larus, Sterna, Colymbus.
Order IV. The GrAlx.je, have a fo mewl tat cylin¬
drical bill : The tail is fhort, and the thighs are
naked. This order contains 2o gerera, viz. Phoe-
nicopterus, Platalea, Palamedea, Mydteria, Tanta¬
lus, Ardea, Corrira, Rccurviroftra, Scolopax, Trin-
ga, Fulica, Parra, Rallus, Vaginalis, Pfophia, Can-
croma, Scopus, Glareola, Flaematopus, Charadrius.
o rder V. The Gallinas, have a convex bill ; the
fupeiior irandibule is vaulted over the inferior : The
nojirih are half covered with a convex cartilaginous
membrane ; and the feet are divided, but connedled,
at the inmoft joint.—This order contains 10 gene¬
ra, viz. Otis, Struthio, Didus, Pavo, Meleagris, Pe¬
nelope, Crax, Phafianus, Numida, Tetrao.
O rder VI. The Passeres, have a conical fharp-
pointed bill; and vhv nojlrih are oval, wide, and
naked.—This order contains 17 genera, viz. Loxia,
Colins, Fringilla, Phytotoma, Emberiza, Caprimul-
gus, Hirundo, Pipra, Turdus, Ampelis, Tanagra,
Mucicapa, Parus, Motacilla, Alauda, Sturnus, Co-
lumba.
The generic characters of this clafs are taken from pecu¬
liarities in the bill, the nojlrih, the tongue, the feet, the fea¬
thers, the face, the figure of the loiby, &c.
The characters which ferve to diflinguifh the fpecies are
very various : For example, the colour of the particular
feathers or parts of feathers ; crefls of feathers on the head,
difpofed in different manners; the colour of the cere or
•wax ; the colour of the feet; the fliape and length of the
tail; the number, fituation, &c. of the toes ; the colour and
figure of the bill, See.
The ThirJ Clafs, AMPHIBIA, is divided into two
Orders.
Order I. The Reptiles, have four feet, and breath
by the mouth.—This order contains four genera,
viz. Teftudo, Draco, Lacerta, Rana.
Order II. The Serpentes, have no legs, and breath
by the mouth.—This order contains fix genera, viz.
Crotalus, Boa, Coluber, Anguis, Amphifbasna, Cce-
cilia.
. The generic charaders of this clafs are taken from the
general figure of the body; from their having tails or no
tails ; being covered with a Jbeil; having teeth or no teeth,
in the mouth ; being furnifhed with lungs ; having covered or
naked bodies ; from the number, fituation, and figure of the
'feuta and fca/es ; from the number and fituation of the fpi-
racula ; from the lituation of the mouth, &c.
The fpecific charadfers are fo very various, that it would
be fuperfluous to enumerate them.
The fourth Clafs, PISCES, is fubdivided into fix Or-
o G Y.
939
bers, the characters of which are taken from the fituation PTes,
of the belly fins. , 1
Order I. The Apodes, have no belly-fins.—This
order contains eight genera, viz. Mursena, Gymno-
tus, Trichiurus, Anaiehichas, Ammodytes, Ophi-
dium, Stromateus, Xiphias, Sternoptyx, Leptoce-
phalus.
Order II. The JuCular.es, have the bellyfns pla¬
ced before the petdoml fns.~ This order includes
five genera, viz. Gallionymus, Uranoicopus, Tra-
chinus, Gadus, Bknnius, Kurtus.
Order III. The Thoractci, have the belly-fins
placed under the petlwal fns. --This order compre¬
hends 19 genera, viz. Ctpola, Echeneis, Coryphse-
na, Gobius, Cottus, Scorphsena, Zeus, Pleuronec-
tes/ Chcetodon, Spams, Scarus, Labrus, Scisna,
Perea, Gafterofteus, Scomber, Ctntrogafter, Mullus,
Trigla.
Order IV. The Abdominales, have the belly-fins
placed behind the pectoral fins.— This order contains
16 genera, viz. Cobitis, Amia, Silurus, Teuthis,
Loricaria, Salmo, f iftularia, Eiox, Elops, Argen¬
tina, Atherina, Mugil, Exocaetus, Polynernus, Clu-
pea, Cyprinus.
Order V. The Branchiostegi, have the gills def-
titute of bony rays.-— This order contains 10 sjene-
ra, viz. Mormyius, Oftracion, Fetrodon, Diodon,
Syngnathus, Pegafus, Centriicus, Bahftes, Cyclopte-
rus, Lophius
Order V^I. The Chondropterygii, have cartila¬
ginous gills.—This order contains five genera, viz.
Acipenfer, Chimsera, Squalus, Raia, Petromyzon.
The generic characters of this clafs are taken from pecu¬
liarities in the head, the mouth, the teeth, the noftrih, the
rays in the membrane of the gills, the eyes, the general figure
of the body, the figure of the tail, the fituation ©f the fpira-
cula. See.
The fpecific chara&ers are taken from peculiarities in all
the parts above enumerated, and many others.
See further the articles Fish and Ichtbvology.
The Fifth Clafs, INSECTA, is fubdivided into feven
Orders, the characters of which are taken from the wings.
See the article Insect.
Order I. The Coleoptera, have four •wings, the
two funerior ones being cruftaceous, and furnifhed
with a firelight future.—This order comprehends 47
genera, viz. Scarabasus, Lucanus, Dermeftes, Mely-
ris, Byrrhus, Silpha, fritoma, Hydrophilus, Hifter,
Paufus, Boftrichus, Anthrenus, Nitidula, Coccinella,
Curculio, Brentus, Attelabus, Erodius, Staphylinus,
Scaurus, Zygia, Meloe, Tenebrio, Cafftda, Opa-
trum, Mordella, Chryfomela, Horia, Apalus, Man-
ticora, Pimelia, Gyrinus, Cucujus, Cryptocephalus,
Bruchus. Ptinus, Flifpa, Bupreftis, Necydalis, Lam-
pyris, Cantharis, Notoxus, Elater, Calopus, Aluiv
mis, Carabus, Lytta, Serrdpalpus, Cerarnbyx, Lep-
tura, Rhinomacer, Zonitis, Cicindela, Dyticus, For-
ficula.
Order II. The Hemiptera, have four wings, the
two fuperior ones being femicruflaceous, and incum¬
bent, i. e. the interior edges lie above one another.— ,,
This order includes 14 genera, viz. Blatta, Pneu-
mora. Mantis, Gryllus, Fulgora, Cicada, Notonec-
ta, Nepa, Cimex, Macrocephalus, Aphis, Chermes,
Coccus, Thrios.
6C z 0?.«
94° 2 O O L
Vci^ Order HI. The Lepidoptera, have four -wings,
all of them imbncatetl with /en/ej'.—This order con¬
tains three genera, niz, Papilio, Sphinx, Phaltena.
Order IV. 1. he Neuroptera, have four -winys, in¬
terwoven with veins, like a piece of network, and no
fling m ihc onus. kliis order includes feven genera,
cvt%- lobelia, Ephemera, Hemerobius, Myrmelion,
Phryganea, Panorpa, Rophidia.
Order V. ^ The Hymenoptera, have the Tame cha¬
racters with the former, only the anus is armed with
ajhng. But this mark is peculiar to the females and
neuters ; for the males have no This order
comprehends 15 genera, viz. Cynips, Tentredo, Si-
rex, Ichneumon, Sphex, Scolia, Thynnus, Leucof-
pis, I ipliia, Ohalcis, Chryfis, Veipa, Apis, F01 mi¬
ca, Mutilla.
order VI. I he Diptep.a, have two wings, and two
ejavated haileres or balances behind each wing 
•This order contains 1 2 genera, vi%. Diopfis, TipU-
la, Mufca, Tabanos, Empis,. Conops, Oeftrus, Afi-
lus, Stomoxys, Culex, Bombylius, Hippobofca.
Order VII. The Aptera, have no wings.—This
order contains 15 fpecies, viz. Lepifma, Podura,
Termes, Pediculus, Pulcx, Acams, Hydrachna, A-
ranea, Pfialangium, Scorpio, Cancer, Monoculus,
Onifcas, Scolopendra, Julus. See further the ar¬
ticles Entomology and Insect.
Tne Sixth Clajs, VERMES, is divided into five Orders.
Order I. The Intestina, are the moil Junple ani¬
mals, being perfectly noked, and without limbs of any
kind. —1 his order contains 21 genera, viz. Afcaris,
Tnchocephalus, Uncinaria, Tilaria, Scolex, Ligula,
Eingu nula, Strongylus, i-chinochynchus, I'iseruca,
Cucullanus, CaryophyllcEiis, Fafciola, I aema,' Puna,
Myxine, Oordius, klirudo, Lumbncus, Sipunculus.
Planaria.
Order II. The Mollusc a, are likewife fimple na-
O G Y.
ked animals, without any Jhell j but they are brachU sVerrres.
ated, or furnifhed with a kind of limbs.-' 'This order " 
comprehends 31 genera, viz A&inia, Clava, Mam-
mana, Pedicellaria, Afcidia, Salpa, Dagyfa, Ptero
trachea, Limax; Aplyiia, Doris, Tethia, liolothu-
ria, I erebella, inton, Sepia, Clio, Lobana, I^er-
naea, Scyllaea, Glaucus, Aphrodita, Amphitrite,
Spio, Nereis, Nais, Pliyffophora, Medufa, Lucer-
naria, Afterias, Echinus.
Order III. The Pestacea, have the fame charac-
teis with thofe of Order II but are covered witK
a/&e//.—This order includes 36 genera,. W. Chiton,
Lepas, Pholas, My a, Solen, 1 elhna, Cardium, Mac-
tra, Donax, Venus, Spondylus, Chama, Area, 01-
trea, Anomia, Mytfius, Pinna, Argonauta, Nauti¬
lus, Conus, Cyprsea, Bulla, Voluta, Buccinum,
Strombus, Murex, Proehus, Turbo, Helix, Nerita,
ri aliotis, Patella, Dentaiium, Serpula, Teredo, Sa-
bella.
Order IV. The Zoophyta, are compound animals?
iuniifhed wirK a kind oiflowers, and having a vege¬
tating root and jiem-—Phis order contains 15 gene¬
ra, viz. Tubipora, Madrepora, Milkpora, Ceilepo-
ra, Ills, .Mntipathes, Gorgoma, Alcyonium, Spon-
gia, 11 ultra, I ubulana, Corralina, Sertularia, Pen-
natula, Hydra. See Amu/ti-Flower.
Order Phe Ineusoria, coniiiis of very fmall
Jim pie animals.— This order contains 15 genera, viz*
Brachionus, Vorticeda, 1 nciioda, Cercana, Eeuco-
pera, Gonium, Colpoda, Paramecium, Cyclidium,
Buriaria, Vibrio, Euchdis, Bacillaria, Voivox, Mo-
r.as.
For more particular information concerning the fevera!
branches and fubjedts of zoology, the reader may confult
the various articles above referred to, and he will find moil
of the genera deferibed in their order in the alphabet.
Z O R
Zoophile ZOOPHYTz, in natural hiftory, the ^.th order of the
I! clafs of Vermes. See Zoology.
Z.iroafhr ZOOTOMY, the art of differing animals or living crea-
~ tures, being the lame with anatomy. See Anatomy, and
Compara t i i'£ Anatomy.
ZORILEE, in zoology, a fpecies of weefel, having the
back and fide# marked with (hurt itripes of black and white,
the laft tinged with yellow the tail long and bufhy, partly
white and partly black; the legs and belly black. This
animal inhabits Peru, and other parts of South America 1
its peftilential vapour overcomes even th“ panther of Ame¬
rica, and ftupenes that foimidabk enemy.
ZOROAS 1 ER, or Zerdusht, a celebrated ancient
philofopher, faid to have been the reformer or the founder
of the religion of the magi. It is wholly uncertain to how
many eminent men the name of Zoroader belonged. Some
have maintained that there was but one Zoroaiter, and that
he .was a ieiiian ; others have faid that there were fix
eminent founders of phdofophy of this name. Ham the
fon of Noah, Moles, Oihis, Mithras, and others, both gods
and men, have by different writers been affeited to have
been the fame with Zoroaiter. Many different opinions
have alfo been advanced concerning the time in which he
flourifhed. Ariftotle and Pliny hx his date at fo remote a
period as 6coo years before the death of Plato. Accord¬
ing to Laeitius, he flouriihed 600 years before the Trojan
z o s
war; according to Suidas, 500. If, in the midft of fo
much uncertainty, any thing can be advanced with the .ap¬
pearance of probability, it Items to be this ; , that there was
a Zoroafter, a Perio-Median, who flourifhed about the time
of Darius Hyitaipes ; and that beiides him there was ano¬
ther Zoroafter, who lived in. a much more remote period
among the Babylonians, and taught them aftronomy The
Greek’Rnd Arabian writers are agreed concernm ;• the cx-
iftence of tne 1 eriian Zoioailer ; and the ancients unani-
raoufly aferibe to a philofopher, whom they call Zoroajler,
tne origin of the Chaldean aftronomy, which is certsmiy of
much earlier date than the time of Hyftafpes : it leans,
therefore, neceffkry to fuppofe a Chaldean Z loalier diitindt
from the Perfian. Concerning this Zoroafter, however,
nothing more is known, than that he flourifhed towards the
beginning of the Babylonifh empire, and was the father
of the Chaldean aftrology and magic. All the writings
that have been afetibed to Zoroaiter are unqueftionabiy Ipu-
rious
Ziiroafle*,
Z viler a.
ZQSTERA, in botany ; a genus of plants of the clais
gynandna, order polyandries ; and in the natural ivflem ar¬
ranged under the lecond order, Piper.tr. The fpadix is li¬
near, and fertile only on one lide ; there is no calyx nor
corolla; the ftamma are alternate; the feeds folitary and
alternate. I here are two fpecies, the marina and oceamca j
neither of which is a native oi Britain.
ZO-
Z U I t 94T ] Z U R
Zofi'r.t* ZOSJMUS, an ancient hiitorian who lived at the end of
' . II the fourth and be;rinning of the fifth centuries. There are
?JI "*, fix books of his hiflory extant ; in the firft of which he
runs over the Roman affairs in a very foccindt manner from
Auguihis to Diocldian ; the other five are written more
diffui'ely. Zotimus was a zealous Pagan ; whence we find
him frequently inveighing with great bitternefs againft the
Chriftian princeSj.patticularly againfl Conilantine the Great,
and the elder 1 heodofius. His hiflory has been publifhed
with the Latin vertion of Leunclavius at Frankfort, 1590,
with the other minor hiilorians of Rome, in folio; and at
Oxford in 8vo, 1679.
ZUG, a canton of Switzerland, bounded on the eafl and
noith by that of Zurich, on the fouth by Schweiz and Lu-
cern, and on the weft by the canton of Lucern and the Freye-
Amt or Free Provinces. It is not above 12 miles either
way ; but very populous and fruitful, yielding wine, wheat,
chefnuts, and other fruits, in its vales, and excellent pafture
on its mountains. The inhabitants of this canton are
ftaunch Roman Catholics. It lies in the diocefe of Con-
fiance, and its government is democratical. There are two
lakes in it abounding in fifh, particularly lanre carps, oikes,
and a fpecies of trouts called rote/s ; as well as feveral woods
full of game. Zug, which gives name to it, and is its ca¬
pital, ftands on the eaft fide of a lake of the fame name,
about feven miles long, and is a itrong neat town, contain-
lug a priory and two convents.
ZUINGPLIUS (Ulricus), an able and tealous reformer,
who laid the foundation of a reparation from Rome in Swit-
aerland, at the fame time that Luther did the like in Saxo¬
ny, was born at Wildehaufen in 1487. While he officiated
as preacher at Zurich, a Francifcan fent by Leo X.’came
to publifh indulgences there ; againft which Zuinglius, after
the example of Luther, declaimed powerfully. In the
ceurfe of this oppofttion he ftarted a new doctrine, which
he called Evangelical 'Truth; and from the beginning of
1519 to 1523, he preached not only againft indulgences,
but againft other articles of the Romifh church. But
though Zuinglius made no left progrefs than Luther, he
yet conducted himfelf with more moderation and nrudence;
and wifhing to have the concurrence of the civil powers,
procured two aftemblies to be called at Zurich: by the ftrft,
he was authorifed to proceed as he had begun ; and by the
fecond, the outward worfhip and ceremonies of the church
©i Rome were abolifhed. During thefe tranfaftions, Zuin
glius publifhed feveral books in defence of his doff ines; but
treating of the euchariit, and preferihing a form of cele¬
brating the Lord’s .Supper different from Luther, he was
involved in violent difputes with the reft of his reforming
brethren. Interpreting the words hoc ejl corpus weum. by.
hoc Jignifkat corpus rneutn, he maintained, that the bo y and
blood of Chrift are not really prefent in the eucharift ; and
that the bread and wine are nothing more than external
Jigns or fymbols, deligned to excite in the minds of Chrifti-
ans the remembrance of the fufferings of the Divine. Savi¬
our, and of the benefits which arife from them. This
opinion, which was afterwards fo plaufibly iimported by
the celebrated Hoacdey ((ee or the kord \, gave of¬
fence to Calvin as well as to Luther ; but the doctrines of
Zuinglius, which were mo ft obnoxious, to that eminent re¬
former, uere thole which deny , tedion and reprobation, and
make the church as a focieiy wholly dependent on the ftate.
Refpedting the divine dlcrees, the opinion of Zujhgluis
and his followers-differed very little trom that of the Pe la-
cian; : for he maintained that heaven is-open to all who
Live according to the dictates of right reaioti , and he Lems
to have denied the doctrine of original uu. Initcad cle-
chring with Calvin, that the church is a feparate indepen¬
dent body, veiled with the right of legiflation for itieif,
Zuinglius aferibed to the civil ma iftrate an abfolute and
unbounded power in religious matters, allowing at the fame
time a certain fubordmaiion among the mini Iters of the
church. This was abundantly agreeable to the magiil ates
of Zurich ; but the reft of the Swiis cantons difa'lowing of
their proceedings, other affemblies were called, and things
tending to tumult, both hdes had recourfe to arms ; when
Zuinglius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a foldier,
in r r3 j. His works amount to four voft folio.
ZURICH, a canton of Switzerland, bounded to the
north by Swabia and the canton of Schaffhauien ; to the
fouth by the town and territory of Rapperichweil and the
cantons of Switz. and Zug ; to the eaft by the Thmgauj,
Toggenburg, and Utznach'; and to the weft by the tree
bailiages and county of Baden. It is about 6* miles from
north to fouth, and 48 from eaft to weft. With reipedt to
its face, air, and foil, it is faid to be an epitome of all .Swit¬
zerland, as containing in it hills, valleys, plains, corn-
lands, vineyards, lakes, and rivers. Their wines have a
taitneis at firft, but the longer they are kept the more
agreeable they are. The other produces are excellent fruits,
corn, patlure, fine clay, chalk, fevtral coloured earths, pit-
coal, turf, and fulphur. There are alfo iome mineral fpnngs.
in the canton ; and of the lakes, that of Zurich is the molt
conliderable. The reformation was introduced here by
Zuinglius in the year 1517. This canton is the firft ia
rank, and inferior only to that of Bern in extent, powers,
and wealth; in conlequence of which, its representatives
prefide in the general diets, v/hen held in any place belong¬
ing in common to the cantons ; and the afiaits relating to
the whole confederacy are tranfafted in its offices. Its
quota, for the ctefenee of the feveral members of the confe¬
deracy, is 1400 men. Of one of the two armies raifed oa
thele occafions, it nominates one of the commanders in
chief, as Lucern does the other. Its revenue is faid to be
about (50,000 crowns a-year ; of which, one year with
another, two-thirds are expended in the charges of govern¬
ment, and the. reft laid up in the treafury. It can bring
50,000 fighting men into the field at a very fhort warning.
Zurich, the capital of a canton of the fame name in
Switzeiland, Hands in a pleaiant country, near where the
river Aa iffuesffiorn-the lake that takes its name from the
town, 23 miles trom Schaffhauien, and 114 from Geneva.
After having been ruined by Attila the Hun, it is laid to
have been reltored by Thuricus, ion or Theodoric king of
the Goths, horn whom it took the name of Thuricum, cor¬
rupted afterwards into that of Zurich. It is fortified in the
modern way, and has wide, ditches, faced with free ftone.
There are live arfenals in it, well ftored with arms and ar¬
tillery ; an academy or college,, having 15 profeffors ; a mu-
feu 1, or chamber of rarities ; a ftatcly town home, the pil¬
lars in the front of which are .of black marble, flieaked
with white ; and a town library. The fovereignty and ad-
miniftration of all affairs are lodged in the greater and leffer
council, out of which are choien the city-officers, as the
councils are out cf the 13 companies.of. burghers. There
are feveral other councils or colleges, each ot which has its
particular department. . Here are a great variety of filk,
woollen, linen, cotton, and other manufafhurcs ; this being
the place of the greateft trade..in ail Switzerland. The
town is well {applied with provifions by and from its lake.
The llreets are neat, and houfes weft built, but not magni¬
ficent. In the town-library are ieveral letters to BuUmger
from la.iy Jane Gray daughter to the duke of Suffolk. . In
one of .the arieuals is the figure of William Tell, dreffed and
armed
2 U R L 94^ 1 2 TJ R
Zurich, armed in the ancient Swifs manner, with the crofs-bow
—y~*—' whence he (hot the arrow that flruck the apple off his
chikl’s head.
Both men and women are fo fond of mufic, that there
are few of them that cannot play on fome inftrument. If
a burgher goes out of town, or a peafant enters it, without
a fword, they are liable to be fined. No perfons, whatever
their rank or office may be, are exempted from the fump-
tuary laws. The burgomafters, who are the fame as the
advoyers at Bern, have the title of excellence. The hofpi-
tals here are very neat and well endowed ; but they do not
afTeft the ridiculous vanity of lodging the poor in palaces.
Not'only in this town and canton, and other parts of Swit¬
zerland, but alfo among the Grifons, the miniilers all preach
covered. The country about the to wn is very pleafant and
fruitful; for both which it is not a little indebted to the
lake, that extends 2.4 miles in length, and about two or
three in breadth. The water is of a green colour, fuppo-
fed to be owing to the melted fnow that falls into it from
the adjacent mountains. That part of it next Zurich is
called the Lower Lake, and tire other end the Upper.
The cathedral, or great church here, is collegiate. The
preltnt city is faid to owe its origin to a nunnery, founded
by the emperor Lewis I. near where the ancient Tigurum
flood. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 47. 20.
What may be reckoned one of the greatefl enriofities of
Zurich is the pump invented and creeled here by IT. An¬
dreas Wirtz, ?. tinplate worker of this place. 'The inven¬
tion fhows him to be a perfbn of very uncommon mechani¬
cal knowledge and fagacity. As it Is a machine which ope¬
rates on a principle widely different from all other hydiau-
lic machines, and is really excellent in its kind, we prefume
that our readers will not be ditpleafed with fonu account
of it, although it be rather out of place here, and fhould
have appeared in the article Water-IVqrks.
PIDXLIf. Fig. 16. is a fketcb of the fetlion of the machine, as it
was firft eredted by Wirtz at a dye houfe in Limhiat, in the
fuburbs or vicinity of Zurich. It con lifts of a hollow cy¬
linder, like a very large grindftone, turning on a horizontal
axis, and partly plunged in a ciilein of water. The axis is
hollow at one end, and communicates with a perpendicular
pipe CBZ', part of which is hid by the cylinder. This
cylinder ©r drum is formed into a fpiral canal by a plate
coiled up within it like the main fpring of a watch in its
box; only the fpires are at a difhoce from each other, fo
as to form a conduit for the water of uniform width. This
fpiral partition is well joined to the two ends of the cylin¬
der, and no water tfcapes between them. The outermoft
turn of the fpiral begins to widen about ]ths of a circum¬
ference from the end, and this gradual enlargement conti¬
nues from to 8 nearly a te mi circle : this part may be
called the Horn. It then widens fuddenly, forming a
Scoop or (hovel S3'. rl he cylinder is fupported fo as to
dip feveral inches into the water, whofe furface is rcpiefent-
ed by VV'.
When this cylinder is turned round its axis in the direc¬
tion ABEO, as expreffed by the two darts, the (coop SS'
dips at V', and takes up a certain quantity of water before
it emerges again at V. This quantity is fufficiect to fill the
taper part SQ^ which we have called the Horn ; and this is
nearly equal in capacity to the outermoft uniform fpiral
round.
After the fcoop has emerged, the water pafles along the
fpiral by the motion of it round the axis, and drives the air
before it into the rifi.ng-pipe, where it efcapes.—In the mean
time, air comes in at the mouth of the fcoop ; and when the
fcoop again dips into the water, it again takes in fome.
Thus there is now a part filled with water and a part fil¬
led with air. Continuing this motion, we (hall receive a Zurich,
fecond round of water and another of air. The water in ^—w—
any turn of the fpiral will have its two ends on a level; and
the air between the fucceffive columns of water will be in
its natural ftace ; for fince the paftage into the rifm j pipe
or Main is open, there is nothing to force the water and
air into any other pofition. But lince the fpires gradually
diminifh in their length, it is plain that the column of water
will gradually occupy more and more of the circumference
of each. At laft it will occupy a complete turn of fome
fpiral that is near the centre ; and when fent farther in,
by the continuance of the motion, fome of it will run back
over the top of the fucceeding fpiral. Thus it will run
over at K 4 into the right hand fide of the third fpiral.
d herefore it will pufti the water of this fpire backwards,
and raite its other end, fo that it alfo will run over back¬
wards before the next turn be completed. And this change
of difpoiition will at laft reach the firft or outermoft fpiral,
and fome water will run over into the horn and fcoop, and
finally into the cittern.
But as foon as water gets into the rifing pipe, and riles
a li'.tle in it, it flops the efcape of the air when the next
fcoop of water is taken in. Here are now two columns of
water adding again ft each other by hydroftatic preffiue and
the intervening column of air. They muft comprets the
air between them, and the water and air columns will now
be unequal. This will have a general tendency to keep ,
the whole waku ack, and caufe it to be higher on the left
or riling fide of each fpire than on the right defeending
fide. The excels of height will be juft fitch as produces
the compreflion of the air between that and the preceding
column of water. This will go on increaling as the wa¬
ter mounts in the riling-pipe ; for the air next to the rifrng-
pipe is compreffed at its inner end with the weight of the
whole column in the main. It muft be as much comprefted
at its outer end. This muft be done by the water column
without it; and this column exerts this prefture partly by
reafon that i/u outer end is higher than its inner end, and
partly by the tranfeniffioo of the prefture on its outer end
by air, which is fimilarly comprefled from without. And
thus it will happen that each column of water, being high¬
er at its outer than at its inner end, comprefies the air on
the water-column beyond or within it, which tranfinits this
preffure to the air beyond it, adding to it the p re flu re
arifing from its own want of level at the ends. Therefore
the greateft compreffion, viz. that of the air next the main,
is produced by the fvvr of ail the tranfru tted pnjfaret; and
thefe are the him of all the differences between the eleva¬
tions of the inner ends of the water columns above their outer
ends: and the height to which the water will rife in the
main will be juft equal to this fum.
Draw the horizontal lines K'K r, K'K 2, K'K 3, &c. and
n> n, rn «, n &c. Suppofe the left hand fpaces to be filled
with water, and the right hand fpaces to be filled with air.
There is a certain gradation of cwmpreffion which will keet?
things in this pofition. The fpaces evidently deereafe int
arithmetical progreffion ; fo do the hydroftatic heights and
preffures of the water columns, if therefore the air be
denfe in the fame progreffion, all will be in hydroftatical
equilibrium. Now this is evidently producible by the mere
motion of the machine ; for fince the denfity and com¬
preffion in each air column is fuppofed inverfely as the bulk
of the column, the abfolute quantity of air is the fame in all;
therefore the column firft taken in will pafs gradually in¬
wards, and the increafing compreflion will caufe it to occu¬
py precifely the whole right hand fide of every fpite. The
gradual diminution of the water columns will be produced
during the motion by the water running over backwards at
the
Z U R [
Zurich, the top, from fpire to fplre, and at laft coming out by the
fcoop.
It is evident that this difpofition of the air and water
will raife the water to the greatefl height, becaufe the hy-
droftatic height of each water column is the greateft pofilble,
viz. the diameter of the fpire. This difpolkion may be
obtained in the following manner : Take CL to CB as the
denilty of the external air to its denfity in the laft column
next the rifing-pipe or main; that is, make CL to CB as 33
feet (the height of the column of water which balances the
atmofphere), to the fum of 33 feet and the height of the
riihig'pipe. Then divide into fuch a number of turns,
that the fum of their diameters ihall be equal to the height
of the main ; then firing a pipe ftiaight from L to the cen¬
tre C. The reafon of all this is very evident.
But when the main is very high, this contlru&ion will
require a very great diameter of the drum, or many turns of a
very narrow pipe. In fuch cafes it will he much better to
make the fpiral in the form of a cerk-fcrew, as in fig. jy.
inftead of this flat form like a watch-fpring. The pipe
which forms the fpiral may be lapped round the fru'tum of
a cone, whofe greateft diameter is to the leafl ( which is
next to the rifing pipe) in the fame proportion that we
affigned to CB and CL. By this conilrudiion the water
will iland in every round fo as to have its upper and lower
furfacea tangents to the top and bottom of the fpiral, and
the water columns will occupy the whole afeending fide
of the machine, while the air occupies the defeending fide.
This form is vaflly preferable to the fiat : it will allow
us to employ many turns of a large pipe, and therefore pro¬
duce a great elevation of a large quantity of water.
The fame thing will be ftill better done by lapping the
pipe on a cylinder, and making it taper to the end, in fuch
a proportion that the contents of each round may be the
fame as when it is lapped round the cone- It will raife the
water to a greater height (but with an increafe of the’ im¬
pelling power) by the fame number of turns, becaufe the
vertical or prcflag height of each column is greater.
Nay, the fame thing may be done in. a more iimple man¬
ner, by lapping a pipe of uniform bore round a cylinder.
But this will require more turns, becaufe the water columns
will have lefs differences between the heights of their two
ends. It requires a very minute inveftigation to fhow the
progrefs of the columns of air and water in this conflruflion,
and the various changes of their arrangement,, before one is
attained which will continue during the working of the
machine.
We have chofen for the defeription of the machine that
eoiifii ubtion which made its principle and manner of work¬
ing moil evident, namely, which contained the fame material
quantity of air in each turn of the fpirsd, more and more
co npreffed as it approaches- to the rifing-pipe. We fhould
otherwife hare been obliged to iuveftigate in great detail
the gradual progrefs of the water, and the frequent changes
of its arrangement, before we could fee that one arrange¬
ment would be produced which would remain conflant du¬
ring the working of the machine. But this is not the bed
conltru&ion. We fee that, in order to raife water to the
height of a column of 34 feet, which balances the atmo¬
fphere, the air in the laft fpire is eompreffed into half its
bulk ; and the quantity of water delivered into the main at
each turn is but half of what was received into the firft
fpire, the reft flowing back from fpire to fpire, and being
difeharged at the fpout.
But it may be conftru&ed fo as that the quantity of wa¬
ter in each fpire may be the fame that was received into the
firft j by which means a greater quantity (double in the in-
ftauee now given) will be delivered into the main, and ral-
943 1 Z u R
fed to the fame height by very nearly the fame force.—
This may be done by another proportion of the capacity of "
the fpires, whether by a change of their caliber or of their
diameters- Suppofe the bore to be the fame, the diameter
mull be made fuch that the conftant column of water, and
the column of air, comprefied to the proper degree, tray oc¬
cupy the whole circumference. Let A be the column of
water which balances the atmofphere, and b the height to
which the water is to be raffed. Let A be to A -}- b as 1
to m.
It is plain that m w ill reprefent the denfity of the air in
the laft fpire, if its natural denfity be 1, becaufe it is prefled
by the column A -j- b, wdiile the common air is piefled by
A. Let 1 reprefent the conftant water column, and there¬
fore nearly equal to the air column in the ftrft fpire. The
whole circumference of the laft fpire muft be 1 4-— , in.
1 1 m
order to held the water 1, and the air compreffed into the
fpace—1 or —, •
m A -f-
The circumference of the fnft fpire is 1 -f- * or 2. Let
D and d be the diameters of the firft and laftdpires ; we
have 2 : 1 ~ D : fif, or 2 w : r>i 4- 1 nc: D : r/. There-
1 in .
fore if a pipe of uniform bore be lapped round a cone,, of
which L arid d are tire end diameters, the fpirals will be ve¬
ry nearly fuch as will anfwer the purpofe. It will not bo
quite exaift, for the intermediate IpiraJs w:ill be fomewhac
too large. The eenoidal fruftum fhcuM be formed by the
revolution of a curve of the logarithmic kind. But the
error is very trifling.
With Inch a fpiral, the full quantity of water which was
confined in the fir ft fpiral will find room in the laft, and will
he fent into the main at every turn. This is a very great
advantage, efpecially when the water is to be much railed.
The faving of power by this change of conftrurftion is ah-
wrays in proportion of the greateft enmpreflion of the air.
The great difficulty in the conftruclionof any of thefe forms
is in determining the form and ppfition of the horn and the
fcoop ; and on this greatly depends the performance of the:
machine. The following inftrudtioas will make it pretty
eafy.
Let ABEO (fig. 18.) represent the firft or ©utermoft.
round of thefpiral, of which the axis is C. Suppofe it im-
merged up to the axis in the water VV, we have feen that
the machine is molt tffedtive wffien the furfaces KB and O n.
of the water columns are diftant the whole diameter BO of
the fpiral. Therefore let the pipe be firft fuppoltd of equal
caliber to the very mouth E e, which we fuppofe to be juft,
about to dip into the w!ater. The furface O n is kept there,
in oppofiticn to the prtffure of the water column BAO, by
the comprefled air contained in the quadrant OE, and in
the quadrant which lies behind E B. And this compreffion
is fupported by the columns behind, between this fpire and
the riling pipe. But the air in the outermoft quadrant EB
is in. its natural Hate, communicating as yet with the exter¬
nal air. When, however, the mouth Ee has come round
to A, it will not have the water Handing in it in the fame
manner, leaving the half fpace BEO filled with comprefled
air; for it took in and confined only what filled the qua.
drant BE. It is plain, therafoie,. that the quadrant BE
muft be fo ffiaped as to take in and confine a much greateu
quantity of air ; fo that when it has come to A, the fpace
BEO may contain air fufficiently denfe to fuppott the co¬
lumn AO. But this is not enough : For when the wide
mouth, now at A rifes up to the top, the furface of tha
water in it rifes alfo, becaufe the. part AO 0 a is more cap a.
cion*,
Zurich-.
Z U R
r 944 1
7, W R
ch.
cious tliRn tlif* cylindric part OEf o which fucceeda it, and
’ which cannot contain all the water that it does. Since,
then, the water in the fpire rifes above A, it will prefs the
water back from O « to ome other pofition m’ n', and the
prefiing height of the water column will be dimimfhed by
this rifing on the other fide of O. la fhort, tire horn muft
begin to widen, not from B, but from A, and mud occupy
the whole femicircle ABE ; and its capacity muft be to the
capacity of the oppoiite cylindrical fide as the fum of BO,
and the height of a column of water which balances the at-
mofphere to the height of that column. For then the air
which filled it, when of the common denfity, will fill the
uniform fide BEO, when compreffed fo as to balance the
vertical column BO. But even this is not enough ; for
it has not taken in enough of water When it dipped into
the ciftern at E, it carried air down with it, and the pref-
fure of the water in the ciltern caufed the water to rife into
it a little way; and fome water mud have come over at
B from the other fide, which was drawing narrower. There¬
fore when the horn is in the pofition EOA, it is not full
of water. Therefore when it comes into the fituation
OAB, it cannot be full nor balance the air ou the oppofite
fide. Some will therefore come out at O, and rife up thro’
the water. The horn muft therefore, iy?, Extend at lead
from O to B, or occupy half the circumference ; and, Zr//j>t
It muft contain at leaft twice as much water as would fill
the fide BEO. It will do little harm though it be much
larger; becaufe the fundus of air which it takes in at E will
be difeharged, as the end E e of the horn riles from O to B,
and it will leave the precife quantity that is wanted. The
overplus water will be difeharged as the horn comes round
to dtp again into the ciftern. It is poffible, but requires
a difeuffion too intricate for this place, to make it of /uch a
iize and fhape. that while the mouth moves from E to B,
paffing through O and A, the fur face of the water in it
fha.ll advance from E to O e, and be exa&ly at O when th*
beginning or narrow end of the horn arrives there.
We muft alio fectire the proper quantity of wster. When
the machine is fo much immerfed as to be up to the axis in
wa‘er, the capacity which thus fecures the proper quantity
of air will alfo take in the proper quantity of water. But
it may be ere&ed fo as that-the fpirals fhall not even reach
the water. In this cafe it will anfwer our purpofe if we
pin to the end of the horn a fcoap or (hovel QRSB (fig.
19.), which isfo-formed as to take in at leaft as much water
as will fill the horn. This is all that is wanted in the be¬
ginning of the motion along the fpiral, and more than is ne-
ceffary when the water has advanced to the fucceedinar ipire;
but the overplus is dilcharged in the way we have men¬
tioned. At the fame time, it is needlefs to load the ma¬
chine with more water than is necefiary, merely to throw' it
cut agaia We think that if the horn occupiesfully more than
one-half of the circumference, and contains as much as will
fill the whole round, and if the fcoop 1 ft? as much as will
certainly fll the horn, it will do very well.
N. B. The fcoop muft be very open on the fide next the
axis, that it may not confine the air as foon aa it enters the
water This would hinder it from receiving water enough.
The following dimenfions of at machine erefted at Flo-
rence, and • liofe performance correfponded extremely well
with the theory, may ferve as an example.
The fpiral is formed on a cylinder of 10 feet diameter,
snd the diameter of the pipe is 6 inches. 'The fmaller end
©f the horn is of the fame diameter ; and it occupies |ths of
the circumference, and it is 7 r^ths inches wide at the outer
end. Here it joins the fcoop, which lifts as much water as
fills the horn, which contains 4340 Swedifh cubic inches,
each. 5= ijjyy Englilh. The machine makes 6 turns in a
minute, and ralfcs 1354 pounds of water, or 22 cubic feet, Zurich,
10 feet high in a minute.
The above account will, we hope, fufficiently explain the
manner on which this fmgular hydraulic machine produces
its effect. When every thing is executed by the maxims
which we have deduced from its principles, we are confident
that its performance will correfpond to the theory ; and we
have the Florentine machine as a proof of this. It raifes
more than ths of what the theory promifes, and it is not
perfect. The fpiral is of equal caliber, and is formed on a
cylinder- The friction is fu inconfiderable in this machine,
that it need not be mended ; but the great excellency is,
that whatever imperfection there may be in the arrangement
of the air and water columns, this only affefts the elegance
of the execution, caufing the water to make a few more
turns in the fpiral before it can mount to the height re¬
quired ; but waftes no power, becaufe the power employed
is always in proportion to the fu>n of the vertical columns
of water in the rifing fide of the machine; and the height
to wliich the water is railed by it is in the very fame pro¬
portion. it Ihould be made to move very (low, that the
water be not always dragged up by the pipes, which would
caufe more to run over from each column, and diminiih the
preffuse of the remainder.
If the rifing-pipe be made wide, and thus room be made
for the air ;o t-feape freely up through the water, it will rife
to the height affigned ; but if it be narrow, fo that the air
cm not get up, it rifes almoft as flow as the w'ater, and by
this circ>. mftance the water is ratfed to a much greater
height mixed with air, and this with hardly any more power.
It is in this way that we can account for the great perform¬
ance of the Florentine machine, which is almoft triple of
what a man can do with the fineft pump that ever was made;
indeed the performance is fo great, that one is apt to fufpe&
fome inaccuracy in the accounts. The entry into the ri¬
fing-pipe fhould he no wider than the laft-part of the fpiral;
and it would be advifabie to divide it into four channels by
a thin partition, and then to make the rifing-pipe very wide,
and to put into It a number of (lender rods, which would
divide it into fleeder channels that would completely entangle
the air among the water This will greatly increafe the
heirht of the heterogeneous column. It is futprifing that a
machine that is (o very ptomifing fhould have attrafted fo
little notice. We do not know of any being etefted out
of Switzerland except at Florence in 1778. The account
its performance was in confequence of a very public trial
in 1779, and honourable declaration of its merit, by Sig.
Lorenzo Ginori, who ere&ed another, which fully equalled
it. It is fhortly mentioned by Profeffbr Sulzer of Berlin*
in the Samm/ungen Vermijchitn Schriften ier 1754' ^ defer lo¬
tion of it is publifhed by the Philofophical Society at Zurich
in 1766, and in the deferiptions publifhed by the Society
in London for the encouragement of Arts in 1776. The
celebrated Daniel Bernomlli has publifhed a very accurate
the ry of it in the Peterfburgh Commentaries for 1772,
and the machines at Florence were ere&ed according to his
inftrudlions. Baron Alftromer in Sweden capfcd a glafs
model of it to be made, to exhibit the internal tnotions for
the inftru&ion of artifls, and alio ordered an operative en¬
gine to be erefted ; but we have not feen an/ account of its
performance. It is a very intricate machine in its principles;
and an ignorant engineer, nay the moft intelligent, may
eredft one which fhall hardly do any thing; and yet, by a
very trilling change, may become very powerful. We pre¬
fume that failures of this kind have turned the attention of
engineers from it; but we are perfuaded that it maybe
made very effeftive, and we ate certain that it muft be very
durable. Fig. 20. is a fedlion ©f the manner in which the
author
Z U Y
Zurich author has formed the communicattoa between the fpirai"
and the rifinjr-pipe. P is the end of the hollow axis which
is united with the folid iron axis. Adjoining to P, on the
under fide, is the entry- from the lad turn of the fpirai. At
Qis,the collar which refts on the fepparts, and turns round
ini hole, of bell-metal. // is a broad flanch cad in one
piece with the hollow part. Beyond this the pipe is turn¬
ed (omewhat fmaller, very round and fmooth, fo as to fit
into the mouth, of the rifing-pipe, like the key of a cock.
. This mouth has a plate ee attached to it. There is ano-
^ , ther plate ((d, which is broader than ee% and is not iixed to
n cylindrical part, but moves eafily round it. In this plate
are f°Vir ferews, luch as g, gy which go into holes in the
plate //, and thus draw the two plates ff and dd together,
with the plate e e between them. Pieces of thin leather are
put on each hde of i? e ; and thus all efcape of water is ef¬
fectually prevented, with a very moderate compreflion and
friCtion.
ZUT PHEN, a drong and confiderable town of the Uni¬
ted Provinces in Guelderland, and capital of a county of the
fame name. It has a magnificent church, and is furround-
ed with walls. It was taken by the French in 1672,
who in 1674 delivered it up to the Staies-General. It is
feated at the confluence of the rivers Berkd and Yeflel, nine
miles fouth-eail of Deventer, and 55 ealt by louth of Am-
flerdam. E. Long. 6. c. N. Lat. 52. 10.
ZUYDEIUzee, a great gulph or bay of the German
Ocean, which extends from fouth to north in the Uni-
Vol. XVIII. Part II.
C 945 1
Z Y M
ted Provinces, between Friefland, Over-YefTel, Guelderland, Zyyoma
and Holland. It is fo called from its fituation towards the l!
fouth. It is faid that the Zuyder-zee was formerly a lake, Zjmofime“
and that the land is (wallowed up which united North- '
Holland with Friefland. - ——v*
ZYGOMA, in anatomy, a bone of the head, or rather
an union or afiembiage of tvv'o procefles or eminences of
bones ; the one from the os temporis, the other from the
os mala; : tdefe precedes are hence termed the zygomatic
ftrocejfesy and the future that joins them together is denomi¬
nated the zygomatic future.
ZYGOMA IICUS, in anatomy, a naufcle of the head,
ariiing from the Os Zygoma, whence its name, and termina¬
ting at the angle oi the lips.
ZYGOPHYLLUM, BEAN-capEtt., in botany; a genus
of plants of the dais of dtcandriaand order monogynia, and
in the natural fyllem arranged under the r_jth order, Grui-.
nalet. There are 11 fpecies, partly flirubby and partly her¬
baceous plants, all nati es of warm climates, though feme of
them are hardy enough to endure the open air in this coun.
u7*
ZYMOSIMETER. {formed from fermentationr
and .«>rpc» mea/urc), an mitrument propofed by Swammer¬
dam in his book l)e Rejpiratwne, therewith to raeaiure the
degree of fermentation ocqafioncd by the mixture of diffe¬
rent matters, and the degree of heat which thole matters -
acquire in fermenting, as alio the heat or temperament of
the blood of animals.
6 D
FINIS
ERRATA not pointed out at the end of any preceding Volume.
N. B. I added to the number of the line iignihes *c from the bottom of the page.'*
Vou
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
page.
273
368
48
216
250
770
258
283
342
672
86
374
390
392
392
4^3
137
606
181
362
463
581
71
120
124
191
293
S1*
390
497
521
696
743
783
5
6
467
505
583
114
542
729
730
767
475
482
631
*7
73
278
409
204
577
col. Vine.
2 3
2 marg.
1
Kb.
31 b.
22
75.
20
marg.
25
28
11 3.
\2 b.
3°
23
1 b.
45.
31
23
\g b.
A l
65
l*] b.
24
45.
39
18
I £
I I
16 5.
27 b.
19 5.
25
16
6
20 b.
4
21 5.
25 5.
29 £.
3 b-
1 b.
16 5.
3i
205. ]
195-3
12 b.
19
5
For “ fig. 1 5.” read “ fig. 4.”
After “ Index,” add “ at Spirit of ivine.’^
For u ro. 8,” read “ 10. 82.’*
For “ Archimides,” read “ Archimedes.
For “ Doping,” read “ ftopping.”
For “ n° 79.” read “ 578.”
For “ 50th,” iead £‘ 57th.”
For “ See Index, &c.” read “ See MediCIKE, n® 359, &C.n
Dele “ Medicine and.”
For “ Miniilry,” read “ Minority.” >
For “ Medicine,” read “ Surgery.”
For “ tar,” read “ water.” ;
For “ 230,” read “ 320.”
For “ vapour,” read ‘ heat.” ■
For “ 807 degrees,” read “ 8it.”
For “ quantity,” read “ quality.”
For “ MediciNB-Zm/ex,” read “ Catarrh, Vht.'nxc'i^t.-Indefed*
For “ the only oilenfible,” read “ only the oftenfible.”
For “ Elvet,” read “ Wear.”
For “ fig. 74.” read “ fig. 73.”
For “ naturalizes,” read “ neutralises.” *
For “ particle,” read “ participle.”
For “ See Index," read “ See Medicine, ^396, 397, 400.”
For “ Ornithology," read “ Ichthyology."
For “ Ichthyology," read “ Ornithology."
For “ queen’s palace at Weftminlter,” read “ Windfor caft.le.”
For “ venery" read “ •venary."
For “ Poly defies," read “ Philofietes."
For <{ Cumberland,” read “ Northumberland.”
For “ 155,” read “ 355.”
For “ Procklefby,” read “ Brocklefby.”
For “ dibblers,” read “ droppers.”
For “ fpeprority,” read “ profperity.”
For “ too,” read “ two.”
At “ AMI.B,” read ” Plate CCXL. fig. I.”
For “ 1715,” read “ 1725.”
For direftly,” read “ direft.”
For “ turned,” read “ tinned.”
For “ 1694,” read “ 1664.”
Dele the fentence beginning with “ It is an earldom.”
For “ from E to B, and from B to C,” read “ from B to E, and from C to
inferting an E in the fig. where AD and CB crofs each other.
For “ CD,” read “ AC.”
Note
15
23
2 2$l
21 b
2 t8
2 5 5.
For “ corn,” read “ water ;” and for s< water/* read ^‘corn/*
For ” n° 50.” read “ n° 54.”
For “loquacity,” read “ logomachy.’*
For “ read ** ^STfia,” or “yKirfav.’*
In the article Methodists,For “ Hanfon,” read w Hampfon.^
For “ lives,” read “ live.”
For “ are,” read “ air.”
For “ Low,” read “ Law.”
For <f BC,” read “ AC.”
For “ 364th,” read “ 304th.”
For ** yinpKxi" read “ yiioysti.**
ER.
ERRATA not pointed out at the end of any preceding Volume.
xv.
XVI.
XVII.
Vot. page.
XIII. 7C9
XIV. 141
178
196
196
2*4
669
671
373
9
533
591
592
99
512
6x0
712
782
XVIII. 129
M3
187
187
297
4M
429
43i
453
455
455
469
475
479
480
490
497
510
col. line.
2 25
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
X
2
t
Note
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
For “ 9,” read
See Perca.”
Before the article “ Perche” infert Perch, in ichthyology.
For “ Persicana,” read “ Persicaria.’*
For “ Tcith,” read “ Tay.”
For “ Blair of Drummond,” read “ Stob-hall.”
For “ bottom,” read “ top.”
For “ 667,” read “ 669.”
For “ rine,” read “ pine.”
For “ Wenderdon,” read “ Wenderborn.,,
For “ 1697,” read “ 1679.”* i
For “ Emelia,” read “ Emelius.”
For “ facrifices,” read “ fcriptures.”
For “ demand,” read “ demeanor.”
For “ it is abfurd,” read “ is it abfurd.”
Add “ See Mur-ena.” ,
For “ an Englilh gallon,” read “ half an Engliih gallon.**
For “ 112,” read “ 212.”
For “ Dorfetfhire,” read Hampfhire.”
For t( (fig. 28.1>), ” read “ (fig. 26. 5).”
For “ 338,” read “ 238.
For “ 337,” read “ 237.”
22, 23, 25, For “ 338,” read “ 238.”
32 L Read “ For almoft every fpecies of quadrupeds has a fpeciet of tsenia peculiar
itfelf.”
For “ layman,” read “ clergyman likewife, but.**
For “ application,” read “ fupplication,.”
For “ the,” read “ that.”
Read >(i^a<r0^xv.,,
For “ this,” read <c his.’*
Read Harmonia” >
For “ defcent,” read “ diflent.”
For “ (halt,” read “ (hall.”
For “ grow,” read “ grew.” • . • -
Dele “ ;”
Dele the” before the word ** interceflion.’* ' ^ .
For “ phyficians,” read “ philofophers.”
For “ obliges,” read “ oblige.”
33
27
29
28 h.
18 b.
16
6 l.
25
to
6 l.
26
Sb.
7
22
9 5.
22
27 b.
marg.
20
Note 6 b.
1 6
2 38 b.
2 39
1 6 b.
Note t b.
1 20
13
*4
15
22
2 b.
24
Plate CCCXCVIII. fig. 1. For what appears to be “ E e D,” read E/D.
3. For « IM,” read “ CM.”
CCCCLXXXVIII. 'Plie ciopked pipe on the right of fig. 38. Ihould be marked ** 38 «.
DIRECTIONS
DIRECTIONS for flacinc the PLATES of Vol. XVIIL
Plate CCCCLXXXIV, 1
CCCCLXXXV. f toface
CCCCLXXXVL
CCCCLXXXVII. t
CCCCLXXXVIII.
CCCCLXXXIX.
CCCCXC. (
CCCCXCL
CCCCXCIL J
CCCCXCIII. ’)
CCCCXC1V. I
CCCCXCV. I
CCCCXCVI. ±
CCCCXCVII. I
CCCCXCVIII.
CCCCXCIX. J
D. .
DI.
DII. ^
DHL
div. r
DV, J
DVI. 1
DVII. f
DVI II.
DIX-
DX.
DXI.
DXIL
Part II.
Page 34
41
188
297
329
388
3^9
500
5°7
528
570
576
592
tm Part II,
Plate DXIIL to face
DXIV.
DXV.
DXVI.
DXVII.
DXVIII.
DXIX,
DXX.
DXXI.
DXXII.
DXXIII.
DXXIV.
DXXV.
DXX VI.
DXXVII.
DXXVIII.
DXXIX. 1
DXXX. t
DXXXI. 7
DXXXII. f
DXXXIHo
DXXXIV. f-
DXXXV. \
DXXXVI.
DXXXVII.
DXXXVIII.
DXXXIX.
DXL.
DXLI.
DXLIL
Page 6i r
709
711
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7H
737
738
741
742
744
749
752
763-
766
76S
769
773
779
783
806
8cp
835
873
908
91%